1470 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 18, NO.

4, OCTOBER 2003

Stockbridge-Type Damper Effectiveness Evaluation:

Part II—The Influence of the Impedance
Matrix Terms on the Energy Dissipated
Giorgio Diana, Alessandra Manenti, Claudia Pirotta, and Andrea Zuin

Abstract—This paper deals with a methodology to evaluate according to the actual standards [2]–[4], the efficiency of a
the 2 2 mechanical impedance matrix of a nonsymmetric damper for a certain conductor and span can be valued according
Stockbridge-type damper, based on damper translational tests on to two different philosophies. In one case, “basic system,” the
a shaker and on a 6 d.o.f model of the damper itself. A series of
comparisons with data measured on a laboratory span is reported, energy dissipated by the system cable+damper is measured on a
in order to investigate the effect of the single matrix terms on the laboratory span [vibrated at the cable allowable strain (i.e., 150
global energy dissipation. The results of a software simulating the microstrains peak to peak)] and then compared to the energy
aeolian vibration behavior of a cable+damper system, accounting input from the wind: the damper is efficient if the energy dis-
for the most important terms of the damper impedance matrix, sipated is greater or equal to the energy input from the wind in
are also presented.
all of the frequency range affected by aeolian vibrations. This
Index Terms—Aeolian vibration, damper 2 2 complex method does not allow for the evaluation of the conductor am-
impedance matrix, Stockbridge-type damper. plitude of vibration on the real span.
In the other case, “direct method,” the damper mechanical
NOMENCLATURE impedance is measured through translational tests on an
electro-dynamic exciter and the aeolian vibration amplitudes
Force transmitted by the damper to the cable.
(and strains) on the real span are computed through software,
Torque transmitted by the damper to the cable.
generally based on the energy balance principle [(EBP): the
Damper’s clamp translation.
steady state amplitudes are those for which the energy input
Damper’s clamp rotation.
from the wind and the energy dissipated by the cable+damper
Damper’s clamp translation (sine wave).
balance]: the damper is efficient if the computed strains are
Damper’s clamp rotation (sine wave).
lower than the allowable ones in all of the aeolian vibrations
, , Mechanical impedance matrix elements.
frequency range.
,
As already observed in [1], the first method cannot be seen as
Mechanical impedance matrix.
a damping system design tool, due to the fact that at any change
Damper masses displacement.
of the system (conductor, tension, damper type and/or position,
Damper masses rotation.
number of dampers ….) a new set of tests should be performed
, , Damper mass, damping, and stiffness matrices.
and this is surely time consuming and could be economically
nonaffordable.
Damper messenger cable stiffness matrices.
The second method contains approximations whose entity
Damper messenger cable hysteretic damping
must be carefully examined and identified: in fact, with respect
constant.
to the actual standards [3], [4]
Messenger cables length.
, , Damper masses (1,2) and clamp(c) mass. • the damper nonlinear response is not taken into account
because the damper translational test is performed on a
, , Damper masses (1,2) and clamp(c) moment of shaker at only one constant vibration velocity;
inertia. • the effect of the damper clamp rotation (terms and
, Frequency (rad/s). of the damper impedance matrix1 ) is not considered, nor
the torque transmitted by the damper due to translation of
its clamp (term ). So only one term is measured (the
I. INTRODUCTION
force per unit displacement ) and then introduced in

A S introduced in [1], which reports the results of the first

part of this research, the efficiency of the Stockbridge-type
damper is one of the leading aspects in designing new lines:
the software.
These two facts may cause errors in the definition of the con-
ductor+damper vibration mode shape, in the evaluation of the
F
Manuscript received April 3, 2002.
1The damper impedance matrix is defined by
M
= ff f
f
u
'
The authors are with the Department of Mechanics Politecnico di Milano, where F and M are the complex amplitudes of the force and torque trans-
Milano 20158, Italy (e-mail: [email protected]). mitted by the damper to the cable, due to an harmonic displacement of the
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2003.817798 damper clamp with amplitudes u (translation) and ' (rotation).

