THE SATAVAHANAS

Posted by S ELF S TU D YH IS TO RY  on MA RCH 7, 2015

THE SATAVAHANAS

 In the north-western Deccan on the ruins of the Mauryan empire

arose the kingdom of the Satavahanas in the first century B.C., with
its centre at Pratishtana (modern Paithan in Maharashtra).
 The Satavahana was based from Dharanikota and Amaravati in
Andhra Pradesh as well as Junnar (Pune) and Prathisthan (Paithan)
in Maharashtra.

Origin:

 The Puranas speak only of the Andhra rule and not of the

Satavahana rule. On the other hand the name Andhra does not occur
in the Satvahana inscriptions. There is a lot of controversy regarding
the original home of the Satavahanas.
 The kings represented in epigraphic records are mentioned in
the Puranas as Andhras, Andhra – bhrityah and Andhrajatiyah.
The Aitareya Brahmana speaks of them as the degenerate sons of
Visvamitra.
 Pliny the Elder(a Roman author) , quoting Megasthenes, refers to the
Andhras as a powerful race which supplied the king with an army of
1, 00,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry and 1,000 elephants.
 On their coins the dynasty is variously referred to as the
Satavahanas or Salavahaṇa, Satakarnis.
 The Satavahanas were also called the Andhra dynasty, which has
led to the assumption that they originated in the Andhra region, the
delta of the Krishna and Godavari rivers on the east coast, from
where they moved westwards up the Godavari river, finally
establishing their power in the west during the general political
confusion on the breaking up of the Mauryan empire.
 A contrary opinion has also been put forward that the
family originated in the west and extended its control to the east
coast, finally giving its name, Andhra, to this region. Since the earliest
inscriptions of the Satavahanas are found in the Western Deccan, the
later view may be correct. Probably, Satavahanas declared
independence some time after the death of Ashoka (232 BCE), as
the Maurya Empire began to weaken
 The Satavahanas seems to begin as feudatories to the Mauryan
Empire. They seem to have been under the control of
Emperor Ashoka, who claims in Rock Edict 13 that Andhras were in
his domain. among them.
Early Satavahanas:

 The Early Satavahanas ruled Telangana and Andhra Pradesh

regions which were always their heartland. The Puranas list 30
rulers. Many are known from their coins and inscriptions as well.
 The founder of the Satavahana dynasty

was Simuka. 

Simuka (230–207 BCE):

 After becoming independent around 230 BCE, Simuka, the founder

of the dynasty, conquered the present-day Maharashtra and parts of
Madhya Pradesh (including Malwa).
 He and his successors established their authority from the mouth of
the Krishna to the entire Deccan plateau.
 Later, Simuka made srikakulam as his capital.He was succeeded by
his brother Kanha (207–189 BCE), who further extended his state to
the present day Andhra Pradesh.

Satakarni (180–124 BCE):

 The earliest of the Satavahana kings to receive wide recognition

was Satakarni I, and this was due to his policy of military expansion
in all directions. He is the Lord of the west who defied Kharavela of
Kalinga(mentions him in the Hathigumpha inscription). According to
 the Yuga Purana he conquered Kalinga following the death of
Kharavela. He extended Satavahana rule over Madhya Pradesh
and pushed back the Sunga from Pataliputra (he is thought to be the
Yuga Purana’s “Shata”, an abbreviation of the full name “Shri Sata”
that occurs on coins from Ujjain), where he subsequently ruled for 10
years. His conquests took him north of the Narmada into eastern
Malva, which at the time was being threatened by the Shakas and
the Greeks.
 Satakarni I gained control of the region of Sanchi, and an inscription
there refers to him as Rajan Shri Satakarni.
 His next move was in the southerly direction and on conquering the
Godavari valley he felt entitled to call himself Lord of the Southern
Regions’ (Dakshina – pathapati).
 The description of Satakarni I as ‘Dakshina -pathapati in
the Nanaghat inscription of Nayanika proves that the Satavahana
dominion was not confined to western Deccan alone, but included
other areas of the Deccan and beyond.
 Satakarni I performed two Asvamedha sacrifices and one Rajasuya
sacrifice.
 By this time the dynasty was well established, with its capital
at kotilingala and Pratishthanapura (Paithan).
 Many small rulers succeeded Satakarni, who are thought to have
been under the suzerainty of the Kanva dynasty.
 Hala was one more great king of the Satavahanas who was 17th
King of the Satavahana line. He had compiled the “Gatha
saptasati” or Gaha Sattasai which mainly a text on love theme. Gatha
saptasati is in Prakrat. He is also mentioned in another text Lilavati
 According to the Puranas (Matsya Purana, Vayu Purana, Brahmanda
Purana,Vishnu Purana), the Satavahana king killed the last Kanva
ruler of Magadha and presumably took possession of his kingdom.
This feat is usually thought to have been accomplished by Pulomavi
(30–6 BCE), who then ruled over Pataliputra.

