POSTHARVEST BIOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY 39

Losses in quantity and quality affect horticultural crops between har-

vest and consumption. The magnitude of postharvest losses in fresh
fruits and vegetables is an estimated 5 to 25% in developed countries
and 20 to 50% in developing countries, depending upon the com-
modity, cultivar, and handling conditions. To reduce these losses, pro-
ducers and handlers must first understand the biological and environ-
mental factors involved in deterioration, and second, use postharvest
techniques that delay senescence and maintain the best possible qual-
ity. This chapter briefly discusses the first item and introduces the
Postharvest second, which is covered in detail in subsequent chapters.
Fresh fruits, vegetables, and ornamentals are living tissues that are
Biology and subject to continuous change after harvest. While some changes are
desirable, most-from the consumer's standpoint-are not. Posthar-
Technology: An vest changes in fresh produce cannot be stopped, but they can be
slowed within certain limits. Senescence is the final stage in the devel-
Overview opment of plant organs, during which a series of irreversible events
leads to breakdown and death of the plant cells.
Fresh horticultural crops are diverse in morphological structure'
(roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, and so on), in composition, arid
Adel A. Kader in general physiology. Thus, commodity requirements and recommen-
dations for maximum postharvest life vary among the commodities.
All fresh horticultural crops are high in water content and are subject
to desiccation (wilting, shriveling) and to mechanical injury. They are
also susceptible to attack by bacteria and fungi, with pathological
breakdown the result.

BIOLOGICAL FACTORS INVOLVED IN

DETERIORATION

RESPIRATION
Respiration is the process by which stored organic materials (carbohy-
drates, proteins, fats) are broken down into simple end products with
a release of energy. Oxygen (02) is used in this process, and carbon
dioxide (CO2) is produced. The loss of stored food reserves in the
commodity during respiration means the hastening of senescence as
the reserves that provide energy to maintain the commodity's living
status are exhausted; reduced food value (energy value) for the con-
sumer; loss of flavor quality, especially sweetness; and loss of salable
dry weight, which is especially important for commodities destined
for dehydration. The energy released as heat, known as vital heat,
affects postharvest technology considerations, such as estimations of
refrigeration and ventilation requirements.
The rate of deterioration (perishability) of harvested commodities
is generally proportional to the respiration rate. Horticultural com-
modities are classified according to their respiration rates in table 4.l.
Based on their respiration and ethylene (C2H4) production patterns
during maturation and ripening, fruits are either climacteric or non-
climacteric (table 4.2). Climacteric fruits show a large increase in CO2
and C2H4 production rates coincident with ripening, while nonclimac-
teric fruits show no change in their generally low CO2 and C2H4 pro-
duction rates during ripening.

ETHYLENE PRODUCTION
Ethylene (C2H4), the simplest of the organic compounds affecting
the physiological processes of plants, is a natural product of plant
40 CHAPTER 4

Table 4.1. Horticulturalcommoditiesclassifiedaccordingto respiration Generally, C2H4 production rates increase

rates
with maturity at harvest and with physical
Range at soC(41°F) injuries, disease incidence, increased temper-
Class (mg COz/kg-hr)* Commodities
- nn --- -
atures up to 30°C (86°F), and water stress.
Verylow <5 Dates,driedfruits andvegetables,nuts On the other hand, C2H4 production rates by
Low 5-10 fresh horticultural crops are reduced by stor-
Apple,beet,celery,citrusfruits,cranberry,
garlic,grape,honeydewmelon,kiwifruit, age at low temperature, by reduced O2 levels
onion,papaya,persimmon,pineapple, (less than 8%), and elevated CO2 levels
pomegranate,potato(mature),pumpkin, (more than 2%) around the commodity.
sweetpotato,watermelon,winter squash
Moderate 10-20 Apricot,banana,blueberry,cabbage,can-
COMPOSITIONAL CHANGES
taloupe,carrot(topped),celeriac,cherry, Many changes in pigments take place during
cucumber,fig, gooseberry,lettuce(head), development and maturation of the commod-
mango,nectarine,olive,peach,pear,plum, ity on the plant; some may continue after
potato (immature),radish(topped),sum- harvest and can be desirable or undesirable:

High 20-40
mersquash,tomato
Avocado,blackberry,carrot(with tops),
. Loss of chlorophyll (green color) is desir-
able in fruits but not in vegetables.