0885-8977/03$17.00 © 2003 IEEE

DIANA et al.: STOCKBRIDGE-TYPE DAMPER EFFECTIVENESS EVALUATION: PART II 1471

energy dissipated by the damper and, finally, in the computa-

tion of the conductor amplitudes of vibration and strains.
The first part of the research [1] has been devoted to an ex-
tensive measurement campaign with the aim of quantifying the
difference between the damper dissipated energy as measured
on the laboratory span and as valued through shaker transla-
tional tests: the damper clamp has been made a dynamometer
one and so it has been possible to measure on the laboratory
span the force and torque transmitted by the damper as a func-
tion of the damper clamp translation and rotation. The contri-
bution of these two terms to the global energy losses and the
comparison with the force translational term measured on the
shaker allowed for a deeper understanding of the problem. How- Fig. 1. Energies dissipated at 10 Hz. Wavelength: 12.8 m. Damper at 1.5 m
ever, the single contribution of the various terms of the damper from the hinge. u =' = 7; u =u = 0:92; ' =' = 0:17.
mechanical impedance matrix still remained to be investigated,
because only the global force and the global torque transmitted
by the damper have been measured.
The second part of the research, here exposed, consisted in the
development of a methodology to define the damper mechanical
impedance matrix, with a double purpose.
• quantifying the contribution of the single four terms of the
damper impedance matrix to the dissipated energy: this al-
lows for the evaluation of the actual “direct method” lim-
itations and also for understanding which are the matrix
most significant terms;
• improving the “direct method”: a proposal is made for the
modification of the EBP-based software, introducing the
damper impedance matrix both for the computation of the Fig. 2. Energies dissipated at 23 Hz. Wavelength: 5.52 m. Damper at 1.5 m
cable deflection shape and of the dissipated energy. The from the hinge. u =' = 0:7; u =u = 0:38; ' =' = 0:14.
proposed methodology does not require to complicate the
experimental part of the “direct method,” in fact, as it will
be shown in the paper, it has the advantage of using the
same translational test actually specified by the standard.
The paper is organized in the following parts:
• comparison between the “basic” and the “direct” methods;
• damper mechanical impedance matrix evaluation;
• evaluation of the matrix terms contribution to the energy
losses (through comparison with the laboratory span
measurements);
• modified EBP-based software: comparison with the labo-
ratory span measurements;
• conclusions and future work.

Fig. 3. Energies dissipated at 22 Hz. Wavelength: 5.8 m. Damper at 2.5 m from

II. COMPARISON BETWEEN THE “BASIC” AND THE the hinge. u =' = 0:45; u =u = 0:59; ' =' = 0:91.
“DIRECT” METHODS
The following Figs. 1–4 report the comparison between the In each figure, the following information is reported to
“basic” and the “direct” methods, in terms of energy dissipated clearly characterize the cable/damper interaction: frequency,
by the damper. The tested cable is an ACSR Rail conductor mode wavelength, and damper position. Important information
strung on a 46-m laboratory span at 26 000 N [1]. The damper is also given: the mode distortion due to the damper presence
has been clamped at 1.5 m far from the hinge, for a series of in terms of the ratio between the damper clamp measured
tests and at 2.5 m far from the hinge for another series of tests amplitude of vibration and the cable-without-damper-ampli-
and different frequencies have been excited in order to explore tude ( ) and also of the ratio between the measured
different damper working conditions. Each of them is charac- damper clamp rotation and the cable-without-damper-rotation
terized by the ratio between damper clamp translation ( ).
( ) and damper clamp rotation (radians) [the mean among the In each figure, several curves and points are reported: those
values relevant to the different vibration amplitudes tested is interesting for this paragraph are: the curve “span,” which rep-
considered]. resents the energy dissipated by the damper as measured on
1472 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 18, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2003