Later Satavahanas:

 The 1st century CE saw another incursion of the Sakas of Central

Asia into India, where they formed the dynasty of the Western
Kshatrapas. During the reign of the Western Satrap Nahapana, the
Satavahanas lost a considerable territory to the satraps, including
eastern Malwa, Southern Gujarat, and Northern Konkan, from Broach
to Sopara and the Nasik and Pune. Coins and inscriptions of the
Shaka Chief Nahapana have been found around Nasik, indicating the
Shaka dominance in the area towards the close of the first century
A.D.
 Silver coin of Nahapana, with ruler profile
and written “King Kshaharata Nahapana”

 But it must have been soon after this that the Satavahanas regained
their western possessions, for the coins of Nahapana are often
found over-struck by the name Gautamiputra Satakarni, the king who
was responsible for re-establishing Satavahana power in this region
by driving out the Shakas.

A coin of Nahapana restruck by the

Satavahana king Gautamiputra Satakarni. Nahapana’s profile and
coin legend are still clearly visible

Gautamiputra Satakarni (A.D. 106 -130):

 Gautamiputra Satakarni is said to have destroyed the power of the

Shakas and the pride of the Khastriyas, promoted the interests of the
twice-born and stopped the mixing of the four varnas. His
achievements are recorded in glowing terms in the Nasik prasasti by
his mother Gautami Balasri.
 According to the Nasik inscription,

he is the one who crushed down the pride and conceit of the Kshatriyas
(the native Indian princes, the Rajputs of Rajputana, Gujarat and Central
India); who destroyed the Shakas (Western Kshatrapas), Yavanas
(Indo-Greeks) and Pahlavas (Indo-Parthians),… who rooted the
Khakharata family (The Kshaharata family of Nahapana); who restored
the glory of the Satavahana race

 He ruled over a wide area extending from the Krishna in the south to
Malwa and Saurashtra in the north and from Berar in the east to the
Konkan in the west.
 To the Buddhists he made munificent donations. His patronage to
Brahmanism is revealed by the epithet ‘Ekabrahmana’.
 Gautamiputra was the first Satavahana ruler to issue the portrait-type
coinage, in a style derived from the Western Satraps.
 After conquering Malwa from a Saka ruler, Gautamiputra Satakarni
issued local type of coins, particularly in Malwa for convenience of
the people. On the obverse, there is the figure of an elephant with its
trunk and on the reverse, the peculiar device of
Ujjain symbol.This latter, not known on any Satavahana coins. It was
prevalent only on the coins of Malwa.
 Gautamiputra Satakarni took the titles of:
Trisamudrapibatohayavahana (one whose horses had drunk waters
from 3 oceans) and Sakayavanapallavanisudana (destroyer of Saka,
Yavana and Pahlavas)
 He was succeeded by his son, Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi.

Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi(78–114 CE):

 He was mentioned by Ptolemy under the name Siriptolemaios (Shri-

Pulumayi).He was a contemporary of the Western satrap Chastana.
 Some of the lead coins of Sri Pulamavi depict two-masted ships, a
testimony to the seafaring and trading capabilities of the
Satavahanas during the 1st-2nd century CE.

Indian ship on lead coin of Vasisthiputra

Sri Pulamavi

 He was succeeded by his brother Vashishtiputra Satakarni.

Vashishtiputra Sātakarni (130-160 CE):

 Vashishtiputra Sātakarni was in great conflict with the

Scythian Western Kshatrapas in the West, but he eventually married
the daughter of Rudradaman I of the Western Kshatrapa dynasty, in
order to forge an alliance.
 Later however, he was defeated by Rudradaman I, with serious effect
on Satavahana power and prestige as mentioned in Junagadh rock
inscription: “Rudradaman, who obtained good report because he, in
spite of having twice in fair fight completely defeated Satakarni, the
lord of Dakshinapatha, on account of the nearness of their
connection did not destroy him.”

