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First published 2004

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A catalogue recordfor this publication is availablefrom the British Library

ISBN-13 978-0-521-53340-9 Resource Pack

ISBN-10 0-521-53340-6 Resource Pack
 Contents
Thanks and acknowledgements 5
About this pack 6
An Introduction to Intercultural Studies by James R. Chamberlain 7
Recommended reading 9
Language reference 10

Teacher’s notes and activities

S I Why does culture matter? 12
KKE Brainstorming: What is culture for you? 12
Defining the word ‘culture’ 14
C T < I The culture iceberg 16
m Cultural briefing 18
Cultural briefing: The Swedes 20
SES The global dimension 22
K m The effects of global business 24
« s l Expectations 26
c o Case study: One person’s experience 28
I'HTO Case study: Combining global and local 30

Types and stereotypes 32

iH The culture onion 32
Sport and teams 34
Gender 36
Gender and communication 38
m m Stereotyping 40
Evaluating attitudes 42
m The bell-jar graph 44
m m Where do stereotypes come from? 46

ilfc il Profiling national cultures 48

E H Cultural influences 48
1*1*1 Body language 50
d i Time capsule 52
E O Family briefing 54
IB P Profiling corporate cultures 56
i i i i l Company dimensions 56
m u Brand, image and culture 58
g lE I Case study: Telephone language 60
d l The Hofstede model 62
8W51 The Trompenaars model 64
W s i The Mole model 66
K m The Hall model 68
HWst Diversity or conformity? 70
tflE si Case study: A takeover 72

lE ll Profiling group cultures 74

C M Group characteristics 74
Case study: Troubleshooting 76
d e l SWOT analysis 78
B U I Group perceptions 80
d a l Observing conventions 82
B 3 Cultural dilemmas 84

Culture and communication 86

K t f B Individual characteristics 86
H P ! Work types
j■ 88
i t i t i Communication styles 90
EE3 Where do you come from? 92
.. Meetings
v_/ 94
d S l Following the rules 96
13E 1 Which language? 98
g g p i The native and the non-native speaker 100
K3E1 Positive communication 102
E X fil Multi-channelling 104
^1 1 1 Developing intercultural competence 106
i Dos and don’ts 108
Learning styles 110
 Thank edge ents
Derek Utley wrote the original Culture Pack for York Associates in 2000. Not only
does York Associates owe him an unpayable debt for his work as a partner in the
company for more than 20 years, but also for the time, effort and dedication which
he has so typically given to this project. Derek is not just a creative materials writer.
His commitment to international communication has been lifelong and his
character is proof of the richness of its benefits.

York Associates would also like to thank James R. Chamberlain, Director of the
Language Centre of the Bonn-Rhein-Sieg University of Applied Sciences, Germany.
Jim possesses the special talent of being able to convert his extensive knowledge of
this subject into stimulating training tools that engage the widest possible range of
user. We are very grateful to him for the Introduction to Intercultural Studies; for
providing the Recommended reading list; for the Further reading references which
appear in each set of Teacher’s notes; and for the Background briefings.
Steve Flinders, York Associates
www.vork-associates.co.uk