40-60
cauliflower,leek,lettuce(leaf),limabean,
radish(with tops),raspberry,strawberry . Development of carotenoids (yellow and
orange colors) is desirable in fruits such as
Veryhigh Artichoke,beansprouts,broccoli,Brus-
selssprouts,cherimoya,cut flowers, apricots, peaches, and citrus. Red color
endive,greenonions,kale,okra,passion development in tomatoes and pink grape-
fruit, snapbean,watercress fruit is due to a specific carotenoid
Extremely high >60 Asparagus, mushroom, parsley, peas, (lycopene); beta-carotene is provitamin A
spinach, sweet corn and thus is important in nutritional quality.
- ---------------------------

Note: *Vital heat (Btu/ton/24 hrs) = mg COz/kg-hrx 220.

Vital heat (kcal/1,000 kg/24 hrs) = mg COz/kg-hrx 61.2.
. Development of anthocyanins (red and
blue colors) is desirable in fruits such as
apples (red cultivars), cherries, strawber-
metabolism and is produced by all tissues of ries, cane berries, and red-flesh oranges.
higher plants and by some microorganisms- These water-soluble pigments are much
As a plant hormone, C2H4regulates many less stable than carotenoids.
aspects of growth, development, and senes-
cence and is physiologically active in trace
. Changes in anthocyanins and other phe-
nolic compounds may result in tissue
amounts (less than 0.1 ppm). It also plays a browning, which is undesirable for
major role in the abscission of plant organs.
appearance quality. On the other hand,
The amino acid methionine is converted
these constituents contribute to the total
to S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), which is the
antioxidant capacity of the commodity,
precursor of l-aminocyclopropane-l-car- which is beneficial to human health.
boxylic acid (ACC), the immediate precursor
of C2H+ ACC synthase, which converts SAM Changes in carbohydrates include starch-
to ACe, is the main site of control of ethylene to-sugar conversion (undesirable in pota-
biosynthesis. The conversion of ACC into toes, desirable in apple, banana, and other
ethylene is mediated by ACC oxidase. The fruits); sugar-to-starch conversion (undesir-
synthesis and activities of ACC synthase and able in peas and sweet corn; desirable in
ACC oxidase are influenced by genetic factors potatoes); and conversion of starch and sug-
and environmental conditions, including ars to CO2 and water through respiration.
temperature and concentrations of oxygen Breakdown of pectins and other polysaccha-
and carbon dioxide. rides results in softening of fruits and a con-
Horticultural commodities are classified sequent increase in susceptibility to mechan-
according to their C2H4 production rates in ical injuries. Increased lignin content is
table 4.3. There is no consistent relationship responsible for toughening of asparagus
between the C2H4 production capacity of a spears and root vegetables.
given commodity and its perishability; how- Changes in organic acids, proteins, amitlO
ever, exposure of most commodities to C2H4 acids, and lipids can influence flavor quality
accelerates their senescence. of the commodity. Loss in vitamin content,
 POSTHARVEST BIOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY 41

especially ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is detri- onions and root crops is also undesirable.
mental to nutritional quality. Production of Asparagus spears continue to grow after har-
flavor volatiles associated with ripening of vest; elongation and curvature (if the spears
fruits is very important to their eating quality. are held horizontally) are accompanied by
increased toughness and decreased palatabil-
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT ity. Similar geotropic responses occur in cut
Sprouting of potatoes, onions, garlic, and gladiolus and snapdragon flowers stored
root crops greatly reduces their food value horizontally. Seed germination inside fruits
and accelerates deterioration. Rooting of such as tomatoes, peppers, and lemons is an
undesirable change.
Table 4.2. Fruitsclassifiedaccordingto respiratorybehavior during
ripening TRANSPIRATION OR WATER lOSS
------------------ ----- ---..- ----------- - --------- ---
Climacteric fruits Nonclimacteric fruits Water loss is a main cause of deterioration
------------------------- ---------------..--------
because it results not only in direct quantita-
Apple Muskmelon Blackberry Lychee tive losses (loss of salable weight), but also
Apricot Nectarine Cacao Okra in losses in appearance (wilting and shrivel-
Avocado Papaya Carambola Olive ing), textural quality (softening, flaccidity,
Banana Passionfruit Cashewapple
limpness, loss of crispness and juiciness),
Orange
Biriba Peach
and nutritional quality.
Cherry Pea
The commodity's dermal system (outer --