Vashishtiputra Sri Satakarni

Shivaskanda Satakarni

 He was one of the last rulers of the Satavahana dynasty in India. He

succeeded Vashishtiputra Satakarni in 145 CE, but he was defeated
twice in battle by his Western Satrap enemy Rudradaman

Yajna Sri Satakarni(167-196 CE):

 He is considered to be the last great king of the

Satavahana Dynasty.He is known from his coins, and from the
mention of his name in the regnal lists of the Matsya Purana.
 Victory over the Shakas: Yajna Sri Satakarni, defeated the Western
Satraps and reconquered their southern regions in western and
central India which led to the decline of the Western Satraps.
 Coin of Gautamiputra
Yajna Satakarni

Satavahana Administration:

 The coins, sculpture and literature of the Satavahana period are the
source of our knowledge not only in respect of the contemporary
administration but also about the political, social, economic and
religious and cultural conditions.

King:
  In this period the South was ruled over by the monarchies. King was
the highest official of the Government and his office was hereditary.
 They did not assume high sounding titles. Similarly, the Satavahana
rulers did not believe in divine rights of a king and they carried
administration in accordance with the directives of the Dharma
Shastras and the social customs.They had no absolute power. Their
power was checked in practice by customs and shastras.
 The king himself led his armies in the battle-field and was
commander-in-chief of his forces.
 There was also a council of ministers to aid and advise him for
carrying out the administration properly.
 The king was the head of the Government as well as the protector to
his people. The Satavahana kings regarded their subjects as their
own children and always looked after their welfare.

Feudatories:

 A peculiar feature of the Satavahana administration was the

presence of feudatories of different grade.They had divided their
empire among a number of feudal chiefs who managed the land
revenue system and looked after the administration.
 There were three grades of feudatories –
the ‘Raja’, the ‘Mahabhoja’ and the ‘Maharathi or ‘Senapati”. The
‘Raja’ belonged to the highest grade. He had the right to impose
taxes and to strike coins. Next in rank was the mahabhoja and
maharathi. Both titles from the beginning were hereditary and
restricted to a few families in a few localities.
Probably mahabhoja ranked higher than that of maharathi.
 The mahabhojas were primarily located in western Deccan. They
were related by blood to the feudatory maharathi.
 Towards the close of the Satavahana period two more feudatories
were created Mahasenapathi and them mahataralavara.
 Satvahana started the practice of granting tax free villages to
brahamanas and Buddhist monks. The cultivated fields and villages
granted to them were declared free from molestation by royal
policemen, soldiers etc. Brahamanas helped enforce the rules of
Varna system which made society stable and Buddhist monks
preached peace and rule of good conduct among people and taught
them to respect political authority.

Administrative Units and officers:

  They retained soe of the admin units found in Ashokan times. Like
districts were called Ahara (Mahamatta as officer of Ahara). Officers
were known as Amatya and Mahamatta.
 Barring districts that were controlled by feudatories, the empire was
divided into janapadas and aharas, the latter corresponding to
modern districts. The division below that of ahara was grama. Non-
hereditary governors were subject to periodical transfers.
 The highest official in a province was ‘Amatya’ or minister. His office
was not hereditary. Men of proven ability were appointed to this
official. A village was administered by a ‘Gramika’.
 There we several officials to help the king. Out of them, the most
important were ‘Senapati, ‘Mahabhoja’, ‘Koshadhyaksha’, ‘Rajadoof,
‘Amatya’ etc.
 There was also a special official called ‘Uparakshita’ who was
charged with the duty of building caves etc. for the monks. The
‘bhikshus’ (monks) and Brahmanas were held in high esteem and
they too observed and preached high standards of conduct. They
were beyond the ordinary laws of the Government.

Local Administration:

 In this period, the local administration had its own importance. There

were separate organization to look after the administration of the
towns and the villages.
 The towns were administered by a body called
the ‘Nagarsabha’ while in villages there were ‘Gram Sabhas’. These
organizations carried their functions independently without any
interference.

