177

5 Chemical energetics

Enthalpy changes and entropy changes accompany chemical reactions. This topic
demonstrates why some reactions and processes are spontaneous and others are
not.

alt
5.1 Enthalpy change, ΔH

5.2 Hess’ Law, including Born-Haber cycles

Energetics


Energetics
 Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry 9701 syllabus Syllabus content

178

5 Chemical energetics
Enthalpy changes and entropy changes accompany chemical reactions. This topic demonstrates why
some reactions and processes are spontaneous and others are not.

alt
Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:

5.1 Enthalpy change, H a) explain that chemical reactions are accompanied by energy changes,
principally in the form of heat energy; the energy changes can be
exothermic ( H is negative) or endothermic ( H is positive)
b) explain and use the terms:
(i) enthalpy change of reaction and standard conditions, with
particular reference to: formation, combustion, hydration, solution,
neutralisation, atomisation
(ii) bond energy ( H positive, i.e. bond breaking)
(iii) lattice energy ( H negative, i.e. gaseous ions to solid lattice)
c) calculate enthalpy changes from appropriate experimental results,
including the use of the relationship
enthalpy change, H = –mc T
d) explain, in qualitative terms, the effect of ionic charge and of ionic
radius on the numerical magnitude of a lattice energy

5.2 Hess’ Law, including a) apply Hess’ Law to construct simple energy cycles, and carry out
Born-Haber cycles calculations involving such cycles and relevant energy terms, with
particular reference to:
(i) determining enthalpy changes that cannot be found by direct
experiment, e.g. an enthalpy change of formation from enthalpy
changes of combustion
(ii) average bond energies
(iii) the formation of a simple ionic solid and of its aqueous solution
(iv) Born-Haber cycles (including ionisation energy and electron
affinity)
b) construct and interpret a reaction pathway diagram, in terms of the
enthalpy change of the reaction and of the activation energy

Back to contents page www.cie.org.uk/alevel 21

 1 179

11. 1 Types of reactions

alt
Chemical reactions may be classified as either exothermic or
endothermic.

An exothermic reaction gives out heat to the surroundings.

An endothermic reaction takes in heat from the surroundings.

Explain what is meant by Chemical reactions may be classified as either exothermic or endothermic.
exothermic and endothermic An exothermic reaction gives out heat to the surroundings (Figure 5.1).
An endothermic reaction takes in heat from the surroundings (Figure 5.2).
11. 2 Exothermic reactions
reactions
Draw enthalpy level diagrams
For exothermic
for exothermic reactions, ∆H is negative.

and endothermic
reactions
The temperature
Understand what is meantofbythe surroundings
increases.

stability

The Internal energy (potential energy) of the

system (that is, the reacting chemicals)
decreases.

Internal energy is converted to heat energy.

Explain what is meant by Chemical reactions may be classified as eit

exothermic and endothermic An exothermic reaction gives out heat to
reactions An endothermic reaction takes in heat fro
Draw enthalpy level diagrams
for exothermic and endothermic
reactions
Understand what is meant by
11. 3 Endothermic reactions stability chemical reactions that result in the release
Exothermic reactions:
of heat to the surroundings – the reaction vessel gets hotter.
For endothermic reactions, ∆H is positive.

Endothermic reactions: heat is taken in from the surroundings –

The temperature of the surroundings
the reaction vessel gets colder.
decreases.
To be more precise, the
enthalpy
change is the heat energy
exchangedThe Internal
with We talk
energy (potential energy)
the surroundings about the enthalpy change of a system. The enthalpy change
of the
at constant pressure. is basically the amount of heat energy taken in/given out in a chemical
system (that is, the reacting chemicals)
reaction. Enthalpy is given the symbol H and enthalpy change is ∆H.
increases.

∆ means a change in a quantity. Note: it is not possible to measure the enthalpy (H) of a
Heat energy is converted to internal energy.
system (related to the total energy of all the particles making up a
substance), only the enthalpy change (∆H) when the system moves
from an initial state to some final state.
Exothermic reactions: chemical react
of heat to the surroundings – the rea
∆H for an exothermic reaction is negative.
∆H for an endothermic reaction is positive.
Bilal Hameed Marginalizer Endothermic reactions: heat is taken
Bilal Hameed vessel gets colder.
the reaction Energetics
To be more precise, the enthalpy
change is the heat energy
exchanged with the surroundings We talk about the enthalpy change o
at constant pressure. is basically the amount of heat energy take
 180 2

11. 4 Enthalpy change

alt
The enthalpy change is the amount of heat energy taken in/given
out in a chemical reaction.

Enthalpy is given the symbol H and enthalpy change is ∆H.

It is not possible to measure the enthalpy (H) of a system.

We can only measure the enthalpy change (∆H) when the system
moves from an initial state to some final state.

11. 5 Enthalpy change

To be more precise, the enthalpy change is the heat energy
exchanged with the surroundings at constant pressure.

Most chemical reactions are exothermic - the potential energy

decreases and the kinetic energy increases in the form of heat.

Consider a reaction such as methane burning in oxygen:

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) ∆H = −890 kJ mol−1

This reaction is exothermic, as heat is given out to the surroundings.

Figure 5.3 shows the enthalpy change for an exothermic reaction such
as the combustion of methane. No scale is shown on the vertical axis, as we
cannot measure the initial enthalpy or final enthalpy of the system. We can,
however, measure the enthalpy change of a reaction as the amount of heat

11. 6 Exothermic reactions

given out, and this is shown by the red arrow. The reaction is exothermic,
and the enthalpy of the products is less than that of the reactants. The
negative sign for the enthalpy change indicates a decrease in enthalpy.
Consider a reaction
We more normally such level
use an enthalpy as methane burning
diagram to show in oxygen:

the enthalpy
change of a reaction (Figure 5.4).
CH (g) + 2O (g) → CO (g) + 2H O(l) ∆H = −890kJ mol−1
4 2 2 2

The reaction is
exothermic, and the
enthalpy of the
products is less than
that of the reactants.

In an exothermic reaction the products are at a lower energy (enthalpy)

level than the reactants, and we say that the products are more stable than
the reactants.

Marginalizer Bilal Hameed

Energetics An example of an endothermic reaction is that between nitrogen and Bilal Hameed
oxygen to form nitrogen(II) oxide (nitric oxide):

N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g) ∆H = +181 kJ mol−1

 3 181

11. 7 Endothermic reactions

alt
ucts are at a lower energy (enthalpy) An example of an endothermic reaction is that between nitrogen and
at the products are more stable than
oxygen to form nitrogen(II) oxide (nitric oxide):

N2(g) + O2(g) → 2NO(g) ∆H = +181 kJ mol−1

on is that between nitrogen and
tric oxide): The products have greater
−1
energy (enthalpy) and are
∆H = +181 kJ mol
less stable than the
em, as the products have greater reactants.
∆H is positive, indicating the
c reaction.
reaction is shown in Figure 5.5.
thalpy) and are less stable than the

11. 8 Stability
If a reaction is exothermic it involves a decrease in the enthalpy of
the system and we will often talk about the products being more
stable than the reactants.

Cdiamond → Cgraphite ∆H = −1.9 kJ mol−1

Graphite is at a lower enthalpy level than diamond and is therefore

1.9 kJ mol−1 more stable than diamond.

11. 9 Stability
It is important to make the distinction between thermodynamic
stability and kinetic stability.
If a reaction is exothermic it involves a decrease in the enthalpy o
Although graphite is thermodynamically more system and we will often talk about the products being more stab
the reactants.
stable than diamond the reactants are
Cdiamond Cgraphite ∆H = −1.9
kinetically stable with respect to the products.

Graphite is at a lower enthalpy level than diamond and is therefor

1.9 kJ mol−1 more stable than diamond (Figure 5.6).
This means that the reaction of diamond to Methane and oxygen are unstable with respect to the combusti
become graphite is very, very slow under products, carbon dioxide and water:

normal conditions! CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) ∆H= −890

It is important to make the distinction between thermodynam

stability and kinetic stability. Although graphite is thermodynam
more stable than diamond (at a lower energy level) and carbon dio
water are thermodynamically stable with respect to methane and o
in both cases, under normal conditions, the reactants are kinetically
with respect to the products. This means that the reaction of diamo
become graphite is very, very slow under normal conditions!
If a little bit of energy, in the form of a spark, is provided to the m
Bilal Hameed Marginalizer
oxygen mixture, the reaction proceeds very quickly. This suggests th
Bilal Hameed is some energy barrier that must Energetics
be overcome before reaction can o
This energy barrier is called the activation energy (Figure 5.7).
 Cdiamond Cgraphite ∆H = −1.9 kJ mol−1

Graphite is at a lower enthalpy level than diamond and is therefore

1.9 kJ mol−1 more stable than diamond (Figure 5.6).
Methane and oxygen are unstable with respect to the combustion
182 products, carbon dioxide and water:
4
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) ∆H= −890 kJ mol−1

It is important to make the distinction between thermodynamic

stability and kinetic stability. Although graphite is thermodynamically
more stable than diamond (at a lower energy level) and carbon dioxide and
water are thermodynamically stable with respect to methane and oxygen,
in both cases, under normal conditions, the reactants are kinetically stable
11. 10 Activation energy with respect to the products. This means that the reaction of diamond to
become graphite is very, very slow under normal conditions!

alt
If a little bit of energy, in the form of a spark, is provided to the methane–
Many reactions, even if exothermic,
oxygenhave mixture,an energy
the reaction barrier
proceeds to This suggests that there
very quickly.
overcome before a reaction can This
occur. This energy barrier is called the
is some energy barrier that must be overcome before reaction can occur.
energy barrier is called the activation energy (Figure 5.7).
activation energy.

In general, the higher the

activation energy, the slower the
reaction.

How exo- or endothermic a

reaction is does not tell us 5
anything about how quickly a
reaction occurs.
5.2 Measuring en
The activation energy is the Exothermic and endoth
minimum energy that colliding In general, all other things being equal, the higher the activation energy,
particles must have before collision the slower the reaction. Thus, although the products may be more stable The Law of Conservation of Energy st
results in a chemical reaction – this than the reactants, it is still perfectly possible to have a bottle of the reactants it can only be converted into another for
will be considered in more detail on the shelf in the chemical store cupboard, and to keep them there for The enthalpy change of a reaction usu
on pages 246–251. several years, as long as the activation energy is sufficiently high that the
a temperature change. If the products
reaction does not occur at a measurable rate under normal conditions.
11. 11 Activation energy an enthalpy decrease during the reacti
of heat energy must be given out by th
exothermic. The heat given out is pa
Activation energy can be concisely defined as the minimum environment around the reaction – wh
reactions are exothermic, but there are
energy required for a reaction to take place. positive), and the reaction is then said
heat from the surroundings because th
exothermic reactions, ∆H is enthalpy of the reactants.
negative. The temperature of the It is not surprising that most chemica
surroundings increases and the
the changes we observe are usually th
potential energy of the system (that
and the kinetic energy increases in the
is, the reacting chemicals) decreases.
endothermic reactions, ∆H is of a desk, we expect to see it fall from
positive. The temperature of the therefore decreases). We would be ver
surroundings decreases and the (its potential energy would increase). B
potential energy of the system (the do not break the Law of Conservation
reacting chemicals) increases. The direction of a chemical change
of the reactants and products. If the
of the products (exothermic, ∆H neg
possible. It might not, however, take
said to be kinetically controlled. Th

Measuring temperature
calculating ∆H
The enthalpy change of a reaction, ∆H, If we measure the heat given out or ta
is the change in enthalpy accompanying enthalpy change. The simplest way of
the complete conversion of one mole of cool) some water or a solution. We ne
reactants into products.
the mass of the reactants
11. 12 Measuring enthalpy changes
●
● the mass of water, m (or its volume,
● the rise (or fall) in temperature of th
If we measure the heat given out or taken in We also need to know the amount o
thermometer
water by one degree. This is known as
during a reaction, we can find this enthalpy given the symbol c. It has the value 4.1
change.
temperature change using a thermome
change in temperature is the same on
If we represent the heat change as q
The simplest way of measuring it is to use the lid
q = mc∆T
energy to heat (or cool) some water or a
If we are dealing with aqueous solutio
solution. polystyrene cup water in the solution that should be in
solutions are often quite dilute, and sin
solution are about the same as those o
following equation:
solution
q = 4.18 × v × ∆T, where v = vol

Figure 5.3 A basic calorimeter, used for Figure 5.3 shows a simple apparatus th
simple heat experiments expanded polystyrene cup has a lid to

05_03 Cam/Chem AS&A2

Marginalizer Barking Dog Art

181333_05_AS_Chem_BP_097-117.indd 99 Bilal Hameed
Energetics Bilal Hameed
 of the reactants and products. If the enthalpy of the reactant
of the products (exothermic, ∆H negative), the reaction is th
possible. It might not, however, take place because the rate
5.2 Measuring enthalpy chang
said to be kinetically controlled. These kinetic factors are c

