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Defining Sound Fields

The near field is the region close to a sound source usually defined as ¼ of the longest
Near wave-length of the source. Near field noise levels are characterized by drastic fluctuations
Field in levels as much as 10 dBA for small changes in distance from the source. Near field
references can pertain to both indoor and outdoor environments.

The far field describes a sound field beyond the near field limits described above where
the sound pressure level (SPL) drops off at the theoretical rate of 6 dB fore very doubling
Far of distance from the source. This rule of thumb is called the Inverse Square Law. Please
note that if the far field does not meet the criteria for a free field as described below, then
Field less than the theoretical drop rate will pertain. In such case doubling the distance from the
source may yield a drop rate of 3-4 dB.

To be considered free field there can be no obstructing surfaces in the sound path of
spherical wave propagation. Free field conditions are characterized by SPL loss rates
Free following the Inverse Square Law. Free field references pertain to large open outdoor
Field spaces or in rooms where walls and other surfaces are almost completely absorptive.
Anechoic (without echoes) acoustical test chambers simulate free field conditions where
omnidirectional sound wave propagation exists.

The direct sound field is also used to describe far field conditions that follow the Inverse
Square Law SPL loss rate of 6dB for every doubling of the distance. The actual formula
Direct used to make calculations at various distances in the far/direct field is as follows: SPL1
Field [20x log (d2/d1)] = SPL2 where SPL1 is the noise level at the location closer to the source
at a distance of d1 from the source and SPL2 is the noise level at a location farther from
the source at a distance of d2.

In a diffuse field there are so many reflections contributing to the total sound field that
Diffuse sound levels measured virtually anywhere in the sound field are the same. Diffuse fields
Field usually pertain to indoor environments. Rooms that are categorized as “live” have larger
diffuse fields than free fields. “Dead” rooms have much larger free fields than diffuse fields.

The reverberant field is essentially the same as the diffuse field. For indoor sound field
discussions it is used to contrast direct fields. Reverberation test chambers have all room
Reverberant surfaces almost completely reflective so that total sound energy remains constant
Field throughout the environment and sound levels can be measured independent of location
and distance.

Please refer to the figure on the following page which

shows the relationship between sound fields.

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Sound Fields Relative To Distances From A Source

Community Reaction To Noise

Listed below are some of the key • Any noises that disturb or interfere
factors which can reduce the community with sleep, communication or
tolerance level for noise in recreation.
environmental applications. • Intermittent, impulsive or startling
noises.
• Where there are exceptionally low • Low frequency sound which causes
background ambient noise levels. vibrations in windows, walls and
• A noticeable fluctuation in sound other parts of building structures.
level which would call attention to the • Distracting noise sources, such as
source. breaking of glass at a bottling plant.
• Pure tones or discrete frequency • Any changes in noise patterns.
sounds regardless of the overall
intensity.
• Elevated noise sources such as
vents, stacks, outdoor cooling towers
and other clearly visible noise
sources.

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Predicting Community Reaction To Noise

1. Plot octave band sound 4. Calculate the composite noise
pressure levels on Figure 3 at rating N1 from the formula N1
each frequency 63 Hz to 8000 = N – CF.
Hz. 5. Refer to Figure 2 for predicted
2. Determine the value of N community response based
where the plotted data on the calculated composite
intersects the highest curve. rating N1.
3. Determine the sum total of all 6. When dealing with sensitive
correction factors that apply community noise issues it
as outlined in Figure 1. The may be necessary to contract
sum equals value CF. These the services of an acoustical
factors will influence the consultant.
composite noise rating N1.

Figure 1 Figure 2

Figure 3

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Defining Environmental Noise Descriptions

Ambient Level Noise levels characterized by all sounds in the area

including the noise source of interest that is being evaluated.

Background Level Noise level of all sounds in the area except the noise source
of interest that is being evaluated.

Leq An energy average continuous equivalent sound level. Leq is

the SPL decibel value representing the sum total sound
energy of all measured fluctuations for the source applied
uniformly over the time period in question. Leq(24) denotes for
example a 24 hour measurement period.

Ldn The A-weighted day-night equivalent sound level Ldn is

defined as a continuous 24 hour Leq with 10 dBA added to all
signals recorded between the hours of 10:00 p.m. and 7:00
a.m. The 10 dBA weighting accounts for the heightened
noise sensitivity of people during night sleeping hours.

