College: COLLEGE OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY

Campus : Bambang Campus

DEGREE BSINTE COURSE NO. IT01

PROGRAM
SPECIALIZATION INTE COURSE TITLE Introduction to Computing
YEAR LEVEL 1 TIME FRAME WK NO. 1-2 IM NO. 1

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING

II. LESSON TITLE

1. Introduction to computer?
2. Basic Concepts of Computer?
3. What are the uses of Computers in different areas?
4. History of Computers
5. Types of Computers
6. Hardware and Software of Computers
7. Categories of Application Software

III. LESSON OVERVIEW

In this study session, you will learn about the basic concepts of computer and
its uses in different areas, operating systems, advantages and disadvantages
of

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

The students should be able to define what computer is, list of different types of
computers (PCs, mobile devices, embedded computers etc., define common
elements of computer systems, describe the various hardware and software
options for typical desktop, laptop and server systems for home/ business use.

V. LESSON CONTENT

Introduction and Definition of Computer

The 20th century saw the birth of one of the most important tools widely in use
today called a computer. Today, computers are used for communication, management,
research, drawing and design as well as entertainment

This 21st century is being referred to as the digital age

A computer is an electronic device that accepts user input (data) and processes it under the
influence of a set of instructions referred to as programs to produce the desired output
generally referred to as information.

Data are the raw facts may not make much meaning to the user.
Programs are set of instructions that instruct a computer what to do.
Information is result after data has been processed.
 Objectives
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
1. Identify and name computer parts
2. Define basic concepts used in computer
3. Explain applications of computers
4. Discuss advantages & disadvantages of computers
5. Practice the DOS, Windows, File and Extension programs with computers

Computer Parts
There are 4 basic types of computer parts:
a) Input devices - parts of the computer that allow information or data to be given to
the computer like keyboard or a mouse.
b) Storage devices – parts of the computer that hold information. The primary
storage device is the computer’s memory called RAM (random access memory). It
remembers everything that is read, input, or output. But, because the computer’s
memory is on a temporary area—it forgets everything when turned off—it must
have another place to store information permanently. This secondary storage
device is usually a disk.
c) Processing device – part of the computer that processes and controls the flow of
information; it actually does the work. The one part of the computer that handles
this job is the central processing unit or CPU.
d) Output devices - parts of the computer that gives out information generated by
the computer, like a monitor, printer or speaker.

Input – Process - Output

Computer - An electronic device that receives data and computes high-speed
mathematical or logical operations or that assembles, stores, correlates, or otherwise
processes and presents information.

A computer has four functions:

The Information Processing Cycle

accepts data Input

processes data Processing

Produces output Output

Stores results Storage

What makes a computer powerful?

Speed A computer can do billions of actions per second.

Reliability Failures are usually due to human error, one way or another. (Blush
for us all!)

Storage A computer can keep huge amounts of data.

Glossary of Basic Concepts

GUI – A Graphical User Interface – which uses visual displays to eliminate the need for
typing commands.

Formatting – The process of preparing a disc so that it can store information. During
formatting, sectors, tracks, a director and the FAT are created on the disc.

Sector – disc space normally 512 bytes long.

Track – A track is also a data storage ring on a computer floppy diskette or
hard disk drive that is capable of containing information. a track goes all
around the platter and is used to help locate and retrieve information from a
disk or diskette.

Directory- an area on disc where information relating to a group of files is

kept.

FAT – the File Allocation Table – an area on disc where information is

kept on which part of the disc the file is to be found.

Directory tree – a pictorial representation of your disc’s structure.

Boot – to start up the computer and load the DOS.
BIOS – The BASIC Input/Output System. It allows the core of the operating
system to communicate with the hardware.
Bit – a binary digit, the smallest unit of information that can be stores either as 1 or
0.
Byte – a grouping of binary digits (0 or 1) which represent information.
CPU – the Central Processing Unit – the main chip that executes all commands.
Disc – a device which you can store programs and data.
Cold boot – the process of starting your PC by switching it on.
Warm boot - the process of starting your PC by using the Ctrl+Alt+Del key
combination

File – the name given to an area on disc containing a program or data.

Filename – the name given to a file. It must not exceed 8-characters in length and
can have up to 3-characters.

File extension – the optional three-letter suffix following the period in a filename.
Processor – The electronic device which performs calculations.
 Peripheral – A device attached to a PC.
Port – an Input/Output address through which your PC interacts with external
devices.
Program – a set of instructions which cause a computer to perform certain tasks.
Hardcopy – Output on paper
Hardware – the visible, tangible equipment that makes up a computer system.
Software – the non- visible, non-tangible programs and instructions that control
your PC’s functionality

ROM – Read Only Memory – the microcomputer’s non-volatile memory. Data are
written into this memory at manufacture and are not affected by power loss.

RAM – Random Access Memory – the microcomputer’s volatile memory. Data

held in it is lost when power is switched off.

Memory – Storage elements organized into addressable locations that can hold
data and instructions in a PC.

Megabyte – MB – 1024 kilobytes of information or storage space.

Megahertz – MHz – Speed of processor in million of cycles/second.
Mouse – a devise used to manipulate a pointer around the display.
Monitor – the display devices connected to a PC. Also known as the Screen, VDU.

Microprocessor – A PC’s calculating chip.

Multitasking – Running more than one computer application at the same time. An
operating system that permits multitasking allows the user to be printing a
document from one program while working in another, as well as downloading
content from the Internet in the background.

Bit - Binary digit in the binary numbering system. Its value can be 0 or 1. In an 8-bit
character scheme, it takes 8 bits to make a byte (character) of data.

Internet - A global network of networks used to exchange information using the TCP/IP
protocol. It allows for electronic mail and the accessing ad retrieval of information from
remote sources.

Modem (Modulator/Demodulator) - Devices that convert digital and analog signals.

Modems allow computer data (digital) to be transmitted over voice-grade telephone lines
(analog

Network Interface Card (NIC) - A board that provides network communication

capabilities to and from a computer.
Network Operating System (NOS) - Operating system designed to pass information and
communicate between more than one computer. Examples include AppleShare, Novell
NetWare, and Windows NT Server.

Node - End point of a network connection. Nodes include any device attached to a
network such as file servers, printers, or workstations.

Node Devices - Any computer or peripheral that is connected to the network.

Ports - A connection point for a cable.
Data: Facts or observations about physical phenomena or business transactions. More
specifically, data are objective measurements of the attributes (characteristics) of entities,
such as people, places, things, and events.

Data or Information Processing: The act of converting data into information.

Information: Data that has been placed into a meaningful context for an end user.
Programs: A set of instructions that cause a computer to perform a particular task.
Procedures: Set of instructions used by people to complete a task.
System: A system is a group of interrelated components working together toward a
common goal by accepting inputs and producing outputs in an organized transformation
process.

1.5 Application of Computer, Advantages and Disadvantages

Computers have become important tools in our day-to-day’s operations. Some of the areas
computers are used are in:

Engineering
In engineering computers are used for designing using computer aided design (CAD)
software. Modelling and testing processes etc.

In Biosystems engineering, computers are being used for biometric analysis, genetic
engineering and cloning etc.

Space exploration would hardly be impossible without the assistance of computers.

Manufacturing

Computers have made industrial processes more efficient through optimization scheduling,
process control, and using robots to perform automated manufacturing process control
which are otherwise dangerous to human beings.
Automobile assembly robot at work

A wire repair robot at work

Communication
The integration of computers and communication technologies is what is being referred to
as ICT. This merger has resulted to more efficient communication using computers and
other handheld devices such as mobile phones used to facilitate sending and receiving of
messages over the internet. Computers also control many telecommunications equipment.

Everyone

and Everything
 Education and research

Computers are used in educational institution as teaching aid, online teaching

especially in open and distance learning and to enhance management.

Internet contains a lot of information for researchers, scholars and

teachers/lecturers

Computers in education

Other application areas

Law enforcement to carry out biometric mapping activities like fingerprint

matching and store forensic information.

Banking to keep client accounts details and issue cash transaction services at the
automated teller machines (ATM).
System Software

Does fundamental tasks such as computer boot up and system control. System software are
further classified into:

1. Operating system

2. Utility software

3. Network software

4. Firmware
Operating System

An operating system is a program that manages the computer hardware resources and
controls the execution of application programs. Examples are:

1. Microsoft Windows 98/2000/Me/2003/Vista

2. UNIX

3. Linux

4. MacOS
Utility Software
Utility software also called service programs are special programs used to enhance
perform both at system and user levels.

System level utilities optimizes system performance while application level utilities help in
smooth running of application programs. Examples are

1. Norton utility

2. McAfee suites
Network Software
Networking software enables computers and other peripheral devices connected on a
network to communicate and share resources. Examples are:

1. Novell Netware

2. UNIX

3. Windows NT based operating systems

Firmware

Firmware, also referred to as stored logic is an integration of both hardware and software
on a single silicon chip. These are mostly packaged as ROM chips.

Advantages and disadvantages of computer

In this lecture, you will be introduced to the advantages and disadvantages of computers.

Advantages of computers
 Large storage of data in small amount of space.
Quick and accurate calculations than humans.

Continuously work with repetitive work( contusive environment)

Simulation of dangerous situations.

Disadvantages

Expensive to introduce.
Health hazards.
Downtime-.
Redundancy in the work place.
It can lead to misuse of information.
HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

The first counting device was used by the primitive people. They used sticks, stones and
bones as counting tools. As human mind and technology improved with time more
computing devices were developed. Some of the popular computing devices starting with
the first to recent ones are described below;

Abacus

The history of computer begins with the birth of abacus which is believed to be the first
computer. It is said that Chinese invented Abacus around 4,000 years ago.

It was a wooden rack which has metal rods with beads mounted on them. The beads
were moved by the abacus operator according to some rules to perform arithmetic
calculations. Abacus is still used in some countries like China, Russia and Japan. An
image of this tool is shown below;

Napier's Bones
 It was a manually-operated calculating device which was invented by John Napier
(1550-1617) of Merchiston. In this calculating tool, he used 9 different ivory
strips or bones marked with numbers to multiply and divide. So, the tool became
known as "Napier's Bones. It was also the first machine to use the decimal point.