Publisher’s acknowledgements
The author and publisher would like to thank Alison Silver for her expert
editorial guidance on this project.
The publisher would also like to thank George Tomaszewski, Transfer Conseil
Formation, France and Norman Frank Whitby, UK for their help in
reviewing the material and for the invaluable feedback they provided.
Every effort has been made by the publisher to gain permission for all copyright
material used. In the cases where this has not been possible, copyright holders are
encouraged to contact the publisher.
The material about the Hofstede model on pages 62 and 63 is reproduced with
permission of Professor Geert Hofstede; the material by Fons Trompenaars on
page 65 is reproduced with permission of the McGraw-Hill Companies; the
material about the Mole model on page 67 is reproduced with permission of
Nicholas Brealey.
About this pack
Why intercuitural? 2 The learning style adopted is experiential, based on
the principle that people in a training or educational
Intercultural communication has been a vital issue setting learn better by carrying out activities than by
since the world began. Intercultural competence can being passive. Within this loose framework, teachers
end disputes, save lives, radically transform the are encouraged to use the materials in the way best
existence of millions of people; it can lubricate the suited to their style and their students’ styles.
wheels of industry and business; it can help teams win,
3 Many of the activities are provocative; none is meant
whether they be sports teams or teams of international
to be outrageous. Certain views and opinions are
aid workers.
presented which are certainly held by some
No wonder, then, that as the globalisation (see percentage of the population, but will not
activities 1.6 and 1.7) of business and leisure propels necessarily be held by a majority of any group of
international contact forward at a dizzy rate, participants.
‘international communication’ is a phrase heard more
4 Most of the activities will be best done as follows: a
and more often in the worlds of business, education
short explanation, division into pairs or groups for
and training. Understanding and optimising it is as
discussion, then feedback and discussion in the
vital to survival as it is fashionable.
main group.
The terms 'intercultural’, ‘cross-cultural’ and
5 The main role of the teacher is to present the
‘multicultural’ are referred to in the Introduction to
activities, and then to mediate and channel the
Intercultural Studies (page 7).
mental and nervous energy they will almost
The purpose of these materials certainly generate. The questions posed are not trick
questions, nor will they have one ‘correct’ answer.
The Intercultural Resource Pack gathers together the The possible outcomes in the Teacher’s notes will
best of current thinking and practice, and forms a set of give some guidance where necessary.
materials which are easily accessible to and usable by
It may sometimes be useful to stimulate further
teachers, trainers and others responsible for personnel
discussion through questioning and redefining certain
development. They can be used as seminar and
ideas. The Teacher’s notes give some suggestions.
discussion material, and to support presentations on
intercultural communication. Basic assumptions about cultural
Contents development
The pack consists of: A distinction is made between two different kinds of
• an Introduction by James R. Chamberlain, of the intercultural development:
Bonn-Rhein-Sieg University of Applied Sciences • intercultural awareness or sensitisation - being
near Bonn, Germany, who has integrated aware of the existence of a number of different
intercultural communication work into an cultures and types of culture, and of their
innovative programme for his German students in importance in all forms of human interaction, in
higher education private and working life; and
• a set of photocopiable activities consisting of • cultural briefing - acquiring information about how
discussion topics, exercises and explanations particular cultures operate and manifest themselves.
• teacher’s notes for each activity including, where The assumption is also made that intercultural
appropriate, possible outcomes competence consists of two main elements:
• recommendations for further reading for those who • cultural knowledge - understanding cultural
wish to study the subject more deeply. differences, both factual and affective; and
• cultural skills - the ability to act and react in a
Format of the materials variety of cultures, and to put this interaction to
The spiral-bound format allows photocopying of the good effect. These skills include attitudes of
activities for use as handouts or transparencies. openness and tolerance, and the ability to cope with
The activities are divided into sections and consist of ambiguity.
information, opinions and short texts presented in
such a way as to invite discussion and group activity. Further development
They are designed to be modular: any activity can be Teachers are encouraged to add to these materials from
used independently of the others. their own experience; to include items and observations
from students; and to develop networking with other
How to use this pack teachers in order to benefit from their varied experience.
1 The materials follow no specific school of thought.
Instead, they embrace and introduce a number of
current approaches and theories on intercultural
communication, and make them available for
teachers and students to use as desired.
 An Introduction to Intercultural Studies
by James R. Chamberlain What is culture?
Myriads of definitions of culture abound, from the
A cultural anecdote pragmatic (‘the way we do things around here’) to the
Twenty years ago I moved from a small town in the academic (‘a shared system of assumptions, values and
American Midwest to Stuttgart, Germany. I clearly beliefs of a people which result in characteristic
remember my first day in the city: it was a sunny spring behaviors’).
day and I was full of the promise and excitement of But perhaps the best way to understand culture is by
new adventure. As I strolled down the main shopping analogy with children learning their first language -
street, passers-by would catch my eye, and of course I instinctively, unconsciously, contingent upon their
greeted them with a hearty ‘Guten Tag!’ Not to do so environment. They also are performing a feat of
would have been rude. In fact, where I come from, linguistic genius. Yet this is just one of many skills to be
making eye contact with other people obliges one to learnt: besides linguistic competence, children are also
acknowledge their status as a fellow human being with acquiring communicative competence, i.e. learning to
a hi, a hello, or a nod and a smile. use the appropriate speed and volume of speech, pitch
But the Stuttgarters didn’t return my greeting. Most of and tone of voice, chuckles, sighs, gasps, etc. to
them ignored me; some gave me what seemed to be communicate a highly nuanced range of emotions.
bemused, perhaps condescending smiles; and a few Beyond these so-called paralinguistic features, children
stopped in their tracks, looked at me and scratched are also learning extra-linguistic communication:
their heads as if to say ‘Do I know that guy?’ gestures, how and when to make eye contact, how
I soon learned that German city dwellers don’t usually close to stand to different people, when it is their turn
greet strangers on the street, although they’ll look you to speak, etc.
up and down and straight in the eye. And yet, after As children continue to grow and to learn, they in time
twenty years in this country I still have to repress the acquire cultural competence: a vast web of
urge to say hello when I make eye contact with interconnected knowledge which includes, among
someone on the street, and deep down I’m a little other things, which groups of people should be
disappointed that they don’t want to greet me. I try not accorded the most respect, wiiich behaviors are
to hold it against them. acceptable for men and which for women, which foods
It is a long and often arduous journey from the natural one may eat, what is funny and what is not.1 In short,
state of believing that the way we do things at home is children become fully socialized members of a
the only right way, to the learned state of accepting community, and the constellation of values, norms and
foreign ways as neither better nor worse, but just behaviors they have learned can be summed up with
different. And happy the person whose path is made a the word ‘culture’.
bit smoother by that judicious bit of knowledge, advice
or instruction. For all the importance that intercultural Culture and communication
communication in recent years has gained - in The culture we have acquired - the ways in which we
business and industry, in politics and diplomacy, in have learned to see and think about the world - will of
tourism and travel - it is still at its core a basic human course influence how we communicate. By growing up
problem: howrto cope with displacement, with being a in a certain society, we have come to expect certain
stranger in a strange land. behaviors (including verbal ones) as normal, others as
Forewarned is forearmed, and those who prepare appropriate only to specific situations, and others as
others for sojourns abroad, or help to ease visitors into taboo. We could say that our culture has fitted us with a
their new and unaccustomed surroundings, are set of filters that influence both our perceptions and
providing a truly human service. But trainers need our conceptions of the world.
preparation too, and Derek Utley offers here invaluable In their book Communicating with Strangers,
assistance in the form of photocopiable activities for Gudykunst and Kim outline several notions about
intercultural communication training. The modular communication, including these assumptions:
design of The Intercultural Resource Pack allows
• Communication is a process involving the encoding
trainers to construct a program that leads their
and decoding of messages.
students through a process of guided discovery, from • Communication takes place at varying levels of
increased knowledge of other cultures (and hence their
awareness.
own), to heightened sensitivity to other value systems, • Communicators make predictions about the
