-------Chapter 1

Non-Destructive Testing:
An Introduction

A~ industrial produ~t is des~gned to perform a certain function. The user buys a product .
with every expectation that tt performs the assigned function well and gives trouble-free
service for a stipulated period of time. Trouble free service given by any product may be
termed as 'reliability'. The reliability of a machine or an assembly having a number of
components depends upon the individual reliability factors of all the components. Most of
the machines and systems in the modern day world, for example, power plants, chemical
and other industrial plants, transport machines etc. are quite complex having thousands of
components on which reliable operation ·and smooth performance depends. To ensure the
reliability of such machines and the plant as a whole, it is important that each individual
component is reliable and performs its function satisfactorily for an assigned period of time.
Reliability comes through improving the quality level of the components. The quality of
products, components or parts depends upon many factors, important among them are the
design, raw material properties and fabrication techniques. Quality is related to the presence
of those defects and imperfections in the finished product which impair the performance
level. ·Many defects are also generated during service. The nature of these defects differs
according to the design, processing and fabrication and service conditions under which the
components have to work. A knowledgr of th~se defects with a view to detect and evaluate
them and then minimising them in the product is essential to achieve improved or acceptable
level of quality. An improvement in the product quality increases its reliability and in tum
the safety of the machines and equipment, thus bringing economic returns to the user. T?ere
is, therefore, a need to have methods by which the defects in the products can be exammed
without affecting their performance. .
Non-Destructive Testing (NDT), Non-Destructive Evaluation (NDE) and No~-~estructive
Inspection (NDI)·are the terms used in this connection to represent the technique~ t?at are
based on the application of physical principles employed for the purpose of determm!ng the
characteristics of materials or components or systems and for detecting and assessi?g the
inhomogeneities and harmful defects without impairing the usefulness of such matenals or
components or systems.
 2 Practic<1/ Non-destructive Testing
NOT plays an important role not only in the qu?Jity control of the fi_n_ished pr~du_ct but
also during various stages of manufacturing. NOT 1s also used_f~r co~dltion monitoring of
various items during operation to predict and assess the rema1mng life of th~ c_omponenr
while retaining its structural integrity. Table 1.1 describes the_ advant~~es ~nd hmJtations of
non-destructive testing over destructive testing. NOT enables optimum ut~h_s?tion of components
without sacrificing safety. The use of microprocessors for data acqmsit~~n and p~oc:ssing
and automated devices for reliable testing have vastly improved the conditwn monitoring of
complex components and plants. The operator dependency for routine inspection is reduced
and thus the person can concentrate more on the technological aspects. The end result is the
saving in time, cost and improvement in precision and reliability of the results obtained.
Table 1.1 Comparjson of Destructive and Non-Destructf ve Tests

Destructive tests Non-destructive tests

Advantages Limitations
1. Measurements are direct and reliable. ~easurements are indirect and hence reliability
is to be verified.
2. Usually quantitative measurements. Usually qualitative measurements.
Measurements can also be done quantitatively.
3. Correlation between test measurements Skilled judgment and experience are required to
and material properties is direct. interpret indications.
Limitations Advantages
1. Tests are not made o~ the objects directly. Tests are made directly on the object. 100%
Hence correlation between the sample testing on actual components is possible.
specimen used and object needs to be proved.
2. A single test may measure only one or a few Many NOT methods can be applied on the same
of the properties. part and hence many or all properties of
interest can be ·measured:
3. Inservice testing is not possible. Inservice testing is possible.
4. Measurement of properties over a Repeated checks over a period of time
cumulative period of time cannot are possible.
readily be possible.
5. Preparation of the test specimen is costly. Very little preparation is sufficient.
6. Time requirements are generally high. Most test methods are. rapid.

NOT methods range from the simple to the intricate. Visual inspection is· the simplest
of al1. Surface ~mperfections invisible to the eye may be revealed by penetrant or magnetic
methods. Jf senous_ surface defects are found, there is often little point in proceeding further
to the more complicated examination of the interior by other methods like ultrasonics or
rad~ography. T~e pri~cipaJ N_DT methods are Visual or Optical inspection, Dye penetrant
test~ng, Magnetic particle testmg, Eddy Current testing, Radiographic testing and Ultrasonic
testmg.
The use of high technology in various industries, especiaJiy nuclear defence and space
has ~laced greater de~ands ~n the quality assurance (QA) in these ind~stries. The specific
requirements of these 1~dustnes coupled with the desire for maintaining high performance
stand ~rd~have res~lted m the development of new techniques and also the advancement of
the prmctp~ _techmques mentioned above. The emphasis has now shifted from detection of
defects to smng and characterisation of defects. Some of the new methods include Neutron
 Non-Destructive Testing: An Introduction 3