It is also useful to observe how the cable deflection shape

distortion, due to the damper, changes in the different situations
considered. In particular, it seems to be small when the damper
is close to a node (Figs. 3 and 4), while it increases as the damper
distance from the node increases (Figs. 1 and 2). This finding de-
pends, obviously, also on the cable/damper system considered.
As reported in [1], the Stockbridge-type damper used for
these tests has been modified and the clamp has been made a
dynamometer one, by means of four miniaturized quartz load
cells (they can be seen in Fig. 5); moreover, in the span tests,
the vertical translation and rotation of the clamp have been
measured, by means of very light ICP accelerometers. Using
this technique, it was possible to separate the contribution due
Fig. 4. Energies dissipated at 28 Hz. Wavelength: 4.56 m. Damper at 2.5 m to force (this contribution is reported as curve “span-F” in
from the hinge. u =' = 0:1; u =u = 0:9; ' =' = 1.
Figs. 1–4) and to torque out of the damper absorbed energy
(this contribution, obviously, is the difference between the span
the laboratory span (i.e., basic method), the curve “shaker,” and span-F curves).
which represents the energy dissipated by the damper evaluated Some result is given in [1] and can also be drawn from
through the term measured on the shaker and the displace- Figs. 1–4, showing how the contribution due to torque is
ment measured on the laboratory span and, finally, the points very low (4 to 8% of the force contribution) for high
“software,” which represent the energy evaluated through the Figs. 1 and 2), while it becomes 15% of the force contribution
term measured on the shaker and the displacement evalu- for around 0.5. Approaching the node, the torque
ated through the EBP-based software developed by the Politec- contribution increases and becomes even greater than the force
nico di Milano Mechanical Department researchers2 (i.e., direct contribution.
method). It is however to be observed that only the relative contribu-
Going through the Figs. 1–4, it appears that if the damper tions of the total force and of the total torque have been identi-
vibrates far from a node (Figs. 1 and 2), the compared dissipated fied: As a matter of fact, the torque term is made of a torque due
energies differ for a small amount. to translation ( ) and a torque due to rotation ( ) which
The nearer the damper is to a vibration node (the lower cannot be separated and the same holds for the force term.
becomes), the more relevant the gap is. This is due to the ef- Comparing the “span,” “span-F,” and “shaker” curves in
fect of the rotation of the damper clamp, which produces both a Figs. 1–4, it is possible to draw some important conclusion: the
torque ( ) and a force variation ( ). These terms—to- force-due-to-rotation term , which can be evaluated through
gether with the one—are neglected in the curve “shaker” the difference between the “span-F” and the “shaker” curves
and this makes the difference with respect to the curve “span” – seems to become not negligible as soon as decreases.
which, obviously includes all of the terms. The torque term, whose two components and cannot
This result seems in contrast with Hagedorn findings [5]. In be separated, also becomes important for very small.
fact, his research showed that the moments introduced by the It is then confirmed that a correct simulation of the dynamic
damper into the cable are of little or no importance with regard behavior of a cable+damper system should account for the com-
to the energy absorbed, while local bending strains on the cable plete damper stiffness matrix, or, at least, for its more relevant
could be strongly affected. terms.
According to [5], it is to be put in evidence that these terms As already observed in the introduction, it is not easy to set
cause also an error in the definition of the cable+damper deflec- up a damper vibration test allowing for translation and rotation
tion shape and this further error contribution is reflected by the contemporaneously, also because of the strong nonlinearity of
software computed energies (the points “software” in Figs. 1–4). the damper. However, simply using two load cells (Fig. 5: Force
It can be observed that, in the case reported in Fig. 4, the error 1 and Force 2), it is very easy to get force and torque per unit
in the deflection shape computation and the error due to the of displacement ( and ) from a damper translational test.
missing impedance matrix terms compensate each other, thus The force is given by the mean of the two force signals, while
giving an occasionally very good software result. the torque is given by the difference between the two signals,
Obviously, the nearer the damper is to a vibration node, the multiplied by the distance between the two force transducers.
more relevant the contribution due to rotation will be. However, The test can be repeated for different translation velocities, ac-
these results do not clarify which of the impedance matrix ne- counting for the damper nonlinear response (nonlinearity with
glected terms are more important in the different situations, de- respect to translation).
scribed by the parameter. In this respect, the damper can be seen as a linearized system
for each tested translation velocity and then its stiffness matrix
can be considered symmetrical (i.e., ). With this
2The software allows for using damper mechanical impedances f mea- position, only the term is missing to complete the damper
sured at a number of vibration velocities, in order to consider the damper non-
linear behavior, and the cable+damper vibration mode is computed accounting impedance matrix. This last term can be computed through a
for the cable flexural stiffness. damper mathematical model, as described in the following.
DIANA et al.: STOCKBRIDGE-TYPE DAMPER EFFECTIVENESS EVALUATION: PART II 1473

Fig. 6. The Stockbridge-type damper analytical model.

where
Fig. 5. The Stockbridge-type damper on the shaker.