whether these be in faraway lands or in one’s next-door outcomes of their communication behavior.
neighbor. This process in turn fosters openness, • Intention is not a necessary condition for
tolerance and acceptance, which help us meet the real communication.
challenges of intercultural encounters: behavior • Every communication message has a content
management, speech accommodation, and role dimension and a relationship dimension.2
flexibility.
The way we formulate our own ideas, and the way we intellectually) and to feel comfortable living under it
interpret the utterances of others, are subject to various (accept it on an emotional, or affective, level).
influences, whether your interlocutor be a human Intercultural trainers have, therefore, three main goals.
being from an exotic culture or the person most close These are:
to you (‘Yes, dear, that’s what I said, but that’s not what 1 cognitive, that is, adding to the learner’s stock of
I meant!’). knowledge
The several layers of influence that surround each 2 affective, that is, changing the trainee’s attitude by
human being function as conceptual and perceptual developing openness, tolerance, acceptance and
filters, that is, awareness, and
mechanisms that delimit the number of alternatives 3 behavioral, in which the trainee learns the ‘dos and
from which we choose when we encode and decode don’ts’ of the new environment.6
messages. More specifically, the filters limit the Trainers also deliver content, the information to be
predictions we make about how strangers might conveyed:
respond to our communication behavior. The nature of
• the ‘what’ of facts and figures, anecdotes and
the predictions we make, in turn, influences the way we
descriptions
choose to encode our messages. Further, the filters
delimit what stimuli we pay attention to and how we • the ‘how’ of appropriate behavior in particular
choose to interpret those stimuli when we decode situations, rules of address and conduct, ‘dos and
incoming messages.3 don’ts’, and
• the ‘why’ of cultural phenomena, using knowledge
Or put more plainly, our culture endows us with a set of
expectations as to how people should act and react of the particular historical development of the target
when we communicate with them. And these culture.
expectations are, at home and among our own, usually Finally, trainers must consider the process by which
met. Once we are placed in an alien or a multicultural changes are effected in the trainee. A cognitive
environment, however, we may find that our approach may be chosen, using such methods as
expectations are inaccurate; but this doesn’t stop lectures, readings and discussions. A more experiential
people from holding on to these expectations all the approach is also possible, in which the trainee’s
more tenaciously. This natural reaction is called temperament, emotions and interpersonal skills are
ethnocentrism, the basic human tendency to believe brought into play. Examples of methods here include
that the way we learned to do certain things is the games, role-plays, simulations and ethnographic
(only) right way. interviews.
The Intercultural Resource Pack offers trainers a wide
Intercultural communication training range of materials with which to deliver the content of
intercultural communication training. The activities
‘Culture, a system of beliefs and values shared by a
help the trainer achieve the cognitive, affective and
particular group of people,’ writes Craig Storti,
behavioral goals of training, and they serve as a
is an abstraction which can be appreciated springboard into the real world of experiential
intellectually, but it is behavior, the principal intercultural interaction. Through them the student
manifestation and most significant consequence of should begin the enriching process of making the
culture, that we actually experience. To put it another
strange seem familiar and the dangerous seem
way: it is culture as encountered in behavior that we
delightful, and should gain that cultural understanding
must learn to live with.
that grants us the sense and sensitivity to be both
The adjustments we must make to a new culture are gracious hosts and gracious guests upon this island
invariably of two kinds: we have to adjust or get used to Earth.
behavior on the part of the local people which annoys,
confuses, or otherwise unsettles us; and we have to Notes
adjust our own behavior so that it does not annoy,
confuse, or otherwise unsettle the local people. So long 1 Cf. Edward T. Hall’s The Silent Language, NewYork:
as we are put off by or consistently misconstrue the Anchor Books, 1997, particularly chapter 3, ‘The
behavior of the locals and so long as we repeatedly Vocabulary' of Culture’.
provoke or baffle the locals by our own behavior, we 2 Gudykunst, W. and Kim, Y., Communicating with
can never expect to feel at ease abroad or to be wholly Strangers: An Approach to Intercultural Communications
effective in our work.4 (4th Edition), NewYork: McGraw-Hill, 2002, pp. 6-9.
3 Ibid., p. 31.
Aims and goals 4 Craig Storti, The Art o f Crossing Cultures (2nd Edition),
The overall aim of the trainer is to raise the trainees’ Yarmouth: Intercultural Press, 2001, p. 15.
awareness of their own inherent ethnocentrism, and 5 Cf. Milton J. Bennett, A developmental approach to
then offer exercises and experiences to help them leave training for intercultural sensitivity’, International
that ethnocentrism behind.5 Pragmatically, this means Journal o f Intercultural Relations, Vol. 10, 1986, pp.
teaching people to manage their behavior so that it 179-200.
harmonizes with that of a different culture. But 6 Cf. Janet M. Bennett, ‘Modes of cross-cultural training:
because behavior is the outward manifestation of a Conceptualizing cross-cultural training as education’,
system of assumptions, values and beliefs, the trainee International Journal o f Intercultural Relations,~Vo\. 10,
will also need to understand this system (appreciate it 1986, pp. 117-134, and Virginia Milhouse, ‘Intercultural
Communication Education and Training Goals, Content,
and Method’, International Journal o f Intercultural
Relations, Vol. 29, No. 1, 1996, pp. 69-95.
Acton, William R. and Walker de Felix, Judith (1986) Acculturation and mind’ in
Valdez, Joyce Merrill (ed.) Culture Bound: Bridging the Cultural Gap in Language
Teaching, pp. 20-32, New York: Cambridge University Press.
Brislin, R. W. (1999) Understanding Culture’s Influence on Behavior (2nd Edition),
Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Brislin, R. and Cushner, K. (1996) Intercultural Interactions: A Practical Guide
(2nd Edition), Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Fantini, Alvino (1997) New Ways o f Teaching Culture, Alexandria: TESOL.
Gibson, R. (2002) Intercultural Business Communication, Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Gudykunst, W. and Kim,Y. (2002) Communicating with Strangers: An Approach
to Intercultural Communications (4th Edition), New York: McGraw-Hill.
Hall, Edward T. (1997) Beyond Culture, New York: Anchor Books.
Hall, Edward T. (1997) The Silent Language, New York: Anchor Books.
Hall, Edwrard T. (1997) and Hall, Mildred Reed (1989) Understanding Cultural
Differences: Germans, French and Americans, Yarmouth: Intercultural Press.
Hofstede, G. and Hofstede, G.J. (2004) Cultures and Organizations: Software o f the
Mind (Third Millennium Edition), New York: McGraw-Hill.
International Journal o f Intercultural Relations, published quarterly since 1977 by
Elsevier Science Ltd, ISSN 0147-1767 (see especially Vol. 10, 1986).
Landis, D. and Bhagat, R. S. (eds.) (1996) H andbook o f Intercultural Training
(2nd Edition), Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Samovar, L. A. and Porter, R. E. (2003) Intercultural Communication: A Reader
(10th Edition), New York: Wadsworth.
Storti, Craig (2001) The Art o f Crossing Cultures (2nd Edition), Yarmouth:
Intercultural Press.
Trompenaars, Alfons, Hampden-Turner, Charles and Trompenaars, Fons (1997)
Riding the Waves o f Culture: Understanding Diversity in Global Business, New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Language ref ■
Some of these phrases may be useful for groups of students when discussing the activities.
Asking for and giving opinions Do you think th at...?
I think ...
I feel th at... is important.
Agreeing and disagreeing I agree with you (up to a point).
I’m afraid I don’t agree.
That may be true, b u t...
Yes, but on the other hand ...
Making suggestions Should we include this?
What about including this?
I think we should include this.
Would it be a good idea to ...?
Could we also say th at...?
Maybe it’s important to ...
Don’t you think...?
Checking So you mean th at...?
Do you mean to say th at...?
What exactly do you mean by ...?
Was that eight or eighty?
Summarising To summarise, then ...
To sum up, then, ...
Let’s just summarise the position.
Comparatives and superlatives This is more important than ...
... is of less value than ...
... isn’t as useful as ...
... is the most important thing.
These are the least useful.
Discussing a hypothetical situation I’d want to know ...
Wouldn’t you need to know about...?
It would be useful to know i f ...
I think I’d want information about...
Would ... be useful?
Likelihood I’m (absolutely) sure/certain this will increase.
This is (quite) likely to increase.
This may/might increase.
It is (highly/very) unlikely this will increase.
This (definitely/certainly) won’t increase.
Conditions If wre choose this, we will have problems.
If we included both items, there would be too many.
If we had known that, we would have acted differently.
If I were in their position, I would ...
Obligation We really must do this.
It’s essential we do this.
It’s important we do this.
We should do the following ...
Sequencing First we should ..., then we should ..., and finally we should
Explaining This is a good idea because ...
That’s why I said that.
Coming in Can I come in here?
Can I just say something?
Asking and challenging Are we sure this is true?
Do you (really) think this is important?
Fillers and refiners Actually,...
As a matter of fact, ...
Basically, ...
Teacher’s notes
and activities
 Aims
• To collect as many ideas as possible on the many different components of culture.
• To show how the concept of culture, and its components, can be interpreted differently by different
individuals or groups.