5 183 Measuring temperature changes and

Exothermic and endothermic reaction
calculating ∆H
The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy cannot be
The enthalpy change of a reaction, ∆H, If we measure the heat given out or taken in during a reaction,
it can only be converted into another form of energy.
is the change in enthalpy accompanying enthalpy change. The simplest way of measuring it is to use the
the complete conversion of one mole of The
cool)enthalpy
some waterchange
or aofsolution.
a reactionWeusually
need toappears
make the as heat, whi
following
reactants into products. a temperature change. If the products have less enthalpy than t
● the mass of the reactants
11. 13 Measuring enthalpy changes an enthalpy decrease during the reaction (∆H is negative) and
● the mass of water, m (or its volume, since its density is 1.00 g
of heat energy must be given out by the reaction; the reaction
● the rise (or fall) in temperature of the water or solution, ∆T.
exothermic. The heat given out is passed to the surrounding

alt
We need to make the following environment
We also need around the reaction
to know the amount – where it canneeded
of energy be measured.
to raise
thermometer reactions are exothermic,
water by one degree. Thisbut there are
is known as some in which
the specifi c heatthecapa
enth
measurements:
positive),
given the and symbolthe c.
reaction is then
It has the valuesaid
4.18toJ be−1 −1
g endothermic.
K . (Note that we Th
heat from thechange
temperature surroundings
using a because
thermometerthe enthalpy
marked of in the produc
degrees Ce
• the mass of the reactants exothermic reactions, ∆H is
negative. The temperature of the
enthalpy
change inoftemperature
It
the reactants.is the same on either the Celsius or the
If is
wenot surprising
represent thethat
heatmost
changechemical reactions
as q, we have the arefollowing
exotherm
surroundings increases and the
the changes we observe are usually those in which the potentia
• the mass of water, m (or its volume,
lid
potential energy of the system (that
is, the reacting chemicals) decreases.
and the q = kinetic
mc∆T energy increases in the form of heat. If we push
of a desk, we expectwithtoaqueous
see it fall from therather
desk thanto the floor (its
since its density is 1.00gcm−3) endothermic reactions, ∆H is
polystyrene cup
If we
therefore
are dealing
decreases). We would
solutions pure wate
positive. The temperature of the water in the solution that shouldbe bevery surprised
included as theif it
‘m’suddenly
in this
surroundings decreases and the (its potential
solutions are energy would
often quite increase).
dilute, Boththe
and since processes
volume are andpossib
heat
• the rise (or fall) in temperature of the potential energy of the system (the
reacting chemicals) increases.
do not break
solution the Law
are about
The direction
the of Conservation
same as those ofofthe Energy.
water it contains, w
of a chemical change is determined by the r
following equation:
water or solution, ∆T. solution
of the reactants and products. If the enthalpy of the reactant
of the q =products
4.18 × v (exothermic,
× ∆T, where∆H v =negative),
volume of the the reaction
solution in cm
is th
possible.
Figure 5.3Itshows
mighta not,
simplehowever,
apparatustakethat
place
can because the rate
be used measure
Figure 5.3 A basic calorimeter, used for
simple heat experiments expanded kineticallycup
said to be polystyrene controlled.
has a lid These
to keep kinetic factorstoare
heat losses a mic

Measuring temperature changes and

calculating ∆H
The enthalpy change of a reaction, ∆H, If we measure the heat given out or taken in during a reaction,
05_03 Cam/Chem AS&A2
is the change in enthalpy accompanying enthalpy change. The simplest way of measuring it is to use the
the complete
Barking conversion of one mole of
Dog Art cool) some water or a solution. We need to make the following
181333_05_AS_Chem_BP_097-117.indd 99
reactants into products.
the mass of the reactants
11. 14 Measuring enthalpy changes
●
● the mass of water, m (or its volume, since its density is 1.00 g
● the rise (or fall) in temperature of the water or solution, ∆T.
We also need to know the amount of energy We also need to know the amount of energy needed to raise
thermometer
water by one degree. This is known as the specific heat capa
needed to raise the temperature of water by given the symbol c. It has the value 4.18 J g−1 K−1. (Note that we
one degree.
temperature change using a thermometer marked in degrees Ce
change in temperature is the same on either the Celsius or the
If we represent the heat change as q, we have the following
This is known as the specific heat capacity lid
q = mc∆T
of water and is given the symbol c. It has the
If we are dealing with aqueous solutions rather than pure wate
value 4.18Jg−1K−1
polystyrene cup water in the solution that should be included as the ‘m’ in this
solutions are often quite dilute, and since the volume and heat
solution are about the same as those of the water it contains, w
If we represent the heat change as q, we following equation:
solution
have the following equation: q = mc∆T q = 4.18 × v × ∆T, where v = volume of the solution in cm

Figure 5.3 A basic calorimeter, used for Figure 5.3 shows a simple apparatus that can be used measure
simple heat experiments expanded polystyrene cup has a lid to keep heat losses to a mi

05_03 Cam/Chem AS&A2

Barking Dog Art

181333_05_AS_Chem_BP_097-117.indd 99

11. 15 Measuring enthalpy changes

If we are dealing with aqueous solutions rather than pure water, it is
the mass of water in the solution that should be included as the ‘m’ in
this equation.

Since the solutions are often quite dilute, and since the volume and
heat capacity of a dilute solution are about the same as those of the
water it contains, we normally use the following equation:

q = vc∆T, where v = volume of the solution in cm3

Bilal Hameed Marginalizer

Bilal Hameed Energetics
 184
6

11. 16 Example 1 - ∆Hsol

alt
Lets find the enthalpy change of solution of ammonium nitrate.

The enthalpy change of solution, ∆Hsol, of a substance is the

enthalpy change when one mole of the substance is dissolved in
water.

Ammonium nitrate is used in this experiment because the

temperature change when it dissolves is quite large.

5
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
11. 17 Example 1 - ∆Hsol 5.2 Measuring enthalpy c
Exothermic and endothermic rea
AUnder
knownthese conditions
volume all theisheat
of water produced
placed is calorimeter
in the used to raise the
andtemperature
the initial of The Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy
the contents of the plastic cup, which therefore behaves as both the system and the
temperature is measured.

surroundings. An apparatus used for measuring heat changes in this way is called a
it can only be converted into another form of energy.

The enthalpy change of a reaction usually appears as

calorimeter. a temperature change. If the products have less entha
The solid is weighed in a beaker and then tipped into the water.
an enthalpy decrease during the reaction (∆H is negat
of heat energy must be given out by the reaction; the

Experiment The water is stirred until all the solid has dissolved, and the lowest
exothermic. The heat given out is passed to the surr
environment around the reaction – where it can be m
reactions are exothermic, but there are some in which
temperature
To find the is recorded.
enthalpy
change of solution of positive), and the reaction is then said to be endothe
heat from the surroundings because the enthalpy of th
ammonium
We nitrate
can calculate the
exothermic reactions, ∆H is
enthalpy change of solution from measuring a
negative. The temperature of the
enthalpy of the reactants.
It is not surprising that most chemical reactions are
surroundings increases and the
The enthalpy change of solution, ∆Hsol, of a substance is the enthalpy change the changes we observe are usually those in which th
temperature change in this way. potential energy of the system (that
when one mole of the substance is dissolved in water. Ammonium
is, the nitrate
reacting chemicals) is usedand
decreases.
the kinetic energy increases in the form of heat. I
of a desk, we expect to see it fall from the desk to the
endothermic reactions, ∆H is
in this experiment because the temperature change when it dissolves
positive. The temperature ofisthe
quite large.
therefore decreases). We would be very surprised if it
A known volume of water is placed in the calorimeter and thedecreases
surroundings initialandtemperature
the (its
is potential energy would increase). Both processes
potential energy of the system (the do not break the Law of Conservation of Energy.
measured. The finely powdered solid is weighed in areacting beaker andincreases.
chemicals) then tipped into the The direction of a chemical change is determined
water. The water is stirred until all the solid has dissolved, and the lowest temperature of the reactants and products. If the enthalpy of the
of the products (exothermic, ∆H negative), the reac
is recorded. The worked example below shows how the enthalpy change of solution possible. It might not, however, take place because
may be calculated from measuring a temperature change in this way. said to be kinetically controlled. These kinetic fact

Measuring temperature changes

calculating ∆H
11. 18 Example
Worked example 1 - ∆Hsol The enthalpy change of a reaction, ∆H,
is the change in enthalpy accompanying
If we measure the heat given out or taken in during a
enthalpy change. The simplest way of measuring it is
the complete conversion of one mole of cool) some water or a solution. We need to make the
Some powdered ammonium nitrate was added to water in ainto
reactants plastic beaker and the
products.
● the mass of the reactants
following results were obtained. Calculate the enthalpy change of solution, ∆Hsol, of
● the mass of water, m (or its volume, since its densit
ammonium nitrate. ● the rise (or fall) in temperature of the water or solu

mass of water = 100 g thermometer

We also need to know the amount of energy neede
water by one degree. This is known as the specific h
specific heat capacity of water = 4.18 J g−1 K−1 given the symbol c. It has the value 4.18 J g−1 K−1. (Not
mass of ammonium nitrate = 7.10 g temperature change using a thermometer marked in d
initial temperature = 18.2 °C change in temperature is the same on either the Celsiu
If we represent the heat change as q, we have the f
final temperature = 12.8 °C
lid
q = mc∆T
Answer If we are dealing with aqueous solutions rather than p
q = mc∆T polystyrene cup water in the solution that should be included as the ‘m
= 100 × 4.18 × (12.8 − 18.2) (remember that ‘∆’ means ‘final − initial’) solutions are often quite dilute, and since the volume
solution are about the same as those of the water it co
= −2260 J following equation:
solution
Mr(NH4NO3) = 14.0 + 4.0 + 14.0 + 48.0 = 80.0 q = 4.18 × v × ∆T, where v = volume of the solu

so M = 80.0 g mol−1 Figure 5.3 A basic calorimeter, used for Figure 5.3 shows a simple apparatus that can be used
simple heat experiments expanded polystyrene cup has a lid to keep heat losse
m 7.10
n(NH4NO3) = = = 0.089 mol
M 80.0
0.089 mol takes in 2260 J
05_03 Cam/Chem AS&A2

Marginalizer 2260 Barking Dog Art Bilal Hameed

so 1.0 mol takes in = 25 × 103 J 181333_05_AS_Chem_BP_097-117.indd 99

Energetics 0.089 Bilal Hameed

Because heat is taken in, the reaction is endothermic and ∆Hsol is positive.

∆Hsol = +25 kJ mol-1

 7 185

11. 19 Example 1 - ∆Hsol

alt 11. 20 Skill check

When 2.0 g of sodium hydroxide is dissolved in 50 cm3 of water at
18 °C the temperature rises to 28.8 °C. Calculate the enthalpy
change per mole when sodium hydroxide dissolves in water. Give
your answer to three significant figures.

11. 21 Example 2 - ∆Hneutralisation

The enthalpy change of neutralisation, ∆Hneut, of an acid is the
enthalpy change accompanying the neutralisation of an acid by a
base to give one mole of water.

To find it, a known amount of acid in solution is placed in a

polystyrene cup and its temperature is recorded. An equivalent
amount of base is added and the rise in temperature is measured.

Bilal Hameed Marginalizer

Bilal Hameed Energetics
 potential energy of the system (that
and the kinetic energy increases in the form
is, the reacting chemicals) decreases.
endothermic reactions, ∆H is of a desk, we expect to see it fall from the de
positive. The temperature of the therefore decreases). We would be very surp
surroundings decreases and the (its potential energy would increase). Both p
potential energy of the system (the do not break the Law of Conservation of Ene
186 8
reacting chemicals) increases. The direction of a chemical change is de
of the reactants and products. If the enthal
of the products (exothermic, ∆H negative),
possible. It might not, however, take place
5 Energy changes in chemistry said to be kinetically controlled. These ki

Measuring temperature ch
calculating ∆H
11. 22 Example
Worked example 2 - ∆Hneutralisation The enthalpy change of a reaction, ∆H,
is the change in enthalpy accompanying
If we measure the heat given out or taken in
enthalpy change. The simplest way of measu
the complete conversion of one mole of cool) some water or a solution. We need to m

alt
50 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm −3 sodium hydroxide solution were added reactants
to 50 cm 3
of 2.0 mol dm −3
into products.
● the mass of the reactants
hydrochloric acid in a polystyrene cup.
● the mass of water, m (or its volume, since
the rise (or fall) in temperature of the wate
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) ●

We also need to know the amount of ener

The following results were obtained: thermometer
water by one degree. This is known as the sp
given the symbol c. It has the value 4.18 J g−1
initial temperature of HCl = 17.5 °C temperature change using a thermometer ma
initial temperature of NaOH = 17.9 °C change in temperature is the same on either
final temperature = 31.0 °C If we represent the heat change as q, we h
lid
q = mc∆T
Calculate the enthalpy change of neutralisation, ∆Hneut, for this reaction.
If we are dealing with aqueous solutions rath
polystyrene cup
Answer water in the solution that should be included
solutions are often quite dilute, and since the
Average temperature of the HCl and NaOH = 17.7 °C solution are about the same as those of the w
(We can take the average temperature because the volumes of acid and base solutions following equation:
solution
are equal. Because the solution is very dilute, its specific heat capacity is taken to be the q = 4.18 × v × ∆T, where v = volume o
same as that of water, namely 4.18 J g −1 K−1. This approximation is always used in
Figure 5.3 shows a simple apparatus that can
calculations involving reactions in dilute aqueous solution.) Figure 5.3 A basic calorimeter, used for
simple heat experiments expanded polystyrene cup has a lid to keep
q = mc∆T
= (50 + 50) × 4.18 × (31.0 − 17.7)
= 5560 J
05_03 Cam/Chem AS&A2
n(HCl) = n(NaOH) = c × V (in dm3) (see section 1.12)
Barking Dog Art
50 181333_05_AS_Chem_BP_097-117.indd 99

11. 23 Example 2 - ∆H
= 2.0 ×
1000
= 0.10 mol
neutralisation
0.10 mol gives out 5560 J
5560
so 1.0 mol gives out = 56 × 103 J
0.10
Because heat is evolved, we know that the reaction is exothermic and ∆Hneut is negative.
∆Hneut = -56 kJ mol-1 (that is, per mole of water formed)

In a similar way, the temperature change can be measured for a variety of reactions
which take place on mixing, and ∆H can be calculated. If one of the reactants is
in excess, it is then only necessary to know the exact amount of the reactant that
is completely used up, as it is this reactant that determines the energy change. For
example, if magnesium ribbon is dissolved in excess hydrochloric acid, it is the quantity
of magnesium that determines the energy change. The actual amount of hydrochloric
acid has no effect on the amount of heat given out. The mass of the solution must,
however, be known in order to measure the heat evolved, using the formula q = mc∆T.