Blueberry Pear Cranberry Pepper protective coverings) governs the regulation

Breadfruit Persimmon Cucumber Pineapple of water loss. It includes the cuticle, epider-
Cherimoya Plantain Date Pomegranate mal cells, stomata, lenticles, and trichomes.
Durian Plum (hairs). The cuticle is composed of surface
Eggplant Pricklypear
waxes, cutin embedded in wax, and a layer
Feijoa Quince Grape Raspberry
of mixtures of cutin, wax, and carbohydrate
Fig Rambutan Grapefruit Strawberry polymers. The thickness, structure, and
Guava Sapodilla Jujube Summersquash chemical composition of the cuticle vary
Jackfruit Sapote Lemon Tamarillo greatly among commodities and among.
Kiwifruit Lime developmental stages of a given commoditt.
Soursop Tangerineand
mandarin The transpiration rate (evaporation of
Mango Sweetsop Longan
water from the plant tissues) is influenced by
Mangosteen Tomato Loquat Watermelon internal, or commodity, factors (morphologi-
-------------------- -- ----- ------

cal and anatomical characteristics, surface-to-

Table 4.3. Classificationof horticultural commodities according to eth- volume ratio, surface injuries, and maturity
ylene (CZH4)production rates stage) and by external, or environmental, fac-
------------------

Range at 20°C (68°F) tors (temperature, relative humidity [RH], air

Class (IJLCzH4/kg-hr) Commodities movement, and atmospheric pressure). Tran-
- --- --- __OM -------------------------

Verylow Lessthan 0.1 spiration is a physical process that can be con-

Artichoke,asparagus,cauliflower,cherry,
citrusfruits,grape,jujube,strawberry,
trolled by applying treatments to the com-
pomegranate,leafyvegetables,root veg- modity (e.g., waxes and other surface coatings
etables,potato,mostcut flowers or wrapping with plastic films) or by manipu-
Low 0.1-1.0 lating the environment (e.g., maintaining high
Blackberry,blueberry,casabamelon,
cranberry,cucumber,eggplant,okra, RH and controlling air circulation).
olive,pepper(sweetand chili),persim-
PHYSIOLOGICAL BREAKDOWN
mon,pineapple,pumpkin,raspberry,
tamarillo,watermelon Exposure of the commodity to undesirable
Moderate 1.0":10.0 temperatures can result in physiological dis-
Banana,fig, guava,honeydewmelon,
orders:
Iychee,mango,plantain,tomato
High 10.0-100.0 Apple,apricot,avocado,cantaloupe,fei-
joa, kiwifruit (ripe),nectarine,papaya,
. Freezing injury results when commodities
are held below their freezing temperatures.
peach,pear,plum
The disruption caused by freezing usually.
Veryhigh Morethan 100.0 Cherimoya,mammeeapple,passion
results in immediate collapse of the tissues
fruit, sapote
-----------------
and total loss of the commodity.
42 CHAPTER 4

. Chilling injury occurs in some commodi-

ties (mainly those of tropical and subtrop-
accelerate water loss, provide sites for fun-
gal infection, and stimulate CO2 and C2H4
ical origin) held at temperatures above
production by the commodity.
their freezing point and below 5° to 1S0C
(41 ° to S9°F), depending on the commod- PATHOLOGICAL BREAKDOWN
ity. Chilling injury symptoms become One of the most common and obvious
more noticeable upon transfer to higher
symptoms of deterioration results from the
(nonchilling) temperatures. The most
activity of bacteria and fungi. Attack by most
common symptoms are surface and inter-
organisms follows physical injury or physio-
nal discoloration (browning), pitting,
logical breakdown of the commodity. In a
watersoaked areas, uneven ripening or
few cases, pathogens can infect apparently
failure to ripen, off-flavor development,
and accelerated incidence of surface healthy tissues and become the primary
cause of deterioration. In general, fruits and
molds and decay (especially the incidence
vegetables exhibit considerable resistance to
of organisms not usually found growing
potential pathogens during most of their
on healthy tissue).
. Heat injury is induced by exposure to
direct sunlight or excessively high temper-
postharvest life. The onset of ripening in
fruits, and senescence in all commodities,
renders them susceptible to infection by
atures. Its symptoms include bleaching, pathogens. Stresses such as mechanical
surface burning or scalding, uneven ripen- injuries, chilling, and sunscald lower the'
ing, excessive softening, and desiccation. resistance to pathogens.