Procedure Outcomes
1 If your students are not familiar with mind maps, Suggestions for the missing words are:
spend a few minutes developing a simple mind 1 traffic 2 independence 3 spoken
map on the board or overhead projector. Choose 4 work times 5 home 6 speed
a subject you know well, based on the mind map
in this activity. For example:
Development
Central topic: media; branching topics:
television, radio, newspapers, magazines. Extend Continuation of the lines could be extensively
if necessary (for example, newspapers can be developed by students who are particularly
morning or evening, national or local). Make interested. Some may wish to restructure and add
sure they understand that the idea of a mind new elements to the mind map as well as extend it.
map is to loosely link together different ideas Many of the topics can lead to discussion of emotive
and thoughts around a central theme. or abstract topics such as driving habits (‘traffic’),
Introduce the concept of culture by asking fashion (‘dress’), bluntness (‘directness of speech’).
questions like: Discussion could also centre around the origin of
• What is culture for you? the word ‘culture’. It is based on the Latin word
• What does it involve? ‘cultus’, meaning growing or cultivating a crop or a
• What shapes culture? plant. This illustrates one important aspect of
culture, which is that it is something which has
Invite the students to express their ideas as freely
always and will always be changing and modifying
as possible, without too m uch discussion at this
itself in both large and small ways.
stage.
Encourage students to be open in their definition
2 Ask the students to look at the mind map, and
of culture. It is a very flexible concept, and they
check that the words are understood and the
should be encouraged to be open and tolerant.
links clear. Explain that the elements given are
not intended to be a complete list, but simply a Although this mind map attempts to divide up
selection. If necessary, go through a branch such culture into different parts, students will realise
as ‘Social life’, showing the links through to the that there is a large amount of overlap, because of
final column. Ask individuals for examples of the complexity of the subject.
how such aspects as ‘gender’ (the differing social To begin with, students may suggest some obvious
and work roles of male and female) are viewed in differences between cultures such as food, dress
their own cultures. and language. Acknowledge that these are indeed
3 Form pairs or groups to do task 1: find suitable differences, at the same time encouraging them to
words to fit in the spaces numbered 1 to 6. The bring out less easily perceived differences such as
words should be relatively easy to find, but allow attitudes to authority or family.
time for discussion, and accept anything which
students can explain satisfactorily. Compare and Linked activities
discuss results. 1.2, 1.3
4 Do the same for task 2, either in groups as
before, or in an open session, asking for ideas on Further reading
ways of continuing some of the lines outwards.
For examples of dividing up culture into seen and
For example, the line Physical - body language -
unseen, implicit and explicit, etc., see chapter 2
gestures could be continued with ‘hands, body,
(‘What is Culture?’) of
feet’, with students then giving examples of how
gestures can differ from culture to culture. The Silent Language, by E. T. Hall, 1997, New York:
Anchor Books
as well as chapter 4 (‘Hidden Culture’) of the book
B eyond Culture, by E.T. Hall, 1997, New York:
12 Anchor Books.
 1.1 |[ Brainstorming: What is culture for you?
What is ‘culture’ for you? The word has many meanings and is open to