This procedure is different from the one proposed by Hardy

and Leblond [6], whose theoretical assessment of the complete
2 2 stiffness matrix of a symmetric damper was based on the
measured dynamic translational stiffness only.
Next steps will be to evaluate the complete mechanical
impedance matrix of a damper and, through comparison with
the span data, to identify their relative importance.
where and are the 4 4 stiffness matrices of the left and
right messenger cables, assumed as beam elements, and ,
III. ANALYTICAL MODEL OF THE DAMPER are force and torque applied to the clamp.
This section deals with the development of an analytical Clamp displacement and rotation , are assumed to be
model in order to evaluate the damper impedance matrix. harmonic
It has already been observed that the dynamical behavior of
a Stockbridge-type damper shows a relevant nonlinear response
as a function of the amplitude of vibration. Moreover, the en-
ergy dissipated by the messenger cables is due to the relative Reordering the vectors and as
slide of the strands, which cannot be represented by a simple
viscous model. Therefore, a rheological model should be de-
fined, in order to obtain an unique analytical model working in where
all of the needed range of amplitudes and frequencies. Finally,
the identification procedure of the related parameters would be
very hard and could be a possible source of errors.
For these reasons, a much more robust and easy to iden- and reordering rows and columns of the matrices accordingly,
tify linear model has been chosen, representing the damper lin- we get [See equation (2) at the bottom of the page] the solution
earized dynamic behavior for each damper clamp translation ve- is
locity considered.
The damper is assumed rigidly clamped on the cable and its
motion in a plane. Therefore, as shown in Fig. 6, there are six (3)
degrees of freedom: , , , related to the damper masses Due to the harmonic motion imposed, the messenger cables
motion, related to the clamp motion. hysteretic damping can be defined by a matrix proportional
Defining the vector , the fol- to the stiffness matrix
lowing equation can be written:

(1) where is the hysteretic damping constant.

(2)
1474 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 18, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2003

The first (2) allows to define the vector for a given mo-
tion applied to the clamp and described by the vector ; the
vector of the forces can be finally computed through the
second equation. This procedure can be also written in a matrix
form, substituting the expressions (3) into (2) and defining the
matrices , , , and as follows:

Substituting matrices , , , and in (2), we get

(4)

and finally
Fig. 7. f : numerical versus experimental (amplitude and phase). Test
velocity: 50 mm/s.
(5)

where the matrix is the searched damper impedance

matrix, which is a complex function of the circular frequency
, already represented through its four terms (see note3 ):

The impedance matrix depends on the parameters

, , , and , which are the flexural stiffness ( ) and
hysteretic damping constant ( ) of the left and right messenger
cables, indicated with pedix 1 and 2, respectively.
Comparing the and analytical to the experimental
curves, by means of a minimization procedure, a set of param-
eters , , , and for each tested velocity has been
identified, which represent the best fitting between analytical
and experimental curves.
In Figs. 7–12, the and analytical and experimental Fig. 8. f : numerical versus experimental (amplitude and phase). Test
velocity: 50 mm/s.
curves are reported for the tested velocities: Figs. 7 and 8 refer
to 50 mm/s, Figs. 9 and 10 to 100 mm/s, and Figs. 11 and 12 to
150 mm/s.
As already stated, the curves and are identical as a
consequence of the symmetry of the impedance matrix, while
the term can be analytically evaluated (Fig. 13). The pa-
rameters , , , and have been identified for a given
translation velocity of the damper clamp, and the problem non-
linearity does not guarantee that the residuals in the rotation
terms are of the same entity as the residuals in the translation
terms.

