Automated collection of heat stress data in livestock: new technologies and

opportunities
James E. Koltes,†,1–3 Dawn A. Koltes,†,1 Benny E. Mote,‡ John Tucker,†,|| and Don S. Hubbell, III†,||
Department of Animal Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701; ‡Department of Animal
†

Science, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583-0908; and ||Livestock and Forestry Research Station,
Division of Agriculture, Batesville, AR 72501

Key words: automated phenotyping technologies, cattle, heat stress, pig, precision livestock
technologies, thermosensors

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© The Author(s) 2018. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Society
of Animal Science.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits
non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work
is properly cited. For commercial re-use, please contact [email protected]
Transl. Anim. Sci. 2018.2:319–323
doi: 10.1093/tas/txy061

INTRODUCTION temperature is among the mostly commonly used

measurement of body temperature. Additional indi-
Body temperature is among the most eco- cators of heat stress include respiration rate (Collier
nomically important phenotypes in livestock ani- et  al., 2006), sweating rate (Dikmen et  al., 2014),
mals as it is tied to health, reproductive success, and blood flow measurement (Honig et al., 2016).
and productivity (St-Pierre et  al., 2003; Duff These types of measurements are very labor inten-
and Galyean, 2007). Heat stress was estimated sive to collect. Automated phenotyping could pro-
result in $1.7 to 2.4 billion in losses in the live- vide temperature data in real time that would allow
stock industry in 2003 (St-Pierre et  al., 2003), immediate intervention to prevent animal health–
which is likely an underestimate of today’s losses. related losses.
Animals may have elevated body temperature The objective of this manuscript is to discuss
due to illness, injury, heat stress, toxin exposure, automated body temperature monitoring technol-
or other health-related issues. Unfortunately, it is ogies and to discuss their use to develop new strate-
only after we observe elevated body temperature gies to overcome potential animal health problems.
that we can mitigate the effects of these stressors. Herein, we compared and contrasted several dif-
Development of technologies to detect elevated ferent automated technologies for temperature
temperature earlier or to predict and prevent the monitoring. Rather than trying to discuss all
negative effects of a fever or heat stress would be devices that exist, the discussion below attempts to
extremely valuable. capture the majority of available technology types.
Traditional measures of temperature and indi- Implications and potential uses for current tech-
cators of elevated body temperature have been used nologies were discussed with particular emphasis
to identify sick and heat-stressed animals (Duff in detection and prevention of heat stress.
and Galyean, 2007; Burdick et  al., 2012). Rectal

1
Invited presentation at the Research Technology Corresponding author: [email protected]
3

Symposium held at the ASAS-CSAS Annual Meeting, Received April 4, 2018.

Baltimore, MD on July 10, 2017. Accepted May 16, 2018.
2
Current Address: Department of Animal Science,
Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011–1178

319
320 Koltes et al.

AUTOMATED TEMPERATURE DETECTION the junction between the rumen and reticulum.
DEVICES Among the advantages of this data type is that it
can be transmitted wirelessly to data readers. In
Temperature-Sensing Ear Tags (Tympanic/Ear addition, while these devices are not reading data,
Canal Sensors) they can act as a data logger to keep short-term
amounts of data to then transmit in batches when
A number of different, but related, ear temper- near a receiving antenna. These devices are sensitive
ature monitoring systems have been developed for in reading body temperature but impacted by water
use in cattle (Cow Manager BV, Gerverscop, NL; volume, feed intake levels, and rumen microorgan-
DoggTag, Herddogg systems, Longmont, CO; isms (Davis et al., 2003; Burdick et al., 2012). In fact,
Fever Tags, Amarillo, TX; SenseTag, Quantified Ag, rumen temperatures tend to run around 2 °C higher
Lincoln, NE; TekVet Health Monitoring System, than rectal temperatures due to heat produced by
East Palmetto, FL). Among the most well-known microbes in the rumen. One downfall of data from