1 Why does culture matter?

many interpretations.
The aim of this mind map is to try to identify as many of the components
of culture as possible. Follow the lines out from the central word ‘culture’.
1 Complete the spaces numbered 1 to 6 with a suitable word or phrase.
2 Continue the lines outwards with suitable ideas.

Houses acceptable/non-acceptable

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable 3

 ‘culture’
Aims
• To explore the concept of culture.
• To develop ideas about the main components of culture.
This activity may be used as a shorter alternative to 1.1, or as an addition to it.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Ask the students if they can give a short A search for their ‘best’ definition may be
definition of what culture is for them. motivating, but the most important thing in this
2 Read the introduction to the activity, to raise activity is to generate, compare and expand ideas.
awareness of the factors listed in the three bullet It will be useful to point out that each of the
points. Culture: different definitions focuses on different features:
• can be influenced by many factors such as A abstract ideas such as beliefs and knowledge as
0
geography, history and climate well as the idea of a collective group
o
c • can be shared not only by the members of a B reactions, conditioning and programming
national culture such as the Japanese or the C conditioning and programming
£ D actions, conditioning and programming
<D Brazilians, but also by people of one company,
.£ one region or one profession E abstract ideas such as beliefs and knowledge as
o well as society.
• can show itself in observable behaviour such as
gestures, but also in non-observable
£
phenomena such as attitudes and taboos. Development
3 Ask the students to look at the five definitions of Finding the ‘perfect’ definition will be difficult if
culture. Check any unknown vocabulary and not impossible. Use the definitions to help students
that they understand the ideas. become more aware of how cultures develop and
4 Working in pairs or small groups, students how7they manifest themselves. If the three
should work through tasks 1 to 3. Encourage concepts shown in the bullet points can be made
them to use as a basis for discussion the three clear, they will form a good basis for further
bulleted points at the beginning of the activity. understanding.
Each of the definitions carries expressions
relevant to these points, such as: Linked activities
• ‘conditioned’, ‘programming’ ‘learned 1.1, 1.3
programmes’, ‘passed on’
• ‘group of people’, ‘you’- ‘the human mind’, Further reading
‘generation’, ‘a society’
• ‘beliefs, values and norms’, ‘think, feel, interpret A thoroughgoing exercise in the definition of
and react’, ‘action’, ‘know and believe’. culture was undertaken in
5 Ask volunteers from each pair or group to Culture: A Critical Review o f Concepts an d
present and comment on their group’s choice Definitions, byA.L. Kroeber, C. Kluckholm andW.
with any comments, additions or even internal Untereiner, 2001, New York: Greenwood Press.
disagreements. For a more concise discussion with an emphasis on
6 Encourage comparison and discussion of the culture’s inherent values, see chapter 1 (‘Values and
different definitions. This should lead to a more Culture’) of
open discussion of the concept and components Culture’s Consequences: C om paring values,
of culture. behaviors, institutions a n d organizations across
nations, by Geert Hofstede, 2001 2nd Edition,
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