Pascaline
Pascaline is also known as Arithmetic Machine or Adding Machine. It was invented
between 1642 and 1644 by a French mathematician-philosopher Biaise Pascal. It
is believed that it was the first mechanical and automatic calculator.

Pascal invented this machine to help his father, a tax accountant. It could only
perform addition and subtraction. It was a wooden box with a series of gears and
wheels. When a wheel is rotated one revolution, it rotates the neighboring wheel.
A series of windows is given on the top of the wheels to read the totals. An image
of this tool is shown below;
Stepped Reckoner or Leibnitz wheel
It was developed by a German mathematician-philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibnitz in 1673. He improved Pascal's invention to develop this machine. It was
a digital mechanical calculator which was called the stepped reckoner as instead
of gears it was made of fluted drums. See the following image;

Difference Engine
In the early 1820s, it was designed by Charles Babbage who is known as "Father
of Modern Computer". It was a mechanical computer which could perform simple
 calculations. It was a steam driven calculating machine designed to solve tables
of numbers like logarithm tables.

Analytical Engine
This calculating machine was also developed by Charles Babbage in 1830. It was
a mechanical computer that used punch-cards as input. It was capable of solving
any mathematical problem and storing information as a permanent memory.

Tabulating Machine
It was invented in 1890, by Herman Hollerith, an American statistician. It was a
mechanical tabulator based on punch cards. It could tabulate statistics and record
or sort data or information. This machine was used in the 1890 U.S. Census.
Hollerith also started the Hollerith?s Tabulating Machine Company which later
became International Business Machine (IBM) in 1924.
Differential Analyzer
It was the first electronic computer introduced in the United States in 1930. It
was an analog device invented by Vannevar Bush. This machine has vacuum
tubes to switch electrical signals to perform calculations. It could do 25
calculations in few minutes.

Mark I
The next major changes in the history of computer began in 1937 when Howard
Aiken planned to develop a machine that could perform calculations involving
 large numbers. In 1944, Mark I computer was built as a partnership between IBM
and Harvard. It was the first programmable digital computer.

Generations of Computers
A generation of computers refers to the specific improvements in computer
technology with time. In 1946, electronic pathways called circuits were developed
to perform the counting. It replaced the gears and other mechanical parts used
for counting in previous computing machines.

In each new generation, the circuits became smaller and more advanced than the
previous generation circuits. The miniaturization helped increase the speed,
memory and power of computers. There are five generations of computers which
are described below;

First Generation Computers

The first generation (1946-1959) computers were slow, huge and expensive. In
these computers, vacuum tubes were used as the basic components of CPU and
memory. These computers were mainly depended on batch operating system and
punch cards. Magnetic tape and paper tape were used as output and input
devices in this generation;

Some of the popular first generation computers are;

o ENIAC ( Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)

o EDVAC ( Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
o UNIVACI( Universal Automatic Computer)
o IBM-701
o IBM-650

Second Generation Computers

 The second generation (1959-1965) was the era of the transistor computers.
These computers used transistors which were cheap, compact and consuming
less power; it made transistor computers faster than the first generation
computers.

In this generation, magnetic cores were used as the primary memory and
magnetic disc and tapes were used as the secondary storage. Assembly language
and programming languages like COBOL and FORTRAN, and Batch processing and
multiprogramming operating systems were used in these computers.

Some of the popular second generation computers are;

o IBM 1620
o IBM 7094
o CDC 1604
o CDC 3600
o UNIVAC 1108

Third Generation Computers

The third generation computers used integrated circuits (ICs) instead of
transistors. A single IC can pack huge number of transistors which increased the
power of a computer and reduced the cost. The computers also became more
reliable, efficient and smaller in size. These generation computers used remote
processing, time-sharing, multi programming as operating system. Also, the
high-level programming languages like FORTRON-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1,
ALGOL-68 were used in this generation.

Some of the popular third generation computers are;

o IBM-360 series
o Honeywell-6000 series
o PDP(Personal Data Processor)
o IBM-370/168
o TDC-316

Fourth Generation Computers

The fourth generation (1971-1980) computers used very large scale integrated
(VLSI) circuits; a chip containing millions of transistors and other circuit
elements. These chips made this generation computers more compact, powerful,
fast and affordable. These generation computers used real time, time sharing and
distributed operating system. The programming languages like C, C++, DBASE
were also used in this generation.

Some of the popular fourth generation computers are;

o DEC 10
o STAR 1000
o PDP 11
 o CRAY-1(Super Computer)
o CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

Fifth Generation Computers

In fifth generation (1980-till date) computers, the VLSI technology was replaced
with ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration). It made possible the production of
microprocessor chips with ten million electronic components. This generation
computers used parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence)
software. The programming languages used in this generation were C, C++,
Java, .Net, etc.

Some of the popular fifth generation computers are;

o Desktop
o Laptop
o NoteBook
o UltraBook
o ChromeBook

Types of Computer
We can categorize computer in two ways: on the basis of data handling capabilities
and size.

On the basis of data handling capabilities, the computer is of three types:

o Analogue Computer
o Digital Computer
o Hybrid Computer

1) Analogue Computer
Analogue computers are designed to process analogue data. Analogue data is
continuous data that changes continuously and cannot have discrete values. We can
say that analogue computers are used where we don't need exact values always such
as speed, temperature, pressure and current.

Analogue computers directly accept the data from the measuring device without first
converting it into numbers and codes. They measure the continuous changes in
physical quantity and generally render output as a reading on a dial or
scale. Speedometer and mercury thermometer are examples of analogue
computers.

Advantages of using analogue computers:

 o It allows real-time operations and computation at the same time and
continuous representation of all data within the rage of the analogue machine.
o In some applications, it allows performing calculations without taking the help
of transducers for converting the inputs or outputs to digital electronic form
and vice versa.
o The programmer can scale the problem for the dynamic range of the analogue
computer. It provides insight into the problem and helps understand the errors
and their effects.

Types of analogue computers:

o Slide Rules: It is one of the simplest types of mechanical analogue
computers. It was developed to perform basic mathematical calculations.
It is made of two rods. To perform the calculation, the hashed rod is slid to
line up with the markings on another rod.
o Differential Analysers: It was developed to perform differential
calculations. It performs integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms to
solve differential calculations.
o Castle Clock: It was invented by Al-Jarazi. It was able to save programming
instructions. Its height was around 11 feet and it was provided with the
display of time, the zodiac, and the solar and lunar orbits. This device also
could allow users to set the length of the day as per the current season.
o Electronic Analogue Computer: In this type of analogue computer,
electrical signals flow through capacitors and resistors to simulate physical
phenomena. Here, the mechanical interaction of components does not take
place. The voltage of the electrical signal generates the appropriate displays.

2) Digital Computer
Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and logical operations at high
speed. It accepts the raw data as input in the form of digits or binary numbers (0 and
1) and processes it with programs stored in its memory to produce the output. All
modern computers like laptops, desktops including smartphones that we use at home
or office are digital computers.

Advantages of digital computers:

o It allows you to store a large amount of information and to retrieve it easily
whenever you need it.
o You can easily add new features to digital systems more easily.
o Different applications can be used in digital systems just by changing the
program without making any changes in hardware
o The cost of hardware is less due to the advancement in the IC technology.
o It offers high speed as the data is processed digitally.
o It is highly reliable as it uses error correction codes.
 o Reproducibility of results is higher as the output is not affected by noise,
temperature, humidity, and other properties of its components.

3) Hybrid Computer
Hybrid computer has features of both analogue and digital computer. It is fast like
an analogue computer and has memory and accuracy like digital computers. It
can process both continuous and discrete data. It accepts analogue signals and
convert them into digital form before processing. So, it is widely used in specialized
applications where both analogue and digital data is processed. For example, a
processor is used in petrol pumps that converts the measurements of fuel flow into
quantity and price. Similarly, they are used in airplanes, hospitals, and scientific
applications.

Advantages of using hybrid computers:

o Its computing speed is very high due to the all-parallel configuration of the
analogue subsystem.
o It produces precise and quick results that are more accurate and useful.
o It has the ability to solve and manage big equation in real-time.
o It helps in the on-line data processing.

On the basis of size, the computer can be of five types:

1) Supercomputer
Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are designed to
process huge amount of data. A supercomputer can process trillions of
instructions in a second. It has thousands of interconnected processors.

Supercomputers are particularly used in scientific and engineering

applications such as weather forecasting, scientific simulations and nuclear energy
research. The first supercomputer was developed by Roger Cray in 1976.

Characteristics or applications of supercomputers:

o It has the ability to decrypt your password to enhance protection for security
reasons.
o It produces excellent results in animations.
o It is used for virtual testing of nuclear weapons and critical medical tests.
o It can study and understand climate patterns and forecast weather conditions.
It can run in NOAA's system (National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration) that can execute any type of simple and logical data.
 o It helps in designing the flight simulators for pilots at the beginner level for
their training.
o It helps in extracting useful information from data storage centres or cloud
system. For example, in insurance companies.
o It has played a vital role in managing the online currency world such as stock
market and bitcoin.
o It helps in the diagnosis of various critical diseases and in producing accurate
results in brain injuries, strokes, etc.
o It helps in scientific research areas by accurately analysing data obtained from
exploring the solar system, satellites, and movement of Earth.
o It also used in a smog control system where it predicts the level of fog and
other pollutants in the atmosphere.

2) Mainframe computer
Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users
simultaneously. They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they
can execute different processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe
computers make them ideal for big organizations like banking and telecom sectors,
which need to manage and process high volume of data.

Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users

simultaneously. They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means
they can execute different processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe
computers make them ideal for big organizations like banking and telecom sectors,
which need to manage and process a high volume of data that requires integer
operations such as indexing, comparisons, etc.

Characteristics of Mainframe Computers:

o It can process huge amount of data, e.g. millions of transactions in a second in
the banking sector.
o It has a very long life. It can run smoothly for up to 50 years after proper
installation.
o It gives excellent performance with large scale memory management.
o It has the ability to share or distribute its workload among other processors
and input/output terminals.
o There are fewer chances of error or bugs during processing in mainframe
computers. If any error occurs it can fix it quickly without affecting the
performance.
o It has the ability to protect the stored data and other ongoing exchange of
information and data.