Ln The Ln descriptor is a percentile level where “n” is a number

between 0 and 100 corresponding to the percentage of the
sampling time period by which the specified sound level
value has been exceeded. For example, L10 = 60 dBA
denotes that SPL measurements exceeded 60 dBA for 10%
of the time during the sampling period.

All Environmental Noise Descriptors are dBA Weighted.

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Sound Propagation Outdoors

Sound propagation is affected by noise source may be visible at a distance

changes in atmospheric conditions. but quieter than expected. The other
Temperature variations will influence sound extreme shown above right occurs when air
wave propagation in the direction of cooler is cooler closer to the ground such as at
air. Above left shows the shadow zone night or over calm ground. If the ground
created as sound waves bend toward cooler surface is reflective, sound waves will
air at higher altitudes. When this occurs, a continue to bounce and hop, traveling much
farther than otherwise expected.

Wind directions and currents also than expected because of the shadow zone
affect sound propagation outdoors. Noise created as illustrated above left. This
sources emitting sound in the direction of phenomenon when combined with
wind travel (downwind) will tend to temperature fluctuations can explain the
propagate farther than expected as shown common occurrence of aircraft noise fading
above right. Conversely, sound emitting in in and out of hearing range while the plane
the direction against the wind (upwind) will is moving toward the listener.
travel less

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Predicting Outdoor Sound Levels
Outdoor sound transmission is determined by three categories of natural effects.
These are distance effects, atmospheric effects and terrain/vegetation effects. Each
natural effect influences the propagation of sound/noise along a different transmission
path. The combined distance effects impact the direct path transmission which is where
most of the energy flows. Terrain and vegetation effects influence the ground reflected
sound transmission path. Typical attenuation values are listed in the table below (right).
The refraction or bending (up or down) of sound waves is the third outdoor transmission
path variable where natural atmospheric effects such as air temperature, speed,
direction, humidity and density alter sound levels at greater distances. Atmospheric
effects which include rain, snow and other forms of precipitation are normally short term
effects that occur in outdoor sound propagation and measurement.

Combined Distance Effects

Combined distance effects include the natural attenuation or drop-off rate for
hemispherical radiation of sound outdoors (in accordance with the inverse square law)
plus some influence from molecular absorption and anomalous excess attenuation.
Page 41 describes the inverse square law in more detail. Molecular absorption is the
sound energy absorbed by the air molecules for specific conditions of temperature and
relative humidity. Anomalous excess attenuation is the attenuation provided by
changes or fluctuations in atmospheric conditions in a manner described in the
paragraph above but on a smaller scale. The table below (left) lists the molecular
absorption and anomalous excess attenuation values in dB for the frequency bands
from 63 to 8000 Hz.

Anomalous Molecular dB per 100

Octave Excess Absorption in Octave dB per 100 ft over ft over or
Frequency Attenuation, dB/1000 ft. Frequency or through Tall through
Band, dB/1000 ft at 59°F and Band, Thick Grass or Medium-
Hz (dB/300 m) 70% humidity Hz Shrubbery dense
Woods
63 0.4 0.1 63 0.3 1.2
125 0.6 0.2 125 2.1 1.5
250 0.8 0.4 250 3.7 1.8
500 1.1 0.7 500 5.5 2.4
1000 1.5 1.5 1000 7.0 3.1
2000 2.2 3.0 2000 8.5 4.0
4000 3.0 7.6 4000 10.4 4.9
8000 4.0 13.7 8000 11.9 6.1

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Simplified Method For Converting Sound Power (PWL)

and Sound Pressure (SPL) Levels
The graph at left can be used to determine
the SPL value at a given distance when the
equipment PWL level is known. For
example, with a point noise source of know
PWL level (90 dB) you can calculate the SPL
level at a distance of 30’ as follows. Follow
the bottom axis of the table out to a distance
of 30’. Follow up to the diagonal line and
then horizontally across to the left axis which
is a PWL- SPL value of 27 dB. Subtract the
27 dB from the original 90 dB PWL to find a
corrected SPL value of 63 dB at 30’.
Converting from sound pressure (SPL) to
sound power (PWL) can be done in a similar
manner. The graph can also be used to find
the SPL level of a point source at another
distance if we know the SPL at a given
distance. In the above example we calculated the SPL level at 30’ based on an equipment PWL value of
90 dB. We can recalculate the SPL level at another distance such as 100’. To do this find the difference
in the PWL-SPL values at 30’ (-27 dB) and 100’ (-36 dB). The difference (9 dB) is subtracted from the
SPL value at the 30’ distance. The SPL level at 100’ for this example is 63 dB – 9 dB = 54 dB.

