CHAPTER T"l'ELVE

DC GENERATOR & MOTOR THEORY

DC Generator & Motor Theory

Introduction
DC machines were the first electrical machines invented in the 1800's when in
1839 an elementary motor was used to drive a locomotive in Edinburgh. Most
electric machines convert energy by using a magnetic field that allows force to
be transmitted from a stationary to a moving part without physical connection.
There are two basic principles utilised in generator and motor operation. The
first, originally discovered by the French physicist Andre-Marie Ampere, states
that:

An electrical conductor carrying a current at right angles to a

magnetic field will experience a force at right angles to both the
field and the current.
~
The second principle, formulated on the observations made by Michael?o
~
Faraday, states that: r<:J
('\
"'
A potential difference, or voltage, will be established between the ~
ends of an electrical conductor that moves across or perpendicular "'::>0...
to a magnetic field. <
"'
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p
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,.,
These principles apply for a moving conductor in a stationary magnetic field or-,~ "'
egually for a stationaiy conductor with a moving magnetic field.

Basic Generator Principles

A generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy

by using the principle of magnetic induction. This can be summarised as:

Whenever a conductor is moved within a magnetic field in such a way that the
conductor cuts across magnetic lines of flux, voltage is generated in the
conductor.

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CHAPTER TWELVE
DC GENERATOR & MOTOR THEORY

The amount of voltage generated depends on:

• The strength of the magnetic field

• The angle at which the conductor cuts the magnetic field

• The speed _at which the conductor is moved

• The length of the conductor within the magnetic field

• The polarity of the voltage depends on the direction of the

magnetic lines of flux and the direction of movement of the
conductor

To determine the direction of the conventional current in a given situation, we

can use Fleming's right-hand rule for generators, illustrated in figure 12.1.

Motion of
Conductor

Flux
~
l

Figure 12.1 - Fleming's Right-Hand R ule for Generators

The rule is applied by using the thumb and first two fingers of the right hand,
arranged perpendicular to each other as in figure 12.1. If the thumb is pointed
in the direction of conductor movement; the forefinger in the direction of
magnetic flux from north to south; then the middle finger points in the
direction of current flow in an external circuit to which the voltage is applied.

Note. Conventional current flow is used in figure 12.1; if electron current

flow is used, it becomes the left-hand rule, which is widely used in the
USA.

A simple way of remembering which way round these rules are is that in the
UK we have the MG car, i.e. motor is left hand and generator is right hand,
while in the USA they have GM cars.

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 CHAPTER TWELVE
DC GENERATOR & MOTOR T HEORY

The Simple Generator

The simplest generator is an ac generator and basic generating principles are
more easily explained by looking at this type first; the DC generator will then
be discussed later. A simple generator, figure 12.2, consists of a wire loop
positioned so that it can rotate in a stationary magnetic field and as it does will
produce an induced emf in the loop. Sliding contacts, usually called brushes,
connect the loop to an external circuit load in order to pick up or use the
induced emf.

Pole Pieces

~
;Q~
(')
("'.
"
~
Figure 12.2 - The Simple AC Generator "::>0..
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r;
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In figure 12.2 the pole pieces provide the magnetic field and are shaped and :!
positioned as illustrated to concentrate the magnetic field as close as possible,,~
to the wire loop. The rotating wire is called the Armature and its ends are
connected to rings, more correctly called Slip Rings, which rotate with the
armature. Brushes, usually made of carbon, ride against the slip rings and have
wires attached to them that connect to the external load. Any generated voltage
appears across these brushes; this is demonstrated graphically in figure 12.3.

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CHAPTER TWELVE
DC GENERATOR & MOTOR THEORY

3 1----~------1 1
90° I
180° I 270° I 360°
8
~
Q)
c:
Q)
C) -

090°

:_JJG)
180°

Figure 12.3 - Voltage Generation

The simple generator illustrated in figure 12.3, produces a voltage as the

armature loop rotates in a clockwise direction. For the purposes of this
explanation, the initial or starting point is shown with the loop vertical, i.e. at
position CD, called the 0° position. As illustrated in figure 12.3, at 0° the
armature loop is perpendicular to the magnetic field and the loop's red and
black conductors are moving parallel to the magnetic field.