Applications of mainframe computers:

 o In health care, it enabled hospitals to maintain a record of their millions of
patients in order to contact them for treatment or related to their
appointment, medicine updates or disease updates.
o In the field of defence, it allows the defence departments to share a large
amount of sensitive information with other branches of defence.
o In the field of education, it helps big universities to store, manage and
retrieve data related to their courses, admissions, students, teachers,
employees and affiliated schools and colleges.
o In the retail sector, the retail companies that have a huge customer base and
branches use mainframe computers to handle and execute information related
to their inventory management, customer management, and huge transactions
in a short duration.

3) Miniframe or Minicomputer
It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It consists of two or more processors
and can support 4 to 200 users at one time. Miniframe computers are used in
institutes and departments for tasks such as billing, accounting and inventory
management. A minicomputer lies between the mainframe and
microcomputer as it is smaller than mainframe but larger than a microcomputer.

Characteristics of miniframe or minicomputer:

o It is light weight that makes it easy to carry and fit anywhere.
o It is less expensive than mainframe computers.
o It is very fast compared to its size.
o It remains charged for a long time.
o It does not require a controlled operational environment.

Applications of minicomputers:

A minicomputer is mainly used to perform three primary functions, which are as

follows:

o Process control: It was used for process control in manufacturing. It mainly

performs two primary functions that are collecting data and feedback. If any
abnormality occurs in the process, it is detected by the minicomputer and
necessary adjustments are made accordingly.
o Data management: It is an excellent device for small organizations to
collect, store and share data. Local hospitals and hotels can use it to maintain
the records of their patients and customers respectively.
o Communications Portal: It can also play the role of a communication device
in larger systems by serving as a portal between a human operator and a
central processor or computer.
4) Workstation
Workstation is a single user computer that is designed for technical or scientific
applications. It has a faster microprocessor, a large amount of RAM and high speed
graphic adapters. It generally performs a specific job with great expertise;
accordingly, they are of different types such as graphics workstation, music
workstation and engineering design workstation.

Characteristics of workstation computer:

o It is a high-performance computer system designed for a single user for
business or professional use.
o It has larger storage capacity, better graphics, and more powerful CPU than a
personal computer.
o It can handle animation, data analysis, CAD, audio and video creation and
editing.

Any computer that has the following five features, can be termed as a workstation
or can be used as a workstation.

o Multiple Processor Cores: It has more processor cores than simple laptops
or computers.
o ECC RAM: It is provided with Error-correcting code memory that can fix
memory errors before they affect the system's performance.
o RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks): It refers to multiple
internal hard drives to store or process data. RAID can be of different types,
for example, there can be multiple drives to process data or mirrored drives
where if one drive does not work than other starts functioning.
o SSD: It is better than conventional hard-disk drives. It does not have moving
parts, so the chances of physical failure are very less.
o Optimized, Higher end GPU: It reduces the load on CPU. E.g., CPU has to
do less work while processing the screen output.

5) Microcomputer
Microcomputer is also known as a personal computer. It is a general-purpose
computer that is designed for individual use. It has a microprocessor as a central
processing unit, memory, storage area, input unit and output unit. Laptops and
desktop computers are examples of microcomputers. They are suitable for personal
work that may be making an assignment, watching a movie, or at office for office
work.

Characteristics of a microcomputer:
o It is the smallest in size among all types of computers.
 o A limited number of software can be used.
o It is designed for personal work and applications. Only one user can work at a
time.
o It is less expansive and easy to use.
o It does not require the user to have special skills or training to use it.
o Generally, comes with single semiconductor chip.
o It is capable of multitasking such as printing, scanning, browsing, watching
videos, etc.

HARDWARE DEVICES
Input Devices
Input device enables the user to send data, information, or control signals to a
computer. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer receives the input
and processes it to produce the output.

Some of the popular input devices are:

1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. Scanner
4. Joystick
5. Light Pen
6. Digitizer
7. Microphone
8. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
9. Optical Character Reader (OCR)
10. Digital Camera
11. Paddle
12. Steering Wheel
13. Gesture recognition devices
14. Light Gun
15. Touch Pad
16. Remote
17. Touch screen
18. VR
19. Webcam
20. Biometric Devices

1) Keyboard
The keyboard is a basic input device that is used to enter data into a computer or
any other electronic device by pressing keys. It has different sets of keys for
letters, numbers, characters, and functions. Keyboards are connected to a
computer through USB or a Bluetooth device for wireless communication.

Types of keyboards: There can be different types of keyboards based on the

region and language used. Some of the common types of keyboards are as
follows:

i) QWERTY Keyboard:

It is the most commonly used keyboard with computers in modern times. It is

named after the first six letters of the top row of buttons and is even popular in
countries that do not use Latin-based alphabet. It is so popular that some people
think that it is the only type of keyboard to use with computers as an input
device.

ii) AZERTY Keyboard:

It is considered the standard French keyboard. It is developed in France as an

alternative layout to the QWERTY layout and is mainly used in France and other
European countries. Some countries have manufactured their own versions of
AZERTY.

Its name is derived from the first six letters that appear on the top left row of the
keyboard. The Q and W keys in AZERTY keyboard are interchanged with A and Z
keys in QWERTY keyboard. Furthermore, in AZERTY keyboard M key is located to
the left of the L key.

AZERTY keyboard differs from QWERTY keyboard not only in the placement of
letters but also in many other ways, e.g., it gives emphasis on accents, which is
required for writing European languages like French.

iii) DVORAK Keyboard:

 This type of keyboard layout was developed to increase the typing speed by
reducing the finger movement while typing. The most frequently used letters are
kept in a home row to improve typing.

2) Mouse
The mouse is a hand-held input device which is used to move cursor or pointer
across the screen. It is designed to be used on a flat surface and generally has
left and right button and a scroll wheel between them. Laptop computers come
with a touchpad that works as a mouse. It lets you control the movement of
cursor or pointer by moving your finger over the touchpad. Some mouse comes
with integrated features such as extra buttons to perform different buttons.

The mouse was invented by Douglas C. Engelbart in 1963. Early mouse had a
roller ball integrated as a movement sensor underneath the device. Modern
mouse devices come with optical technology that controls cursor movements by a
visible or invisible light beam. A mouse is connected to a computer through
different ports depending on the type of computer and type of a mouse.

Common types of the mouse:

i) Trackball Mouse:

It is a stationary input device that has ball mechanism to move the pointer or
cursor on the screen. The ball is half inserted in the device and can be easily
rolled with finger, thumb or the palm to move the pointer on the screen. The
device has sensor to detect the rotation of ball. It remains stationary; you don't
need to move it on the operating surface. So, it is an ideal device if you have
limited desk space as you don't need to move it like a mouse.

ii) Mechanical Mouse:

It has a system of a ball and several rollers to track its movement. It is a corded
type of mouse. A mechanical mouse can be used for high performance. The
drawback is that they tend to get dust into the mechanics and thus require
regular cleaning.

iii) Optical Mouse:

An optical mouse uses optical electronics to track its movement. It is more

reliable than a mechanical mouse and also requires less maintenance. However,
its performance is affected by the surface on which it is operated. Plain non-
glossy mouse mat should be used for best results. The rough surface may cause
problems for the optical recognition system, and the glossy surface may reflect
the light wrongly and thus may cause tracking issues.

iv) Cordless or Wireless Mouse:

 As the name suggests, this type of mouse lacks cable and uses wireless
technology such as IrDA (infrared) or radio (Bluetooth or Wi-Fi) to control the
movement of the cursor. It is used to improve the experience of using a mouse.
It uses batteries for its power supply.

3) Scanner
The scanner uses the pictures and pages of text as input. It scans the picture or a
document. The scanned picture or document then converted into a digital format
or file and is displayed on the screen as an output. It uses optical character
recognition techniques to convert images into digital ones. Some of the common
types of scanners are as follows:

Types of Scanner:

i) Flatbed Scanner:

It has a glass pane and a moving optical CIS or CCD array. The light illuminates
the pane, and then the image is placed on the glass pane. The light moves across
the glass pane and scans the document and thus produces its digital copy. You
will need a transparency adapter while scanning transparent slides.

ii) Handheld Scanner:

It is a small manual scanning device which is held by hand and is rolled over a
flat image that is to be scanned. The drawback in using this device is that the
hand should be steady while scanning; otherwise, it may distort the image. One
of the commonly used handheld scanners is the barcode scanner which you would
have seen in shopping stores.

iii) Sheetfed Scanner:

In this scanner, the document is inserted into the slot provided in the scanner.
The main components of this scanner include the sheet-feeder, scanning module,
and calibration sheet. The light does not move in this scanner. Instead, the
document moves through the scanner. It is suitable for scanning single page
documents, not for thick objects like books, magazines, etc.

iv) Drum Scanner:

 Drum scanner has a photomultiplier tube (PMT) to scan images. It does not have
a charge-coupled device like a flatbed scanner. The photomultiplier tube is
extremely sensitive to light. The image is placed on a glass tube, and the light
moves across the image, which produces a reflection of the image which is
captured by the PMT and processed. These scanners have high resolution and are
suitable for detailed scans.

v) Photo Scanner:

It is designed to scan photographs. It has high resolution and color depth, which
are required for scanning photographs. Some photo scanners come with in-built
software for cleaning and restoring old photographs.

4) Joystick

A joystick is also a pointing input device like a mouse. It is made up of a stick

with a spherical base. The base is fitted in a socket that allows free movement of
the stick. The movement of stick controls the cursor or pointer on the screen.
 The frist joystick was invented by C. B. Mirick at the U.S. Naval Research
Laboratory. A joystick can be of different types such as displacement joysticks,
finger-operated joysticks, hand operated, isometric joystick, and more. In
joystick, the cursor keeps moving in the direction of the joystick unless it is
upright, whereas, in mouse, the cursor moves only when the mouse moves.

5) Light Pen

A light pen is a computer input device that looks like a pen. The tip of the light
pen contains a light-sensitive detector that enables the user to point to or select
objects on the display screen. Its light sensitive tip detects the object location
and sends the corresponding signals to the CPU. It is not compatible
with LCD screens, so it is not in use today. It also helps you draw on the screen if
needed. The first light pen was invented around 1955 as a part of the Whirlwind
project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).