Now try this

1 25 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm−3 nitric acid, HNO3, were placed in a plastic cup. To this were
added 25 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm−3 potassium hydroxide, KOH. The initial temperature of
both solutions was 17.5 °C. The maximum temperature reached after mixing was
24.1 °C.
11. 24 Measuring enthalpy changes
a Calculate the heat given out in the reaction.
b Calculate the number of moles of nitric acid.
c Hence
If one of thecalculate ∆H foristhe
reactants inneutralisation.
excess, it is then only necessary to know the
2 75 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm−3 ethanoic acid, CH3CO2H, were placed in a plastic cup. The
exact amountwas
temperature of 18.2
the °C.
reactant that added
To this were is completely
75 cm3 of 2.0used up,−3as
mol dm it is this
ammonium
reactant thatNHdetermines
hydroxide, the energy
4OH, whose temperature change.
was 18.6 °C.
After mixing, the highest
temperature was 31.0 °C. Calculate ∆H for the neutralisation.
3 0.48
For g of magnesium
example, ribbon was
if magnesium added is
ribbon 200 cm3 of hydrochloric
to dissolved in excessacid in a plastic
hydrochloric
beaker. The temperature at the start was 20.0 °C, and after the magnesium ribbon had
acid, it is the
dissolved the quantity
temperature ofrose
magnesium
to 21.2 °C. that determines the energy change.

a Write an equation for the reaction of magnesium ribbon with dilute hydrochloric
The actual
acid. amount of hydrochloric acid has no effect on the amount of
heatb Calculate
given out. ∆H The
for this reaction.
mass/volume of the solution must, however, be
known in order to measure the heat evolved, using the formula
101
q = mc∆T. (vc∆T)

1333_05_AS_Chem_BP_097-117.indd 101 15/10/14 10:43 AM

Marginalizer Bilal Hameed

Energetics Bilal Hameed
 In a similar way, the temperature change can be measured for a variety of reactions
q = mc∆T
Worked
which take+example
= (50 place on mixing,
50) × 4.18 × (31.0and ∆H can be calculated. If one of the reactants is
− 17.7)
in excess,
= 35560 J
it is then only
−3
necessary to know the exact amount of the 3reactant that −3
50 cm of 2.0 mol dm sodium hydroxide solution were added to 50 cm of 2.0 mol dm
is completely used up, as it is this reactant that determines the energy change. For
hydrochloric acid in a=polystyrene
n(HCl) =ifn(NaOH) c ×ribbon
V (in dm cup.
3
) (see section 1.12) 187
example, magnesium is dissolved 9 excess
in hydrochloric acid, it is the quantity
+ 50 → +
ofHCl(aq)
magnesium NaOH(aq)
= 2.0 × that NaCl(aq)
determines
= 0.10 molthe H O(l)
energy
2 change. The actual amount of hydrochloric
acid has no effect1000
on the amount of heat given out. The mass of the solution must,
The following results were obtained:
0.10 molbegives
however, out 5560
known in orderJ to measure the heat evolved, using the formula q = mc∆T.
initial temperature of HCl = 17.5 °C
5560
so 1.0 mol gives out = 56 × 103 J
initial
Now temperature
try this NaOH = 17.9 °C
of0.10
fi11.
25 Skill check
nal temperature = 31.0that
°C the reaction is exothermic and ∆H
Because heat is evolved, we know neut is negative.
3 -56 kJ mol-1 −3 (that is, per mole of water formed)

alt
1∆H
Calculatecm=
25neut of enthalpy
the 1.0 mol dm change nitricofacid, HNO3, were
neutralisation, ∆Hplaced in a plastic cup. To this were
neut, for this reaction.
added 25 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm−3 potassium hydroxide, KOH. The initial temperature of
Answer
both solutions was 17.5 °C. The maximum temperature reached after mixing was
Average
In a24.1 temperature
°C.
similar way, theoftemperature
the HCl andchange NaOH =can °Cmeasured for a variety of reactions
17.7be
(We
which can
taketake
a Calculate place theon
the average
heat given
mixing, temperature
andin∆H
out thecan because
reaction. the volumes
be calculated. of acid
If one andreactants
of the base solutions
is
are equal.
in excess, Because
b Calculate the the
it is then solution
number
only is veryof
of moles
necessary todilute,
nitric
know itsthe
specific
acid. exact heat capacity
amount of is taken
the to bethat
reactant the
same c as that calculate
Hence of water,∆namely
H for 4.18
the J g −1 K−1. This approximation is always used in
neutralisation.
is completely used up, −3 as it is this reactant that determines the energy change. For
calculations
2 75 cm3 ofinvolving
2.0 mol dm reactions in dilute
ethanoic acid,aqueous
CH3CO2solution.)
H, were placed in a plastic cup. The
example,
= mc∆T if magnesium ribbon is dissolved in excess hydrochloric acid, it is the quantity
q temperature was 18.2 °C. To this were added 75 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm−3 ammonium
of magnesium
= (50 + 50)NH ×that determines the energy change. The actual amount of hydrochloric
hydroxide, 4OH, ×
4.18 − 17.7)
(31.0 temperature
whose was 18.6 °C. After mixing, the highest
acidtemperature
=has
5560 noJ effect on the amount of heat given out. The mass of the solution must,
was 31.0 °C. Calculate ∆H for the neutralisation.
however,
3 0.48 g of bemagnesium
known in order ribbonto wasmeasure
added the
to heat
200 cm 3evolved, using the
of hydrochloric acidformula q = mc∆T.
in a plastic
n(HCl) = n(NaOH) = c × V (in dm3) (see section 1.12)
beaker. The temperature
50 at the start was 20.0 °C, and after the magnesium ribbon had
Now try
= 2.0
dissolved this
× temperature
the
1000
= 0.10rosemol to 21.2 °C.
a Write an equation for the reaction of magnesium ribbon with dilute hydrochloric
0.10acid.
mol3 gives out 5560−3J
1 25 cm of 1.0 mol dm nitric acid, HNO3, were placed in a plastic cup. To this were
5560
b Calculate
so 1.0 mol25
added cm∆3out
gives Hoffor
1.0this
mol=reaction.
dm×−310
56 3
J
potassium hydroxide, KOH. The initial temperature of
0.10
both solutions was 17.5 °C. The maximum temperature reached after mixing was
Because heat is evolved, we know that the reaction is exothermic and ∆Hneut is negative. 101
24.1 °C.
∆Hneut = -56 kJ mol-1 (that is, per mole of water formed)
a Calculate the heat given out in the reaction.
11. 26 Skill check
b Calculate the number of moles of nitric acid.
c Hence calculate ∆H for the neutralisation.
In a similar way, the temperature change can be measured for a variety of reactions
d 101 2 75 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm−3 ethanoic acid, CH3CO2H, were placed in a plastic cup. The 15/10/14 10:43 AM
which take place on mixing, and ∆H can be calculated. If one of the reactants is
temperature was 18.2 °C. To this were added 75 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm−3 ammonium
in excess, it is then only necessary to know the
hydroxide, NH4OH, whose temperature was 18.6 °C. After mixing, exact amount of the the
reactant
highest that
is completely
temperature usedwasup, as °C.
31.0 it isCalculate
this reactant
∆H for thatthe
determines the energy change. For
neutralisation.
example,
3 0.48 g ifofmagnesium
magnesiumribbon ribboniswas dissolved
added to in 200
excess
cm3hydrochloric
of hydrochloric acid, it is
acid in the quantity
a plastic
of magnesium that determines the energy change. The actual
beaker. The temperature at the start was 20.0 °C, and after the magnesium ribbon hadamount of hydrochloric
aciddissolved
has no effect on the amount
the temperature rose ofto heat °C. out. The mass of the solution must,
21.2 given
a Write
however, bean equation
known for the
in order toreaction
measureofthe magnesium ribbon
heat evolved, withthe
using dilute q = mc∆T.
hydrochloric
formula
acid.
Now try this∆H for this reaction.
b Calculate

1 25 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm−3 nitric acid, HNO3, were placed in a plastic cup. To this were 101
added 25 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm−3 potassium hydroxide, KOH. The initial temperature of
both solutions was 17.5 °C. The maximum temperature reached after mixing was
24.1 °C.
101
a Calculate the heat given out in the reaction. 15/10/14 10:43 AM
b Calculate the number of moles of nitric acid.
c Hence calculate ∆H for the neutralisation.
2 75 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm−3 ethanoic acid, CH3CO2H, were placed in a plastic cup. The
temperature was 18.2 °C. To this were added 75 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm−3 ammonium
11. 27 Skill check
hydroxide, NH4OH, whose temperature was 18.6 °C. After mixing, the highest
temperature was 31.0 °C. Calculate ∆H for the neutralisation.
3 0.48 g of magnesium ribbon was added to 200 cm3 of hydrochloric acid in a plastic
beaker. The temperature at the start was 20.0 °C, and after the magnesium ribbon had
dissolved the temperature rose to 21.2 °C.
a Write an equation for the reaction of magnesium ribbon with dilute hydrochloric
acid.
b Calculate ∆H for this reaction.

101

d 101 15/10/14 10:43 AM

Bilal Hameed Marginalizer

Bilal Hameed Energetics
 188 10

11. 28 Skill check

alt
When 1.00g of magnesium chloride is dissolved in 50.0 cm3 of
water the temperature goes up from 21.5 °C to 29.1 °C.

(a) Calculate the enthalpy change of solution of magnesium chloride.

(b) Predict the temperature change when 2.00 g of magnesium

chloride is dissolved in 100cm3 of water.

(c) Predict the temperature change when 2.00 g of magnesium

chloride is dissolved in 50.0cm3 of water.

11. 29 Enthalpy changes of combustion

The enthalpy change of combustion, ∆Hc, of a substance is the
enthalpy change accompanying the complete combustion of one
mole of the substance in oxygen.

For example, the following equation shows the combustion of

methane:

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Cambridge International AS Level Chemistry

11. 30 Enthalpy changes of combustion
The diagram below shows a simple apparatus to measure the
MEASURING ENTHALPY CHANGES (CONTINUED)
enthalpy change of combustion for a fuel such as methanol.
6 Remove the spirit burner, place the cap on
thermometer lid
reweigh it.
metal
calorimeter
Results and calculations
clamp
water To find the standard enthalpy change of comb
need to know:
shield
■ the mass of fuel burnt
■ the temperature rise of the water
wick alkane or cap for ■ the mass of the water
spirit burner alcohol burner
fuel
■ the relative molecular mass of the fuel (propan

mass of water in calorimeter

Figure 6.6 A simple apparatus used to find the enthalpy mass of spirit burner and propan-1-ol at start
change of combustion of fuels.
mass of spirit burner and propan-1-ol at end
mass of propan-1-ol burnt
The procedure is:
initial temperature of water
Marginalizer 1 Weigh the spirit burner containing propan-1-ol. The Bilal
final Hameedof water
temperature
Energetics cap on the burner must be kept on when the burner temperature
Bilalchange
Hameed of the water
is not lit to avoid evaporation of the fuel.
Using the relationship ΔH = –mcΔT (mass of wa
2 Pour 100 cm3 (100 g) of water into the calorimeter.
specific heat capacity of water × temperature
For greater accuracy this should be weighed out.
 Experiment
To measure ∆H 1 c
11 189
A simple apparatus
05_075.8
Figure Cam/Chem
shows aAS&A2
simple apparatus to measure the enthalpy change of combustion
5 forBarking
a fuel Dog as methanol. A known volume of water isEnergy
suchArt placed changes in chemistry
in a copper
calorimeter and its temperature is measured. The calorimeter is clamped so that its
base is just a few centimetres above a spirit burner, which contains the fuel. The
spirit burner is weighed, placed under the calorimeter and lit. The water in the
calorimeter is stirred with the thermometer. When the temperature has risen about
Figure 5.7 In a bomb calorimeter, accurate

11. 31 Enthalpy changes of combustion

values of the enthalpy change of combustion
can be measured because heat losses to the air
10 °C, the flame is put out, the temperature is noted and the spirit burner re-weighed.
thermometer

are minimised.
Figure 5.8 A simple apparatus used to

alt
measure enthalpy changes of combustion
The basic technique is that the heat given out in a
thermometer
combustion reaction is used to heat water. The
water
equation q = mc∆T can be used to calculate the
‘bomb’
amount of heat given out.
calorimeter

oxygen under pressure

The experimental set-up shown could be used to
heated wire crucible containing
determine the enthalpy change when 1 mole of a copper
to ignite sample
calorimeter
fuel under test
stirrer
liquid substance is burnt. The mass and
outerwater
heated
temperature change of the water must be water bath

measured, as well as the mass change of the

spirit burner
alcohol. Experiment
To measure ∆H 1c
A simple apparatus
05_075.8
Figure Cam/Chem simple apparatus to measure the enthalpy change of combustion105
shows aAS&A2
05_08 Cam/Chem AS&A2
5 for a fuel such as methanol. A known volume of water isEnergy
Barking Dog Art
placed changes in chemistry
in a copper
calorimeter
Barking Dogand
Art its temperature is measured. The calorimeter is clamped so that its
base is just a few centimetres above a spirit burner, which contains the fuel. The
181333_05_AS_Chem_BP_097-117.indd 105 15/10/14 10:43 AM
spirit burner is weighed, placed under the calorimeter and lit. The water in the
calorimeter is stirred with the thermometer. When the temperature has risen about
Figure 5.7 In a bomb calorimeter, accurate
11. 32 Enthalpy changes of combustion
values of the enthalpy change of combustion
can be measured because heat losses to the air
10 °C, the flame is put out, the temperature is noted and the spirit burner re-weighed.
thermometer

Figure
are 5.8 A simple apparatus used to
minimised.
measure enthalpy changes of combustion
A known volume of water is placed in a copper thermometer

calorimeter and its temperature is measured.

water

The calorimeter is clamped so that its base is just ‘bomb’

calorimeter
a few centimetres above a spirit burner, which
oxygen under pressure
contains the fuel.

heated wire crucible containing

copper
The spirit burner is weighed, placed under the to ignite sample
calorimeter
fuel under test
stirrer
calorimeter and lit. The water in the calorimeter is outerwater
heated

stirred with the thermometer. water bath

spirit burner

Experiment
To measure ∆H 1c
A simple apparatus
05_075.8
Figure Cam/Chem simple apparatus to measure the enthalpy change of combustion105
shows aAS&A2
05_08 Cam/Chem AS&A2
forBarking
a fuel Dog
suchArt
as methanol. A known volume of water is placed in a copper
calorimeter
Barking Dogand
Art its temperature is measured. The calorimeter is clamped so that its
base is just a few centimetres above a spirit burner, which contains the fuel. The
181333_05_AS_Chem_BP_097-117.indd 105 15/10/14 10:43 AM
spirit burner is weighed, placed under the calorimeter and lit. The water in the
calorimeter is stirred with the thermometer. When the temperature has risen about

11. 33 Enthalpy changes of combustion 10 °C, the flame is put out, the temperature is noted and the spirit burner re-weighed.