■
 1 . 2 Defining the word ‘cuIture’
‘Culture’ can mean different things to different people.

1 Why does culture matter?

Think about:
• how culture is created - by geography, climate, history, coincidence?
• what groups of people can be said to have a culture - races, countries,
companies?
• in what ways you see, hear or experience it - by behaviour, attitudes, gestures?

Look at these five definitions of culture.

1 Select the one you think is closest to your own idea.
2 Identify any missing elements in each definition.
3 If not satisfied, produce your own, better definition.

The sum total of all the The way you have been
beliefs, values and norms conditioned in a society to
shared by a group of people. think, feel, interpret and react.

The collective programming

of the human mind.

A large pool of experience composed All you need to know

of learned programmes for action and believe in order to be
and passed on from generation to accepted in a society.
generation.

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable 15

1 . 3 I The culture iceberg
Aims
• To explore how features of cultures range from the easily recognisable to the almost imperceptible.
• To develop an awareness of this range.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Ask students what they know about icebergs in The categorisation of components should produce
order to elicit the fact that a large part (about a certain amount of agreement, with plenty of
seven eighths) is normally below water level. scope for differing interpretations and
They may observe similar characteristics in, for consequent discussion.
example, people (some have well-hidden This is one possible categorisation:
characteristics) or families.
A artefacts, directness of speech in business,
2 Check that students understand the significance driving habits, greetings, emotion shown in
of the illustration and then present task 1, wrhich public, physical gestures
deals with national culture in general, rather B balance between work and home, corruption,
than one specific culture. Ask them to put each family life, gender - roles of males and females,
of the components from the list into one of the humour, organisation of companies, personal
categories A, B and C. They should work in pairs friendship, press and other media, punctuality
or small groups to complete the task. in business, social life: public and private
3 Take each section - A, B and C - separately, C democracy, social organisation and class,
asking a spokesperson from each group to run treatment of outsiders/foreigners, values and
through their list, and ask for comparisons and beliefs.
comments from other groups.
4 Now do task 2, which relates this topic to a Development
specific culture. Form groups to examine one
Tasks 2 and 3 give students the opportunity to think
particular culture (the members may be from
about the characteristics of different national
that culture or not, but should have some
cultures. This could lead to work on profiling
experience of it). They should list at least two
different cultures (see Linked activities below).
components from each category which are
important in that culture. They could also give rise to thinking about the
difference between profiling your own culture as
5 Ask a spokesperson from each group to briefly
opposed to profiling cultures to which you do not
summarise what the group has discussed. Invite
belong, for which the Linked activities below will
comment and discussion.
also be a useful follow-up.
6 Brainstorm task 3, which will collect any
elements identified in the discussions which do Linked activities
not appear in the list.
1.4, 1.5, 3.3, 3.4

Further reading
Other models which help to visualise culture
include Hofstede’s pyramid, see pp. 14-17 in
Culture’s Consequences: C om paring values,
behaviors, institutions a n d organizations across
nations, by Geert Hofstede, 2001 2nd Edition,
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications
and the onion diagram in
Culturally Speaking: M anaging R apport in Talk
Across Cultures, by Helen Spenser-Oatey, 2001, New
York: Continuum International Publishing Group.
 1 .3 [vThe culture iceberg
When you observe people from a

1 Why does culture matter?

certain culture, some characteristics -
such as dress and the way people greet
each other - are easy to see. Others are
not so easy.
Culture is sometimes compared to an
iceberg, some of which is visible, but
much of which is difficult to see, or
invisible.

1 Look at the list of components of national culture, and place each one in one of
the three categories:
A things which you can recognise quite easily
B things which take some time to recognise
C things which you recognise only when you are very familiar with a culture.