IV. EVALUATION OF THE IMPEDANCE MATRIX TERMS

CONTRIBUTION TO THE ENERGY LOSSES
This section summarizes the results obtained by comparing
the laboratory span measurements to the computed damper
dissipated energy. The dissipated energy has been computed
Fig. 9. f : numerical versus experimental (amplitude and phase). Test
using the four damper transfer functions ( , experimental velocity: 100 mm/s.
F
3The damper impedance matrix is defined by
M
= ff f
f
u
' curves, , analytical curve) and the damper
where F and M are the complex amplitudes of the force and torque trans-
clamp displacement and rotation measured on the laboratory
mitted by the damper to the cable, due to a harmonic displacement of the damper
clamp with amplitudes u (translation) and ' (rotation). span.
DIANA et al.: STOCKBRIDGE-TYPE DAMPER EFFECTIVENESS EVALUATION: PART II 1475

Fig. 13. – Analytical transfer functions: f : Amplitude and phase. Velocity:

Fig. 10. f : numerical versus experimental (amplitude and phase). Test 100 mm/s.
velocity: 100 mm/s.

dissipated by the damper, for the four cases (frequencies) con-

sidered in the third paragraph. The reported percentages are ob-
tained as the mean of the values relevant to the different ampli-
tudes tested at each frequency. The total force and total torque
energies computed through the damper impedance matrix are
also reported to have a direct comparison with the correspon-
dent measured values, reported in the last two columns of the
table. This table aims at evidencing the contribution of the four
impedance matrix terms.
As can be observed, if the damper rotation is small, the only
significant term is the one, while a different conclusion
can be outlined when the clamp rotation increases: it is clearly
shown in Table I that, as the ratio decreases, the contri-
bution of the other impedance matrix terms becomes more im-
portant: it can be of the order of , reaching 60% when
the damper is very close to a node.
Fig. 11. f : numerical versus experimental (amplitude and phase). Test It must be pointed out that the values of displacement and ro-
velocity: 150 mm/s. tation, used to compute the damper dissipated energy, are those
measured on the laboratory span and, considering the con-
tribution only, there will be an error also in the cable+damper
deflection shape evaluation, which will contribute an additional
error in the energy computation, as will be shown in the next
paragraph.

V. MODIFIED EBP-BASED SOFTWARE: COMPARISON WITH

THE LABORATORY SPAN MEASUREMENTS

The EBP-based software developed by the Politecnico di

Milano Mechanical Department researchers schematizes the
cable by stranded beam elements and then it is easy to account
for both the force and the torque transmitted by the damper.
The complex cable+damper deflection shape is computed
imposing the end conditions due to the span extremities and to
the damper.
Fig. 12. f : numerical versus experimental (amplitude and phase). Test The software modification has been made considering that
velocity: 150 mm/s. the three terms , , and are obtained through direct
measurement on the shaker, while the term must be evalu-
The computed and measured terms are resumed in Table I, ated through the damper mathematical model described in the
in terms of percentage energies with respect to the total energy fourth paragraph. As shown in Table I, the contribution to
1476 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 18, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2003

TABLE I
IMPEDANCE MATRIX TERMS CONTRIBUTION TO THE ENERGY LOSSES

TABLE II The table shows how the modified software allows a signifi-
PERCENTAGE ERRORS OF THE STANDARD AND THE MODIFIED SOFTWARE cant error reduction.4