Certain types of physiological disorders orig- ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

inate from pre harvest nutritional imbalances. INFLUENCING
For example, blossom end rot of tomatoes DETERIORATION
and bitter pit of apples result from calcium
deficiency. Increasing calcium content by Temperature. Temperature is the environ-
preharvest or postharvest treatments can mental factor that most influences the deteri-
reduce the susceptibility to physiological dis- oration rate of harvested commodities. Fer
orders. Calcium content also influences the each increase of lOOC (lSOF) above optirrlum,
textural quality and senescence rate of fruits the rate of deterioration increases by two- to
and vegetables; increased calcium content threefold (table 4.4). Exposure to undesirable
has been associated with improved firmness temperatures results in many physiological
retention, reduced CO2 and C2H4 production disorders, as mentioned above. Temperature
rates, and decreased decay incidence. also influences the effect of C2H4, reduced
Very low °2( d %) and high CO2 (>20%) °2, and elevated CO2, The spore germination
atmospheres can cause physiological break- and growth rate of pathogens are greatly
down of most fresh horticultural commodi- influenced by temperature; for instance, cool-
ties, and C2H4 can induce physiological ing commodities below SOC (41°F) immedi-
disorders in certain commodities. The inter- ately after harvest can greatly reduce the inci-
actions among °2, CO2, and C2H4 concentra- dence of Rhizopus rot. Temperature effects
tions, temperature, and duration of storage on postharvest responses of chilling-sensitive
influence the incidence and severity of physi- and nonchilling-sensitive horticultural crops
ological disorders related to atmospheric are compared in table 4.5.
composition. Relative humidity. The rate of water loss
from fruits and vegetables depends on the
PHYSICAL DAMAGE vapor pressure deficit between the commodi-
Various types of physical damage (surface ty and the surrounding ambient air, which
injuries, impact bruising, vibration bruising, is influenced by temperature and RH. At a
and so on) are major contributors to deteri- given temperature and rate of air movement,
oration. Browning of damaged tissues the rate of water loss from the commodity
results from membrane disruption, which depends on the RH. At a given RH, water loss
exposes phenolic compounds to the increases with the increase in temperature..
polyphenol oxidase enzyme. Mechanical Atmospheric composition. Reduction of
injuries not only are unsightly but also O2 and elevation of CO2, whether intentional
 POSTHARVEST BIOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY 43

Table 4.4. Effectof temperature on deterioration rate of a non-chilling-sensitive (modified or controlled atmosphere storage)
commodity ---------------- or unintentional (restricted ventilation within
Relative a shipping container or transport vehicle), can
Temperature velocity of Relative loss per day either delay or accelerate the deterioration of
(OF) (°C)--- Assumed Q1O' deterioration shelf life (%) fresh horticultural crops. The magnitude of
----------- -------------------- ------------------ ---------- - --------------
32 0 1.0 100 1 these effects depends on the commodity, culti-
50 10 3.0 3.0 33 3 var, physiological age, O2 and CO2 levels,
68 20 2.5 7.5 13 8 temperature, and duration of holding.
86 30 2.0 15.0 7 14 Ethylene. Because the effects of C2H4 on
104 40 1.5 22.5 4 25 harvested horticultural commodities can be
--- --- --------------------------------------------------------------

Note: 'Q1O = Rate of deterioration at temperature (T) + 10°C desirable or undesirable, C2H4 is of major
Rate of deterioration at T concern to all produce handlers. Ethylene
can be used to promote faster and more uni-
Table 4.5.Fruits and vegetables classified according to sensitivity to form ripening of fruits picked at the mature-
chillinginjury green stage. On the other hand, exposure to
C2H4 can be detrimental to the quality of
GROUP I GROUP II
most nonfruit vegetables and ornamentals.
Non-chilling-sensitive of 'C Chilling-sensitive
commodities 122 50 commodities Light. Exposure of potatoes to light should

High-temperature injury -
113

1, 10495
.;.. 86
45

35,1
40

30 .;..
- High-temperature injury
be avoided because it results in greening due
to formation of chlorophyll and solanine
(toxic to humans). Light-induced greening of
Optimumripening 77 25 Optimumripening
Belgian endive is also undesirable.
temperature ran~e--{ 68 20}- temperature range Other factors. Various kinds of chemicals
forfruits for fruits
59 15 (e.g., fungicides, growth regulators) may be
Ideal temperature range
} applied to the commodity to affect one or
50 10 l~ for transit and storage
r more of the biological deterioration factors.
Idealtemperature range
for transit and storage ---{
Freezinginjury---
r
41
32
23
50
-5
1
-
Chillinginjury
Freezinginjury POSTHARVEST
TECHNOLOGY PROCEDURES
GROUPI GROUPII t
------------ - ,- --- --- - --- -