Roof-Radiated Sound Reduction Values for Various

Roof Types
Horizontal Reductions
Octave
in dB
Frequency
Type Type Type
Band, Hz
1 2 3

31 3 2 1
63 5 4 3
125 7 5 4
250 10 8 6
500 12 9 7
1000 15 12 8
2000 18 14 9
4000 20 16 10
8000 22 18 12

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Sound Level Corrections to Account

for Background Noise Contribution

Equipment Noise
+ Background Noise
= Total Noise

Decibel subtraction can be used to estimate equipment noise when background

noise contribution cannot be isolated. Noise measurements are taken with all
equipment on. A second noise measurement is taken with the machine in question
turned off. The difference in these two levels (total noise – background noise) is used
with the figure shown below to determine the correction factor in decibels (dB). The
correction factor is subtracted from the total noise level to estimate the machinery noise
independent of background contribution. An example calculation is shown below.
Reliable corrections cannot be made when total and background levels differ by less
than 3 dB.

DECIBEL SUBTRACTION EXAMPLE

Equipment Noise
from Total sound Level (dB)
Correction to be Subtracted

+ Background Noise
= Total Noise

Total Noise Measured

by Sound Meter = 62 dBA

Sound Level with Equipment

Turned Off (Background
Sound) = 58 dBA

Difference = 4 dBA
Difference Between Total From Chart: Subtract 2 dBA
Sound and Background
Equipment Noise = 60 dBA
Sound (dB)

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Predicting Acoustical Barrier Wall Performance

The nomogram at right can be used to
describe acoustical barrier sound attenuation.
Transmission loss or sound blocking through a
freestanding partition or barrier wall will be
determined in part by the acoustical properties
of the barrier. The second factor affecting barrier
wall performance is spillover noise following the
diffracted path as illustrated in the figure at right.
Sound waves will have a tendency to bend or
diffract over the top and around the sides of a
barrier wall especially in the lower frequencies.
In the higher frequencies sound waves diffract
less and are much more directional in nature.
The shielding effect of the acoustical barrier and
resultant noise shadow area beyond it are
determined by the geometric relationship
between the source, the receiver and the barrier
height.

How To Use
The Nomogram
In the figure at right, distances A, B and
D should be determined as follows. Distance A
is from the point noise source (not the height) of
the equipment to the top of the acoustical
barrier. Distance B is from the top of the barrier
to the receiver position (figure ear/head level).
Distance D is from the source to the receiver
(straight line). In the example at right the path
length difference (A+B-D) equals 2 ft. Plotting a
straight line from the path length difference
through the frequency of noise in question on
line F (1000 Hz) intersects the dB line at 16 in
the example. Thus the estimated attenuation for
this application would be 16 dB. Please note that
the nomogram does not take into consideration
the contribution from reflective surfaces. To be
conservative in applications where reflective
surfaces are present it is recommended that the
final dB figure be discounted 20% to 25%. As
the angle () between the direct and diffracted
paths increases, so does the noise reduction.

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Treating Pure Tones And Fundamental Harmonics

The above example plotted for an tone is a function of the RPM divided by 60
induced fan air system shows a frequency times the number of blades on the fan
spectrum with spikes at the fan fundamental wheel. For applications such as co-
or blade passage frequency and decreasing generation (boiler induced draft), dust
spikes at each harmonic or whole number collectors, scrubber systems, incinerators,
multiple. Most types of rotating equipment etc. the ventilation fan generates its
such as compressors, engines, blowers and fundamental tone in the 100 to 300 Hz
fans generate these pure tone spikes that frequency range. This low frequency noise
are elevated above the other frequencies. warrants special treatment with tuned
The tones and harmonics are related to the silencer designs. Standard packed silencers
rotational speed of the equipment and the provide overall A scale reductions but can
number of blades, lobes or other driving miss the offending fan tone which is usually
components. In the example above, the fan the source of neighborhood complaints in
the first place.

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