Figure 5.8 A simple apparatus used to

measure enthalpy changes of combustion
When the temperature has risen about 10-20 °C, thermometer

the flame is put out, the temperature is noted and

the spirit burner re-weighed.

The equation, q = mc∆T is used to find heat

absorbed by the water.

copper
Note – the mass of water and not the mass of calorimeter

ethanol is used here – it is the water that is being water

heated.
spirit burner

105
05_08 Cam/Chem AS&A2

Barking Dog Art

Marginalizer
181333_05_AS_Chem_BP_097-117.indd 105 15/10/14 10:43 AM
Bilal Hameed
Bilal Hameed Energetics
 190 12

11. 34 Example 3 - ∆Hc

alt
Use the following experimental data to determine the enthalpy
change when 1 mole of ethanol (C2H5OH) is burnt:

Mass of water = 150.0 g


Initial temperature of water = 19.5°C 

Maximum temperature of water = 45.7°C 

Initial mass of spirit burner = 121.67g 

Final mass of spirit burner = 120.62g

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

thermometer Thiemann’s fuel calorimeter

to suction pump When determining ∆H 1 using a copper calorimeter, there are two major sources
11.of35 Example 3c - ∆Hc
error:

incomplete combustion takes place)

heat
exchanger These errors can be reduced by means of Thiemann’s fuel calorimeter (see
Figure 5.9). The fuel is burnt in a stream of oxygen to ensure complete
combustion, and the gases are sucked through a copper spiral placed in water
water (a heat exchanger) so that very little heat is lost to the air.
Measurements similar to those with the simple copper calorimeter experiment
are made. The cap is replaced on the spirit burner after putting out the flame
to reduce losses of fuel by evaporation before re-weighing. The oxygen should
be supplied fast enough so that the fuel burns with a clear blue flame. The
fuel suction pump is usually fully on, but it may need to be turned down if the
suction is so vigorous that the flame is pulled off the spirit burner. Thiemann’s
apparatus can give results to within 80% of quoted values.
oxygen
supply

Figure 5.9 In Thiemann’s fuel calorimeter,

a supply of oxygen ensures complete
combustion, and heat loss to the air is reduced.

11. 36 Skill
Worked check
example
05_09 Cam/Chem AS&A2
In an experiment to determine ∆H1c for methanol, CH3OH, the following readings were
Barking Dog Art obtained. Calculate ∆H1c for methanol.

mass of water in calorimeter = 200 g

mass of methanol and burner at start = 532.68 g
mass of methanol and burner at end = 531.72 g
temperature of water at start = 18.3 °C
temperature of water at end = 29.6 °C

Answer
We shall ignore the heat taken in by the calorimeter.
temperature rise of water = 11.3 K
q = mc∆T
= 200 × 4.18 × 11.3 = 9447 J
mass of methanol burnt = 0.96 g and Mr(CH3OH) = 32.0
0.96
so amount of methanol burnt = = 0.030 mol
32.0
Because heat is evolved, we know that the reaction is exothermic and ∆H1c is negative.
−9447
∆H 1c = = −315 × 103 J mol−1 or -315 kJ mol-1
0.030
Marginalizer Bilal Hameed
Energetics Bilal Hameed
Now try this
1 a What is meant by ‘standard conditions’?
b Why is it necessary to specify the conditions of a reaction?
 mass of methanol burnt = 0.96 g and Mr(CH3OH) = 32.0
0.96
so amount of methanol burnt = = 0.030 mol
32.0
Because heat is evolved, we know that the reaction is exothermic and ∆H1c is negative.
−9447 191
∆H 1c = = −315 × 103 J mol−1 or -31513
kJ mol-1
0.030

Now try this

11. 37 Skill check
1 a What is meant by ‘standard conditions’?
b Why is it necessary to specify the conditions of a reaction?

alt
2 A burner containing hexanol, C6H13OH, had a mass of 325.68 g. It was lit and
placed under a copper calorimeter containing 250 cm3 of water. The temperature
of the water rose from 19.2 °C to 31.6 °C. Afterwards the burner’s mass was
324.37 g. Calculate:
a the heat evolved
b ∆Hc for hexanol.
3 a State the two main sources of error in the experiment described in question 2.
b Explain how these two errors are made as small as possible in Thiemann’s apparatus.

dd 106 15/10/14 10:43 AM

11. 38 Standard enthalpies

Enthalpy changes have different values, depending on the conditions
under which they are measured;

Therefore, to make them transferable, they are all quoted for the same
set of conditions, which is called standard conditions.

If an enthalpy change is not measured under standard conditions, its

value is corrected to standard conditions.

11. 39 Standard enthalpies

An enthalpy change under standard conditions is called a standard
enthalpy change and has the symbol ∆HƟ, where the symbol means
under standard conditions.

Bilal Hameed Marginalizer

Bilal Hameed Energetics
 192 14

11. 40 Standard enthalpy change of reaction

alt
Standard enthalpy change of reaction (∆Hr ) is the enthalpy
change when molar amounts of reactants as shown in the
stoichiometric equation react together under standard conditions
to give products.

For example, for the reaction N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g), the enthalpy
change of reaction is −92 kJmol−1.

This means that 92kJ of heat energy are given out when 1mol N2
reacts with 3mol N2 to form 2mol NH3

11. 41 Standard enthalpy change of reaction

If the equation is written as ½N2(g) + 1½H2(g) → NH3(g)

then the enthalpy change of reaction is for 0.5 mol N2 reacting, and
the enthalpy change is half as much.

∆Hr = −46 kJmol−1

11. 42 Standard enthalpy change of combustion

Standard enthalpy change of combustion (∆Hc) is the enthalpy
change when 1 mole of a substance is completely burnt in
oxygen under standard conditions. All reactants and products are
in their standard states.

The standard enthalpy change of combustion is always negative, as

combustion is always an exothermic process.

For example:

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) ∆Hc = −890 kJ mol−1

Marginalizer Bilal Hameed

Energetics Bilal Hameed
 193
15

11. 43 Standard enthalpy change of combustion

alt
Some more examples:

C(graphite) + O2(g) → CO2(g)

H2(g) + ½O2(g) → H2O(l)

C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)

There should only one mole of what is being combusted on the left
side of the equation.

11. 44 Standard enthalpy change of combustion

The enthalpy change when one mole of a substance
Definition undergoes complete combustion under standard
conditions. All reactants and products are in their
standard states.

Symbol ∆HOc

Values Usually, but not exclusively, exothermic.

There should only one mole of what is being combusted

Note
on the left side of the equation.

11. 45 Standard enthalpy change of formation

Standard enthalpy change of formation (∆Hf ) is the enthalpy
change when 1 mole of the substance is formed in its standard
state from its elements in their standard states under standard
conditions.

The equation that represents the enthalpy change of formation of

methane is: C(s) + 2H2 (g) → CH4 (g)

Or, for ammonia, the enthalpy change of formation is for the reaction:
½N2 (g) + 1½H2 (g) → NH3 (g)

Bilal Hameed Marginalizer

Bilal Hameed Energetics
 194
16

11. 46 Standard enthalpy change of formation

alt
Usually, but not exclusively, exothermic.

C(graphite) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)

H2 (g) + ½O2 (g) → H2O(l)

2C(graphite) + ½O2 (g) + 3H2 (g) → C2H5OH(l)

There should be only one mole of product on the right side of the
equation.

11. 47 Standard enthalpy change of formation

Enthalpy change when one mole of a compound is formed in
Definition its standard state from its elements in their standard states
under standard conditions.

Symbol ∆HOf

Values Usually, but not exclusively, exothermic.

There should be only one mole of product on the right side of

Note
the equation.

11. 48 Hess’ law

There are very few reactions whose enthalpy change can be measured
directly by measuring the change in temperature in a calorimeter.

Fortunately, we can find enthalpy changes for other reactions

indirectly.

To do this we make use of Hess’s Law, which states that the value of
∆H for a reaction is the same whether we carry out the reaction in one
step or in many steps, provided that the initial and final states or
conditions are the same.

Marginalizer Bilal Hameed

Energetics Bilal Hameed
 195
17

11. 49 Hess’ law

alt
The enthalpy change accompanying a chemical reaction is
independent of the pathway between the initial and final states.

-111 kJ mol-1 -283 kJ mol-1

C CO CO2

-384 kJ mol-1

11. 50 Hess’ law

-111 kJ mol-1 -283 kJ mol-1
C CO CO2

-384 kJ mol-1

direct route
C CO2 ∆H1 = ∆H2 + ∆H3
ΔH1

indirect route
ΔH2 ΔH3

CO

11. 51 Hess’ law

What this means is that, if we consider the conversion of A into B, the
enthalpy change for the reaction is the same if we go directly from A
to B or indirectly via other reactions and intermediates.

direct route
A B
ΔH1
∆H1 = ∆H2 + ∆H3

indirect route
ΔH2 ΔH3

Bilal Hameed Marginalizer

Bilal Hameed Energetics
 196
18

11. 52 Hess’ law

alt
The enthalpy change accompanying a chemical reaction is
independent of the pathway between the initial and final states.
Ft G

in .

At B - c
Ft G

inI v

X -7 . Y
I
-12

At B - c

I v
c

I
-394in
coz

X
11. 53 Hess’ -7
law example
Y 1-12

From the following cycle find the value of the conversion of C to CO?

-394in
c coz

11. 54 Hess’ law example 2

Imagine the following reactions:
A → C ∆H = - 80 kJ mol-1 C → B ∆H= - 110 kJ mol-1

We can find out the value of A → B using Hess cycle

direct route
A B
ΔHr AB = AC + CB
ΔHr = (-80) + (-150)
indirect route
- 80 kJ mol-1 - 150 kJ mol-1

Marginalizer Bilal Hameed

Energetics Bilal Hameed
 197
19

11. 55 Hess’ law example 3

alt
Let us consider a slightly different situation in which the enthalpy changes are:

A → B = ∆H1
B → C = ∆H2
A → C=?
direct route
" C → B = -∆H2
ΔH1
ΔH1 = x + (- ΔH2)
x indirect route ΔH2

"
A

11. 56 Hess' law example 3

Another way to solving the same question is:

A → B = ∆H1
B → C = ∆H2
A → C=?
ΔH1
"
A (A → B) + (B → C) = (A → C)
di indirect route
re
ct ΔH1 + ΔH2 = x
x ro ΔH2
u te

"
A

11. 57 Hess' law example 4

Another cycle might look like this:

A → B = ∆H4
C → B = ∆H5 ΔH4

C → A=?
x ΔH5

There would be two ways of solving this.

A

--------s
'

i
. i
. -
.

Bilal Hameed Marginalizer

Bilal Hameed Energetics
 AHI AHI
A - A B - B
direct route a direct route a

198
20

A=
.

A=
.

\ £
# \£
C C

#
, ,

' '

, ,

11. 58 Hess' law example 4

A- A-
is is

alt
There would be two ways of solving this: AHI AHI
A A - - B B
direct route direct route
ΔH4 ΔH4
a a

--------s
direct route A

----
indirect route
e
ut
'

i indirect route ro
x . i ΔH5 x ire
ct ΔH5
d

A=
.

A=
.

\ £
.

#\ £
-
.

C C

#
c
, ,

' '
c

, A, A

- --------s
is

A--
is
(A → B) = (A → C) + (C → B) T → B) = (C → A) + T(A → B)
(C 1

\
1

✓\ ✓
--------sA-
is is

A ∆H4 = (-x) + ∆H5 ∆H5 = x + ∆H4

- - -
- - - - -
-
- - - -

-
-

-
-
-
- - - - - -
-
- - - - -
A -
-

. .

. .

' ' '

i i → → i
i
i
i
, ,
C
I
C
I r
n . n r
' ' .
. - -
, n - n
,
.
.. --
- - - - .
.

, ,
k
'
k
'
c I I
cc
n n
, ,
- - - -
- -

11. 59 Skill check

A A

- -
is is

Calculate the enthalpy change of the following

T reaction using the 1

\
1

\✓ ✓
T

Hall
data given below:
→ H2O Hall → H2O
- - - - - -
- - - - - -

-
- - - - - - - - - -
- - - - -
- - - -

. .

. . -
I -
I
Hag) Eodg) → Hzoll t
Hag
)
Eod
DH → Hzoll ) kJmd
-286 DH -286 kJmd
= =
t
' '

) i g) i , , → →
' '
C
I
ma C
I
-

r r
-

H2 ma
YI
n
H2Hzocg YI
n
)DH -7
242kt
t
219) -7 t '
219
'
Hzocg, DH 242kt
-
=
, -
-

n
=
-
, , n

- - - -
, ,
' ' I I
k k n n
, ,
- - - -
- -

A B

BrF⑨t2Fz → BNFSH
BrF⑨t2Fz → BNFSH
' '
Brfzll ) t DH= -242 KJMOT
DH= -242 KJMOT
BRFCD t
Ffg ) → BRFCD Ffg ) → Brfzll )
I I
KIMI DH
-

DH KIMI
-

BRIEN Ffg)
→ BNFSCD
BRIEN t BNFSCD
158 158
Ffg
t →
=
)
-
= -

C
Hall → H2OHall → H2O
Clfzcg ) Gfs (g) Fzcg ) Gfs
Clfzcg (g)
Fzcg )
)
t → t →
I I - -

DHHzoll ) -286 kJmd

DH -286 kJmd Hzollg) )
Hag) t Eodg) Hag) t →
Eod
=
→
=

' '
Gz (g) t 3Fz →
(g) t )3Fz AH→
Gz 2453cg 2453cgKJMOT
-328
) AH
ma
-328
' KJMOT = = - - '
H2 242kt 242kt ma
YI
219H2 YI DH DH I
t
) -7 t
219
Hzocg ), -7
Hzocg,
-
= =
-

Clzfg) Clzfg
I
5Fz 245cg 5Fz 245cg
) AH→
-

) AH
t →
-

) t
510 KIMM KIMM
11. 60 Skill check
= -
= -
510

Calculate the enthalpy change of the following reaction using the data
givenBrF⑨t2Fz
below: BNFSH
BrF⑨t2Fz
→ → BNFSH
' '
t Brfzll Brfzll )-242
DH= KJMOT-242
DH= KJMOT
BRFCD t
Ffg )BRFCD
→ Ffg )) →
I I
DHBNFSCD 158 DHKIMI
-