Military Administration:

 The military administration of the Satavahanas was also quite

efficient. Their army consisted of foot soldiers, cavalry and elephants.
Foot soldiers or infantry was the backbone of the army and they
formed the vanguard and were flanked on either side by horses and
elephants. The soldiers used swords, spears, axes and armours as
weapons of war.
 It was by dint of efficient military administration that the Satavahanas
succeeded in expanding their empires. They kept a regiment posted
in each village for maintaining peace and order. They were
maintained at the expense of the rural inhabitants.
 The administrator of rural areas was gaulmika, who was the head of
a military regiment of 9 chariots, 9 elephants, 25 horses and 45 foot
soldiers. The head of army platoon was therefore posted in the
 countryside to maintain peace and
order.Kataka and Skandhavaras were military camps and
settlements.
 Thus coercion played a ky role in the Satavahana admin.

Social Condition:

 The Satavahanas were Brahmanas. Therefore, Brahmansnism made

rapid strides under their rule. The Brahmanas were accorded the
highest place. Effort was also made to revice the Varna system. In
their bid to exalt Brahmanism the Smritis declared that a ten years
old Brahman would be more revered than a 100 years old Kshatriya.
Satavahanas were first rulers to make land grant to Brahmanas.
 The orthodox brahamanas of the north looked upon Andhras as a
mixed caste. This shows that Andhras might be earlier  tribal people
who were brought within the fold of brahmanical society.
 The Satavahana society was divided into four classes. This division
was based on economic activity and status. The first class consisted
of high officials and feudatory chief who ruled over provinces and
districts. The second class included petty officers like Amatyas
Mahamatras and wealthy traders. In the third class were the middle
class peoples such as Vaidyas or physicians, writers, peasants,
goldsmiths, perfumers etc. The fourth class were constituted of the
lowest vocations such as carpenters, blacksmiths, fishermen and
gardeners.
 Increasing craft and commerce n this period brought many
merchants and artisans to the forefront.Merchants took pride in
naming themselves after the towns they belonged.
 Artisans and merchants made generous donation to Buddhist cause.
 Among artisans, gandhikas or perfumers are mentioned as donors in
small memorial tablet set up by them. At later stage, the
term gandhika became  so general a to connote all kinds of
shopkeepers. (Modern title Gandhi is derived from it).

Family Structure:

 There were the four divisions of the society. The smallest unit was
the family in which the eldest living member commanded the greatest
respect. He was called the ‘Grihapati and was obeyed by all the other
members of the family.
 Women were honoured. They were given higher education and they
took part in religious functions. Some of the rulers even added their
mother’s name to their own name, such as Gautamiputra,
Vashishthiputra, Pulumavi, Kaushakiputra etc.
  This practice itself reveals that the status of women was much high.
Sometimes, women assumed guardianship of their minor sons and
acted as their regents. They also took part in the Ashvamedhas.

Marriages:

 Gautamiutra Satakarni established 4 fold Varna system and put an

end to the intermarriage between people of different social order.
Such a confusion was probably caused by saka infiltration and by
superficial brahmanisation of the tribe living in Deccan.
 Mixed marriages were considered obnoxious though there are some
instances of such marriages. Vashishthiputra Pulumavi himself
married the daughter of the Saka ruler Rudradaman thus giving
respectability to such marriages.
 In this period, inter marriages among the Hindus and foreign tribes of
the Sakas, the parthians and the Greeks were freely consummated
so that these foreigners were absorbed forever in the Hindu social
order mostly as Kshatriyas.

Economic Condition:

 Agriculture and trade were prosperous. Life of the common man was
happy as he was well- provided with all facilities of life. They were
economically well-off. They inherited many traits of the material
culture of the Mauryas and made their life better and well off. There
was a free fusion of local elements and northern ingredients under
them.

Town and other material Culture:

 They learnt the use of coins, burnt bricks, art of writing and ring

wells from the Mauryas and ontacts with north and added much to
the advancement of their material life.
 In Peddabankur in Karimnagar district, we find regular use of fire
baked bricks and use of  flat, perforated roof tiles, which contributed
to the longevity of construction.
 Towns appeared in Maharshtra by 1st century BC and in the astern
deccan a century later. Pliny informs us that the Andhra in the
eastern deccan included 30 walled town.
 Royal earrings, 1st Century BCE
Taxes:

 The taxes were neither heavy nor many. The sources of income were

proceeds from the royal domain, salt monopoly ordinary and
extraordinary taxes both soldiers and officials were paid in kind.