Fruits Vegetables Fruits Vegetables TEMPERATURE MANAGEMENT

,----- - --- -

Apple' Artichoke Avocado Beans, snap PROCEDURES

Apricot Asparagus Banana Cassava Temperature management is the most effec-
Blackberry Beans,lima Breadfruit Cucumber
Carambola tive tool for extending the shelf life of fresh
Blueberry Beet Eggplant
Cherry Broccoli Cherimoya Ginger horticultural commodities. It begins with the
Currant Brusselssprouts Citrus Muskmelon rapid removal of field heat by using one of
Date Cabbage Cranberry Okra the following cooling methods: hydrocool-
Fig Carrot Durian Peppers
Potato ing, in-package icing, top-icing, evaporative
Grape Cauliflower Feijoa
Kiwifruit Celery Guava Pumpkin cooling, room cooling, forced-air cooling,
Loquat Corn,sweet Jackfruit Squash serpentine forced-air cooling, vacuum cool-
Nectarine' Endive Jujube Sweet potato ing, or hydro-vacuum cooling.
Peach' Garlic Longan Taro
Pear Lettuce Tomato Cold storage facilities should be well-engi-
Lychee
Persimmon' Mushrooms Mango Watermelon neered and adequately equipped. They
Plum' Onion Mangosteen Yam should have good construction and insula-
Prune Parsley Olive tion, including a complete vapor barrier on
Raspberry Parsnip Papaya the warm side of the insulation; strong
Strawberry Peas Passion fruit
Radish Pepino floors; adequate and well-positioned doors
Spinach Pineapple for loading and unloading; effective distribu-
Turnip Plantain tion of refrigerated air; sensitive and properly
Pomegranate located controls; enough refrigerated coil
Pricklypear surface to minimize the difference between
Rambutan
Sapodilla the coil and air temperatures; and adequate
Sapote capacity for expected needs. Commodities
Tamarillo should be stacked in the cold room with air
Note: 'Some cultivars are chilling sensitive. spaces between pallets and room walls to
44 CHAPTER 4

ensure good air circulation. Storage rooms perature and RH, but they can help extend
should not be loaded beyond their limit for the shelf life of harvested produce beyond
proper cooling. In monitoring temperatures, what is possible using refrigeration alone
commodity temperature rather than air tem- (table 4.6).
perature should be measured.
Transit vehicles must be cooled before
loading the commodity. Delays between cool-
. Treatments applied to commodities include
curing of certain root, bulb, and tuber
vegetables
ing after harvest and loading into transit . cleaning followed by removal of excess
surface moisture
vehicles should be avoided. Proper tempera-
ture maintenance should be ensured
throughout the handling system.
.. sorting to eliminate defects
waxing and other surface coatings, includ-

CONTROL OF RELATIVE HUMIDITY . ing film wrapping

heat treatments (hot water or air, vapor
heat)
Relative humidity can influence water loss,
decay development, incidence of some phys- .. treatment with postharvest fungicides
sprout inhibitors
iological disorders, and uniformity of fruit
ripening. Condensation of moisture on the . special chemical treatments (scald
inhibitors, calcium, growth regulators,
commodity (sweating) over long periods of
anti-ethylene chemicals for ornamentals)
time is probably more important in enhanc-
ing decay than is the RH of ambient air.
Proper relative humidity is 85 to 95% for
.. fumigation for insect control
ethylene treatment (de-greening, ripening)
fruits and 90 to 98% for vegetables except
dry onions and pumpkins (70 to 75%). Treatments to manipulate the enviro~-
ment include
Some root vegetables can best be held at 95
to 100% RH.
Relative humidity can be controlled by
.. packaging
control of air movement and circulation
one or more of the following procedures: .. control of air exchange or ventilation
. adding moisture (water mist or spray,
steam) to air by humidifiers .
exclusion or removal of C2H4
controlled or modified atmospheres .(CA
. regulating air movement and ventilation
in relation to the produce load in the cold
or MA)
. sanitation
i

storage room
. maintaining the refrigeration coils within
about 1DC (2DF) of the air temperature
RECENT TRENDS IN
PERISHABLES HANDLING
. providing moisture barriers that insulate
storage room and transit vehicle walls; SELECTION OF CULTIVARS
adding polyethylene liners in containers For many commodities, producers are using
and plastic films for packaging cultivars with superior quality and/or long
.. wetting floors in storage rooms
adding crushed ice in shipping containers
postharvest life, such as "super-sweet" sweet
corn, long-shelf-life tomatoes, and sweeter
or in retail displays for commodities that melons. Plant geneticists in public and pri-
are not injured by the practice vate institutions are using molecular biology
. sprinkling produce with water during
retail marketing (use on leafy vegetables,
methods along with plant breeding proce-
dures to produce new genotypes that taste
cool-season root vegetables, and immature better, maintain firmness better, are more
fruit vegetables such as snap beans, peas, disease resistant, have less browning poten-
sweet corn, summer squash tial, and have other desirable characteristics.