KIMI
-

BRIEN Ffg) BRIEN BNFSCD

Ffg) 158
t → t → = -
= -

Clfzcg
A ) t
) →)
FzcgClfzcg t Gfs )
Fzcg (g)→ Gfs B(g)

' '
Gz (g) t 3FzGz 3Fz
2453cg AH
2453cg -328 KJMOT
AH KJMOT
(g)
→ t
)→ ) = = -328

Clzfg)
I
5Fz Clzfg
I
245cg
5Fz
) 245cg )510
AH AH
- -

t → →
) t = -
KIMM = -
510 KIMM
C

Marginalizer Bilal Hameed

Energetics Bilal Hameed
 -
I
Hzoll DH -286 kJmd I
Hag) Eodg) → ) -
=
t kJmd
Hzoll DH -286
Hag) Eodg) → ) =
t
- '
ma '
H2 YI
219) DH 242kt
Hzocg,t
-

t ma
-7
H2 YI
-

DH 242kt
=

219) -7
Hzocg,
-
=

199
21

BrF⑨t2Fz → BNFSH
BrF⑨t2Fz → BNFSH
'
Brfzll ) DH= -242 KJMOT KJMOT
'
BRFCD t
Ffg ) →
Brfzll ) DH= -242
BRFCD t
Ffg )
11. 61Ffg
Skill check
→
I
KIMI
-

BRIEN t
)
→ BNFSCD DH = -
158
BNFSCD DH 158 KIMI
-

I
BRIEN t
Ffg)
→ = -

alt
Calculate the enthalpy change of the following reaction using the data
given
Clfzcg )below:
t Fzcg ) → Gfs
Clfzcg ) t (g)Fzcg ) → Gfs (g)
'

Gz (g) 3Fz AH -328 KJMOT '

Gz2453cg
t →
) =

AH KJMOT
(g) t 3Fz →
2453cg ) = -328

Clzfg)
I
5Fz 245cg t ) 5Fz AH→
-

t →
Clzfg 245cgKIMM
I
510
) AH
-

)
=
KIMM
-

= -
510

A B

11. 62 Skill check

Calculate the enthalpy change of the following reaction using the data
NO
4204g)
given below:
→ NO
t (g)
t z

NO
4204g) → NO
(g)
z

33.2 KJMOTI
DAF ( N
= t
Oz Cg
)
I 33.2 KJMOTI
DAFKT (maN
t
-

Oz Cg
AHF ( NO ) =
t 90.4 )
-
I
90.4 ma
AHF ( NO ) =
t KT

A B
Calculate the standard
enthalpy of formation NO
of Czltz tt ? 4204g → NO z
NO
4204g)
NO
NO→ 4204g
t NO
4204g
) → NO z
NO (g)
(g)
(g)) )
t →
(g)
z z
'
AHECCC moi
graphite )]
enthalpy of formation
-394 KJ
Calculate of Czltz ? standard
-

the
.

KJMOTI
at 33.2 KJMOTI
33.2( N KJMOTI
t
Ktm
DAF KJMOTI
=

A HEALED] 286 N Oz Cg
) '
( ( NOzOzCgCg
33.2 t

DAF 33.2
= -
=

DAF ( ))
t t

DAF
=

N Oz Cg)
=

AHECCC KJ moi
KJ ma graphite )]
I I
-394
-

KT ma
-

90.4
-

I
ma)
BHC I called (
AHF
1560 t
.
-

NO I I
90.4 KT ma
NO )
= -
=

AHF (
- -

t
C 90.4 90.4 ma
)
NO
( )
KT
AHF ] at
(
KT
AHF
t =
t
NO =

Ktm
=

A HEALED 286 = -

2C t 3 Hz → Cz Hg
( g, - I

BHC I→called NO 1560 KJ ma

NO
4204g)
=
t
-

4 graphite) t Oz → coz (g) z

(g)
Calculate the standard
enthalpy of formation of Czltz ?
HAD KQED 2C ID 3 Hz
CalculatethetheHgstandard
Calculate
→ Cz
enthalpy
g , formation ofof formation
?formationofof Czltz
Czltz? ?
t
t →
Calculate
H2O KJMOTI
the standard
33.2 (of
standard of Czltz enthalpy enthalpy
DAF (311202
= t
N Oz Cg) '
AHECCC )]' KJ moi
(g)
'
GHG (g) AHECCC graphite
coz
)] )
-394
KJ moi graphite
4 AHECCC ) t t 3h20
Oz '
-

t
AHECCC
→
-394 graphite (g) -394 → 2002
.

KJ moi
I
KT ma )]
KJ moi
graphite ] 90.4 graphite
-

-394
-
.
-

)
-

at
AHF (
t
.
.

NO Ktm
286 at
=

A HEALED ]
at at
11. 63 Skill check
=
286 Ktm
H2O ID] ]
HEALED
-

HAD
HEALEDKQED
] 286A Ktm
A HEALED 286 Ktm =
A
-

t → = -
= -

I -

BHC I called I 1560 KJ ma I -

I
BHC KJKJmama
=

1560I called 1560

-
- -

BHC I called BHC KJ ma 1560

I
=

called
-

= =

GHG (g)
-
-

Calculate the standard

t 311202
enthalpy (g) change
→ 2002
of 3formation
t
3h20
of CCz2HHg6
2C t Hz →
2C2C 3 Hz CzCzHg ( g ,
of formation ofHg Czltz ? → →
t
Calculate the standard 2C t 3 Hz → Cz
t 3 Hz Hg g , enthalpy ( g, ( ( g,
4 graphite) tt Oz → coz
coz (g)
(g)
4 4graphite)coz (g) (g)
' OzOz
AHECCC 4 graphite)KJ moiOz graphite)
→
coz
graphite )]
t → t →
.
-

-394

at HAD tt KQED → H2O ID

H2O tKQED
HAD
286 Ktm t ID
A HEALED] = -

HAD KQED → HAD IDKQED →

→ H2O
H2O ID
I
GHG (g) tt 311202
-

BHC I called 1560 KJ ma

GHG (g) → 2002 t
3h20
2002t311202
(g)(g) (g) 2002 3h20
=

GHG (g) GHG

→
-

(g) 3h20
t 311202 t
(g) → 311202t → 2002 t
3h20

2C t 3 Hz → Cz Hg
( g,
A B
4 graphite) t Oz → coz (g)
HAD t KQED → H2O ID

GHG (g) t 311202 (g) →

C 2002 t
3h20

AltffezttsOHH ]
I
A HE 1367 KTM d-
[ czltso ACID
-
=

Bilal Hameed Marginalizer

Bilal Hameed Energetics
AltffezttsOHH ]
I
A HE 1367 KTM d-
AHF ? [ czltso ACID
-
=
=
 200
22

11. 64 ∆Hr from enthalpy change of formation

alt
We can use ∆Hf of reactants and products of a reaction to find its
enthalpy change. Take the following example:

Calculate the standard enthalpy change of combustion of ethane

from the following data:
∆Hf [CO2] = – 394 kJ mol–1

∆Hf [H2O] = – 288 kJ mol–1

∆Hf [CH4] = – 74 kJ mol–1

11. 65 ∆Hr from enthalpy change of formation

∆Hf [CO2] = – 394 kJ mol–1

∆Hf [H2O] = – 288 kJ mol–1

∆Hf [CH4] = – 74 kJ mol–1

A B

11. 66 ∆Hr from enthalpy change of formation

We can use ∆Hf of reactants and products of a reaction to find its enthalpy
change.

Marginalizer Bilal Hameed

Energetics Bilal Hameed
 7 A student mixed 25.0 cm of 4.00 mol dm hydrochloric acid with an equal volume of
5 All gases listedsodium
are–3at the same pressure.
–3
4.00 mol dm hydroxide. The initial temperature of both solutions was 15.0 °C. The
5 All
4.00 gases
mol dm listed
maximum temperature recorded are at the
sodium same
hydroxide.
was pressure.
30.0
The initial temperature of both solutions was 15.0 °C. The
°C.
maximum temperature recorded was 30.0 °C.
Which gas will most closely approach ideal behaviour?
Which gas will most closely approach ideal
of behaviour?
201
Using these results, what is the enthalpy change neutralisation of hydrochloric acid?
23
Using these results, what is the enthalpy change of neutralisation of hydrochloric acid?
A ammonia at–1100 K
A
A –62.7 kJ mol ammonia at 100 K 3
A –62.7 kJ mol–1
B ammonia B at–1500 Kat 500 K
ammonia
B4 –31.4
TwoBconversions
mol kJare
kJ–31.4 molshown.
–1 3 3 3
C neon C at 100
neon K
–1at 100 K
+
4 4Ethane
C Two conversions aremol
shown. NH4dioxide NH and water vapour.
burns inburns
oxygen to produce carbon
–15.7 C kJ–15.7
mol kJ –1

D 4neon Ethane in oxygen to produce carbon 3dioxide and water vapour.

D –3.14 D 11.
at neon
500
D kJ–3.14
67 Kat∆H
–1 500
mol kJ mol–1 rKfrom enthalpy
NHC42+H4109
NH
change
C32H109
6
of formation
Which bond angles are present in the molecules
Which bond angles are present in the molecules of ethane of ethane and itsand
combustion products?
its combustion products?