6) Digitizer
 Digitizer is a computer input device that has a flat surface and usually comes with
a stylus. It enables the user to draw images and graphics using the stylus as we
draw on paper with a pencil. The images or graphics drawn on the digitizer
appear on the computer monitor or display screen. The software converts the
touch inputs into lines and can also convert handwritten text to typewritten
words.

It can be used to capture handwritten signatures and data or images from taped
papers. Furthermore, it is also used to receive information in the form of
drawings and send output to a CAD (Computer-aided design) application and
software like AutoCAD. Thus, it allows you to convert hand-drawn images into a
format suitable for computer processing.

7) Microphone
The microphone is a computer input device that is used to input the sound. It
receives the sound vibrations and converts them into audio signals or sends to a
recording medium. The audio signals are converted into digital data and stored in
the computer. The microphone also enables the user to telecommunicate with
others. It is also used to add sound to presentations and with webcams for video
conferencing. A microphone can capture audio waves in different ways;
accordingly the three most common types are described below:

i) Dynamic:

It is the most commonly used microphone with a simple design. It has a magnet
which is wrapped by a metal coil and a thin sheet on the front end of the magnet.
The sheet transfers vibrations from sound waves to the coil and from coil to
electric wires which transmit the sound like an electrical signal.

ii) Condenser:
 It is designed for audio recording and has a very sensitive and flat frequency
response. It has a front plate called diaphragm and a back plate parallel to the
front plate. When sound hits the diaphragm, it vibrates the diaphragm and alters
the distance between the two plates. The changes in distance are transmitted as
electric signals.

iii) Ribbon:

It is known for its reliability. It has a thin ribbon made of aluminum,

duraluminum, or nanofilm suspended in a magnetic field. The sound waves cause
vibrations in the ribbon, which generate a voltage proportional to the velocity of
the vibration. The voltage is transmitted as an electrical signal. Early ribbon
microphones had a transformer to increase the output voltage, but modern
ribbon microphones come with advanced magnets to produce a strong signal.

8) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

 MICR computer input device is designed to read the text printed with magnetic
ink. MICR is a character recognition technology that makes use of special
magnetized ink which is sensitive to magnetic fields. It is widely used in banks to
process the cheques and other organizations where security is a major concern.
It can process three hundred cheques in a minute with hundred-percent
accuracy. The details on the bottom of the cheque (MICR No.) are written with
magnetic ink. A laser printer with MICR toner can be used to print the magnetic
ink.

The device reads the details and sends to a computer for processing. A document
printed in magnetic ink is required to pass through a machine which magnetizes
the ink, and the magnetic information is then translated into characters.

9) Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR computer input device is designed to convert the scanned images of

handwritten, typed or printed text into digital text. It is widely used in offices and
libraries to convert documents and books into electronic files.

It processes and copies the physical form of a document using a scanner. After
copying the documents, the OCR software converts the documents into a two-
color (black and white), version called bitmap. Then it is analyzed for light and
dark areas, where the dark areas are selected as characters, and the light area is
identified as background. It is widely used to convert hard copy legal or historic
 documents into PDFs. The converted documents can be edited if required like we
edit documents created in ms word.

10) Digital camera:

It is a digital device as it captures images and records videos digitally and then
stores them on a memory card. It is provided with an image sensor chip to
capture images, as opposed to film used by traditional cameras. Besides this, a
camera that is connected to your computer can also be called a digital camera.

It has photosensors to record light that enters the camera through the lens.
When the light strikes the photosensors, each of the sensors returns the electrical
current, which is used to create the images.

11) Paddle:

It is a simple input device that is widely used in games. It is a wheel that is held
by hand and looks like a volume knob on a stereo that is used to increase or
decrease the volume. Paddle moves or controls cursor or any other objects in the
game in a back-and-forth motion. It is widely used as an alternative to the
joystick. Besides this, the term paddle also refers to many handheld devices
designed to control a function in an electronic device, computer, etc.
12) Steering wheel:

It is used as an input device in racing video games such as car racing games or in
driving programs as virtual simulators to steer a vehicle. It works like the real
steering wheel by allowing you to take a right or left turn. A steering wheel may
be provided with acceleration and brake pedal devices and a mechanism for
shifting gears. Thus, it makes racing games more adventurous and entertaining.

13) Gesture recognition devices:

These devices take human gestures as input. There are many such devices that
respond to gestures. For example, Kinect is one such device that observes the
movement of a player's body and interprets these movements as inputs to video
games. This feature is also available in certain tablets and smartphones where
you can perform certain tasks such as taking pictures using finger gestures such
as swiping, pinching, etc.

14) Light Gun:

 As the name suggests, it is a pointing input device that is designed to point at
and shoot the targets on the screen in a video game, or arcade, etc. The light
gun was used for the first time on the MIT Whirwind computer. When the gun is
pointed at the target on the screen and the trigger is pulled, the screen goes
blank for a fraction of a second. During this moment, the photodiode, which is
present in the barrel, determines where the gun is pointed. For example, shooting
ducks in a duck hunt game.

15) Touchpad:

It is usually found in laptops as a substitute for the mouse. It allows you to move
or control the cursor on the screen using your finger. Just like a mouse, it also
has two buttons for right and left click. Using the touchpad, you can perform all
the tasks that you do with a mouse, such as selecting an object on the screen,
copy, paste, delete, open a file or folder, and more.

16) Remote:
 It is a hardware device designed to control the functioning of a device, e.g., a TV
remote that can be used to change channels, increase or decrease the volume,
from a distance without leaving the seat. The first cordless TV remote was
invented by Dr. Robert Adler of Zenith in 1956. The remote sends the
electromagnetic waves to communicate with the device. These waves can be
infrared rays, radio waves, etc.

17) Touch screen:

It is the display screen of a device such as a smartphone, tablet, etc., that allows
users to interact or provide inputs to the device by using their finger. Today,
most of the electronic devices come with touchscreen as an alternative to a
mouse for navigating a graphical user interface. For example, by touching, you
can unlock your phone, open emails, open files, play videos, etc. Besides this, it
is used in lots of devices such as Camera, Car GPS, Fitness machine, etc.

The concept of the touch screen was first introduced and published by E.A.
Johnson in 1965. The first touch screen was developed at the beginning of the
1970s by CERN engineers Frank Beck and Bent Stumpe.

18) VR:

VR stands for virtual reality. It is an artificial or virtual environment which is

generated by computers. A person can interact with virtual objects of this
 artificial environment using some input devices such as headsets, gloves,
headphones, etc. For example, he or she can find himself or herself walking on a
beach, watching a football match, walking in the sky, etc., without actually doing
all this.

19) Webcam:

Any camera which is connected to a computer is called a webcam. The in-built

camera provided on a computer can also be considered a webcam. It is an input
device as it can take pictures, and can be used to record videos if required. The
pictures and videos are stored in the computer memory and can be displayed on
the screen if required. Although it works almost the same as the digital camera, it
is different from a digital camera, as it is designed to take compact digital photos
that can be uploaded easily on the webpages and shared with others through the
internet.

20) Biometric Devices:

Biometrics refers to a process in which a person is identified through his or her
biological features such as fingerprints, eye cornea, face structure, etc. It is done
by using biometric devices, which can be of different types based on their
scanning features and abilities, such as:

i) Face Scanner:
It is designed to identify a person by scanning his or her face. It takes the face
measurements of a person. For example, the distance between eyes, nose, and
mouth, etc., accordingly, it confirms the identity of a person. Besides this, it is
smart enough to differentiate between a person's picture and the real person.

ii) Hand Scanner:

The hand of a person can also be used to verify his or her identity as every
person has a unique pattern of veins in the palm, just like fingerprints. This
device takes advantage of this feature; it identifies a person by scanning the
palm of his hand. It uses infrared light to scan veins' patterns and blood flowing
in them. Palm is even more unique than fingerprints.

iii) Fingerprint Scanner:

It scans the fingerprints to identify people or for biometric authentication. This

device is developed, keeping in mind the fact that no two persons in the world
can have the same fingerprints. It is widely used in companies as a fingerprint
attendance system to mark the attendance of employees. This type of scanners
captures the pattern of valleys and ridges found on a finger and store it in the
memory or database. When you press your finger on the given space, it verifies
the identity by using its pattern-matching software.

iv) Retina or Iris Scanner:

 It scans the retina or iris of a person's eye to confirm the identity. This device is
more secure than others as it is next to impossible to copy the retina or iris. It
works by mapping the retina's blood vessel patterns of the eye. The blood vessels
of retina absorb light more easily as well as can be identified with appropriate
lighting.

In this scan, a beam of low-energy infrared light falls on the retina through the
scanner's eyepiece. Then, the software captures the network of blood vessels in
the retina and uses it to verify a person's identity.

v) Voice Scanner:

It records the voice of a person and digitizes it to create a distinctive voice print
or template. The voiceprints are stored in the database, and are used to verify
the voice of a person to confirm his or her identity. The person is required to
speak in the normal or same voice that was used to create a voice template. It is
not much reliable as it can be misused using a tape recording.

Output Devices
The output device displays the result of the processing of raw data that is entered
in the computer through an input device. There are a number of output devices
that display output in different ways such as text, images, hard copies, and audio
or video.

Some of the popular output devices are:

1. Monitor
o CRT Monitor
o LCD Monitor
o LED Monitor
o Plasma Monitor
2. Printer
 o Impact Printers
A. Character Printers
i. Dot Matrix printers
ii. Daisy Wheel printers
B. Line printers
i. Drum printers
ii. Chain printers
o Non-impact printers
A. Laser printers
B. Inkjet printers
3. Projector

1) Monitor
The monitor is the display unit or screen of the computer. It is the main output
device that displays the processed data or information as text, images, audio or
video.

The types of monitors are given below.

i) CRT Monitor

CRT monitors are based on the cathode ray tubes. They are like vacuum tubes
which produce images in the form of video signals. Cathode rays tube produces a
beam of electrons through electron guns that strike on the inner phosphorescent
surface of the screen to produce images on the screen. The monitor contains
millions of phosphorus dots of red, green and blue color. These dots start to glow
when struck by electron beams and this phenomenon is called
cathodoluminescence.