Radiography, Acoustic Emission, Thermography, Strain Sensing, Microwave Technique,

Holography etc. Among these, Acoustic Emission and Thermography have grown to the
state of applicability to plant components.
The choice of the specific method depends on many factors including availability,
accessibility and suitability based on analysis and past experience. It may sometimes be
necessary to use one method of NDT to confirm the findings of another. A guide to enable
the choice of NDT methods for specific type of defects is given in the chapter 12 of this
book.
The basic principles, applications, advantages and limitations of the important NDT
methods normally used for inspection of plant components are discussed briefly in the
following chapter. It is outside the scope of this book to provide detailed descriptions of the
various methods. Further details on various methods may be obtained by perusing various
references given at the end of each chapter.
 Visual Inspection

.
Visual . · • 1s
mspect10n · pro
· bably the most widely used among. all the non-destructive tests. · It is
simp1e, easy to apply, quickly carried out, and usually J_ow 1~ cost. ~ven t~ough a component
is to be inspected using other NOT methods, a good v1sualJnspect1on -~hould be ~arned_out
first. A simple visual test can reveal gross surface defects thus leading to an immediate
rejection of the component and consequently saving much time and money, which would
otherwise be spent on more complicated means of testing. It is·often necessary to examine
for the presence of finer defects. For this purpose, visual methods have been developed to a
very high degree of precision. With the advent of microprocessors· and computers, visual
examination can be carried out very reliably and with minimum .cost. Image processing,
pattern recognition a~d automatic accept/reject choice are used when Jarge number of
components are to be· assessed. ·
. In this · t·ions 1or
. section, a brief discussion is made on various aids and thei·r app11ca l' ·
v1sua J
mspectton of plant components.
2.1 BASIC PRINCIPLE

The basic procedure used in visual NDT · 1 . '

I' h . .
ig t, usually m the vjsible region The
•• d . ·
mvo
. ves t11uminat'
.
specimen 1s then
ion °
.
f h .
t e test specimen with
sens1t1ve ev1ces such as photocelJs Th . examined with eye or by light
. I b . . e equipment requ. d fi .
s1mp e, ut adequate illumination is absolute} . ire or visual inspection is extremely
be-adequately cleaned before being inspecteX. essential. The surface of the specimen should
2.2 THE EYE

The most valuable NDT t 1 . . .

sensitivity of the hum oo is th~ human eye. The ey h
conditions, the eye is man eye vanes for light With d'~ as excellent visual perception The
A Th ost sensit' Iuerent w ·
. e human eye will give . ive to yellowgreen light h. ave1_engths. Under ordinary
~etaso~, eye can not be a goosdat1_sfdactory vision over a w' 'dw ich has a wavelength of 5560
in enstty e JU ge fo· d' . 1 e rang f
, xcept under the most restr· r istmguishing the d'ffi e o conditions. For this
1
Jcted conditions. erences in brightness or
 Visual Inspection 5
For visual
. . hting
inspection , adequa te 11g • 1.e.
. about 800-1000 lux 1s
. of prime importance.
.
The penod of time during which a human inspector is permitted to work should be limited
to _no~ ~ore than 2 hours on continuous basis to avoid errors due to decrease in visual
rehab1hty and discrimination.

2~~-1 ~efec~ Which can be Detected by Unaided Visual-Inspection -

~isual 1~spectton of a component by an experienced inspector can reveal the following
mformat1on:

(a) th~ general condition of the. component, (b) the presence or absence of oxide film or
corro s•v~ _product on the surface, (c) the presence or absence of cracks, orientation of cracks ·
and pos1t10n of cracks relative to the various zones in the case of welds (d) the surface
~orosity, unfilled craters, contour of the weld beads, and the probable o~ientation of the
interface ~tween the fused weld bead and the adjoining parent metal, (e) potential sources
of mechanical weakness such as sharp notches or misalignment etc . .and (f) the results of
visual examination may be of great assistance to other tests.

2.3 OPTICAL AIDS USED FOR VISUAL INSPECTION

The use of optical instruments in visual inspection is beneficial and is recommended to (a)
magnify defects that cannot be detected by the unaided eye and (b) permit visual checks of
areas not accessible to the unaided ~ye. In performing visual/optical checks, it is of utmost
· importance to know _the type of defects that may develop and to recognize the areas where
such failures may occur. Magnifying devices and lighting aids should be used wherever
appropriate. The general area should be checked for cleanliness, P!esence of foreign objects,
corrosion and damage. In many cases, area to be inspected should be cleaned before examination.