alt
WhichWe canfeature
similar use ∆H of reactants
do fthese C2H and
two conversions
4 products
C2have?
H6 of a reaction to find its
91
6 The91 following
6 (aq) The data are needed for this question.
8 HOCl is following
enthalpy
ethane
the moleculedatathat
ischange.
ethane
are needed
Take the
combustion
kills for this
following
bacteria question.
products
combustion
when example:
products
chlorine is added to water.
8 HOClA change
Which
(aq) in oxidation
the
similar feature statetwo
molecule
do these of an element have?
that kills
conversions
bacteria when chlorine is added to water.
–1
AAfollowing (CO(g))
90°
A following
B change
decrease in bond=produces
–111
(CO(g))
90° of
angle kJ–111
= mol kJ mol
104.5°
–1
andmolecule.
180°
104.5° and 180°
The The in oxidation
reaction state
reaction anthis
element
produces molecule.
this
B (CO
BB C decrease
formation 2(g))
of
in 90° a (CO= 90°
lone –394
(g))of=kJ
pair mol–1kJ 109.5°
–394
electrons
109.5° mol
and 120°
–1
bondCl 2angle
(g)2 + Cl 2H(g)
2O(I)+ H2O(I) HOCland 120°H+(aq) +
(aq)
HOCl+(aq) + H+(aq)Cl –(aq)
+ Cl –(aq)
D loss of a bond –1 –1
C (Fe
CC formation of2O
109.5° 3(s))
(Fe
a lone 2=O–822
109.5°
pair (s))
3of =kJ mol kJ
–822
104.5°
electrons and mol180°
104.5° 4 and 180°
Which statement about this
Which statement reaction
about is correct?
this reaction is correct?
7DD A loss Given
Dof a109.5°
student the above
bond
mixed 25.0 cm data,
109.5°
3
what
of 109.5°
4.00 is4 the
mol109.5°
and
dm –3
180° enthalpy
and 180° change
hydrochloric acid withofanthe reaction
equal volume of
Carbon Carbon
monoxide –3monoxide
reacts reacts
with iron( IIIiron(
with )initial
oxide.IIItemperature
) oxide. of both solutions was 15.0 °C. The
A5 Chlorine
All
4.00gases listed
shown
Amol dm
Chlorine
is are
sodium
both isatboth
below? the
oxidised same
andpressure.
hydroxide.
3 oxidised
The
and
reduced. reduced.
–3
7 A maximum
student mixed temperature 25.0 cm of 4.00
recorded wasmol 30.0 dm°C. hydrochloric acid with an equal volume of
5B All gases
Which listed
gas willare
mostatisthe same
closely
3CO(g) 3CO(g)
pressure.
approach + ideal
Fe O+temperature
Fe2O3(s)
behaviour?
3(s) 3CO 3CO
2(g) +2(g) + was
2Fe(s) 2Fe(s)
–3
4.00 mol
B dm sodium hydroxide. The initial of both solutions 15.0 °C. The
5Using A ofsample of an ideal gas is 30.0
contained 2 atofaneutralisation
constant temperature
of 300of in aKgas
300 in asyringe.
gas syringe.
Chlorine oxidised but not reduced.
5 A sample an results,
ideal gas isiscontained at a constant temperature K acid?
Chlorine is oxidised but not reduced.
maximum these
temperature what
recorded thewas
enthalpy change
°C. of hydrochloric
A
Which ammonia
gas will at
most 100 K
closely approach ideal behaviour?
What Ais What
the is
enthalpythe –1enthalpy
change change
when when
55.8 55.8
g pofofiron
g pof
V iron
are are
produced produced
by thisby this reaction?
reaction?
C Hydrogen C Hydrogen is both oxidised and reduced.
kJismol
both oxidised and reduced.
Using –62.7
these
The
results,
pressure
what is the enthalpy
isKincreased
change
and aof graph V neutralisation
ofagainstagainst
of hydrochloric
pressure
acid?
is plotted.
TheA pressure
B ammonia
ammonia isatincreased
at 500
–1 Kis oxidised
100 and a graph pressure is plotted.
D
A–31.4
Hydrogen
–27.0 kJ B –13.5 butBnot–13.5but not RT3
reduced.
kJ C CRT +13.5 kJ D +27.0
kJ kJ
D Hydrogen ismol
oxidised reduced.
A A–27.0 kJkJ kJ +13.5 kJ D +27.0
B –62.7 kJ –1
! neon
mol
! BC ammonia
Which at at
100
graph500KK
correctly represents the results?
Which graph correctly represents the results?
–1
4 Ethane burns in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide
C –31.4
–15.7 kJ mol 3 and water vapour.
–1
B kJ mol
C9D
All 92 neonneon at at
100 500K –1K products of an109
92 7
All the
Vanadium
reactants
reacts
and products
with dilute sulfuric
exothermic
acid towater
reaction are gaseous.
Vform V)2its(SO 4)A
3 and hydrogengas. gas.
9 theD reactants
–3.14 kJ mol
–1
and of an exothermic reaction are gaseous.
7 Vanadium
Whichburns
4 Ethane reacts
bondinangles withare
oxygen dilute
topresentsulfuric
produce incarbon acid
the molecules to form
dioxide and 2(SO
of ethane and 3 and
vapour. hydrogen
combustion products?
C –15.7 kJ mol
4A
D neon at 500–1K
91
6 Which
The
D –3.14
following
Which data
statement
kJ mol
are needed
about for
this this 109 is correct?
is question.
reaction
Which
What
8 HOCl What
happens (aq) happens
bond
statement angles
is to are
about
ethane
the vanadium
moleculeto vanadium
present
this incombustion
reaction
atoms
that kills atoms
thebacteria
molecules
in
correct?
this inofthis
products
reaction?
when reaction?
ethane
chlorineand its combustion
is added to water. products?
91
6A The following
A Thedata
AA
11. 68 ∆H from enthalpy change of formation
(CO(g))
total
90° =rproduces
arebond
needed
–111 formol
kJ
energy this
104.5°
the products is less than the Btotal bond energy of the reactants, and
of–1question.
and 180° the Btotal
The totalThey
bond lose
ethane three
energy ofelectrons
combustion
the and
products are
products
is oxidised.
less than bond energy of the reactants, and
arepV
The
8 HOCl following
(aq) is the reaction
molecule that kills this molecule.
bacteria when chlorine is added to water.
A They
∆HBforlose
∆Hthree
for theelectrons
reaction is andnegative. oxidised.
(CO90°
the reaction
(CO(g)) 2(g))
=
is= negative.
–111 –394kJ kJpV
mol –1 –1 and 120°
mol
109.5° RT
A following
B They 90°
losebond three 104.5°
electrons
RT and and 180° are(aq)reduced.
+ H+(aq) + Cl –(aq) C
C the total bond energy of the reactants, and
The reaction Cl (g)
produces + H O(I)
this molecule. HOCl
B They lose three electrons and are reduced.
2 2
B The total energy of the
–1
products is less than
B The B C total (CO
bond (Fe
109.5°2O
(g)) (s))
=
energy
3 =
–394 –822
of kJthe kJ
mol mol
104.5°
–1
products and 180°
is less than the total bond energy of the reactants, and
∆H for90° 2 the reaction 109.5° is positive.and 120°
∆H C
Which They
for statement
the lose
reaction about two
Cl 2(g) +electrons
isthis Hreaction
2O(I)
positive. isand
correct?
HOCl are(aq)oxidised.
+ H+(aq) + Cl –(aq)
C They C C lose
D
Carbon two
(Fe 109.5°
109.5°
monoxide electrons
2O3(s))reacts= –822with and
kJ mol
104.5°
iron( are
109.5° –1
III and oxidised.
and
) the
180°
180°
oxide.
The istotal
bothbond energy of products is more than the total bond energy of the reactants,
C Which
The Dstatement
A Chlorine
totalThey
bond lose
about two
oxidised
energy electrons
this reaction
of
and reduced.
the and
isproducts
correct? areisreduced.
more than the total bond energy of the reactants,
D Carbon D
They lose 109.5°
two electrons and109.5° are and 180°
reduced.
and
monoxide
∆H for
reacts
the reaction
with iron(
3CO(g) III+) oxide.
is negative.
Fe2O3(s) 3CO2(g) + 2Fe(s) D
5 Aand A sample ofisthe
an ideal gas is and contained at a constant temperature Dof 300 K in a gas syringe.
B Chlorine
Chlorine
∆H for is oxidised
both reaction
oxidised but isnot reduced.
negative.
reduced.
B What
D The
is thebond
total
isenthalpy
bond energy
3CO(g)
change when + Fe
of
55.8
the
O3g(s)
products
is 3CO
is more
(g)thanp
+ 2Fe(s)
than the total bond energy of the reactants,
pof
V iron are 2produced by this reaction?energy of the reactants,
C Hydrogen is both oxidised and reduced.
5D AThe sample
Chlorine
The of
total
! pressure an ideal
and oxidised
gasthe
energy
is increased
∆H for is contained
but not
of reduced.
the
and a graph
reaction is2apositive.
at
products
ofconstant p pressure
temperature
more
against ofthe300
is K in abond
total
plotted. gas syringe.
! and
©! A
What
C UCLES
∆H
D Hydrogen
the
for is
Hydrogen
is–27.0 kJ
the
Aenthalpy
2017
is reaction
bothoxidised
B –13.5
change
oxidised isand
but not
when
reduced. RT
positive.
kJ55.8 g ofCiron+13.5
reduced. are kJ
produced
9701/13/M/J/17
B D this
by +27.0 kJ
reaction? [Turn over
pV
© UCLES 93 The pressure
Which
2017 graphiscorrectly
increased and
representsa graph of
thechange,
results? against pressure
9701/13/M/J/17 is plotted. involving solutions, the[Turn
mass over
D6 Hydrogen
In calculating
is oxidised the enthalpy
but not reduced. RT H, of an experiment of the
93
6 In 92
A All–27.0
9 ! calculating kJ them,
solution,
the reactants andB
enthalpy –13.5
specific
products kJ
change,
heat
of an capacity CH, of
exothermic +13.5an
of kJexperiment
the
reaction solution,D +27.0
are gaseous. kJ the
involving
c, and solutions, the mass
temperature of the
change, T, are
7 Vanadium
Which graph
solution,needed. reacts
correctly with dilute
represents sulfuric
m, specific heat capacity of the solution,the acid
results? to form V 2(SO 4A) and hydrogen gas.
3 c, and the temperature change, T, are
92 9needed.
AllWhich statement
the reactants andabout
products this reaction is correct?
of an exothermic reaction are gaseous.
7 Vanadium
What happensreacts to with dilute sulfuric
vanadium atomsacid in thisto form
2 V (SO ) and hydrogen gas.
reaction?
4A 3
A The total bond energy isC correct?
of the products is less T than= Tthe – Tinitial
Btotal
final bond energy of the reactants, and
T = T – T
Which statement about this reaction
WhatA happens
They
∆H forlose three electrons
thetoreaction
vanadium atoms and
pV
is negative. in are
this oxidised.
reaction? final initial
A The Which expression
total bond energy of fortheHproducts
RTis correct?is less than the Btotal C bond energy of the reactants, and
AB
Which B TheyThey
forlose
expression
∆H The lose
total three
three
bond
the reaction
electrons
forelectrons
H negative.
energy
is
and
of and
is correct?
the are reduced.
pV are oxidised.
products is less than the total bond energy of the reactants, and
C A
mc electrons RT mc
Hbond
= two Band Hare=reduced.
oxidised. C C H = mc T D H = –mc T
∆H for the reaction is positive.
B They lose and are
B They
The mc lose three
Telectrons mc isTless than the total bond energy of the reactants, and
! =The
total energy of the products
A D CH∆H
They
total
lose
bond
two
B energy H
electrons
=
of the
and
products
are
Cis more
reduced.
H =thanmctheT total bond D energy
H = –mcof theTreactants,
T∆H for T oxidised.
for the reaction is positive.
! C They andlose twotheelectrons
reactionand are
is negative. [W’17 2 Q6]
C The total bond energy of the products is more than theD total bond energy of the reactants, [W’17 2 Q6]
D D They lose two electrons and areproducts
reduced.is more
and
© UCLES
!
11. 69 Skill check
The
∆H total
2017
bond
for the energy
reaction is of the
negative.
and ∆H for the reaction is positive.
p 9701/12/F/M/17
than the total bond energy of the reactants,
D
© UCLES 2017D The total bond energy of the products is
© UCLES 2017 p
more than the total bond energy of the reactants,
9701/12/F/M/17
9701/13/M/J/17 [Turn over
6! Inand
93 Calculate
calculating
∆H for the the enthalpy
thereaction
enthalpy
change for the reaction:

change, H, of an experiment involving solutions, the mass of the

is positive.
© UCLESsolution,
2017 m, specific heat capacity
2H2O(l) + 4NO2of(g) the+solution,
O2(g) c, and the temperature
9701/13/M/J/17 4HNO3change,
(l) [Turn T, over
are
93 6 In needed.
calculating the enthalpy change, H, of an experiment involving solutions, the mass of the
solution, m, specific heat capacity of the solution, c, and the temperature change, T, are
needed. ∆Hf [H2O] = – 288 kJ mol T = Tfinal – Tinitial
–1

=
∆H–f [HNO
288 kJ3] = – 173 kJ mol–1

Which expression for H is correct? T = Tfinal

A – Tinitial B
= ∆H
– 173 kJ
f [NO2] = + 33 kJ mol–1
mc
Which = mc
A expression for BH is correct?
© UCLES 2017 T33 kJ
H= + H= C H = mc T D H = –mc T
! T 9701/12/O/N/17 [Turn over
mc
A
© UCLES 2017 H = mc B H= C H = mc T
9701/12/O/N/17 D H = –mc T [W’17 2 Q6]
[Turn over
! T T
[W’17 2 Q6]
© UCLES 2017 9701/12/F/M/17
C
© UCLES 2017 9701/12/F/M/17

CEDAR COLLEGE ENERGETICS WS 1

CEDAR COLLEGE ENERGETICS WS 1

© UCLES 2017 9701/12/O/N/17 [Turn over
Bilal Hameed Marginalizer
Bilal Hameed
© UCLES 2017 9701/12/O/N/17 [Turn over Energetics
 202
24

11. 70 Skill check

alt
Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction:

4CH3NHNH2(l) + 5N2O4(l) 4CO2 + 12H2O + 9N2

∆Hf [CO2] = – 394 kJ mol–1 ∆Hf [H2O] = – 288 kJ mol–1
∆Hf [CH3NHNH2] = + 53 kJ mol–1 ∆Hf [N2O4] = – 20 kJ mol–1

A B

11. 71 ∆Hr from enthalpy change of combustions

We can use also use ∆Hc of reactants and products of a reaction to
find its enthalpy change.

11. 72 ∆Hr from enthalpy change of combustions

Calculate the ∆Hf [methane] from the following data:

∆H°c [C (graphite)] = —394 kJ mol—1

∆H°c [H2] = —288 kJ mol—1

∆H°c [CH4] = —896 kJ mol—1

A B

Marginalizer Bilal Hameed

Energetics Bilal Hameed
 5 Which moleculeCH
Bromoethane, has no overall
3CH25Br, can dipole?
Whichbe molecule
made by has no overall
reacting dipole?
ethene with hydrogen bromide.
Bromoethane, CH3CH2Br, can be made by reacting ethene with hydrogen bromide.
A CH3Cl B CH2ACl 2 CH3Cl C CHCl
B 3 CH2Cl 2
D CClC4 CHCl 3 D CCl 4
CH2=CH2 + HBr CH 3CHCH2Br
2=CH2 + HBr CH3CH2Br

What issolid
the contains
enthalpymore
change for
What this reaction?
issolid
the enthalpy change
thanfor this reaction? 203
6 Which 6 than one
Which type of bonding?
contains more one type 25
of bonding?
–1
A
A – 674 kJ mol
iodine A
A – 674 kJ mol
iodine
–1

–1
B – 64 kJdioxide
silicon mol B – 64 kJdioxide
silicon mol –1

–1
C +186 kJchloride
sodium mol C +186 kJchloride
sodium mol –1

–1
D zinc
+346 kJ mol
11. 73 Skill check
–1
D zinc
+346 kJ mol
[M’18 2 Q9] [M’18 2 Q9]

alt
99
7 Enthalpy changes of combustion
99 can changes
7 Enthalpy be used of
to combustion
determine enthalpy changes
can be used of formation.
to determine The changes of formation. The
enthalpy
following equation represents the enthalpy
following change
equation of formation
represents of butane.
the enthalpy change of formation of butane.

4C(s) + 5H2(g) C4H10(g)4C(s) + 5H2(g) C4H10(g)

By using the following standard enthalpy

By using of combustion
the following data,
standard what isofthe
enthalpy value of the
combustion standard
data, what is the value of the standard
enthalpy change of formation, , ofchange
enthalpy butane?of formation, , of butane?
© UCLES 2018 © UCLES 2018 9701/12/F/M/18 9701/12/F/M/18 [Turn over [Turn over
substance substance
C(s) –394 C(s)
A –394
B

H2(g) –286 H2(g) –286

C4H10(g) –2877 C4H10(g) –2877

A –5883 kJ mol–1 A –5883 kJ mol–1

–1
C
B –129 kJ mol B –129 kJ mol–1
C +129 kJ mol–1 C +129 kJ mol–1
D +2197 kJ mol–1 D +2197 kJ mol–1
[S’18 1 Q7] [S’18 1 Q7]