SUPPLEMENT TEMPERATURE PACKING AND PACKAGING

MANAGEMENT The produce industry is increasingly using
Many technological procedures are used plastic containers that can be reused and
commercially as supplements to temperature recycled in order to reduce waste disposal
management. None of these procedures, problems. For example, standard-sized (4,8
alone or in their various combinations, can by 40 in., about 120 by 100 cm) stacking
substitute for maintenance of optimal tem- (returnable) pallets are becoming more
 POSTHARVEST BIOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY 45

widely used. There is continued increase in cooling facility within O.5°C (about 1°F) of
use of modified atmosphere and controlled the optimal storage temperature. Periodic
atmosphere packaging (MAP and CAP) sys- ventilation of storage facilities is effective in
tems at the pallet, shipping container (fiber- maintaining CZH4 concentrations below 1
board box liner), and consumer package lev- ppm, which permits mixing of temperature-
els. Also, the use of absorbers of CZH4' COz, compatible, ethylene-producing, and ethyl-
Oz', and/or water vapor as part of MAP and ene-sensitive commodities.
CAP is increasing.
POSTHARVEST INTEGRATED PEST
COOLING AND STORAGE MANAGEMENT (I PM)
The current trend is towards increased pre- Controlled atmosphere (CA) conditions
cision in temperature and relative humidity delay senescence, including fruit ripening,
(RH) management to provide the optimal and consequently reduce the susceptibility of
environment for fresh fruits and vegetables fruits to pathogens. On the other hand, CA
during cooling and storage. Precision tem- conditions unfavorable to a given commodi-
perature management (PTM) tools are ty can induce physiological breakdown and
becoming more common in cooling and render it more susceptible to pathogens.
storage facilities. Forced-air cooling contin- Calcium treatments have been shown to
ues to be the predominant cooling method reduce decay incidence and severity; wound
for horticultural perishables. Operators can healing following physical injury has been.
ensure that all produce shipments leave the observed in some fruits and has reduced
their susceptibility to decay Biological con-
Table 4.6. Freshhorticultural crops classifiedaccording to relative per- trol agents are being used alone or in comQi-
ishability and potential storage life in air at near-optimal temperature nation with reduced concentrations of
and RH
postharvest fungicides, heat treatments,
Potential and/or fungistatic CA for control of posthar-
Relative storage life vest diseases.
perishability (weeks) Commodities Chemical fumigants, especially methyl
~~---~ ~.-~--- ~~--~-~ ~---~-_. ~--~--- - -

Veryhigh <2 Apricot,blackberry,blueberry,cherry,fig, bromide, are still the primary method used.
for insect control in harvested fruits when.
raspberry,strawberry;asparagus,bean
sprouts,broccoli,cauliflower,cantaloupe, such treatment is required by quarantine
greenonion,leaf lettuce,mushroom,pea, authorities in importing countries. Many
spinach,sweetcorn,tomato (ripe);most studies are under way to develop alternative
cut flowersandfoliage;fresh-cut(mini- methods of insect control that are effective,
mallyprocessed)fruits andvegetables not phytotoxic to the fruits, and present no
High 2-4 health hazard to the consumer. These alter-
Avocado,banana,grape(without 502
treatment),guava,loquat,mandarin, natives include cold treatments, hot water or
mango,melons(honeydew,crenshaw, air treatments, ionizing radiation (0.15-0.30
Persian),nectarine,papaya,peach, kilo gray) and exposure to reduced (less than
pepino,plum;artichoke,greenbeans, 0.5%) Oz and/or elevated CO2 (40-60%)
Brusselssprouts,cabbage,celery,egg- atmospheres. This is a high-priority research
plant,headlettuce,okra,pepper,summer and development area because of the possi-
squash,tomato (partiallyripe) ble loss of methyl bromide as an option for
Moderate 4-8 insect control.
Appleand pear(somecultivars),grape
(504-treated),orange,grapefruit,lime,
kiwifruit, persimmon,pomegranate, USE OF CONTROLLED AND MODIFIED
pummelo;table beet,carrot,radish,pota- ATMOSPHERES
to (immature) The use of CA during transport and/or stor-
Low 8-16 Appleandpear(somecultivars),lemon, age of fresh fruits and vegetables (marketed
potato (mature),dry onion,garlic,pump- intact or lightly processed) continues to
kin, winter squash,sweetpotato,taro, expand because of improvements in nitro-
yam;bulbsand otherpropagulesof orna- gen-generation equipment and in instru-
mentalplants ments for monitoring and maintaining
Verylow >16 Treenuts,driedfruits andvegetables
desired concentrations of oxygen and carbon
dioxide. Controlled atmosphere is a useful
46 CHAPTER 4