2.3.1 Microscope
An optical microscope is a combination of lenses used to magnify the image of a small
object. The object is placed close to the lens to obtain as .high a magnification as possible.,
The distance from lens to object is adjusted until the object is at the depth of field of the lens
and is in. focus.
The simplest form of a mic_roscope is a single converging lens, often referred to as a
simple magnifier. Magnification (M) of a single lens is determined by the equation M = 10/f.
In this equation, f is the focal length of the lens and 10 is a constant that represents the
average ~inimum distance at which objects can be distinctly seen by the unaided eye. Using
the equation M = 10/f, a lens with a focal length of 5" has a magnification of two or is said
to be a two-power lens (2X). The focal length of a simple magnifier and its working distance
are approximately the same. The field of view is the are.a seen through the magnifier. The
diameter of the field of view of a simple magnifier is less than its focal length. Selection of
a magnifier with the proper field of vie~ is important. For example, if a large object is to be
examined, the time involved using a 20 power magnifier (with a field of view slightly
greater than 9.5 mm) would be prohibitive. The proper procedure is to first use a low-power
magnifier, marking que,stionable areas, and then examine the suspected areas in detail with
a higher-powered magnifier.
Depth of field is the term used to indicate the distance a magnifier can be moved towards
or away from a subject with the subject remaining in good focus (sharply defined). At other
 - ◄
6 Practical Non-Destructive Testing

distances, the subject is out of focus and not sharply defined. Depth of field varies w· h
po wer of the lens and is comparatively greater in lower-power magnifiers, decreasin It the
. g~~
power of the lens increases. _ e
Minute defects and details of fine structure on a surface can be detected more easil .
the aid of microscope. The practical upper limit of the magnifying power of a ~ WHh
. . . sunpJ
microscope is in the region of lOx. Optical microscopes are used to evaluate with resp e
shape anQ orientation of cracks. In the first case a low power microscope having a magnificec~ to
of 2 to 20x is used, in the second case a magnification of 100 to 500x 1s used, and i:lJ~n
latter case a magnification of 1500 to 2000x is needed. te

2.3.2 Borescope
As the name implies, a Borescope is an instrument designed to enable an observer to inspect
the inside of a narrow tube, bore, or chamber. Borescope consists of precision built-in
ill_umination system having a complex arrangement of p~isms and plain lenses through
which light is passed to the observer with maximum efficiency. The light source located in
front or ahead of the object lens provides illumination for the part being examined. As the
length of the borescope is increased, the image becomes less bright because of loss of light.
Borescopes are available in numerous models from 2.5 to 19 mm in diameter and a few
meters in length. Generally~the diameter of the borescope depends upon the diameter of the
hole or bore to be inspected. The length of the borescope is governed by the distance
between the available access and the distance to the inspection area. Optical systems are
generally designed to provide direct, right-angle, retrospective and oblique vision. The
choice of the inspection angle is determined by flaw type and location. In most borescoj>es,
the observed visual area is approximately 25 mm in diameter at 25 mm distance from the
object. The size of the visual field usually varies with the diameter, for a gi.ven magnification
system.

2.3.3 Endoscope
The endoscope is much like a borescope except that it has a superior optical system and a
high-intensity light source. Various viewing angles, ijS discussed in the case of Borescope,
can be used. A unique feature of endoscope is that objects are constantly in focus from about
4 mm to infinity. Actually, when the tip is about 4 mm from the surface being inspected, a
magnification factor of about I Ox is achieved. The 'no-focussing' feature of the endoscope
makes it much easier to use than a borescope, which needs to be focused at the inspection area.
Endoscopes are available in diameters down to 1. 7 mm and in lengths from 100 to 1500 mm.

2.3.4 Flexible Fibre-Optic Borescope (Flexiscope)

Flexible fibre-optic borescopes permit manipulation of the instrument around corners and
through passages with several directional changes. Woven stainless steel sheathing protects
the image relay bundle during repeated flexing and maneuvering. These devices are designed
to provide sharp and clear images of parts and interior surfaces that are normally impossible
to inspect. Remote end-tip deflection allows the viewer to thread the fiberoscope through
complex and series of bends. The end tip is deflected by using a rotating control mechanisrn
mounted on the handle. Most of the devices have a wide-angle objective Jens that provides
a 100 degree field of view and tip deflection of± 90°. They all have a fibre-optic image
bundle and are equipped with a focus control to bring the s_ubject into sharp focus over a
 Visual Inspection 1

wide range of viewing distances. The working lengths are normally from 60 to 365 cm. -.vith
diameters from 3 to 12.5 mm.

2.3.5 Telescope .
Telescope is used to obtain magnified images of objects at considerable distance from the
eye. It is particularly useful for providing visual examination of the surface which is otherwise
inaccessible. It consists, essentially, of two lenses (or lens systems) called the objective and
eye piece. The telescope can be used in conjunction with a periscope for viewing a coocealed
surface. But, Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) is also used for the purpose.