Artefacts: art and architecture □ Humour □

Balance between work and home □ Organisation of companies □
Corruption □ Personal friendship □
Democracy □ Physical gestures □
Directness of speech in business □ Press and other media □
Driving habits □ Punctuality in business □
Emotion shown in public □ Social life: public and private □
Family life □ Social organisation and class □
Gender - roles of males and females Q Treatment of outsiders/foreigners □
Greetings □ Values and beliefs □

2 Are any of these more important than others in understanding a

particular national culture with which you are familiar?
3 Add any other elements which you think are important in defining a
national culture you know.

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable 17

 Cultural briefing

Aims
• To examine the usefulness of cultural briefing for people going to live, work or holiday abroad.
• To identify the most important elements in cultural briefing.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Check students’ understanding of the term There is no ‘correct’ selection of components from
'cultural briefing’. If necessary, explain that it the list, as it will depend on individual experience
consists of finding out about a culture or country and taste. But make students aware of the fact that
you are about to visit or have contact with. Ask some items are practical, such as tipping in
for examples of when it might be necessary, such restaurants, while others are more abstract, such as
as a first business trip to China or Peru. Ask the respect for authority. Usually the former are easier
students for some elements which they think to identify than the latter. It may be interesting to
would be included in a cultural briefing. Discuss ask students to compare the balance between the
C these points briefly in pairs or small groups and two in the different selections.
in compare results.
V.
£
<D 2 Present task 1 and briefly check that students Development
O understand the words in the list and what they
Cultural briefing is available in many types of book
cc have to do: at this point they are not expected to
and document (see Further reading below), and on
¥- know the information, simply to think what it
a growing number of websites. It has an important
would be most useful for them to know, based on
role in preparing people to cope with living in a
their previous conceptions of the target culture.
new cultural environment. Encourage students to
Working in pairs or groups, students select the
explore this area as much as they wish. However,
six most useful things they would like to know.
make them aware that cultural briefing, without
For example, Western students with little
direct experience, may also encourage the
knowledge of China may feel that the sheer size
formation of stereotypical views. Encourage them
of the country will make regional differences
always to be cautious about views unconfirmed by
important, or that the ‘inscrutability’ of the
their own experience.
Chinese may make silence a useful attribute in
some situations.
Ask a spokesperson from each group to
Linked activities
present the results, allowing time for 1.5, 2.5, 2.7, 3.3, 3.4
comment and discussion.
3 Present task 2. This time the target culture Further reading
should be to some degree familiar, so the For the cross-cultural trainer it is always important
exercise should be similar to the previous one, to match the method of training to the kind and
but slightly quicker and easier. Students could amount of information to be covered. For a useful
work individually. Compare results, asking for discussion of the difference between briefing,
explanations of why certain points were chosen. orientation, training and education, see pp. 117-34
(For example, in culture X, visitors should be (‘Modes of cross-cultural training: Conceptualizing
aware that pre-planning for meetings is very cross-cultural training as education’) in
important.) Present and compare results.
International Jou rn al o f Intercultural Relations,
4 Present task 3, which may be done for Vol. 10, by Janet M. Bennett, 1986
homework. The presentation, by an individual
and pp. 69-95, ‘Intercultural Communication
or a group, should take the form of a cultural
Education and Training Goals, Content and
briefing as described above. If it is written,
Method’, in
photocopy the students’ work and distribute it
to the others. International Jou rn al o f Intercultural Relations,
Vol. 29, No. 1, by Virginia Milhouse, 1996.
 1 .4 [[Cultural briefing
Cultural briefing is the process of finding out about another culture, especially
in preparation for a period of residence, a business trip or a holiday.
Some types of information can be learnt about beforehand, such as the
organisation of the public transport system, and forms of address (Doctor, Mr, etc.),
but it may be better to discover others through direct experience.

Look at the list below.

1 Choose a country whose culture you know little about, and from the list pick
out the six things you would find it most useful to know before you visited
the country on a business trip.
2 Choose a country whose culture you are familiar with, and do the same.
3 Prepare a short introduction (spoken or written) which would be useful for
people about to make a business trip to that country.

Attitudes to alcohol Political system

Attitudes to foreigners Preparation for meetings
Dealing with emergencies Public transport
Demography - population Regions
spread
Religion and its im portance
Formality of dress in business
Respect for authority
Geography
Shop opening times
History
Silence - its acceptability in
Hospitality conversation and meetings
Housing standards Thinking - analytical or intuitive?
Local products Tipping in restaurants
Meal times Titles - Mrs, Dr, etc., and their
Money - paying restaurant bills equivalents