The main components of a CRT monitor include the electron gun assembly,
deflection plate assembly, fluorescent screen, glass envelope, and base.The front
(outer surface) of the screen onto which images are produced is called the face
plate. It is made up of fiber optics.
There are three electron beams that strike the screen: red, green, and blue. So,
the colors which you see on the screen are the blends of red, blue and green
lights.The magnetic field guides the beams of electrons. Although LCDs have
replaced the CRT monitors, the CRT monitors are still used by graphics
professionals because of their color quality.

ii) LCD Monitor

The LCD monitor is a flat panel screen that is compact and light-weight as
compared to CRT monitors. It is based on liquid crystal display technology which
is used in the screens of laptops, tablets, smart phones, etc. An LCD screen
comprises two layers of polarized glass with a liquid crystal solution between
them. When the light passes through the first layer, an electric current aligns the
liquids crystals. The aligned liquid crystals allow a varying level of light to pass
through the second layer to create images on the screen.

The LCD screen has a matrix of pixels that display the image on the screen.Old
LCDs had passive-matrix screens in which individual pixels are controlled by
sending a charge. A few electrical charges could be sent each second that made
screens appear blurry when the images moved quickly on the screen.

Modern LCDs use active-matrix technology and contain thin film transistors
(TFTs) with capacitors. This technology allows pixels to retain their charge. So,
they don?t make screen blurry when images move fast on the screen as well as
are more efficient than passive-matrix displays.

iii) LED monitor

The LED monitor is an improved version of an LCD monitor. It also has a flat
panel display and uses liquid crystal display technology like the LCD monitors.
The difference between them lies in the source of light to backlight the display.
The LED monitor has many LED panels, and each panel has several LEDs
backlight the display, whereas the LCD monitors use cold cathode fluorescent
 light to backlight the display. Modern electronic devices such as mobile phones,
LED TVs, laptop and computer screens, etc., use a LED display as it not only
produces more brilliance and greater light intensity but also consumes less
power.

iv) Plasma Monitor

The plasma monitor is also a flat panel display that is based on plasma display
technology. It has small tiny cells between two glass panels. These cells contain
mixtures of noble gases and a small amount of mercury. When voltage is applied,
the gas in the cells turns into a plasma and emits ultraviolet light that creates
images on the screen, i.e., the screen is illuminated by a tiny bit of plasma, a
charged gas. Plasma displays are brighter than liquid crystal displays (LCD) and
also offer a wide viewing angle than an LCD.

Plasma monitors provide high resolutions of up to 1920 X 1080, excellent

contrast ratios, wide viewing angle, a high refresh rate and more. Thus, they
offer a unique viewing experience while watching action movies, sports games,
and more.

2) Printer
A printer produces hard copies of the processed data. It enables the user, to print
images, text or any other information onto the paper.

Based on the printing mechanism, the printers are of two types: Impact Printers
and Non-impact Printers.

o Impact Printers: They are of two types:

A. Character Printers
i. Dot Matrix printers
ii. Daisy Wheel printers
B. Line printers
i. Drum printers
ii. Chain printers
 o Non-impact printers: They are of two types:
A. Laser printers
B. Inkjet printers

Impact Printer
The impact printer uses a hammer or print head to print the character or images
onto the paper. The hammer or print head strikes or presses an ink ribbon
against the paper to print characters and images.

Impact printers are further divided into two types.

A. Character Printers
B. Line printers

A) Character Printers

Character printer prints a single character at a time or with a single stroke of the
print head or hammer. It does not print one line at a time. Dot Matrix printer and
Daisy Wheel printer are character printers. Today, these printers are not in much
use due to their low speed and because only the text can be printed. The
character printers are of two types, which are as follows:

i) Dot Matrix Printer

Dot Matrix Printer is an impact printer. The characters and images printed by it
are the patterns of dots. These patterns are produced by striking the ink soaked
ribbon against the paper with a print head. The print head contains pins that
produce a pattern of dots on the paper to form the individual characters. The
print head of a 24 pin dot matrix contains more pins than a 9 pin dot matrix
printer, so it produces more dots which results in better printing of characters. To
produce color output, the black ribbon can be changed with color stripes. The
speed of Dot Matrix printers is around 200-500 characters per second.

B) Line Printers:

Line printer, which is also as a bar printer, prints one line at a time. It is a high-
speed impact printer as it can print 500 to 3000 lines per minute. Drum printer
and chain printer are examples of line printers.

i) Drum Printer:
 Drum printer is a line printer that is made of a rotating drum to print characters.
The drum has circular bands of characters on its surface. It has a separate
hammer for each band of characters. When you print, the drum rotates, and
when the desired character comes under the hammer, the hammer strikes the ink
ribbon against the paper to print characters. The drum rotates at a very high
speed and characters are printed by activating the appropriate hammers.
Although all the characters are not printed at a time, they are printed at a very
high speed. Furthermore, it can print only a predefined style as it has a specific
set of characters. These printers are known to be very noisy due to the use of
hammering techniques.

Non-Impact Printer:
Non-impact printers don't print characters or images by striking a print head or
hammer on the ink ribbon placed against the paper. They print characters and
images without direct physical contact between the paper and the printing
machinery. These printers can print a complete page at a time, so they are also
known as page printers. The common types of non-impact printers are Laser
printer and Inkjet printer:

i) Laser Printer:

A laser printer is a non-impact printer that uses a laser beam to print the
characters. The laser beam hits the drum, which is a photoreceptor and draws the
image on the drum by altering electrical charges on the drum. The drum then
rolls in toner, and the charged image on the drum picks the toner. The toner is
then printed on the paper using heat and pressure. Once the document is printed,
the drum loses the electric charge,and the remaining toner is collected. The laser
printers use powdered toner for printing instead of liquid ink and produce quality
print objects with a resolution of 600 dots per inch (dpi) or more.

ii) Inkjet Printer:

 The inkjet printer is a non-impact printer that prints images and characters by
spraying fine,ionized drops of ink. The print head has tiny nozzles to spray the
ink. The printer head moves back and forth and sprays ionized drops of ink on the
paper, which is fed through the printer. These drops pass through an electric field
that guides the ink onto the paper to print correct images and characters.

An inkjet printer has cartridges that contain ink. Modern inkjet printers are color
printers that have four cartridges containing different colors: Cyan, Magenta,
Yellow, and Black. It is capable of printing high-quality images with different
colors. It can produce print objects with a resolution of at least 300 dots per inch
(dpi).

3) Projector

A projector is an output device that enables the user to project the output onto a
large surface such as a big screen or wall. It can be connected to a computer and
similar devices to project their output onto a screen. It uses light and lenses to
produce magnified texts, images, and videos. So, it is an ideal output device to
give presentations or to teach a large number of people.

Modern projects (digital projectors) come with multiple input sources such as
HDMI ports for newer equipment and VGA ports that support older devices. Some
projectors are designed to support Wi-Fi and Bluetooth as well. They can be fixed
onto the ceiling, placed on a stand, and more and are frequently used for
classroom teaching, giving presentations, home cinemas, etc.

A digital projector can be of two types:

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) digital projector: This type of digital projectors
are very popular as they are lightweight and provide crisp output. An LCD
projector uses transmissive technology to produce output. It allows the light
source, which is a standard lamp, to pass through the three colored liquid crystal
 light panels. Some colors pass through the panels and some are blocked by the
panels and thus images are on the screen.

Digital Light Processing (DLP) digital projector: It has a set of tiny mirrors,
a separate mirror for each pixel of the image and thus provide high-quality
images. These projectors are mostly used in theatres as they fulfill the
requirement of high-quality video output.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

A Central Processing Unit is also called a processor, central processor, or
microprocessor. It carries out all the important functions of a computer. It
receives instructions from both the hardware and active software and produces
output accordingly. It stores all important programs like operating systems and
application software. CPU also helps Input and output devices to communicate
with each other. Owing to these features of CPU, it is often referred to as the
brain of the computer.

CPU is installed or inserted into a CPU socket located on the motherboard.

Furthermore, it is provided with a heat sink to absorb and dissipate heat to keep
the CPU cool and functioning smoothly.

Generally, a CPU has three components:

o ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

o Control Unit
o Memory or Storage Unit

Control Unit: It is the circuitry in the control unit, which makes use of electrical
signals to instruct the computer system for executing already stored instructions.
It takes instructions from memory and then decodes and executes these
instructions. So, it controls and coordinates the functioning of all parts of the
computer. The Control Unit's main task is to maintain and regulate the flow of
information across the processor. It does not take part in processing and storing
data.

ALU: It is the arithmetic logic unit, which performs arithmetic and logical
functions. Arithmetic functions include addition, subtraction, multiplication
division, and comparisons. Logical functions mainly include selecting, comparing,
 and merging the data. A CPU may contain more than one ALU. Furthermore,
ALUs can be used for maintaining timers that help run the computer.

Memory or Storage Unit/ Registers: It is called Random access memory

(RAM). It temporarily stores data, programs, and intermediate and final results of
processing. So, it acts as a temporary storage area that holds the data
temporarily, which is used to run the computer.

What is CPU Clock Speed?

The clock speed of a CPU or a processor refers to the number of instructions it
can process in a second. It is measured in gigahertz. For example, a CPU with a
clock speed of 4.0 GHz means it can process 4 billion instructions in a second.

Types of CPU:
CPUs are mostly manufactured by Intel and AMD, each of which manufactures its
own types of CPUs. In modern times, there are lots of CPU types in the market.
Some of the basic types of CPUs are described below:

Single Core CPU: Single Core is the oldest type of computer CPU, which was
used in the 1970s. It has only one core to process different operations. It can
start only one operation at a time; the CPU switches back and forth between
different sets of data streams when more than one program runs. So, it is not
suitable for multitasking as the performance will be reduced if more than one
application runs. The performance of these CPUs is mainly dependent on the
clock speed. It is still used in various devices, such as smartphones.

Dual Core CPU: As the name suggests, Dual Core CPU contains two cores in a
single Integrated Circuit (IC). Although each core has its own controller and
cache, they are linked together to work as a single unit and thus can perform
faster than the single-core processors and can handle multitasking more
efficiently than Single Core processors.

Quad Core CPU: This type of CPU comes with two dual-core processors in one
integrated circuit (IC) or chip. So, a quad-core processor is a chip that contains
four independent units called cores. These cores read and execute instructions of
CPU. The cores can run multiple instructions simultaneously, thereby increases
the overall speed for programs that are compatible with parallel processing.