2.3.6 Holography
Holography is the name given to the method of obtaining an accurate three-dimensional
image of a given object. The process is carried out in two stages. First, a permanent record
in the form of a two dimensional interference pattern is obtained on a photographic plate by
means of a laser beam. The three dimensional image is then obtained from the two dimensional
record, again using a laser. In this way, a picture having a high definition and free from
aberrations can be obtained without the use of a camera.
Holography is used for the NDT of surfaces of highly complicated and precision components
without the disadvantages of having to use a high-power microscope. In a simple operation,
a hologram can provide a record of the image of ~n entire surface which can be readily
compared with that of a standard defect free surface.

2.4 APPLICATIONS

(a) Inspection of plant systems/component for any leakage, abnormal operation etc.
(b) Misalignment of parts in the equipments.
(c) Corrosion, erosion, cracks, fracture etc. .
(d)Defects in the new/repaired weldments such as gross surface cracks, lack of penetration,
tear cracks, excess reinforcements, porosities, mismatch etc.
(e) Minute discontinuities with the help of optical aids in pumps, compressors, turbogenerator
parts, instruments etc.
JJ

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __:__ _ _ Chapter 3

I
Liquid Penetrant Testing

::e:~=~:~nsp~ction ~til~zes_the natural accumulation of a fluid around a discontinuity to

attracts the ~:~~z:b~~ m:1cat10~ o~ a crack or other surface opening defect. Capillary action
area O ~ e iscontmuuy as compared to its surroundings. In order to locate the
d. f exce~s ~uid (defect region), the background area must be of sufficient contrast thus
1ea mg to d1stmct detection of the defect on the surface.

3.1 PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES

Penetrant inspection depends mainly on the ability ofJiquid to wet the surface of a solid
w~rk piece o_r specimen and flow over that surface to form a continuous and reasonably
um~orm ~oa~ng, thus penetrating into cavities that are open to the surface. The ability of
a given hqu1d to flow over a surface and enter surface cavities mai_nly depends on the
surface tension and capillary action. The cohesive force between the molecules of a liquid
causes surface tension.
Capillary action is the phenomenon of rise or depression of liquid in narrow cavities.
Viscosity, another factor, although has negligible effect on penetrating ability of liquid,
affects the flowing ability_of penetrant. Very viscous liquids are unsuitable as penetrants
because they do not flow rapidly enough over the surface of a work piece; consequently
they require excessive long periods of time to penetrate into fine flaws.
Visible light or ultraviolet light is required for inspection of penetrant indications.
Initially, the only detection method used was the unaided observation by the eye of the
inspector under visible light. The characteristics of the human eye strongly affect the
perception· of brightness of an indication. The nature of the light source strongly affects the
perceived brightness of the coloured region being observed. Thus it is important to have
proper lighting at the inspection area.
Auorescence describes the release of light energy by some substances when they are
excited by external radiation such as ultraviolet light. In penetrant inspection, when the
particles in fluid are struck by the incident ultraviolet light, they a~e _excited to_a higher
energy level. After being excited, each particle then, returns to the ongmal unexcited level
with the emission of light having a wave length longer than the original source. Thus the
 liquid Penetrant Testing 9

emitted light is in the visible spectrum. Because, the UV light is not normally seen by the
human eye, it is also called black light. The advantages of this in penetrant inspection is that,
regions holding greater amounts of the fluorescent penetrant appear very bright. When the
inspection is performed in very subdued light, the regions clear of penetrant material will
nppear black. Due to this effect, the visibility of small indications is greatly enhanced.
A significant improvement in both the reliability and sensitivity of penetrant ins~ection
occurred with the introduction of laser scanning devices that are able to automatically scan
large areas. Lasers, being monochromatic light sources, excitation by laser shows defect
indications distinctly both in form and colour. Use of laser scanners however is confined
currently to laboratory testing and not yet become applicable to in-situ inspection of components
in plants.

3.2 PROCEDURE FOR P.E~ETRANT TESTING

Penetrant inspection is accomplished with the following sequence of operations (Fig. 3.1).

Penetrant

V
(a) Open defect (b) Applied penetrant in the crack
Penetrant absorbed
Developer wtth
no penetrant in developer

(c) Penetrant cleaned from the (d) Enlarged width of penetrant due to developer
surface but remaining in the crack UV or visible light for inspection