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ear temperature–sensing devices are the Fever Tag rumen boluses is that it is limited to set time dur-
system (Fever Tags, Amarillo, TX). These devices are ation that the sensors will continue to transmit data
mounted on the ear and have a temperature sensor before they stop recording and transmitting infor-
that is placed within the ear canal to measure body mation (roughly 150 d or until the battery fails). The
temperature (for application, see Richeson et  al. boluses can only be used one time and require add-
(2011)). Examples of applications have been used itional equipment to capture the data.
primarily for detection of fever due to illness (i.e.,
bovine respiratory disease; McCorkell et al., 2014), Intravaginal and Intrarectal Thermosensor Devices
but these tags could also be used to monitor heat
stress. These devices flash a light out of the ear in a Vaginal temperature measurements have been
way that is meant to be visible from a distance when suggested to be extremely sensitive to picking up
observing the head of an animal. To get an accurate changes in body temperature, based on studies in
reading, it is critical that these devices are properly humans (Emmanuel et al., 2000). In cattle, it appears
inserted into the ear canal so that the temperature that the ability to detect fever or other tempera-
probe is retained in the correct position (Davis et al., ture changes was nearly identical when comparing
2003). In addition, environmental factors such as automated rectal and vaginal temperature sensors
sun exposure could impact temperature readings, (Burdick et al., 2012). Vaginal thermosensors appear
particularly if the sensor is not maintained in the to work well to detect increased body temperature in
correct position. Studies seeking to use these ear response to LPS treatment, which mimics inflamma-
temperature–sensing devices to identify animals at tion and fever (Burdick et al., 2012). Multiple vaginal
the onset of fever have had mixed results (Richeson thermosensor technologies have been used in cattle,
et al., 2011; McCorkell et al., 2014). Most of these including iButtons (Maxim Integrated, San Jose,
technologies transmit data wireless for remote use. CA) and Hobo (Onset Co.) sensors. These devices
In addition to collecting temperature data, many can log considerable amounts of data but lack the
of the automated technologies record activity data ability to transmit the data wirelessly. Examples of
using a 3-axis accelerometer to quantify animal side-by-side applications were conducted previously
movements. Accelerometer information can also be (Dikmen et al., 2014). One challenge with implanta-
useful for predicting rumination in cattle, and could ble sensors is that the size of the device may dictate
also be used to identify an animal hanging it’s head its application in some species, making some tech-
lower during an illness. For more information on nologies (i.e., iButtons) handy for use in animals of
similar ear temperature–sensing technologies, see smaller size, such as heifers, pigs, sheep, and goats,
Davis et al., (2003) and Foulkes et al., (2013). compared with bulkier devices. Burdick et al. (2012)
and Davis et  al. (2003) also considered automated
Rumen-Reticular Boluses indwelling rectal temperature measurement probe
and determined that these devices have similar sen-
Rumen boluses have the potential to pro- sitivity to the less invasive vaginal probes. Despite
vide many types of information about ruminants, their more invasive nature, indwelling rectal temper-
including rumen pH, rumen temperature, and activ- ature probes may be the most accurate and sensitive
ity (Smaxtec animal care GmbH, Graz, Austria; alternative for measuring body temperature in male
Alzahal et al., 2011). These devices when placed in animals for research purposes. However, stability
cattle are actually located in the reticulum or near of rectal probes, the influence of fecal temperature,
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 Automated temperature monitoring in livestock 321

and keeping them stationary may be limitations in thermal imaging has been used to attempt to pre-
collecting accurate indwelling sensor temperature dict heat stress (Salles et  al., 2016; Unruh et  al.,
data (McCafferty et  al., 2015). Additional infor- 2017). In beef cattle, infrared thermography was
mation on indwelling rectal probes can be found successful at identifying heat-stressed animals but
in Reuter et al. (2010). Vaginal thermosensors can could not identify animals at risk of heat stress
be used multiple times and require relatively little early in the day (Unruh et al., 2017). Information
equipment for downloading data to a computer. about the best location to measure temperature has
been defined in dairy cattle. Thermal images taken
Additional Wearable and Implantable Devices from the forehead were most closely related to rec-
tal temperature in Jersey cattle, while right and left
A variety of implantable devices are also flank were mostly closely related to the calculated
available for temperature sensing, and new wear- thermal humidity index (THI; Salles et al., 2016).
able technologies are constantly being developed. Recently, hand-held thermal imaging devices have