8 Ethanedioate ions, C2O842–, Ethanedioate

react with a suitable
ions, C2reagent to form
O42–, react CO
with a 2. A half-equation
suitable reagent to for
formthis
CO2. A half-equation for this
reaction is shown. reaction is shown.
1024 1024
C2O42– 2CO2 + 2e–
11. 74 Skill check
2–
74 2 4 102 2 CO 2CO + 2e–
31024
7 74
Carbon monoxide and methanol
7 Carboncan monoxide
react together
and to form ethanoic
methanol acid.
can react together
4 to form ethanoic acid.
3
Which row is correct? Which row is correct?
74
7 Carbon monoxide and methanol can react together to form ethanoic acid.
5 74
Some car paints contain
7 small flakescar
5CO(g)
Some
Carbon of silica, 3
CHpaints
+monoxide
SiO 2.
contain small
CH3flakes
3OH(l) and methanol
CO(g)CO+canof silica,33
CHreact
2H(l)
SiO2.
3OH(l)together CH
to 3form ethanoic
CO2H(l) acid.
oxidation state of
ofoxidation state ofSiO
3
5 Some carbon in Ccontain
In the structure
2Ochanges
of solid
car enthalpy
Standard paints 4
55 2 type
2– SiO
small In
Somethe
flakes
Some
of
reaction
structure
carbon
car in
paints
of enthalpy
car
combustionsilica,
paints of
C
SiO
are
solid
O
contain
contain 2 type
2. 2– smallofflakes
small of of
flakes reaction
of silica,
silica, SiO
SiO 22..
Standard 2given
4
changesin the
CO(g) table.
combustion
+ CH are
3OH(l)
3 given in CH
the3CO
table.
2H(l)
●
5 Some car paints contain small flakes of silica, SiO .
each silicon atom is bonded 3 2atoms,
● toeach
x oxygen
siliconatoms,
A In the structure
+3 of solid SiO In oxidation CO(g)
atom + CHtoOH(l)
is bonded x oxygen CH CO H(l)
5 2AIn
Somethe
the structure
Standard structure
car +3
paints
enthalpy
of
of solid
solid
contain
standard
SiO
SiO
changes 22
small
enthalpyofflakesoxidation
combustion
3
of silica,
change areSiO 2.
given in the table.
3 2
compound standard enthalpy change
● each oxygenIn atom
theisstructure
bonded ● to ofycontain
each silicon
oxygen
solid compound
atoms,
SiO atom is bonded to y silicon atoms,
B ● +3each silicon Some
atomB
5 Standard reduction
is car paints
bonded ● to
enthalpy
In the structure +3of solid
each
● each x of
oxygencombustion,
silicon
changes
silicon
2
small
atom
atoms,
SiO isreduction
flakes
is bonded
2 of combustion
atom oftosilica,
x of
oxygen
bonded to x oxygen combustion,
SiO .
atoms,
are given
2atoms, in the table.
● each bond is a z type bond. ● each bond is acompound z type–1bond. standard enthalpy change
C ● +5each oxygen atom C CO
In the oxidation
● ●●● each
is bonded
structure +5
each
to
each
of
oxygen
–283.0
y silicon
silicon
oxygen
solid
atom
kJ mol
atoms,
SiO
each silicon atom
atom
atom isoxidation
is
is
CO bonded
bondedto
bonded yysilicon
toto A
x atoms,
oxygen
–283.0
silicon
of
is bonded to x oxygen atoms,
mol–1
kJatoms,
atoms,
combustion, B
2
What is the correct combination of x, y and z in these statements? –1x, y and z instandard enthalpy change
D ● +5 reduction
What
each bond is a zDtype is the correct combination of these statements?
kJ mol–1–1
+5 oxygen is3reduction
CH OH
3 bond. ● each bond is
–726.0 akJz type
mol
zCH OHbond. –726.0
● ●● each each
each oxygen atom
acompound
bond is atom type
CO is bond.
bonded
bonded to ytosilicon
y–283.0
silicon kJatoms,
atoms, mol
of combustion,
● each silicon atom is–1bonded to x oxygen atoms,–1
What is the x y CH
correct combination 3CO
What
What 2H
is
of x,isyzthe
and
the correct
x z in these
correct
● ● each
eachbond
–874.1y kJ
combination CHmol
CH3of
statements?
combination
is aazztype
bond is type bond.
CO
ofOH x,2H
x, yyzand
andzzin –874.1
inthese
these
–726.0
kJ mol
statements?
kJ mol–1
statements?
3 bond.
● each oxygen atomCO –283.0
is bonded to y silicon kJ mol–1
atoms, –1
A is the 2value for
1 for What covalent
What
© UCLES 2018 x © UCLES
yWhat theA reaction
2018
Whatis the x 2between
zthe9701/11/M/J/18
isisthe xvalue combination
correct for 1 for
carbon
yy
combinationCHthe
3CO covalent
monoxideHyz and
reaction
ofofx,2x, and
zy andz inmethanol?
between–874.1
zthese
carbon
9701/11/M/J/18 [Turn
kJ mol overand methanol?
monoxide
statements? [Turn over
B 2 –1 1 B ●ioniccorrect
each2 bond–1
is1 a zCH 3OH
type bond.
ionic
in these statements?
–726.0 kJ mol–1
A A –1883.12 kJ mol 1 WhatA A –1883.1
A covalent 2
is the xvalue
2 kJ mol
for 1
y
covalent
1 for the reaction
covalent
z between carbon monoxide–1and C methanol?
C
CEDAR COLLEGE
4
B B –134.9 2kJ mol–1CEDAR
2
iscovalent
C x 4 y2 CH3CO x,2Hyz and z in these
ofcovalent –874.1
ENERGETICS
kJ mol
WS 1
COLLEGE
1What ENERGETICS WS 1
BB the
B –134.9
correct
ionic 22kJ molcombination
–1
–1 11 ionic
ionic
statements?
A AD–1883.1 24kJ mol 12 covalent
D 4 2 ionic ionic
C C +134.9 4kJ mol–1 A
2What CC Ciscovalent
+134.9
the 2 44kJmol
value mol –1
for
–1 2
1 covalent
covalent
2 for thecovalent
reaction between carbon monoxide and methanol?
B B –134.9 x2 kJ y
1 ionicz
D D +1883.14 kJ mol–1 2 BD D ionic 44 kJ mol –1 2 ionic
6 ! Solid sulfur consists of molecules
D +1883.1 2 12 ionic
ionic
! Solid
–1
–1
A6 AC C +134.9
made
–1883.1 2up
sulfur 4kJ
kJ mol
of eightof
mol
consists 2 covalently
atoms
molecules
1
covalent
made bonded
covalent together.
up of eight atoms covalently bonded together.
C 4 –1 2 covalent
DTheD +1883.1 4 kJ mol 2 ionic
66 B! is
–1
75
6 75
The bonding in sulfur dioxide
B
Solid sulfur consists of molecules
O=S=O.
Solid bonding
–134.9
Solidmade
kJ
sulfur
2up
sulfur
in sulfur
mol
consists
of eightof
consists
dioxide is O=S=O.
molecules made
1 covalently
ofatoms
molecules up
upof
ionic
made ofeight
bonded atoms
atomscovalently
together.
eight covalentlybonded
bondedtogether.
together.
D 4 –1
2 ionic
The bonding in sulfur
enthalpy change 75
C Cis
dioxide +134.9
The
O=S=O.
The
6of combustion
Solid
4kJofconsists
bonding
bonding
sulfur
mol
in
S8sulfur
in
enthalpy ,sulfur dioxide
ofSdioxide
change (s)= is
is O=S=O.
2 of –2376kJcovalent
O=S=O. –1
molup
combustion
molecules
8 made S8,eight atoms
of of S8(s)= covalently
–2376kJ mol –1
bonded together.
–1 gaseous atoms = 2232 kJ mol–1
energy required D
to break 1 mole
D +1883.1 S8(s)
4 kJ
energy mol into
required 2to break 1 mole ionicS8(s) into gaseous atoms = 2232 kJ mol–1
6 ! Solid
enthalpy change Thesulfur
bonding
of combustion in sulfur
enthalpy
consists ofdioxide
change
–1 S8, change
of of
Smolecules
8(s)=
is O=S=O.
of combustion
–2376kJ mademolof –1up
S8, of eightSS8(s)= –2376kJ
atoms mol–1–1 bonded together.
covalently
11. 75 ∆H from ∆H & ∆H
enthalpy combustion –1 S8,
of 8(s)= –2376kJ mol
O=O bond enthalpy = 496 kJ mol O=O bond enthalpy = 496 kJ mol
S8(s)rrequired fmole cgaseous
–1
energy required to break 1 mole energy
energy to
into gaseous
required to break 11 mole
atoms
break = 2232SS8(s)kJinto
mol gaseousatoms
–1
atoms==2232 kJ
kJmol
mol–1
8(s) into 2232
75 The bonding inS=O
sulfur dioxide is O=S=O. –1
Using these data, what is the value of enthalpy
the change
bond of
enthalpy?combustion of
–1 S 8, S 8(s)= –2376kJ mol
6 SolidUsing sulfur consists
these
O=O of molecules
–1data, what is the valuekJ made
of the–1S=O up ofbondeight atoms covalently bonded together.
enthalpy?
O=O bond enthalpy = 496 kJ mol O=O bondbond enthalpy
enthalpy == 496 496 kJmol mol
energy–1required to break 1 –1 mole S8(s)–1into gaseous atoms = 2232 kJ–1mol–1
A 239 kJ mol–1 B 257 kJ Using
–1
Amol239 kJC
these mol 319what
data, kJBmol
is
–1
257
the kJ D 536
mol of
value thekJCS=O
mol319 bondkJ mol –1
enthalpy? D 536 kJ mol –1
Using these data, what is The bonding
the value
Using of the
these in
enthalpy sulfur
S=O
data, bond
changedioxide
what enthalpy?
is of
the
O=O bond enthalpy = 496 kJ mol is O=S=O.
combustion
value of the –1S=O
of S ,
bond
8 S (s)=
enthalpy?
8 –2376kJ mol
–1 –1 –1 –1
–1 A mol
! Use of the Data Booklet is7relevant
239
–1 kJ mol
energy –1
requiredB mol 257
to kJ mol
–1 break –1 mole
1 C molS319–1
(s) kJinto
mol gaseous
–1 D 536 kJ mol
atoms –1
= 2232 kJ mol–1
7 A 239 kJ mol B 257 !Using
kJAUse 239
for
of kJ C
mol
this
these
the
319
question.
data,
Data
kJ
B isis
what
Booklet 257
the kJ D 536
mol of
value
relevant forthe
kJCS=O
this
8
319bond
question. kJ mol
enthalpy?D 536 kJ mol –1
–1 S8,
enthalpy change of combustion of S8(s)= –2376kJ mol
76
O=O bond enthalpy = mol
496 –1 kJ mol
76
–1 –1 –1

7 Use 7 !A
In an experiment, the burning of an
In
Use 239
1.45 gkJ(0.025
mol
experiment,
offor
the
energy Data mol) Bofburning
the
Booklet
required
257
is kJ
propanone of 1.45
torelevant
break
was
for
1formole
C question.
used
gthis
(0.025 319 kJof
to heat
S8mol)
mol
(s) into
100 g of D
propanone
gaseouswas
536 kJ
water.
atoms
molto
used heat kJ
= 2232 100mol
g of–1water.
The of the Data
initial Booklet is
temperature of7relevant
theUseThe of
water thethis
was
initial
question.
Data20.0 Booklet
temperature°C and is
of relevant
the
the final
water this question.
temperature
was 20.0 °C of and
the the
water was
final temperature of the water was
76 In
78.0 °C. Using 78.0 these
°C. data, what is the value of the
g (0.025
S=O
–1 bond enthalpy?
In an experiment, the burning
7 Use ofan
In 1.45
an of
experiment,
O=Og (0.025
experiment,
the bond
Data
the
mol)the
Booklet
burning
enthalpy
of propanone
burning
is =of 1.45
of496
1.45 kJ
was used mol)
mol
gthis
(0.025 to of propanone
heat
mol) of 100
was used to heat 100 g of water.
g of water.
propanone was used to heat 100 g of water.
The initial temperature ofAthe The initial
water was temperature
–120.0 °C and of relevant
the final
the waterfor
–1 was question.
20.0 °Cofand
temperature the
themol finalwas
–1
water temperature of the –1 water was
Which experimental value forThe
239
Which theinitial temperature
kJexperimental
mol
enthalpy B value
change of of
257 the
kJ water
mol
combustion
for was C
the enthalpy for °C and
20.0propanone
319
change kJ the
of canfinalbetemperature
D 536
combustion for kJ of the
mol
propanone water
can was
be
78.0 78.0 °C.
°C. Using 78.0
In these
an °C. data,
experiment,
calculated from these results?calculated from these results? what
the is the
burning value
of 1.45 gof the
(0.025 S=O
mol) bond
of enthalpy?
propanone was used to heat 100 g of water.
The
Which initial temperature
experimental of the water
valueofforcombustion was
the –1enthalpy 20.0 °C and
change the final
of combustiontemperature of the
for propanone water was
can be
–1
kJ mol–1 of –1 mol–1
!A
Which experimental value for the enthalpy –1change
A –1304
Use78.0
Which
A239 kJexperimental
–1304
°C.
calculated mol kJ mol
from these
value
B results?
257 for mol
kJ the enthalpy Cforquestion.
propanone
change
319 kJ mol can beD 536
combustion for kJ
propanone can be
calculated from these7 results? of the Data Booklet
calculated from these results?
is relevant for this
–1 –1
B –970 kJ mol B
Which –970 kJ mol
experimental –1
kJ mol –1 value for the enthalpy change of combustion for propanone can be
A –1304 kJ mol –1
76 In an A –1304
A experiment,
–1304from
calculated kJ mol results? of 1.45 g (0.025 mol) of propanone was used to heat 100 g of water.
the burning
these
C –352 kJ mol–1 7 Use –1
Bof
C the
–970Data kJ molBooklet is
of relevant for was
this question.
–352 kJ mol –1
B –970 kJ mol –1 –1 The initial temperature
B –970 kJ mol–1–1
the water 20.0 °C and the final temperature of the water was
–1
AD°C.–1304 kJ mol
!
D –24.2 kJ mol 78.0 !
–24.2 kJ mol –1
C –352 kJ mol
In an –352 kJ mol–1the burning of 1.45 g (0.025 mol) of propanone was used to heat 100 g of water.
C experiment,
–1 –1
C –352 kJ mol
The B initial
–970temperature
kJ mol –1 of the
D –24.2 kJ mol–1 !
Which D –24.2
D –24.2
kJ mol –1 value
experimental
kJ mol–1 forwater was 20.0change
the enthalpy °C and of the combustion
final temperature of the water
for propanone can was
be
78.0 C °C.
calculated from–352 kJ mol these results?
D –24.2 kJ mol–1
Which
A –1304 kJ mol–1
experimental value for the enthalpy change of combustion for propanone can be
©©UCLES
UCLES 2015
2015
calculated
©©UCLES
UCLES 2015
2015
from these results?
9701/13/M/J/15
9701/11/O/N/15 9701/13/M/J/15 [Turn over
9701/11/O/N/15 [Turn over
–1
B –970 kJ mol
–1
A –1304 kJ mol
CEDAR COLLEGE
Bilal CHameed ENERGETICS WS 1 [Turn Marginalizer
©©UCLES
UCLES 2015 9701/13/M/J/15
CEDAR COLLEGE ENERGETICS WS 1
2015 –1 9701/11/O/N/15 [Turn over
© UCLES 2015 © –352
UCLES 2015 kJ mol
9701/11/O/N/15 9701/11/O/N/15 [Turn over over
B –970 kJ mol–1–1
Bilal Hameed
CEDARD COLLEGE
! © UCLES
–24.2
2015
kJ mol 9701/11/O/N/15 ENERGETICS WS 1
[Turn over Energetics
C –352 kJ mol–1
D –24.2 kJ mol–1
 204
26

11. 76 Bond enthalpy

alt
We can also calculate enthalpy changes for reactions in the gas
phase, if we know the amount of energy required/released when
bonds are broken/ made.