(e) D~tection of defect by visible inspection

Fig. 3.1 Sequence of operations in liquid penetrant inspection

3.2.1 Cleaning . . .. .
One of the most important steps in the penetrant inspection procedure 1s the mittal cleanmg
of the surface area to be inspected. The defect that is being sought must be op~n to the
surface for the penetrant to enter. Scale, flakes, paint, dirt, grease and other chenucals that
 IO Pructica/ Non-destructive Testing

are not cleaned from the surface wilJ tend to accumulate the penetrant. This I d .
mas·k mg' O f rea I m
· d"1cat1ons
· ea s •to Cfther
or creation of defect indications where none exi st A
b. . . . sat1sfact0
com mat1on of solvents, brushes, rags, etchants, etc., must be chosen for a . 1)'
inspection problem. Jt is essential that the cleaned surface be adequately dried bP:nicuJar
. r . t· h
app 1cat1on o t e penetrant since presence of any excess cleaning fluid would d'!
e,ore th
c
1
• t an d d 1m1ms
Pen e t ran ' · · h the bnlhance
· · of the indication. ute the

3.2.2 Penetrant Application

The second ste~ in the inspection process is the application of penetrant fluid to the cleaned
surf~ce. The fluid should spread freely and evenly over the surface and move into the crack
The dwel time, which is the amount of time required for the penetrant to move into th ·
crack. ~ill vary depending on the crack size and shape characteristics and also the environmen~
cond1t1ons such as temperature and surface inclination. Application of penetrant may be
achi~v~d by dippin~ the component in a bath of penetrant liquid or by.spraying or brushing.
A m1mmum dwel time of about 20 to 30 min may be allowed after penetrant application.
Larger periods may be necessary in certain circumstances.

3.2.3 Removal of Excess Penetrant

This is the most important step in the entire process. The desired result is that the surface
is completely clear of penetrant. Yet, the crack/defect retains all of the penetrant that
entered into it. Excess cleaning may remove the penetrant from the upper region of the
defect with the result that the developer does not reach the penetrant and no defect is
indicated. On the other hand, insufficient cleaning will leave a background of penetrant on
the surface. Due to this, the defect :,viii appear only slightly different from the background
area. This difference in contrast may not be sufficient for the defect to be recognized. Thus,
care must be exercised so that neither insufficient cleaning nor over cleaning is done.

3.2.4 Application of Developer

After removing the excess penetrant, a thin coating of developer is applied over the surface
to draw the penetrant out of the crack and increase its visibility. Another important function
of the developer is that it covers the surface with a colour that provides good visual contrast
to the penetrant. This increases the visibility of the defect.

3.2.5 Inspection and Evaluation

The last step in the process is the scanning of the surface for indications. The scanning may·
be carried out under visible light conditions or with ultraviolet or laser incident light and
the defect recognition may be made with the human eye or with automated optical scanners.
Each indication that appears should be evaluated. It may actually be unacceptable; it may
be worse than it appears; it may be false; it may be real but non relevant; ~r it may actually
be acceptable. Because penetrant inspection provides only indications _corresponding to
surface discontinuities, its severity cannot always be determined at first glance. A real
indication is caused by an unacceptable flaw such as a crack. A false indication is an
accumulation of penetrant caused by a drop of penetrant left on the work pi~ce inad_vertently.
A non-relevant indication is the entrapment of penetrant caused at certain lo: auons such
as a press fit interface. After the inspection stage. acceptance/rejection of the component
is made based on the applicable specifications and standards.
 Liquid Penetrant Testing 11
3.3 PENETRANT TESTING MATERIALS

A typical penetrant testing involves use o f a vanety

· of matenals
· for cleaning · and developing·
. penetrant maten'al 1'tse Jf• In general, the fluids
as well as the · mvolved
· · the penetrant
m
Process are either petroleum-or-water-base d and the so1vents or cleaners are selected according
·
to the type of penetrant used.

3.3.1 Penetrants
The ·.oenetrant
. . material consists
. of the indicating (tracer) dye p1us the earner· ( veh'1cJe) fl u1'd.
The indica_tt~g dye may give a colour contrast with respect to the surroundings, as is the
case for visible ~~e J>t:netrant methods, or a brightness contrast for the fluorescent dye
penetrants. For visible hght penetrants, the dye is usually red in colour while for fluorescent
penetrants, th~ d~e appears bri~ht yellow-green under ultraviolet li~ht.
One of the s1~mficant factors 1_n the choice of penetrant material is the detection sensitivity.
From the expenmental results, tt has been found that the highest sensitivity achievable is
with the water washable and post-emulsifiable systems.