At this point, indeed at any time the conductors are moving parallel to the
magnetic field, they do not cut any lines of flux, so no emf is induced and the
meter at position CD indicates zero. This position is called the Neutral Plane.
As the armature loop now rotates from position CD to <Ii, i.e. 0° to 90°, the
conductors cut through more and more lines of flux, at a continually increasing
angle. At 90°, they are cutting through maximum flux lines and at a maximum
angle. This results in the induced emf going from zero to maximum between
0° and 90°.

Note that from 0° to 90°, the red conductor cuts down through the field and
at the same time the black conductor cuts up through the field. This means
that the induced emfs in the conductors are series-adding and the resultant
voltage across the brushes, i.e. the terminal voltage, is the sum of the two
induced voltages and the meter at position <Ii reads maximum value.

As the armature loop continues rotating from 90° to 180°, position ®, the
conductors that were cutting through a maximum of flux lines at position <Ii
now cut through fewer lines and they are again moving parallel to the magnetic
field at position ®, no longer cutting through any flux lines. As the armature
continues the rotation from 90° to 180°, the induced voltage decreases to zero
in the same way that it increased during the rotation from 0° to 90° and the
meter reads zero again.

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 CHAPTER TWELVE
DC GENERATOR & MOTOR THEORY

As the armature has rotated from 0° to 180°, the conductors have been
moving through the magnetic field in the same direction and so the polarity of
the induced voltage has remained the same, illustrated by points A to C on the
graph in figure 12.3. As the loop rotates beyond 180° through 270°, position
©, and back to the initial starting point, position CD, the direction of the
conductors' cutting reverses through the magnetic field. Now the red
conductor cuts up through the field while the black conductor cuts down
through the field and as a result, the polarity of the induced voltage reverses, as
shown in figure 12.3. The terminal voltage will be the same as it was from CD to
CTl, except that the polarity is reversed as shown by the meter deflection at
position ©. The voltage output waveform for a complete revolution of the
loop is shown on the graph in figure 12.3.

The Simple DC Generator

With the DC generator, we need to look at a single-loop generator again, but
this time with each terminal connected to a section of a two-segment metal
ring. The two segments are insulated from each other, forming a Commutator
that replaces the slip rings of the ac generator, Figure 12.4.

Commutator

Figure 12.4 - Commutator Segments

The commutator mechanically reverses the armature loop connections to the

external circuit and this occurs at the same time that the armature loop voltage
reverses. Through this process, known as commutation, the commutator
changes the generated ac voltage to a pulsating DC voltage as shown in the
graph of figure 12.5.

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CHAPTER TWELVE
DC GENERATOR & MOTOR THEORY

2 4

l----------13 l----------i 1
90° 270°
180° 360°

Figure 12.5 - Results of Using a Commutator

When the armature loop rotates clockwise from CD to C£l, a voltage is induced
in the armature loop that causes a current in a direction that deflects the meter
to the right. Current flows through loop, out of the negative brush, through
the meter and the load, and back through the positive brush to the loop.
Voltage reaches its maximum value at C£l on the graph and the generated
voltage and the current fall to zero at a>. At this instant, each brush makes
contact with both segments of the commutator and as the armature loop
continues to rotate to position ©, a voltage is again induced in the loop, but is
the opposite polarity. The voltages induced in the two sides of the coil at © are
in the reverse direction to that shown at C£l.

In this case, the current is flowing from the black side to the red side in
position C£l and from the red side to the black side at ©. However, because
the segments of the commutator have rotated with the loop and are contacted
by opposite brushes, the direction of current flow through the brushes and the
meter remains the same as at C£l.

The voltage developed across the brushes is now pulsating and unidirectional,
i.e. in one direction only and varies twice during each revolution between zero
and maximum; this variation is called Ripple.

Obviously, for most applications, a pulsating voltage is inappropriate.

Therefore, in practical generators, more armature loops, i.e. coils, and more
commutator segments are used to produce an output voltage waveform with
less ripple. The effects of additional coils may be illustrated by adding a second
coil to the armature, figure 12.6.