supplement to the proper maintenance of allowing all shipments to be continuously

optimal temperature and RH during trans- monitored. Some new trucks have air ride
port and storage of many fresh fruits and suspension, which can eliminate transport
vegetables. It allows use of marine transport vibration damage. As the industry realizes the
instead of air transport of some commodities. value of air ride, its popularity will increase.
Several refinements in CA storage have
been made in recent years to improve quality HANDLING AT WHOLESALE AND RETAIL
maintenance. These include creating nitro- Wholesale and retail markets have been
gen by separation from compressed air using increasingly using automated ripening, in
molecular sieve beds or membrane systems; which the gas composition of the ripening
low O2 (1.0-1.5%) storage; low ethylene CA atmosphere, the room temperature, and fruit
storage; rapid CA (rapid establishment of the color are continuously monitored and modu-
optimal levels of O2 and CO2); and pro- lated to meet desired ripening characteristics.
grammed (or sequential) CA storage (e.g., Improved ripening systems will lead to
storage in 1% O2 for 2 to 6 weeks followed greater use of ripening technology to deliver
by storage in 2 to 3% O2 for the remainder of products that are ripened to the ideal eating
the storage period). Other developments, stage. Better-refrigerated display units, with
which may expand use of MA during trans- improved temperature and RH monitoring
port and distribution, include using edible and control systems, are being used in retail
coatings or polymeric films with appropriate markets, especially for fresh-cut fruit and veg-
gas permeabilities to create a desired MA etable products. Many retail and food service
around and within the commodity. Modified operators are using Hazard Analysis Critical
atmosphere packaging is widely used in mar- Control Points (HACCP) Programs to a~sure
keting fresh-cut fruits and vegetables. consumers that food products are safe.
Successful application of atmospheric
modification depends on the commodity, FOOD SAFETY ASSURANCE
cultivar, maturity stage at harvest, and a posi- During the past few years, food safety became
tive return on investment (benefit-cost ratio). and continues to be the number-one concern
Commercial use of CA storage is greatest of the fresh produce industry. U.S. trade
worldwide on apples and pears; less on organizations such as the International Presh-
kiwifruits, avocados, persimmons, pomegran- Cut Produce Association (IFPA), Produce
ates, nuts, and dried fruits and vegetables. Marketing Association (PMA), United Fresh
Atmospheric modification during long-dis- Fruit and Vegetable Association (UFFVA),
tance transport is used on apples, asparagus, and Western Growers Association (WGA)
avocados, bananas, broccoli, cane berries, have taken an active role in developing vol-
cherries, figs, kiwifruits, mangoes, melons, untary food safety guidelines for producers
nectarines, peaches, pears, plums, and straw- and handlers of fresh fruits and vegetables.
berries. Continued technological develop- The U.S. Food and Drug Administration
ments in the future to provide CA during (FDA) published in October 1998 the Guide
transport and storage at a reasonable cost are to Minimize Microbial Food Safety Hazards for
essential to greater CA applications on fresh Fresh Fruits and Vegetables. This guide should
fruits and vegetables. be used by all handlers of fresh produce to
develop the most appropriate agricultural and
TRANSPORTATION management practices for their operations.
Improvements are continually being made in The FDA guide is based on the following
attaining and maintaining the optimal envi- basic principles and practices associated with
ronmental conditions (temperature, RH, and minimizing microbial food safety hazards
concentrations of O2, CO2, and C2H4) in from the field through distribution of fresh
transport vehicles. Produce is commonly fruits and vegetables.
cooled before loading and is loaded with an Principle 1. Prevention of microbial conta-
air space between the palletized produce and mination of fresh produce is favored over
the walls of the transport vehicles to improve reliance on corrective actions once contami-
temperature maintenance. In some cases, nation has occurred. ,
vehicle and produce temperature data are Principle 2. To minimize microbial food
transmitted by satellite to a control center, safety hazards in fresh produce, growers,
 POSTHARVEST BIOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY 47