3.3.2 Cleaners and E~ulsifiers

A cleaning fluid must act as a solvent for the material that is to be removed. For water-
based penetrants, a simple water wash or rinse is suitable for the cleaning step. For
petroleum-based penetrants, there are two alternate methods for cleaning the test piece. The
most direct approach is to use an oil or chlorine-based solvent. Another method is to use
an emulsifier that reacts with the oil-based penetrant to form a water-soluble substance,
which then may be removed by water washing or rinsing.
Two types of emulsifiers, hydrophilic and lipophilic are available. Hydrophilic emulsifiers
are composed of materials similar to common _detergents, which react with the oil based
penetrant in a way that removes the penetrant from the surfa.ce. Diffusion plays a minor role
in the action of the hydrophilic emulsifiers. Lipophilic emulsifiers, on the other hand, are oil
soluble and they diffuse into the penetrant, breaking down the structure so that the penetrant
may be rinsed away with water. There are a number of methods used in the cleaning process
such as wiping with a cloth, dipping in a tank, rinsing with a hose, or some combination
of these. The choice of the cleaning process again depends on the many variables of the test,
notably, size, shape and material of the component as well as the test environment. For in-
situ/plant components applications, cleaning with cloth and solvent is most convenient. One
of the most effective cleaning methods is the use of trichloroethylene vapour.

3.3.3 Developers
The developer material is used to enhance the conspicuity of the indication. For fluorescent
penetrant, the developer background shouldappear black when illuminated by the ultraviolet
light. The penetrant material concentrated around the defect will appear bright and appear
distinct from the black background of the developer. The developer for visible dye penetrants
normally creates a white background that contrasts the normal red appearance of the dye
pulled out of the crack or pore.
The d~veloper material may be one of the sevt"ral types like dry powder, aqueous (wet)
powder-suspension, solvent-suspendible, plastic-film, and water sol~ble. Ap_plicatio~ of the
developer may be accomplished by several techniques such as spray, 1mmers1on, passmg the
part through a developer dust cloud chamber, fluidized bed and electrostatic means.
I2 Practical Non-destructive Testing

Solvent suspendible developer may be used ~on_g with 00th the visible light and flubreSCciit
penetrants and is most suitable for in-situ apphcau~ns on pl~nt com~onents. Aq~eous or Wet
powder-suspension type developers are applie~ typically by tmmerSion or ~pray 11:,:imediatcJy volume of water would require fac
after the washing step and before the part is dned. Dry powder developer ts applied direcuy water.
to the part immediately after the penetrant removal process. .
The highest sensitivity is obtained with solvent spray. pla~tic filr~ spray, and water.
soluble spray. The least sensitivity is obtained by the dry tmmerSion and dust cloud
methods.

3.3.4 Special Requirements . .. .

When using various chemicals or water penetrant matenals on austemuc stainless steels,
titanium, nickel-base or other high temperature alloys, it is needed to restrict the impurities
such as sulphur, halogen, and alkali materials since these impurities may cause embrittlement
or corrosion, particularly at elevated temperatures. Current standards indicate that impurity
levels of sulphur and halogen exceeding 1% of any one suspect element_may be considered
excessive. However, even this level may be considered unacceptable in some cases, so the
actual maximum acceptable impurity level mi.tst be decided by the user/designer. For
example, halogens are required to be restricted to 25 ppm in all the chemicals used for
Dry
testing austenitic stainless steels by dye penetrant methdods.

3.3.5 Test Blocks

Aluminium and steel blocks are used in quality control of penetrant testing materials. The Dry
test blocks are prepared to rigid specifications as stated in the ·codes. developer
Aluminium test blocks (75 x 100 x 8 mm) are prepared by heating at the center and water
quenched so as to produce thermal shocks. Heating at the center of the block to 773K and
then quenching in cold water produces cracks on the surface. Steel blocks are also used as
test blocks and are prepared from AISI Type 301 or 302 stainless steel.
The blocks are used for checking the qualities of penetrants, emulsifiers and developers.
Among them, the most important quality is the sensitivity of the penetrant, and is described
in brief as given below. For checking the other properties such as water content and
viscosity applicable codes may be referred to. [
For checking the sensitivity, the suspected or faulty penetrant is applied on one half of
the surface of the test block and the standard penetrant is applied to the remaining half of Qte:r~
the surface. Operational procedure to be followed is as per the recommended procedure of
Fi
the manufacturer. If the sensitivity of the tested penetrant is less than that of the standard
penetrant, the penetrant being tested is considered inadequate in quality and discarded.
Developer app\ic~tion f
is no need for a drying st
3.4 PENETRANT TESTIN~ METHODS ried after the a
·must be d ·
The type of penetrant inspection method that is used depends on a number of factors . The before the develo~er app
three principal methods of penetrant inspection are discussed below: Development ume ~eg
as wet developer coating
3.4.1 Water Washable Method whenever the moveme~t ~
In this method (Fig. 3.2), all of the materials used are water soluble. Following the initial .
times are a\so given in
cleaning and drying process, the penetrant applied shall be a water based fluid. Dwell time
for various penetrant inspection methods is given in Table 3.1. After the dwell time, the 3 4.2 Po~t~Emulsifi~b
rinse or penetrant re moval step is different for various_application methods. Use of large This method (Fig. 3.3) is
 Liquid Penetrant Testing 13
volume of water would req · f T .
water. uire ac1 ittes for adequate draining and disposal of the rinsed