Quad Core CPU uses a technology that allows four independent processing units
(cores) to run in parallel on a single chip. Thus by integrating multiple cores in a
single CPU, higher performance can be generated without boosting the clock
speed. However, the performance increases only when the computer's software
supports multiprocessing. The software which supports multiprocessing divides
the processing load between multiple processors instead of using one processor
at a time.

Hardware
Hardware, which is abbreviated as HW, refers to all physical components of a
computer system, including the devices connected to it. You cannot create a
computer or use software without using hardware. The screen on which you are
reading this information is also a hardware.
What is a hardware upgrade?
A hardware upgrade refers to a new hardware, or a replacement for the old one,
or additional hardware developed to improve the performance of the existing
hardware. A common example of a hardware upgrade is a RAM upgrade that
increases the computer's total memory, and video card upgrade, where the old
video card is removed and replaced with the new one.

Some of the commonly used hardware in your computer are described below:

1) Motherboard:
The motherboard is generally a thin circuit board that holds together almost all
parts of a computer except input and output devices. All crucial hardware like
CPU, memory, hard drive, and ports for input and output devices are located on
the motherboard. It is the biggest circuit board in a computer chassis.

It allocates power to all hardware located on it and enables them to communicate

with each other. It is meant to hold the computer's microprocessor chip and let
other components connect to it. Each component that runs the computer or
improves its performance is a part of the motherboard or connected to it through
a slot or port.

There can be different types of motherboards based on the type and size of the
computers. So, a specific motherboard can work only with specific types of
processors and memory.

Components of a Motherboard:
CPU Slot: It is provided to install the CPU. It is a link between a microprocessor
and a motherboard. It facilitates the use of CPU and prevents the damage when it
is installed or removed. Furthermore, it is provided with a lock to prevent CPU
movement and a heat sink to dissipate the extra heat.

RAM Slot: It is a memory slot or socket provided in the motherboard to insert or

install the RAM (Random Access Memory). There can be two or more memory
slots in a computer.

Expansion Slot: It is also called the bus slot or expansion port. It is a connection
or port on the motherboard, which provides an installation point to connect a
hardware expansion card, for example, you can purchase a video expansion card
and install it into the expansion slot and then can install a new video card in the
computer. Some of the common expansion slots in a computer are AGP, AMR,
CNR, PCI, etc.

Capacitor: It is made of two conductive plates, and a thin insulator sandwiched

between them. These parts are wrapped in a plastic container.

Inductor (Coil): It is an electromagnetic coil made of a conducting wire wrapped

around an iron core. It acts as an inductor or electromagnet to store magnetic
energy.

Northbridge: It is an integrated circuit that allows communications between the

CPU interface, AGP, and memory. Furthermore, it also allows the southbridge
chip to communicate with the RAM, CPU, and graphics controller.
 USB Port: It allows you to connect hardware devices like mouse, keyboard to
your computer.

PCI Slot: It stands for Peripheral Component Interconnect slot. It allows you to
connect the PCI devices like modems, network hardware, sound, and video cards.

AGP Slot: It stands for Accelerated Graphics Port. It provides the slot to connect
graphics cards.

Heat Sink: It absorbs and disperses the heat generated in the computer
processor.

Power Connector: It is designed to supply power to the motherboard.

CMOS battery: It stands for complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor. It is a

memory that stores the BIOS settings such as time, date, and hardware settings.

2) Monitor:
A monitor is the display unit of a computer on which the processed data, such as
text, images, etc., is displayed. It comprises a screen circuity and the case which
encloses this circuity. The monitor is also known as a visual display unit (VDU).

Types of Monitors:
1. CRT Monitor: It has cathode ray tubes which produce images in the form of
video signals. Its main components are electron gun assembly, deflection plate
assembly, glass envelope, fluorescent screen, and base.
2. LCD Monitor: It is a flat panel screen. It uses liquid crystal display technology to
produce images on the screen. Advanced LEDs have thin-film transistors with
capacitors and use active-matrix technology, which allows pixels to retain their
charge.
3. LED Monitor: It is an advanced version of an LCD monitor. Unlike an LCD
monitor, which uses cold cathode fluorescent light to backlight the display, it has
LED panels, each of which has lots of LEDs to display the backlight.
4. Plasma Monitor: It uses plasma display technology that allows it to produce
high resolutions of up to 1920 X 1080, wide viewing angle, a high refresh rate,
outstanding contrast ration, and more.

3) Keyboard:
It is the most important input device of a computer. It is designed to allow you
input text, characters, and other commands into a computer, desktop, tablet, etc.
It comes with different sets of keys to enter numbers, characters, and perform
various other functions like copy, paste, delete, enter, etc.

Types of Keyboards:
1. QWERTY Keyboards
2. AZERTY Keyboards
3. DVORAK Keyboards
4) Mouse:
It is a small handheld device designed to control or move the pointer (computer
screen's cursor) in a GUI (graphical user interface). It allows you to point to or
select objects on a computer's display screen. It is generally placed on a flat
surface as we need to move it smoothly to control the pointer. Types of Mouse:
Trackball mouse, Mechanical Mouse, Optical Mouse, Wireless Mouse, etc.

Main functions of a mouse:

o Move the cursor: It is the main function of the mouse; to move the cursor on
the screen.
o Open or execute a program: It allows you to open a folder or document and
execute a program. You are required to take the cursor on the folder and double
click it to open it.
o Select: It allows you to select text, file, or any other object.
o Hovering: Hovering is an act of moving the mouse cursor over a clickable object.
During hovering over an object, it displays information about the object without
pressing any button of the mouse.
o Scroll: It allows you to scroll up or down while viewing a long webpage or
document.

Parts of a mouse:
o Two buttons: A mouse is provided with two buttons for right click and left click.
o Scroll Wheel: A wheel located between the right and left buttons, which is used
to scroll up and down and Zoom in and Zoom out in some applications like
AutoCAD.
o Battery: A battery is required in a wireless mouse.
o Motion Detection Assembly: A mouse can have a trackball or an optical sensor
to provide signals to the computer about the motion and location of the mouse.

Software
Software, which is abbreviated as SW or S/W, is a set of programs that enables
the hardware to perform a specific task. All the programs that run the computer
are software. The software can be of three types: system software, application
software, and programming software.

1) System Software
The system software is the main software that runs the computer. When you turn
on the computer, it activates the hardware and controls and coordinates their
functioning. The application programs are also controlled by system software. An
operating system is an example of system software.

i) Operating System:
 An operating system is the system software that works as an interface to enable
the user to communicate with the computer. It manages and coordinates the
functioning of hardware and software of the computer. The commonly used
operating systems are Microsoft Windows, Linux, and Apple Mac OS X.

Some other examples of system software include:

o BIOS: It stands for basic input output system. It is a type of system software,
which is stored in Read Only Memory (ROM) located on the motherboard.
However, in advanced computer systems, it is stored in flash memory. BIOS is
the first software that gets activated when you turn on your computer system. It
loads the drivers of the hard disk into memory as well as assists the operating
system to load itself into the memory.
o Boot Program: Boot refers to starting up a computer. When you switch on the
computer, the commands in the ROM are executed automatically to load the boot
program into memory and execute its instructions. The BIOS program has a basic
set of commands that enables the computer to perform the basic input/output
instructions to start the computer.
o An assembler: It plays the role of a converter as it receives basic computer
instructions and converts them into a pattern of bits. The processor uses these
bits to perform basic operations.
o A device driver: This system software controls hardware devices connected to a
computer. It enables the computer to use the hardware by providing an
appropriate interface. The kernel of a Computer's CPU communicates with
different hardware through this software. Operating systems generally come with
most of the device drivers. If the operating system does not have a device driver
for hardware, you have to install the device driver before using that hardware
device.

2) Application Software:
Application software is a set of programs designed to perform a specific task. It
does not control the working of a computer as it is designed for end-users. A
computer can run without application software. Application software can be easily
installed or uninstalled as required. It can be a single program or a collection of
small programs. Microsoft Office Suite, Adobe Photoshop, and any other software
like payroll software or income tax software are application software. As we
know, they are designed to perform specific tasks. Accordingly, they can be of
different types such as:

o Word Processing Software: This software allows users to create, edit, format,
and manipulate the text and more. It offers lots of options for writing documents,
creating images, and more. For example, MS Word, WordPad, Notepad, etc.
o Spreadsheet Software: It is designed to perform calculations, store data,
create charts, etc. It has rows and columns, and the data is entered in the cell,
which is an intersection of a row and column, e.g., Microsoft Excel.
o Multimedia Software: These software are developed to perform editing of
video, audio, and text. It allows you to combine texts, videos, audio, and images.
 Thus, you can improve a text document by adding photos, animations, graphics,
and charts through multimedia software. For example, VLC player, Window Media
Player, etc.
o Enterprise Software: These software are developed for business operational
functions. It is used in large organizations where the quantum of business is too
large. It can be used for accounting, billing, order processing and more. For
example, CRM (Customer Relationship Management), BI (Business Intelligence),
ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning), SCM (Supply Chain Management), customer
support system, and more.

3) Programming Software:
It is a set or collection of tools that help developers in writing other software or
programs. It assists them in creating, debugging, and maintaining software or
programs or applications. We can say that these are facilitator software that
helps translate programming language such as Java, C++, Python, etc., into
machine language code. So, it is not used by end-users. For example, compilers,
linkers, debuggers, interpreters, text editors, etc. This software is also called a
programming tool or software development tool.

Some examples of programming software include:

o Eclipse: It is a java language editor.

o Coda: It is a programming language editor for Mac.
o Notepad++: It is an open-source editor for windows.
o Sublime text: It is a cross-platform code editor for Linux, Mac, and Windows.

Operating System
 As the name suggests, an operating system is a type of software without which
you cannot operate or run a computer. It acts as an intermediary or translation
system between computer hardware and application programs installed on the
computer. In other words, you cannot directly use computer programs with
computer hardware without having a medium to establish a connection between
them.

Besides this, it is also an intermediary between the computer user and

the computer hardware as it provides a standard user interface that you see on
your computer screen after you switch on your computer. For example, the
Windows and the Mac OS are also operating systems that provide a graphical
interface with icons and pictures to enable users to access multiple files and
applications simultaneously.