Agriculture:

 Under the Satavahanas, agriculture was prosperous and the village’s

economy was developed. Rice was cultivated in the territory between
the Krishna and Godavari rivers. Cotton was also produced. The
peasants used implements made of iron which were extensively
used. There were also wells for irrigation.

Trade and Industry:

 Encouragement was given to trade and industry. The traders and

those engaged in other professions had their
own guilds or ‘sanghas’. Coin dealers, potters, oil pressers and metal
workers had their own guilds. These guilds looked after the collective
interests of their trade and worked for their common uplift. These
guilds were recognized by the Government and worked as bankers
also.
 Both internal and external to trade and industry. The external or
foreign trade was carried through the famous ports of Supara,
Broach and Kalyan. India and trade relations with countries like
Arabia, Egypt and Rome. In the far eastern countries, Indian traders
established their own settlements and preach Indian culture. They
referred to these countries as ‘Swargabhoomi’ or paradise. India
exported cotton, textiles, spices etc. India imported wine, glass and
items of luxury.
 The inland trade was also prosperous. Travel between the north and
south of India were much easy as the roads and transport were
better.
  Several towns sprang up in Maharashtra during this period. Paithan,
Nasik and Junar were big markets and centers of trade. In the south-
east Vijaypur and Narsela were well-known trade centers.
 There were guilds of traders as well and they carried trade in groups.
To encourage trade, the Satavahna kings struck numerous coins of
gold, silver, copper and bronze.
 Increasing trade is indicated by Roman and Satavahana coins.

Coinage:

 The Satavahanas are the first native Indian rulers to issue their own
coins with portraits of their rulers, starting with king Gautamiputra
Satakarni, a practice derived from that of the Western Satraps he
defeated, itself originating with the Indo-Greek kings to the northwest.
 Satavahana coins give unique indications as to their chronology,
language, and even facial features (curly hair, long ears and strong
lips). They issued mainly lead, copper, bronze coins; their portrait-
style silver coins were usually struck over coins of the Western
Kshatrapa kings.
 The Ikshvakus, who succeded the Satavahanas in the early 3rd
century AD in eeastern Deccan also issued their coins.
 The coin legends of the Satavahanas, in all areas and all periods,
used a Prakrit dialect without exception. Some reverse coin legends
are in Kannada & Telugu language,which seems to have been in use
in their heartland abutting the Godavari, Kotilingala, Karimnagar in
Telangana, Krishna, Amaravati, Guntur in Andhra Pradesh.
 Their coins also display various traditional symbols, such as
elephants, lions, horses and chaityas (stupas), as well as the “Ujjain
symbol“, a cross with four circles at the end.
 The legendary Ujjayini Emperor Vikramditiya on whose name
the Vikram Samvat is initiated might be Satakarni II a Satavahana
emperor as the Ujjayini symbol also appeared on the Satavahana
coins.

Religious Condition:

 During the Satavahana period, both Hinduism and Buddhism spread

rapidly. The Satavahana rulers were the followers of Brahmanism.
They performed Aswamedha Yajnas and gave donations to
Brahmanas.
 Indra, Surya (The Sun God), Chandra, (the Moon God), Vasudeva,
Krishna, Pasupati and Gauri etc. were various Gods and Goddesses
worshipped by the people. Shaivism and Vaishnavism were most
 popular form of Hinduism. The Brahmans occupied the highest
position in the society.
 The Satavahana kings were Brahmanas but they showed tolerance
towards other faiths such as to Buddhism as well. They gave similar
donations to Buddhism as they did for the Hinduism. Consequently,
Buddhism too spread in this period. At many places, the Buddhist
caves, chaityas and stupas were built.
 Almost all the caves in the south belonged to the Buddhists.
Sometimes, grants of land were made for the maintenance of these
chaityas, viharas and stupas as well as for the monks or bhikshus. In
this period, there were several sects of Buddhism in the south and
various classes of monks were always busy to preach the Buddhist
doctrines.
 They built great stupas in the Krishna River Valley, including the
stupa at Amaravati. The stupas were decorated in marble slabs and
sculpted with scenes from the life of the Buddha, portrayed in a
characteristic slim and elegant style. The Satavahana empire
colonized Southeast Asia and spread Indian culture to those parts.
The Amaravati style of sculpture spread to Southeast Asia at this
time.