Clean

Penetrant

Rinse

Dry Aqueous
developer Dry

Dry Nonaq.
developer Dry
developer

Develop

Inspect

Reject

Rework Scrap Clean

Fig. 3.2 Water washable penetrant method

Developer application follows the rinse step. When aqueous developers are used, there
is no need for a drying step prior to the application of the developer. However, the part
must be dried after the application. If non-aqueous developer is used, the part is dried
before the developer application.
Development time begins immediately after application of the dry developer and as soon
as wet developer coating dries on the surface of the part. The development step is complete
whenever the movement of penetrant coming out of the defect has ceased. Typical development
times are also given in Table 3.1.

3.4.2 Post~Emulsifiable Method

This method (Fig. 3.3) is a combination of solvent and water based inspections. The differences
, . - - - - I~ p,ac,kal N".J,"~";~ r,,,;.g
well Times for Penetrant and Developer
Table 3.1 Recommended D
Dwell time (min.)for
Type of
Material Fonn
discontinuity
Penetrant Developer

5 7
Castings, Cold shuts,
Aluminium, porosity, lack
magnesium, steel, welds
of fusion, cracks
titanium, various
alloys JO 7
Wrought Laps, cracks
extrusions 5 7
Carbide tipped Lack of fusion,
tools porosity
5 7
Plastic, glass, All forms Cracks,
ceramics porosity

between the post-emulsifiable penetrant process and the water-washable method_ are (a) the
penetrant used and (b) the need for an emulsifier. If the solvent-based penetrant 1s used and
followed by an emulsifier application, it allows the remainder of the process to follow the
Dry
water-washable path. Both hydrophilic and lipophilic emulsifiers may be used in this developer
method. The adyantage of the post-emulsifiable system is that solvent penetrants that may
be required for some parts may be removed by water.

3.4.3 Solvent Removable Method

This process (Fig. 3.4) is an oil-based inspection process. Penetrant removal must be
accomplished by hand wiping the part with a rag dampend with solvent. Solvent technique •
is most often applied for the inspection of either a few small parts or for localized inspection
such as in-situ inspection of pipe welds and pressure vessel welds and is most amenable to
portability.

3.5 SENSITIVITY

Since the introduction of penetrant examination, various experiments have been conducted Fig. 3.3
and methods ha~~ thus been formulated to measure the sensitivity. Sensitivity can be
defined as the ab1hty of penetrant to reveal a particular type of discontinuity in a m t · 1 It has been found that visible
Th1s. · 1 d fi • . a ena . µm whereas fluorescent penetrat
1s re ate to me or wide discontinuities which are deep or shallow in nat F
& · ·· · h . . ure. actors
af 1ec1mg sens1t1V1ty are t e ability of the penetrant to enter the discontinuity and removal
of 3.6 APPLICATIONS AND l
h the
d &penetrant from
• •
the surface of the component without 1·1s s1gni
· 'fi
1cant removal from
t e e,ect. In add1t10n, the penetrant must have the ability to come out of th d · • •
with the aid of a developer, and to form an indication which is read'! . \tco~tmu1ty, In order to obtain optimum resulti
contrast with respect to the background. 1 Y VIS! e with good
and limitations of the method t
Following is the list of various systems of penetrant in th 0rd . . discontinuities open to the surfa
(and decreasing cost): ' e er of decreasing sensitivity seams, porosity etc. in produc
(a) Post-emulsifiable fluorescent (b) Solvent bl method is very reliable in the dt
fluorescent (d) Post-emulsifiable visible dye t)e;~va e fluorescent (c) Water-washable of a material. Penetrant methoc
washable visible dye. e O vent-removable visible dye (f) Water- the possible exception of MPT
complete surface in a relative!)
 Liquid Penetrant Testing 15

Clean

Rinse

Dry Aqueous
developer Dry

Dry Nonaq.
developer Dry
developer

Develop

Inspect

Reject

Clean
Fig. 3.3 Post emulsifiable penetrant method

It has been found that visible dye penetrant can detect cracks having width of approx. 5
µm whereas fluorescent penetrant can detect cracks having width in the range of 1 to 2 µm.