So, although the operating system is itself a program or software, it allows users
to run other programs or applications on the system. We can say that is works
behind the scenes to run your computer.

Major Functions of Operating System:

o Memory management: It manages both the primary and secondary memory
such as RAM, ROM, hard disk, pen drive, etc. It checks and decides the
allocations and deallocation of memory space to different processes. When a user
interacts with a system, the CPU is supposed to read or write operations, in this
case, OS decides the amount of memory to be allocated for loading the program
instructions and data into RAM. After this program is terminated, the memory
area is again free and is ready to be allocated to other programs by the OS.
o Processor Management: It facilitates processor management, where it decides
the order for the processes to access the processor as well as decides the
processing time to be allocated for each process. Besides this, it monitors the
 status of processes, frees the processor when a process is executed then
allocates it to a new process.
o Device/ hardware management: The operating system also contains drivers
to manage devices. A driver is a type of translation software that allows the
operating system to communicate with devices, and there are different drivers for
different devices as each device speaks a different language.
o Run software applications: It offers the environment to run or use software
applications developed to perform specific tasks, for example, Ms Word, Ms Excel,
Photoshop, etc.
o Data management: It helps in data management by offering and displaying
directories for data management. You can view and manipulate files, folders,
e.g., you can move, copy, name, or rename, delete a file or a folder.
o Evaluates the system's health: It gives us an idea about the performance of
the hardware of the system. For example, you can see how busy the CPU is, how
fast the data is retrieved from the hard disk, etc.
o Provides user interface: It acts as an interface between the user and the
hardware. It can be a GUI where you can see and click elements on the screen to
perform various tasks. It enables you to communicate with the computer even
without knowing the computer's language.
o I/O management: It manages the input output devices and makes the I/O
process smooth and effective. For example, it receives the input provided by the
user through an input device and stores it in the main memory. Then it directs
the CPU to process this input and accordingly provides the output through an
output device such as a monitor.
o Security: It has a security module to protect the data or information stored in
the memories of the computer against malware and unauthorized access. Thus, it
not only manages your data but also helps to protect it.
o Time Management: It helps CPU in time management. The Kernel OS keeps
checking the frequency of processes that requests CPU time. When two or more
processes that are equally important compete for the CPU time, then the CPU
time is sliced into segments and allocated to these processes in a round-robin
fashion to prevent a single process from monopolizing the CPU.
o Deadlock Prevention: Sometimes a resource that is supposed to be shared by
two or more processes is held by one process due to which the resource cannot
continue. This situation is known as deadlock. The OS does not let this situation
arise by carefully distributing the resources among the different processes.
o Interrupt Handling: OS also responds to interrupts, which are signals
generated by a program or a device to seek the attention of the CPU. The OS
checks the priority of the interrupt, and if it is more important than the currently
running process, it stops the execution of the current process and preserves this
state of CPU then executes the requested process. Thereafter the CPU returns to
the same state where it was stopped.

Types of Operating System:

 1) Batch Processing Operating System:

The interaction between a user and the computer does not occur in this system.
The user is required to prepare jobs on punch cards in the form of batches and
submit them to the computer operator. The computer operator sorts the jobs or
programs and keeps similar programs or jobs in the same batch and run as a
group to speed up processing. It is designed to execute one job at a time. Jobs
are processed on a first-come, first-serve basis, i.e., in the order of their
submission without any human intervention.

For example, the credit card bill generated by banks is an example of batch
processing. A separate bill is not generated for each credit card purchase, rather
a single bill that includes all purchases in a month is generated through batch
processing. The bill details are collected and held as a batch, and then it is
processed to generate the bill at the end of the billing cycle. Similarly, in a payroll
system, the salaries of employees of the company are calculated and generated
through the batch processing system at the end of each month.

Advantages of Batch processing operating system:

o Repeated jobs can be completed easily without any human intervention

o Hardware or system support is not required to input data in batch systems
o It can work offline, so it causes less stress on the processor as it knows which
task to process next and how long the task will last.
o It can be shared among multiple users.
o You can set the timing of batch jobs so that when the computer is not busy, it
can start processing the batch jobs such as at night or any other free time.

Disadvantages of batch processing operating systems:

o You need to train the computer operators for using the batch system.
o It is not easy to debug this system.
o If any error occurs in one job, the other jobs may have to wait for an uncertain
time.
 2) Time Sharing Operating System:

As the name suggests, it enables multiple users located at different terminals to

use a computer system and to share the processor's time simultaneously. In
other words, each task gets time to get executed, and thus all tasks are executed
smoothly.

Each user gets the processor's time as they get while using a single system. The
duration of time allocated to a task is called quantum or time slice; when this
duration is over, OS starts the next task.

Advantages of time sharing operating system:

o It reduces CPU idle time and thus makes it more productive.

o Each process gets the chance to use the CPU.
o It allowed different applications run simultaneously.

Disadvantages of time sharing operating system:

o It requires a special operating system as it consumes more resources.

o Switching between tasks may hang up the system as it serves lots of users and
runs lots of applications at the same time, so it requires hardware with high
specifications.
o It is less reliable.

3) Distributed Operating System:

 It uses or runs on multiple independent processors (CPUs) to serve multiple users
and multiple real-time applications. The communication between processors is
established through many communication lines such as telephone lines and high-
speed buses. The processors may differ from each other in terms of size and
function.

The availability of powerful microprocessor and advanced communication

technology have made it possible to design, develop, and use the distributed
operating system. Besides this, it is an extension of a network operating system
that supports a high level of communication and integration of machines on the
network.

Advantages of distributed operating system:

o Its performance is higher than a single system as resources are being shared.
o If one system stops working, malfunctions, or breaks down, other nodes are not
affected.
o Additional resources can be added easily.
o Shared access to resources like printer can be established.
o Delay in processing is reduced to a greater extent.
o Data sharing or exchange speed is high, owing to the use of electronic mail.

Disadvantages of distributed operating system:

o Security issue may arise due to sharing of resources

o Few messages may be lost in the system
o Higher bandwidth is required in case of handling a large amount of data
o Overloading issue may arise
o The performance may be low
o The languages which are used to set up a distributed system are not well defined
yet
o They are very costly, so they are not easily available.

4)Network Operating System:

As the name suggests, this OS connects computers and devices to a local area
network and manages network resources. The software in a NOS enables the
devices of the network to share resources and communicate with each other. It
runs on a server and allows shared access to printers, files, applications, files,
and other networking resources and functions over a LAN. Besides this, all users
in the network are aware of each other's underlying configuration and individual
connections. Examples: Ms Windows Server 2003 and 2008, Linux, UNIX, Novell
NetWare, Mac OS X, etc.

Advantages of network operating system:

o The servers are centralized that can be accessed remotely from distant locations
and different systems.
o It is easy to integrate advanced and recent technologies and hardware in this
system.

Disadvantages of network operating system:

o The servers used in the system may be expensive.

o The system depends on the central location and requires regular monitoring and
maintenance.
 5) Real-Time Operating System:

It is developed for real-time applications where data should be processed in a

fixed, small duration of time. It is used in an environment where multiple
processes are supposed to be accepted and processed in a short time. RTOS
requires quick input and immediate response, e.g., in a petroleum refinery, if the
temperate gets too high and crosses the threshold value, there should be an
immediate response to this situation to avoid the explosion. Similarly, this system
is used to control scientific instruments, missile launch systems, traffic lights
control systems, air traffic control systems, etc.

This system is further divided into two types based on the time constraints:

Hard Real-Time Systems:

These are used for the applications where timing is critical or response time is a
major factor; even a delay of a fraction of the second can result in a disaster. For
example, airbags and automatic parachutes that open instantly in case of an
accident. Besides this, these systems lack virtual memory.

Soft Real-Time Systems:

These are used for application where timing or response time is less critical. Here,
the failure to meet the deadline may result in a degraded performance instead of
a disaster. For example, video surveillance (cctv), video player, virtual reality,
etc. Here, the deadlines are not critical for every task every time.

Advantages of real-time operating system:

o The output is more and quick owing to the maximum utilization of devices and
system
o Task shifting is very quick, e.g., 3 microseconds, due to which it seems that
several tasks are executed simultaneously
o Gives more importance to the currently running applications than the queued
application
o It can be used in embedded systems like in transport and others.
o It is free of errors.
o Memory is allocated appropriately.

Disadvantages of real-time operating system:

o A fewer number of tasks can run simultaneously to avoid errors.

o It is not easy for a designer to write complex and difficult algorithms or proficient
programs required to get the desired output.
o Specific drivers and interrupt signals are required to respond to interrupts
quickly.
o It may be very expensive due to the involvement of the resources required to
work.

Generations of Operating System:

The first generation (1945 to 1955):

It was the time before the Second World War when the digital computer was not
developed, and there were calculating engines with mechanical relays at this
point in time. Later mechanical relays were replaced by vacuum tubes as they
were very slow. But, the performance issue was not resolved even with vacuum
tubes, besides these machines were too bulky and large as there were made of
tens of thousands of vacuum tubes.

Furthermore, each of the machines was designed, programmed, and maintained

by a single group of people. The programming languages and operating systems
were not known, and absolute machine language was being used for
programming.

These systems were designed for numerical calculations. The programmer was
required to sign up for a block of time and then insert his plug board into the
computer. In the 1950s, punch cards were introduced, which improved the
computer performance. It allowed programmers to write programs on punch
cards and read them into the system; the rest of the procedure was the same.

The second generation (1955 to 1965):

This generation started with the introduction of transistors in the mid-1950s. The
use of transistors made the computers more reliable, and they began to be sold
to customers. These machines were called mainframes. Only the big organization
and government corporations could afford it. In this machine, the programmer
was required to write the program on a paper then punch it on cards. The card
would be taken to the input room and handed over to an operator to get the
output. The printer provides the output which was taken to the output room.
These steps made it a time-consuming task. So, the batch system was adopted to
address this issue.
 In a batch system, the tasks were collected in a tray in the form of batches in the
input room and read onto a magnetic tape, which was taken to the machine
room, where it was mounted on a tape drive. Then using a special program, the
operator was to read the first task or job from the tape and run it, and the output
was generated onto a second tape. OS automatically read the next job from the
tape, and Jobs were completed one by one. After the completion of the batch, the
input and output tapes were taken off, and the next batch was started. The
printouts were taken from the output tape. It was mainly used for engineering
and scientific calculations. The first OS was used in this generation in computers
was called FMS (Fortran Monitor System), and IBMSYS, and FORTRAN were used
as a high-level language.