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Devices have been developed for implantation been tested as an alternative approach to capture
around the rumen in cattle, which could be placed thermal images (Vogel et al., 2016). The best areas
in other areas throughout the body (Alzahal et al., to achieve accurate and consistent measurements
2007). Microchip devices have been tested in pigs may vary slightly from species to species. At this
to sense body temperature, some of which can be time, it is uncertain how factors like UV light
read easily through radiotelemetry with a wand. might impact thermal images. Ambient tempera-
Microchip technologies to measure body temper- ture can impact the observed animal temperatures
ature in pigs have been found to generally corres- (Soerensen and Pedersen, 2015). Thermal cameras
pond well to rectal temperature, typically ranging can cost a few thousand to tens of thousands of
at 1 °C lower than the rectal measurement (Lohse dollars and require considerable time to review
et al., 2009; Jara et al., 2016). Many similar types the images unless software is available to filter and
of implantable devices have been developed, but review the data. For additional information on
all require invasive procedures to place the device thermal imaging technologies, see Soerensen and
within animals. Kou et al. (2017) recently described Pedersen (2015) and Neethirajan (2017).
a method of measuring body surface temperature
with a new wearable device worn on the leg of Critical Factors in Comparing and Utilizing
cattle. The method, which measures temperature Automated Thermosensing Technologies
at close contact to the muscle, was reported to be
highly correlated to rectal temperature. Additional In order to be able to use thermosensing data in
information on wearable devices can be found in real time to make management decisions, a number
the following review (Neethirajan, 2017). of important factors should be considered. Data
collection needs to be truly automated. Data trans-
Thermal Imaging mission through radio telemetry (wirelessly) is crit-
ical for getting up-to-date information on individual
Thermal imaging holds great promise in animals. Sensitivity and variability of temperature
detecting a combination of temperature and measurements are important considerations. The
behavioral data that is likely related to heat and frequency of measurement in which these devices
disease stress. To use thermal imaging on a large collect data is also an important consideration. In
scale, software-based assignment of body tem- some cases, having data more often is advantageous
perature would be extremely helpful but requires to observe acute variation, but in other cases, more
considerable computation (Sellier et  al., 2014). frequent temperature observations may be unin-
Development of this software is a rapidly evolv- formative because temperatures may not deviate or
ing area. Determining where to mount cameras to factors like water consumption may impact tempera-
get the best images and where to take the thermal ture readings. Furthermore, in the case of image and
images of the animal are important considerations. video data, data reduction may be more important
A  large number of body areas have been used as because of the huge data storage requirements that
references to get consistent and accurate body tem- can exceed 2 Tb of hard drive space per week, per
peratures, with varying results in pigs (Soerensen camera. Environmental factors and measurement
and Pedersen, 2015). Measurements at the eye location on the animal can also impact the accuracy,
and base of the ear appear to work best in swine, sensitivity, and variability of temperature measure-
though there is considerable variability. In cattle, ments. Thus, monitoring local ambient temperature,
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322 Koltes et al.

humidity, and airspeed are important factors in eval- SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
uating automated data collection. The ability to pre-
Automated phenotyping technologies to meas-
vent stress due to animal handling, which can elevate
ure body temperature provide new opportunities to
temperature, and reduced invasiveness of the technol-
manage livestock. Due to large animal-to-animal
ogy are additional important consideration (Curley
variation, measurement at the animal level would
et al., 2006; Burdick et al., 2012). Technologies that
be useful to manage heat stress and disease. Current
reduce the need for human intervention may there-
costs of some technologies may make them prohibi-
fore provide more accurate assessment of body tem-
tive for use on commercial farms but allow research
perature. Ease of configuring these technologies in
that can inform producers on how best to man-
facilities or on animal (i.e., in a stable, easy to iden-
age or select for animals with improved heat tol-
tify anatomical location) is also important. All of
erance and potentially disease resistance. Wireless
these technologies will likely have challenges with
data transmission, availability of suitable internet
animal-to-animal variation in stable body tempera-

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network speed, and capacity to transfer data may
ture, making it difficult to declare a common activa-
provide challenges in capturing this data in some
tion threshold to declare a fever or heat stress in all
locations. Future development of these technol-
animals. Use of individual animal temperature data
ogies will require real-time data collection, data
over time is likely needed to set individual specific
management, and development of predictive mod-
body temperature thresholds. Costs of these technol-
els to determine the risk of heat and disease stress
ogies and tradeoffs in their measurement accuracy in
to allow for early intervention to prevent or limit
comparison with rectal temperature (i.e., the current
losses in current and future generations of animals.
gold standard) will also guide which technologies
will provide the most helpful information to prevent
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