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 CHAPTER T WELVE
DC GENERATOR & MOTOR THEORY

ril3\12fJ?fJ
0° 45° 90° 135° 180° 225° 270° 315° 380°
Coil voltages

Figure 12.6 - Effect of an Additional Coil

The commutator in figure 12.6 must now be divided into four (4) parts since
there are now four (4) coil ends. As the assembly rotates in a clockwise
direction, the voltage induced in the black coil, decreases for the next 90° Of
rotation. %-'
fl-;5"
In other words, from maximum to zero and the voltage induced in the red coil ~a
("':
increases from zero to maximum at the same time. Since there are four (4) ~
segments in the commutator, a new segment passes each brush every 90° ,;
instead of every 180°. This allows the brush to switch from the black coil to 5..
<
the red coil at the instant the voltages in the two coils are equal. The brush ~
remains in contact with the red coil as its induced voltage increases to £
maximum, level 'B' in the graph and then decreases to level 'A', 90° later. At :;1
this point, the process repeats itself. ~
">

The graph in figure 12.6 shows the ripple effect of the voltage when two
armature coils are used. Since there are now four (4) segments in the
commutator and only two brushes, the voltage cannot fall any lower than at
point 'A' and therefore, the ripple is limited to the rise and fall between levels
'A' and 'B' on the graph. Adding more armature coils can further reduce the
ripple effect, and decreasing ripple in this way increases the effective voltage
of the output.

The Effective voltage is the equivalent level of DC voltage that will cause the
same average current flow through a given resistance. By using additional
armature coils, the voltage across the brushes is not ·allowed to fall to as low a
level between peaks. Practical generators use many armature coils and usually
also use more than one pair of magnetic poles. The additional magnetic poles
have the same effect on ripple, as does the additional armature coils. In
addition, the increased number of poles provides a stronger magnetic field, ie
greater flux lines, and this in turn, allows an increase in output voltage because
the coils cut more lines of flux per revolution.

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CHAPTER TWELVE
DC GENERATOR & MOTOR THEORY

Electromagnetic Poles
Nearly all-practical generators use electromagnetic poles instead of the
permanent magnets used in the simple generator illustrated earlier. The
electromagnetic field poles consist of coils of insulated copper wire wound on
soft iron cores, as shown in figure 12.7.

Figure 12.7 - Four-Pole Electromagnetic Generator

The main advantages of using electromagnetic poles are that there is increased
field strength and now it can be controlled; i.e. by varying the input voltage, the
field strength can vary; and by varying the field strength, the output voltage of
the generator can be controlled.

Commutation
Commutation, as discussed earlier, is the process by which a DC voltage
output is taken from an armature that has an ac voltage induced in it. As
shown with the example of the simple generator in figure 12.5, the
commutator mechanically reverses the armature loop connections to the
external circuit.

This occurs at the same instant that the voltage polarity in the armature loop
reverses. A DC voltage is applied to the load because the output connections
are reversed as each commutator segment passes under a brush, the segments
being insulated from each other.

In figure 12.8, commutation occurs simultaneously in the two coils that are
briefly short-circuited by the brushes. Coil 'B' is short-circuited by the negative
brush while coil 'Y', the opposite coil, is short-circuited by the positive brush.
However, the brushes are positioned on the commutator so that each coil is
short-circuited as it moves through its own electrical neutral plane, i.e. when
there is no voltage generated in the coil, so preventing sparking between the

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 CHAPTER TWELVE
DC GENERATOR & MOTOR THEORY

commutator and brush. Sparking between the brushes and commutator is an

indication of improper commutation, usually caused by improper brush
placement.

Rotation

Load

Figure 12.8 - Commutation of a DC Generator

Armature Reaction
~ /.

From previous chapters, you know that all current-carrying conductors f,7(\)
produce magnetic fields. The magnetic field produced by current in the :;
armature of a DC generator affects the flux pattern and distorts the main field, ~
causing a shift in the neutral plane, which affects commutation. This change in ~
Cl.
the neutral plane and the reaction of the magnetic field is called Armature ;;:.
Reacdon. ~
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:::::
As previously discussed for proper commutation, the coil short-circuited by !
the brushes must be in the neutral plane. If we look at the operation of a-,.::;;
simple two-pole DC generator, figure 12.9, view 'A' shows the field poles and
the main magnetic field and the armature is shown in a simplified view in views
'B' and 'C' with the cross section of its coil represented as small circles.