The third generation (1965 to 1979):

This generation began with the introduction of 360 family of computers of IBM in
1964. In this generation, transistors were replaced by silicon chips, and the
operating system was developed for multiprogramming, some of them even
supported batch processing, time sharing, real-time processing, at the same
time.

The fourth generation operating system (1979 to Present):

This generation of OS started with the introduction of personal computers and

workstations. Chips that contain thousands of transistors were introduced in this
generation that made possible the development of personal computers that
supported the growth of networks and thus the development of network
operating systems and distributed operating systems. DOS, Linux, and window
operation systems were are few examples of OS of this generation.

COMPUTER MEMORY

Primary Memory

Primary Memory is of two types: RAM and ROM.

RAM (Volatile Memory)

It is a volatile memory. It means it does not store data or instructions permanently.

When you switch on the computer the data and instructions from the hard disk are
stored in RAM.

CPU utilizes this data to perform the required tasks. As soon as you shut down the
computer the RAM loses all the data.

ROM (Non-volatile Memory)

It is a non-volatile memory. It means it does not lose its data or programs that are
written on it at the time of manufacture. So it is a permanent memory that contains all
important data and instructions needed to perform important tasks like the boot
process.

Secondary Memory
 The secondary storage devices which are built into the computer or connected to
the computer are known as a secondary memory of the computer. It is also
known as external memory or auxiliary storage.

The secondary memory is accessed indirectly via input/output operations. It is

non-volatile, so permanently stores the data even when the computer is turned
off or until this data is overwritten or deleted. The CPU can't directly access the
secondary memory. First, the secondary memory data is transferred to primary
memory then the CPU can access it.

Some of the secondary memory or storage devices are described below:

1) Hard Disk:
It is a rigid magnetic disc that is used to store data. It permanently stores data
and is located within a drive unit.

The hard disk is also known as a hard drive. It is a rigid magnetic disc that stores
data permanently, as it is a non-volatile storage device. The hard disk is located
within a drive unit on the computer's motherboard and comprises one or more
platters packed in an air-sealed casing. The data is written on the platters by
moving a magnetic head over the platters as they spin. The data stored on a
computer's hard drive generally includes the operating system, installed software,
and the user's files and programs, including pictures, music, videos, text
documents, etc.

Components of Hard Drive:

The main components of a hard drive include a head actuator, read/write
actuator arm, read/write head, platter, and spindle. A circuit board, which is
called the disk controller or interface board, is present on the back of a hard
drive. It allows the hard drive to communicate with the computer.

2) Solid-state Drive:
 SSD (Solid State Drive) is also a non-volatile storage medium that is used to hold
and access data. Unlike a hard drive, it does not have moving components, so it
offers many advantages over SSD, such as faster access time, noiseless
operation, less power consumption, and more.

As the cost of SSD has come down, it has become an ideal replacement for a
standard hard drive in desktop and laptop computers. It is also suitable for
notebooks, and tablets that don't require lots of storage.

3) Pen drive:

Pen drive is a compact secondary storage device. It is also known as a USB flash
drive, thumb drive or a jump drive. It connects to a computer via a USB port. It
is commonly used to store and transfer data between computers. For example,
you can write a report using a computer and then copy or transfer it in the pen
drive. Later, you can connect this pen drive to a computer to see or edit your
report. You can also store your important documents and pictures, music, videos
in the pen drive and keep it at a safe place.

Pen drive does not have movable parts; it comprises an integrated circuit
memory chip that stores the data. This chip is housed inside a plastic or
aluminium casing. The data storage capacity of the pen drive generally ranges
from 2 GB to 128 GB. Furthermore, it is a plug and play device as you don't need
additional drives, software, or hardware to use it.
4) SD Card:

SD Card stands for Secure Digital Card. It is most often used in portable and
mobile devices such as smartphones and digital cameras. You can remove it from
your device and see the things stored in it using a computer with a card reader.

There are many memory chips inside the SD card that store the data; it does not
have moving parts. SD cards are not created equal, so they may differ from each
other in terms of speed, physical sizes, and capacity. For example, standard SD
cards, mini SD cards, and micro SD cards.

5) Compact Disk (CD):

Compact Disk is a portable secondary storage device in the shape of a round

medium disk. It is made of polycarbonate plastic. The concept of CD was co-
developed by Philips and Sony in 1982. The first CD was created on 17 August
1982 at the workshop of Philips in Germany.

In the beginning, it was used for storing and playing sound recordings, later it
was used for various purposes such as for storing documents, audio files, videos,
and other data like software programs in a CD.

Physical characteristics of a CD/ Structure of CD:

A standard CD is around 5 inches in diameter and 0.05 inches in thickness. It is

made of a clear polycarbonate plastic substrate, a reflective metallic layer, and a
clear coating of acrylic plastic. These thin circular layers are attached one on top
of another as described below:
 o A polycarbonate disc layer at the bottom has the data encoded by creating lands
and pits.
o The polycarbonate disc layer is coated with a thin aluminium layer that reflects
the laser.
o The reflective aluminium layer is coated with a lacquer layer to prevent oxidation
in order to protect the below layers. It is generally spin coated directly on the top
of the reflective layer.
o The label print is applied on the lacquer layer, or artwork is screen printed on the
top of the disc on the lacquer layer by offset printing or screen printing.

How Does a CD Work?

The data or information is stored or recorded or encoded in CD digitally using a
laser beam that etches tiny indentations or bumps on its surface. The bump is
called a pit, which represents the number 0. Space, where the bump is not
created, is called land, and it represents the number 1. Thus, the data is encoded
into a compact disc by creating pits (0) and lands (1). The CD players use laser
technology to read the optically recorded data.

6) DVD:

DVD is short for digital versatile disc or digital video disc. It is a type of optical
media used for storing optical data. Although it has the same size as a CD, its
storage capacity is much more than a CD. So, it is widely used for storing and
viewing movies and to distribute software programs as they are too large to fit on
a CD. DVD was co-developed by Sony, Panasonic, Philips, and Toshiba in 1995.

Types of DVDs:
DVDs can be divided into three main categories which are as follows:
o DVD-ROM (Read-Only): These types of DVDs come with media already
recorded on them, such as movie dvds. As the name suggests, data on these
discs cannot be erased or added, so these discs are known as a read-only or non-
writable DVD.
o DVD-R (Writable): It allows you to record or write information to the DVD.
However, you can write information only once as it becomes a read-only DVD
once it is full.
o DVD-RW (Rewritable or Erasable): This type of discs can be erased, written,
or recorded multiple times.

Memory Units
Memory units are used to measure and represent data. Some of the commonly
used memory units are:

1) Bit: The computer memory units start from bit. A bit is the smallest memory
unit to measure data stored in main memory and storage devices. A bit can have
only one binary value out of 0 and 1.

2) Byte: It is the fundamental unit to measure data. It contains 8 bits or is equal

to 8 bits. Thus a byte can represent 2*8 or 256 values.

3) Kilobyte: A kilobyte contains 1024 bytes.

4) Megabyte: A megabyte contains 1024 kilobytes.

5) Gigabyte: A gigabyte contains 1024 megabyte.

6) Terabyte: A terabyte contains 1024 gigabytes.

1.7 Summary

In this lecture, you have been exposed to definitions and basic parts of a
computer. Computer concepts, their definitions, functions and
applications have been explained and diagrams for identification of a
computer and its parts presented. Advantages and disadvantages of a
computer have been discussed.
 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.:_________________________________

VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES (Submit on or before September 11, 2020)

Activity 1.1

1. Practice drawing parts of a computer system and identify each component.

2. Define the concepts or terms in their own words and practice with each other the
terminologies and applications of the terms.

Activity 1.2

1. An electronic tool that allows information to be input, processed, and output:

o A. Operating system
o B. Motherboard
o C. Computer
o D. CPU

2. A worldwide network of computers:

o A. CPU
o B. Internet
o C. RAM
o D. Network

3. The brain of the computer. This part does the calculation, moving and processing of information:

o A. CPU
o B. RAM
o C. Motherboard
o D. Hard Drive

4. Part of a computer that allows a user to put information into the computer:

o A. Output Device
o B. Software
o C. Operating System
o D. Input Device
 5. A small picture that represents a folder, program or other things:
o A. Desktop
o B. Icon
o C. Graphic
o D. Image

 6. A name for the short term memory of the computer that is lost when the computer is turned off:
o A. CPU
o B. Hardware
o C. RAM
o D. Processor

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 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.:_________________________________

7. A part of the computer that all other parts are connected to. It allows all of the parts to communicate so
they work together:

o A. Operating System
o B. Disk Drive
o C. Output Device
o D. Motherboard

8. The physical parts of a computer:

o A. Hardware
o B. Hard Drive
o C. Disk Drive
o D. Software

9. Parts of a computer that allow the user to see or hear information that comes out from the computer:

o A. Software
o B. Input Device
o C. Output Device
o D. Operating System

10. This part stores programs and other information on 2 or more disks that are located inside the
computer:

o A. Motherboard
o B. Hard Drive
o C. CPU
o D. Operating System

11. A part of the computer that reads information from a disk:

o A. Operating System
o B. Motherboard
o C. Hard Drive
o D. Disk Drive

12. Another name for computer programs:

o A. Software
o B. RAM
o C. Input Devices
o D. Hardware

VII. ASSIGNMENT (Submit on or before September 11, 2020)

Research about the :

1. Current Trends in Computing

VIII. REFERENCES

Bartee, T.,1984. Introduction to Computer Systems

McGrall-Hill International Book company, Aukland

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 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.:_________________________________

Stallings, William 2009.Operating Systems: Internals and Design Principles (6thEd) Prentice Hall-
Pearson

Numbering the IM No.: IM-IT01-1STSEM-2020-2021

School Year
Semester
Course Number
e.g.:
IM-COURSE NO-SEMESTER-SCHOOL YEAR
IM-MCB180-1STSEM-2020-2021

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