An aniconic representation of Mara’s

assault on the Buddha, 2nd century, Amaravati

 Nagarjunakonda and Amravati in Andhra Padesh became important

seats of Buddhist Culture under Satavahanas and more so under
their successors, the Ikshvakus.
 Similarly Buddhism flourished in Nasik and Junar areas in Western
Deccan in Maharashtra supported by traders.
  The Satavahanas contributed greatly to the embellishment of
the Buddhist stupa of Sanchi. The gateways and the balustrade were
built after 70 BCE, and appear to have been commissioned by them.
An inscription records the gift of one of the top architraves of the
Southern Gateway by the artisans of the Satavahana
Emperor Satakarni:
 One significant development of this period was the admission of the
foreign races of the Sakas, Greeks, Kushans and Abhiras to the folds
of Hinduism or Buddhism. They became an integral part of the Indian
society. They were quite tolerant and exchanged gifts on religious
festivals and other occasions.

Note:-
ASI’s Kondapur excavations

A S I , 20 09 - 11 A S I , 20 14

 Found images of Lajja Gowri – the Fertility Goddess

 Found Stupa & other for Tantric worshippers. Meaning Satvahan kings
Buddhist structures followed Tantric Cult.
 Hence believed  Alters & animal bones. Meaning Satvahan kings scarified
Kondapur is a animals to seek male child.
Buddhist site.  Kaolin (lime+clay) image of a Brahmin priest embracing
the king

Literature:

 The Satavahana rulers were lovers of literature. Under their

patronage, great progress was made in the field of literature. Most of
the Satavahana rulers were themselves learned and had special
interest in literature.
 Languages were:  Prakrit, Sanskrit and Local languages. In this
period, the Prakrit language and literature developed significantly.
 They extended patronage to the Prakrit language and wrote most of
their inscriptions in that language. The Satvahana King Hala was a
poet of high order. He composed ‘Gatha Saptasati(700 stories) in
Prakrti. It has 700 shloakas.
 Hala also patronized several scholars who lived in his
court. Gunadhya, the great scholar who wrote ‘Brihat Katha- manjari’
lived in his court. Brihat Katha was in Paisachi language. It narrates
the story of Naravahanadatta (Kuber- the God with Nara as vehicle)
  Another scholar Sarva Varman wrote a treatise on the Sanskrit
Grammar.

Architecture:

 Marked progress was made in the field of architecture as well. The

Satvahana rulers took interest in building caves, viharas or
monasteries, chaityas or large halls with a number
of columns and stupas.
 Most of the rock caves in the Deccan were cut during this period.
These caves were big and beautiful. The caves, monasteries,
chaityas and stupas of Orissa, Nasik, Karle and Bhuj are fine
specimen of contemporary architecture and decoration.
 Chaitya was a large hall with a number of columns. The Vihara had a
central Hall. One could enter this hall by a doorway from a varandah
in front.
 The Chaitya of Karle was most famous. It is 40 metres long, 15
metres wide and 15 metres high. It has rows of 15 columns on
each side.Each of these columns is built on a stair like  square plinth.
Each pillar has a capital figure of an elephant, a horse or a rider on
the top. The roof-tops are also decorated with elegant carvings.
 The viharas were meant as places of residence for the monks.
At Nasik, there are three viharas carrying the inscriptions
of Gautmiputra and Nahapana.
 The most famous of these monuments are the stupas. Among them
the Amravati Stupa and the Nagarjunakonda Stupa are most famous.
The stupa was a large round structure built over some relic of the
Buddha. The Amravati Stupa measures 162 metres across the base
and its height is 100 feet. Both these stupas are full of sculptures.
The Nagarjunakonda town contains not only the Buddhist
monuments but also some ancient Hindu brick temples.

Amaravati Stupa relief

 Many sculptures were made during this period. Most of the

sculptures of this period depict scenes from the life of the Buddha. At
Amravati, there is a beautiful scene showing Buddha’s feet being
worshipped. The scene, showing Buddha preaching at
Nagarjunakonda, is pervaded with serenity and calm.