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CHAPTER TWELVE
DC GENERATOR & MOTOR THEORY

Old Neutral Plane New

~Neutral
C. Plane
Armature
Magnetic
Field

Armature Coil Magnetic Field

Resulting From
Interaction

Figure 12.9 - Armature Reaction

The symbols within the circles represent arrows with the dot representing the
point of an arrow coming towards the front, and the cross represents the tail,
or feathered end, going away to the back. When the armature rotates
clockwise, the sides of the coil to the left will have current flowing towards the
front, as indicated by the dot and the other side of the coil will have current
flowing away. The field generated around each side of the coil is shown in view
'B' of figure 12.9 and this increases in strength for each wire in the armature
coil, setting up a magnetic field almost perpendicular to the main field.

Now there are two (2) fields, i.e. the main field, view 'A', and the field around
the armature coil, view 'B'. View 'C' shows how the armature field distorts the
main field and how the neutral plane is shifted in the direction of rotation.
Now if the brushes remain in the old neutral plane, they will be short-circuiting
coils that have voltage induced in them and so there will be arcing between the
brushes and commutator. To prevent this arcing in a practical generator, the
brushes must therefore be shifted to the new neutral plane.

However, shifting the brushes to the advanced position, i.e. the new neutral
plane, does not completely solve the problems of armature reaction as its effect
varies with the load current. Therefore, each time the load current varies, the
neutral plane shifts and this means the brush position must be changed each
time the load current varies.

In small generators, the effects of armature reaction are reduced by physically

shifting the position of the brushes. However, this is not practical for large
generators and other means are used eliminate armature reaction.

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 CHAPTER TWE L VE
DC GENERATOR & MO T OR THEORY

Compensating Windings and Interpoles

In larger generators, Compensating Windings or Interpoles are used to
overcome armature reaction, figure 12.10.

Compensating Main
Windings Interpoles Field
Pole

Figure 12.10 - Compensating Windings & Interpoles

Compensating windings consist of a series of coils embedded in slots in the

pole faces and these are connected in series with the armature. The series-
connected compensating windings produce a magnetic field that vari~
directly with armature current. However, because the compensating windings~~
are wound to produce a field that opposes the magnetic field of the armature, ~<Y
they tend to cancel the effects of the armature magnetic field. The neutral i
plane will therefore remain stationary and in its original position for all values ~
of armature current. As a result, once the brushes have been set correctly, they "'5..
<
do not have to be moved again. ~
:")
0

Another way to reduce the effects of armature reaction is to place small l

auxiliary poles, called Interpoles, between the main field poles. These have a,&
few turns of wire and are connected in series with the armature. They are"'
wound and placed so that each one has the same magnetic polarity as the next
main pole ahead of it, in the direction of rotation, and the generated field then
produces the same effect as the compensating winding. This field, in effect,
cancels the armature reaction for all values of load current by causing a shift in
the neutral plane opposite to the shift caused by armature reaction. The
amount of shift created by the interpoles will equal the shift caused by
armature reaction since both are a result of armature current.

Generator Motor Reaction

When a generator delivers current to a load, the armature current creates a
magnetic force that opposes the rotation of the armature called the Motor
Reaction. To simplify matters again, if we take a single armature conductor,
figure 12.11 view 'A', when it is stationary, no voltage is generated and no
current flows and so no force acts on the conductor. When the conductor is

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CHAPTER TWELVE
DC GENERATOR & MOTOR THEORY

moved downwards, view 'B' figure 12.11, and the circuit is completed through
an external load, conventional current flows through the conductor in the
direction indicated setting up lines of flux around the conductor in a clockwise
direction.

Field Weakened

Figure 12.11 - Motor Reaction in a Simple Generator

The mteraction between the conductor field and the main field of the
generator weakens the field above the conductor and strengthens the field
below the conductor. The main field consists of lines that now act like
stretched rubber bands and so an upward reaction force is produced that acts
in opposition to the downward driving force applied to the armature
conductor. If the current in the conductor increases, the reaction force
increases and therefore, more force must be applied to the conductor to keep it
movmg.

With no armature current, there is no magnetic, i.e. motor, reaction and so the
force required to turn the armature is low. As the armature current increases,
the reaction of each armature conductor against the rotation also increases.
The generator's actual force is multiplied by the number of conductors in the
armature and the driving force required to maintain the generator armature
speed must be increased to overcome the motor reaction. The force applied to
turn the armature must overcome the motor reaction force in all DC
generators and the device that provides the turning force applied to the
armature is called the Prime Mover. The prime mover may be an electric
motor, a petrol engine, a steam turbine, or any other mechanical device that
provides turning force.

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