To be able to do this we must first consider the definition of bond

enthalpy (also just called bond energy):

Bond enthalpy is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of covalent

bonds, in a gaseous molecule, are broken under standard
conditions.

11. 77 Bond enthalpy

When two atoms come together, they may form a bond.

To break this bond and separate the two atoms requires energy (∆H is
positive)

This is because a force is required to pull the atoms apart, which increases
the potential energy of the system.

For example, to break the bond in a chlorine molecule requires 242 kJmol−1:

Cl2(g) → 2Cl(g) ∆H = +242 kJ mol-1

11. 78 Bond enthalpy

The values found in the data booklet for bond enthalpies are average
values for each type of bond. The same bond may have very slightly
different bond enthalpies in different compounds.

e.g. The O—H bond has a slightly different enthalpy value in each
compound, water vs alcohols.

Marginalizer Bilal Hameed

Energetics Bilal Hameed
 205
27

11. 79 Average Bond enthalpy

alt
Why is bond making exothermic?
When two atoms are a long way apart,
the electrical potential energy of the
two together is a maximum (consider
separating the two atoms from where
they are bonded together to where
they are an infinite distance apart –
work must be done against the force
holding them together, so the potential
energy increases). As they approach
closer together, owing to the attractive
force between them, the potential
energy decreases and this energy is
released as heat. This can be likened to
a ball falling to Earth – as the ball and
the Earth come together, the potential
energy of the system is first of all
11. 80 Bond breaking & forming converted to kinetic energy and then
Average bond enthalpy is the average amount of energy to heat as the two collide.
Energy must be
required supplied
to break to break
1 mole apart two
of covalent atoms
bonds, in aingaseous
a molecule against
molecule
the attractive force holding them together.Therefore, the process
under standard conditions. ‘Average’ refers to the fact that the of
breaking
bondbonds must
enthalpy be erent
is diff endothermic, i.e. molecules
in different the enthalpyandchange is positive.
therefore the

value quoted is the average amount of energy to break a particular

bondH—H(g)
in a range→of H(g) + H(g)
molecules. ∆H = +436 kJ mol—¹

Bond breaking requires energy (endothermic): ∆H positive.

Consider the reaction between ethene and bromine to produce

1,2-dibromoethane:
Bromine and 1,2-dibromoethane
C2H4(g) + Br2(g) C2H4Br2(g)
are both liquids under standard
What is the enthalpy change for this reaction? conditions. The equation here is for
If the species are drawn as structural formulas, then all the bonds can be the reaction in the gas phase, and
11. 81clearly:
seen Bond breaking & forming the enthalpy change will not be the
same as for the reaction involving
Energy is released when two atoms come together to form a bond.
liquid bromine to form C2H4Br2(l).
Therefore, the process of making bonds is exothermic, i.e. the enthalpy
change is negative.

H(g) + H(g) → H—H(g) ∆H = —436 kJ mol—¹

Bond making releases energy (exothermic): ∆H negative.

Note: The amount of energy needed to break or form the same type of
bond is the same.

Bilal Hameed Marginalizer

Bilal Hameed Energetics
 206
28

11. 82 Using bond energies to calculate ∆Hr

÷
=÷

alt
Calculate the enthalpy change of reaction when 1 mole of methane,
÷
÷
=÷
CH4 , burns completely to form carbon dioxide and water.

÷
t O H

=÷
A
- -

÷
1

t H

=÷
O A
H
-

C
-

-
-

H + +

÷
1

I t -

O -

H H CA H

=÷
-
-

H I1

=÷
H -
C
H
-

H
t O H
4 xA O—H bonds
I
- -

4 x C—H bonds 2 x C=O bonds

where the bond energies are taken directly from the bond energies table
2 x O=O bonds
1
H

t Energy H H C
and no signs changed,
O
i.e.toall values
needed A are put in as positive.
Energy given out when
H
-
-

- -

Reactant Bonds Product bonds

t bondsH/kJ mol ¹ A
I
break O - - —bonds form /kJ mol ¹
1
—

This approach
4 x C—H
would give:
4 x +413 = +1652
H C
2 x C=O
H
H
2 x —805 = —1610
-

1
-

H -
CI -

H
2 x O=O 2 x +498 = +996 4 x O—H 4 x —464 = —1856
H
Total energy needed ∆H = [(4 × 412) += +2648
(1 × 612)
H
+Total
(1 × 193)]
energy −out
given [(4 × 412) +=(1
I
× 348) + (2 × 276)]
—3466
Enthalpy change of reaction = +2648 + (-3466) = -818 kJ mol—¹
A shortcut to do this question would be to realise that there are four
C–H bonds in ethene and four C–H bonds in 1,2-dibromoethane, and
therefore there is no need to make or break these bonds:

11. 83 Using bond energies to calculate ∆Hr

The information from the example before can be Breaking all the
shown onIfan
theenthalpy
enthalpylevel diagram.
change for bonds gives single
gaseous atoms.
C(g) + 4H(g) + 4O(g)
C2H4(g) + Br2(g) C2H4Br2(g)
Energy / kJmol—

Bond breaking
+2648 kJ
is calculated using enthalpy changes of formation (see Higher Level
Bond forming−1
section on page 207), the value obtained is −121 kJ mol , which is
—3466kJ
different 2O2(g)the value of −95 kJ mol−1 obtained through bond enthalpy
CH4(g) +from

calculations. The value ∆H obtained

CO2(g) from
+ H2O(l)the enthalpy changes of formation
is expected to be
This isProgress
more
most easily
reliable,
done using
as the enthalpy changes of formation
the equation:
of reaction (reactants to products)
are specific to the particular substances, whereas the bond enthalpies are The hybridisatio
∆Hr = ∑(bonds broken) − ∑(bonds made)
average values. The C–H bond energies in C2H4 and C2H4Br2 would not significantly affec
be expected −545to=be [193
the+ (3 × 158)]
same, and− [6
the× Br–F]
values used for the C=C and C–C enthalpy.
bonds are not necessarily
Rearranging the actual bond energies in these compounds.
this we get:
6 × Br–F = 193 + (3 × 158) + 545
6 × Br–F = 1212

11. 84 Using hess

Therefore thecycle with
Br–F bond bond
enthalpy is
1212energies −1
, i.e. 202 kJ mol .
6
Using bond enthalpies given in the
Using bond enthalpies given in the table, we can Bond
calculate the enthalpy
table, we can calculate the enthalpy Bond
Enthalpy
change for the reaction:
change for the reaction:
O=O be in the
In order to use bond enthalpies, the substances must 496gas
H2(g) + 12OThis
phase. 2(g) is because
H2O(g)intermolecular forces must
H—H
also be taken into
436
account in the liquid and solid states. Thus, in order to use bond enthalpies
A cyclewith
cansolids
be drawn: O—H species.463
and liquids we must first generate gaseous This can
A B
either be done as above, using the enthalpy change of vaporisation or,
more directly, using the standard enthalpy change of atomisation. Note: formation of 1
A reaction in
atoms.
Standard enthalpy change of atomisation (∆Hat ) is the
be endotherm
enthalpyCchange when 1 mole of gaseous atoms is formed from released whe
the element under standard conditions. ∆Hat(exothermic)
is endothermic
break bonds
For example:
Thecould be the
values for theen
1
∆H at = +218 kJ mol−1 changes of atomisatia
more bonds
2H2(g) H(g)
1
∆H at = +121 kJ mol−1 and formed.
chlorine are half
Marginalizer 2Cl2(g) Cl(g)
Bilal Hameed
Na(s) Na(g) ∆H at = +109 kJ mol−1 enthalpy values in Ta
Energetics Bilal Hameed page 201. The bond
The use of the enthalpy change of atomisation can most easily be seen Cl2 refers to breakin
with an example. covalent bonds to pr
of gaseous atoms, wh
 The enthalpy change for the reaction is:
∆H r = 684 − 926 − 41 = −283 kJ mol−1 207
29

11. 85 Using hess cycle with bond energies

alt
Using
Using the bond enthalpies
the bond enthalpiesfor
forthe
theF–F
F–Fand
andBr–Br
Br–Brbonds
bondsand
andthe
theenthalpy
enthalpy
change ofchange
reactionofgiven,
reaction given,
we can calculate
calculate the the
meanmean
Br–FBr–F
bondbond
energy
in BrF :
energy3 in BrF3.
Br2(g) + 3F2(g) 2BrF3(g) ∆H = −545 kJ mol−1

A B

11. 86 Skill check

Calculate the average bond enthalpy of the N—H bond in
ammonia, NH3, given that ∆Hf(NH3(g)) = −46.0 kJ mol—1

A B

11. 87 Bond enthalpies & enthalpies of atomisation

In order to use bond enthalpies, the substances must be in the gas
phase. This is if they are in the liquid and solid states energy is
required to overcome intermolecular forces.

Thus, in order to use bond enthalpies with solids and liquids we must
first generate gaseous species.

This can either be done as above, using the enthalpy change of

vaporisation or, more directly, using the standard enthalpy change of
atomisation.

Bilal Hameed Marginalizer

Bilal Hameed Energetics
 208
30

11. 88 Enthalpies of atomisation

alt
Standard enthalpy of atomisation (∆Hatm) of an element is the
enthalpy change when 1 mole of gaseous atoms is formed from
theThis
elements
is most in their
easily standard
done using thestates. E.g.

equation:
This is most easily done using the equation:
½Cl2(g)
∆Hr = ∑(bonds → −Cl(g)
broken) ∑(bonds∆H = +121 kJ mol
made)
—1
∆Hr = ∑(bonds broken) − ∑(bonds made)
½H+2(g)
−545 = [193 → H(g)
(3 × 158)] ∆H = +218 kJ mol—1
− [6 × Br–F]
−545 = [193 + (3 × 158)] − [6 × Br–F]
RearrangingNa(s) get: Na(g)
this we → ∆H = +108 kJ mol—1
Rearranging this we get:
6 × Br–F = 1932(l)
½Br + (3→
× 158) + 545 ∆H = +112 kJ mol—1
Br(g)
6 × Br–F = 193 + (3 × 158) + 545
6 × Br–F = ½I
1212
2(s) → I(g) ∆H = +107 kJ mol—1
6 × Br–F = 1212
1212
Therefore the Br–F bond enthalpy is , i.e. 202 kJ mol−1.
6 1212
Therefore the Br–F bond enthalpy is , i.e. 202 kJ mol−1.
6

In order to use bond enthalpies, the substances must be in the gas

This is because
to use intermolecular forces
themust also be must
taken into
11.phase.
89 In Enthalpies
order of atomisation
bond enthalpies, substances be in the gas
account in the liquid and solid states. Thus, in order to use bond enthalpies
phase. This is because intermolecular forces must also be taken into
Thewith solids
values forand
theliquids we changes
enthalpy must firstof
generate gaseous
atomisation of species.
hydrogen Thisand
can
account in the liquid and solid states. Thus, in order to use bond enthalpies
eitherare
chlorine be done as above,
half the using the values.
bond enthalpy enthalpy change of vaporisation or,
with solids and liquids we must fichange
more directly, using the standard enthalpy
rst generate gaseous species. This can Note: formation of 1 mo
of atomisation.
∆H
either be done as above, using the enthalpy changeClof
atm of Cl = +121 kJ mol —1 ½Cl 2(g) → (g) vaporisation or,
atoms.
more
∆H
Standard atmdirectly,
ofenthalpy using
H = +218 kJthemol
change standard
—1 enthalpy
½H2(g)change
of atomisation → H)of
(∆H (g) atomisation. Note: forma
at is the
enthalpy change when 1 mole of gaseous atoms is formed from atoms.
BondStandard Bondenthalpy
Enthalpy change ofEquation ∆H is endothermic
the element under standard conditions. atomisation (∆Hat ) is the at
Cl—Cl enthalpy change 242 when 1 mole Cl2of
(g)gaseous
→ 2Cl(g) atoms is formed from
For H—H the element436
example: H2(g) → 2H(g)
under standard conditions. ∆Hat is endo
The values for the enthalp
1
Note:2H 2(g)is true
this H(g) ∆H at = +218
for all compounds thatkJ mol −1
are gases are rtp and are changes of atomisation of
1
found2Cl
For
as2(g)
example:
gasesCl(g)are rtp. ∆H at = +121 kJ mol−1 and chlorineTheare half the fb
values
Na(s) 1HNa(g) ∆H = +109 kJ mol −1
−1 enthalpy values in Table
changes of 5.a
2 2(g) H(g) at ∆H at = +218 kJ mol
page 201. The bond entha
The use of
1
Cl (g) Cl(g) ∆H = +121 kJ mol −1 and chlorine
2 the2 enthalpy change of atomisation
at can most easily be seen Cl2 refers to breaking 1 m
Na(s)
with an example. Na(g) ∆H at = +109 kJ mol−1 enthalpy valu
covalent bonds to produce
page 201. Th
The use of the enthalpy change of atomisation can most easily be seen of gaseous atoms, whereas
Cl2 refers to
enthalpy change of atomis
We canwith an example.
calculate the enthalpy change for the process: covalent bon
11. 90 Using atomisation & bond energies chlorine refers to breaking
of gaseous at
mole of covalent bonds to
3C(s) + 4H2(g) C3H8(g)
Using bond enthalpies and the enthalpy change of atomisation of enthalpy
1 mole of gaseous atoms. cha
carbon, Wedata
the can in
using calculate calculate
tablethe
andenthalpy
the enthalpy
the change
the enthalpy
change for the
change
for the process:
of atomisation
following reaction:of chlorine refe
carbon: Bond
mole of cova
3C(s) + 4H2(g) C3H8(g) Bond
Enthalpy 1 mole of ga
C(s) C(g) ∆H at = 715 kJ mol−1
using the data in the table and the enthalpy change
C—H
of atomisation
412
of
carbon:
H—H
436
−1
A C(s) C(g) ∆H at = 715BkJ mol C—C 348

Marginalizer Bilal Hameed

Energetics Bilal Hameed
 209
31

11. 91 Skill check

alt
Work out the enthalpy change for the following reaction:

kJ mol—1
S(s) + F2(g) → SF2(g)

∆Hatm of S 223
S—F 327

A B F—F 158

Bilal Hameed Marginalizer

Bilal Hameed Energetics
 210

alt
Energetics Bilal Hameed