packers, or shippers should use good agricul- duce. Paris: International Institute of Refrigera-
tural and management practices in those tion. 219 pp
areas over which they have control. Kader, A. A. 1983. Postharvest quality maintenance
Principle 3. Fresh produce can become of fruits and vegetables in developing countries.
microbiologically contaminated at any point In M. Lieberman, ed., Postharvest physiology
along the farm-to-table food chain. The and crop preservation. New York: Plenum.
major source of microbial contamination of 520-536.
fresh produce i5 associated with human or Kantor, L S., K. Lipton, A. Manchester. and V
animal feces. Oliveira. 1997. Estimating and addressing Amer-
Principle 4. Whenever water comes in ica's food losses. Food Review 20:3-11.
contact with produce, the quality of the Kitinoja, L, and A. A. Kader 1995. Small-scale
water dictates the potential for contamina- postharvest handling practices: A manual for
tion. Minimize the potential of microbial horticultural crops. 3rd ed. Davis: Univ. Calif.
contamination from water used with fresh Postharv. Hort. SeT 8. 231 pp.
fruits and vegetables. Kitinoja, L, andj. R. Gorny. 1999. Postharvest tech-
Principle 5. Practices using animal nology for small-scale produce marketers: Eco-
manure or municipal biosolid wastes should nomic opportunities, quality and food safety.
be managed closely to minimize the potential Davis: Univ. Calif. Postharv. Hort. SeT 21.
for microbial contamination of fresh produce. Lidster, PD., P D. Hilderbrand, L S. Berard, and S.
Principle 6. Worker hygiene and sanita- W Porritt. 1988. Commercial storage of fruits
tion practices during production, harvesting, and vegetables. Can. Dept. Agric. Pub I. 1532.
sorting, packing, and transport playa critical 88 pp.
role in minimizing the potential for micro- Lipton, W j. 1987. Senescence in leafy vegetables.
bial contamination of fresh produce. HortScience 22:854-859.
Principle 7. Follow all applicable local, Mayak, S. 1987. Senescence in cut flowers.
state, and federal laws and regulations or HortScience 22:863-865.
corresponding or similar laws, regulations, or National Academy of Sciences. 1978. Postharvest
standards for operators outside the United food losses in developing countries (Science and
States, for agricultural practices. Technology for International Development).
Washington, D.c.: Natl. Acad. Sci. 202 pp.
REFERENCES Rhodes, M. j. C. 1980a. The maturation and ripening
of fruits. In K. V Thimann, ed., Senescence in
Brady, C. j. 1987. Fruit ripening. Annu. Rev. Plant plants. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. 157-205.
Physiol. 38:155-178. -. 1980b. The physiological basis for the con-
Cappellini, R. A., and M.j. Ceponis. 1984. Posthar- servation of food crops. Prog. Food NUlr Sci.
vest losses in fresh fruits and vegetables. In H. E. 4(3-4): 11-20.
Moline, ed., Postharvest pathology of fruits and Romani, R. j. 1987. Senescence and homeostasis in
vegetables: Postharvest losses in perishable postharvest research. HortScience 22:865-868.
crops. Oakland: Univ. Calif. Bull. 1914.24-30. Shewfelt, R. L 1986. Postharvest treatment for
Giovannoni, j. 2001. Molecular biology of fruit matu- extending the shelf-life of fruits and vegetables.
ration and ripening. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. Food Technol. 40(5): 70-89.
Plant Mol. BioI. 52:725-749. Tindall, H. D., and F j. Proctor 1980. Loss preven-
Grierson, D. 1987. Senescence in fruits. HortScience tion of horticultural crops in the tropics. Prog.
22:859-862. Food Nutr Sci. 4(3-4): 25-40.
Harvey, j. M. 1978. Reduction oflosses in fresh mar- United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization
ket fruits and vegetables. Annu. Rev. Phy- (FAO) 1981. Food loss prevention in perishable
topathol. 16:321-341. crops. FAO Agric. Serv. Bull. 43. 72 pp.
International Institute of Refrigeration. 2000. Recom- Wang, C. Y, ed. 1990. Chilling injury of horticultural
mendations for chilled storage of perishable pro- crops. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. 313 pp.