3.6 APPLICATIONS AND LIMITATIONS

In order to obtain optimum results from penetrant testing, a full understanding of the capabilities
and limitations of the method should be appreciated. The method is capable of detecting
discontinuities open to the surface of the material under test. These are usually cracks, laps,
seams, porosity etc. in products like pressure vessels, pipes, weld joints etc. Penetrant
method is very reliable in the detection of fatigue cracks which occur during the service life
of a material. Penetrant method has a significant advantage over other NDT methods, with
the possible exception of MPT. This is because of the fact that a part can be tested over its
complete surface in a relatively short time, irrespective of shape, size and orientation of the
 16 Practical Non-destmctive Testing

testing. The ··ra

a collar crack e
tight and the e,
penetranl. Figu1
penetrant in a <
that the crack i

Solvent wipe

Nonaqueous
developer

Fi~
Reject Accept

Clean

Fig. 3.4 Solvent removable penetrant method

defect. In the case of magnetic materials, MPT is preferred because it will also detect
subsurface discontinuities, defects filled with oxide and defects covered by paint films. The
liquid penetrant method has another limitation that it cannot be applied to porous materials.

3.7 STANDARD

I. IS 3658:1981 Code of practice for liquid penetrant flaw detection .

3.8 TYPICAL EXAMPLES

Typical examples showing the usefulness of liquid penetrant testing for revealing surface
connected cracks are given here. Figure 3.5 shows the indications obtained in a heat treated Fig.
male part of a die using liquid penetrant testing, For obtaining the indications, solvent
removable visible dye penetrant with a dwell time of 30 minutes has been used. The heat
treated die is made from EN-8 steel used for fabrication of containers. Two tight cracks
(indicated by arrows) from the guide pin hole are clearly revealed by the liquid penetrant
 liquid Penetrant Testing J7

testing. The -:racks were formed during heat treatment of the component. Figure 3.6 shows
a collar crack extending into a part of a raiser used for casting purpose. The crack is very
tight and the edge of the crack had a large depth indicated by the excess oozing out of
penetrant. Figure 3.7 shows gross cracks including a branched one revealed by visible dye
penetrant in a cut section of a boiler tube. The broadness of the LPT indication reveals
that the crack is of sufficient depth. A dwell time of 15 minutes was used.

Fig. 3.5 Cracks in a heat treated male part of a die, revealed by LPT

Fig. 3.6 A collar crack extending into a part of a raiser, revealed by LPT
18 Practical Non-Destructive Testing

.. :

Fig. 3.7 Gross cracks including a branched one revealed by visible dye
penetrant In a cut section of a boiler tube
Typical examples showing the usefulness of fluorescent liquid penetrant testing for
revealing surface connected cracks are given here. Figure 3.8 shows the indications obtained
by fluorescent liquid penetrant examination on the fillet radius of the leading edge of the
dovetail slots in a aeroengine compressor disc. Two fine cracks have been found to emanate
from the dovetail edges in the compressor disc can be observed (areas marked in the left
figure). On the right is the magnified view of one of the cracks revealed by fluorescent
liquid penetrant testing using solvent removable penetrant system and as observed under
UV lighting. A dwell time of 30 minutes was used. The length of the two cracks was
subsequently measured using a low power microscope and was found to be 4mm and 2mm.

Fig. 3.8 Fluorescent dye penetrant examination of the fillet radii of the leading edges
of the dovetail slots of a compressor disc of an aeroengine. One of the two
fine cracks (indicated by arrows) emanating from the dovetail edges in the
compressor disc is shown In the right figure (indicated by arrow)
 Liquid Penetrant Testing 19

Figure 3.9 shows another example of fluorescent hquid penetrant indications (arrows)
of 300 micron and 600 micron flat bottom holes in a wheel axle of an undercarriage of
a defence aircraft. These rounded indications were to serve as reference defects for UT
examination. LPT was carried out using solvent removable fluorescent penetrant system.
A dwell time of 15 minutes was given. The excessive bleed out has resulted in the magnification
of the defect size by more than 10 times. The image is as-viewed through the digital camera
with UV lighting. Figure 3.10 shows liquid penetrant indication from a tight crack in the
wheel axle which was in service. Compared to the reference defect (flat bottom hole), the
crack is inferred to be tight and very shallow (less than 300 microns in depth). Figure 3.11
shows the fluorescent indications of a few tight fatigue cracks revealed by fluorescent liquid
penetrant testing in wheel axles of undercarriages of aircraft. The intermittent indications
revealed in right image (two arrows) is an indirect pointer to the tightness of the crack while
the sharpness of the indication indicates its shallowness.

Fig. 3.9 Fluorescent liquid penetrant indications (arrows) of 300 micron and 600
micron flat bottom holes in a wheel axle of an undercarriage of a defence
aircraft

Fig. 3.10 Fluorescent liquid penetrant indication from' a tight crack in a wheel axle of
an undercarriage of an aircraft
 -
20 Practical Non-Destructive Testing

(c) •

'- 1

Fig. 3.11 Tight fatigue cracks reve\ded by liquid penetrant testing in wheel axle of an
undercarriage of an aircraft. The intermittent indications revealed in right
image (two arrows) is an indirect pointer to the tightness of the crack while
the sharpness of the indication indicates its shallowness