VI. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

The following main results can be put in evidence.
1) The present research allowed to emphasize how the
damper clamp rocking effect cannot generally be ne-
glected neither for the cable deflection shape definition
nor for the damper energy dissipation evaluation. Its
contribution to the total damper energy is generally of
the energy dissipation is very small, except for the 28-Hz condi- the order of , reaching even when
tion (i.e., when the damper is, practically, in a node of the cable the damper is very close to a node.
defection shape). 2) The developed damper mathematical model, without
So it has been decided to introduce in the new software only aiming at faithfully reproducing the damper behavior,
the first three terms , , and (which are the most allowed for the evaluation of the contribution to the
significant), such avoiding the use of the damper mathematical damper dissipated energy due to the rotation and transla-
model or of more complex measurement procedures. tion terms of the damper mechanical impedance matrix.
In Figs. 1–4 (third paragraph), together with the already dis- 3) The modified EBP software here proposed accounts,
cussed curves, the results of the standard software (based on the at least in a simplified way, for the rotation terms and
term only) – “software” points – and of the modified soft- represents an improvement of the standard EBP-based
ware – “soft-new” points – are shown for some amplitude of software.
vibration. 4) For particular cases, such as strait or river crossings, in
The analytical (modified software) and experimental deflec- which more than one damper per span extremity is re-
tion shapes have also been compared and it has been observed quired, the correct computation of the cable deflection
that the cable+damper deflection shape can be fairly reproduced shape and of the damper energy—also when the damper
by the modified software if a suitable cable flexural stiffness is close to a node—becomes of paramount importance.
value is chosen. This aspect of the problem will be the object of future re-
In particular, the cable flexural stiffness generally as- search development.
sumed in the simulation programs is around ,
where the value is the stiffness related to the wire REFERENCES
no-slippage condition. This value is kept constant along the
[1] G. Diana, A. Cigada, M. Belloli, and M. Vanali, “Stockbridge-type
cable length and allows to fit analytical to experimental cable damper effectiveness evaluation: Part I—Comparison between tests
natural frequencies. on span and on the shaker,” IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 18, pp.
In order to analytically reproduce the cable+damper mea- 1462–1469, Oct., 2003.
[2] Guide on Conductor Self-Damping Measurements, IEEE Std. 563–1978,
sured deflection shape, different values have to be used: in May 26, 1978.
particular, the adopted stiffness value is of the order of [3] Guide on the Measurement of the Performance of Aeolian Vibration
about one half the stiffness value when the damper is far Dampers for Single Conductors, IEEE Std. 664–1993, 1993.
[4] Requirements and Tests for Stockbridge-type Aeolian Vibration
from a node and it causes a big distortion of the cable deflection Dampers, IEC 61 897, 1998.
shape (i.e., and/or sensibly different from unity [5] P. Hagedorn, “On the computation of damped wind-excited vibrations of
– see Figs. 1 and 2). overhead transmission lines,” J. Sound Vib., vol. 83, no. 2, pp. 263–271,
1982.
In case the damper is close to a node, it causes a small dis- 2
[6] A. Leblond and C. Hardy, “On the estimation of a 2 2 complex stiff-
tortion of the cable deflection shape (i.e., and ness matrix of symmetric Stockbridge type dampers,” in Proc. 3rd Int.
close to unity – see Figs. 3 and 4) and results to be close Symp. Cable Dynamics, Trondheim, Norway, Aug. 1999.
to the value.
Table II reports in numerical terms what is shown in Figs. 1–4,
that is the percentage error of the damper energies evaluated 4The result relevant to the 28-Hz case has already been commented on in the
through the two methods with respect to the measured one. third paragraph.
DIANA et al.: STOCKBRIDGE-TYPE DAMPER EFFECTIVENESS EVALUATION: PART II 1477

Giorgio Diana was born in 1936. He received the mechanical engineering de- Claudia Pirotta was born in 1974. She received the mechanical engineering
gree in 1961 from Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy. degree in 2000 from Politecnico di Milano. She is currently pursuing the Ph.D.
Currently, he is Professor of Applied Mechanics at Politecnico di Milano degree at the same university.
since 1971. He is also the Director of the Mechanical Department in the Her research interests include the field of experimental and analytical be-
same university. His research interests are in the field of fluido-elasticity, havior of overhead transmission line conductors and fluido-elasticity.
rotor-dynamics, vibration problems in mechanical engineering, railway vehicle
dynamics, interaction between pantograph, and catenary. He is the author of
many papers at national and international conferences and reviews.
Dr. Diana is a member of Cigre (WG11-SC22-Chairman of TF1) and a
member of the technical committee on rotor-dynamics of IFToMM. He is also
a member of the Senato Accademico of Politecnico di Milano.

Alessandra Manenti was born in 1958. She received the mechanical engi-
neering degree and the Ph.D. degree in applied mechanics from Politecnico di Andrea Zuin was born in 1966. He received the mechanical engineering degree
Milano, Milano, Italy, in 1982 and 1987, respectively. from Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy, in 1991.
Currently, she is a Professor in Mechanical Measurements at Politecnico di Currently, he is a Researcher in Applied Mechanics at Politecnico di Milano
Milano. Her research interests include the field of experimental and analytical since 1999. His research interests include the experimental and analytical be-
behavior of overhead transmission line conductors, rotor-dynamics, and statis- havior of overhead transmission line conductors and the interaction between
tical data analysis. pantograph and overhead line.