Physical distance between

people when they speak

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable

 1 Cultural briefing: The Swedes

Procedure Outcomes
1 If your students are not from Sweden, introduce This activity should draw out the distinction
this activity by asking them what they know between geographical and political facts on the one
about Sweden. hand, and more subjective areas such as moral or
• Where is Sweden? social values on the other. It should show that it can
• What’s the landscape like? be relatively easy to explain and discuss the former
• What about the weather? objectively, but the latter require more careful
• What do you know about the people? thought.
W • What do you know about Swedish culture? Suggestions for the two main categories of
<D
+-» information:
O If students are from Sweden, ask them what
c they think people from other cultures know More objective/practical: 1, 2, 3, 7, 13
i/i about Sweden and the Swedes. More subjective: 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16
X-
a> 2 Ask students to read the introduction and task 1. The activity should highlight the different degrees
s: Check that they understand the sentences in the of importance attached by students to different
o
list and what they have to do. Make sure they types of information. This in turn should show how
£ understand that at this stage they are not being cultural briefing needs to cover a wide range of
asked to discuss the relative truth of the topics in order to meet a wide variety of needs.
statements, but simply to choose the six most
useful ones for the visitor. It is not necessary to Development
put the six things of most value in order of
importance. You may decide to extend this exercise to your
students’ own cultures. Ask them to create a list for
3 Working individually or in small groups, students
people visiting their countries. Compare lists and
should prepare their lists.
see if many common features emerge, such as a
Each group should prepare their list on paper, majority of practical tips, revealing a pragmatic
whiteboard, flipchart or OHP transparency. approach; or subjective ones, showing a more
Compare results and ask for justification of each interpretive attitude. Raise the question:
choice.
Does the choice reflect on the culture itself, or
4 If the class contains students with experience or more on the student choosing the topics?
knowledge of Swedish culture, move on to task 2.
Invite them to give their views on the validity of Linked activities
the statements, and on how the information they
contain can help guide the visitor in everyday life 1.4, 2.5, 2.7, 3.4
and business. Students do not necessarily have
to agree with the statements (those referring to Further reading
humour and the ‘Swedish model’ may easily be Culture also influences our judgements as to which
challenged), but discussion of the issues they and what kind of information is important in any
raise should be seen as a useful awareness- given situation. See
raising exercise.
Perception a n d Identity in Intercultural
Com m unication, by Marshall R. Singer, 1998,
Yarmouth: Intercultural Press.
For excellent monographs on various cultures, visit
the website of the Intercultural Press at
http://interculturalpress.com
1 .5 Cultural briefing: The Swedes
Look at the following information prepared for someone who is about to

1 Why does culture matter?

go on a business trip to Sweden, and who has little previous experience
of the culture or the country.

1 Choose from the list below the six things you

think they would find most useful, and the six
least useful.

Sweden has alm ost nine m illion in h ab itan ts w ith a

low population density (about nine m illion people
in about 450,000 square kilom etres).

e It is a kingdom w ith a constitutional monarch.

© The prim e m in ister and the cabin et are

responsible to Parliam ent.

oThe 'Sw edish m odel' or 'm iddle way' represen ts a

m ixture of caring socialism w ith individual
ca p ita list entrepreneurialism .

D ifferences in incom e are less m arked

th an in m any other countries.

© People tend to be shy, reserved and

not very talkative.

Public and private sector services such as

tran sp ort and restau ran ts tend to work
efficiently.

Swedes tend to speak E n glish w ell, and to

be w ell travelled.

C ) At school they learn to think logically and

to behave in a restrained manner.

CE) Teamwork is common and appreciated.

Gestures and p hysical co n tact are not generally

approved of.

Swedes usually plan appointm ents well in advance.

<E> Holidays are u sually taken betw een late

Ju n e and early August.

People feel attached to th eir local region.

Humour is less im portant than in some other

cultures.

© Sensitive su bjects such as sex or religion are often

avoided in conversation.

2 If you know something about the Swedes, say whether you think
the statements are valid or not.

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable 21

 Aims
• To consider the differences between the conflicting forces of global production and distribution on the one
hand, and strong local marketing on the other.
• To show the impact of these forces on business cultures.
This activity may be more demanding than others, given its political dimensions, but it is accessible to
younger students through their familiarity with multinational companies which target younger people,
like McDonalds and Nokia.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Begin by discussing the word ‘globe’ with the Terms mentioned in Procedure 1 may include:
class. If you have a globe, use it as an aid to get global competition global view
this discussion started. Ask students for any global corporation global village
expressions they know which use ‘globe’ or global demand global warming
global economy globalisation
‘global’ and for their meanings (see Outcomes).
global market glocalisation
2 Check that students understand the words used. global marketing go global
Ask them to clarify the two main elements operate globally
mentioned at the beginning - one based on
logistics and material things, the other on
Development
marketing and people. For students particularly interested in this subject,
further discussion could be encouraged by
3 Introduce task 1. The three statements highlight
highlighting its paradox.
the contrast between:
To minimise costs, large companies need
• the ever increasing global scale of world
standardised production methods and uniform
commerce, and
products, and to achieve large sales they need as
• the reaction against it - the commercial need to
big a market as possible. But they also need to
recognise the differences between local
appeal to a wide variety of different markets. You
markets, and the reaction of people to what
can raise the question o f ‘branding’, whereby
they consider to be the monolithic nature of
certain products (e.g. Pepsi-Cola and Adidas) are
multinational companies.
made to be instantly recognisable, and so can be
Ask students to work in small groups to study the sold in the same form worldwide. Global branding
statements and agree on a group response, if is bad for local cultures, although marketing
possible. Ask a spokesperson from one group to strategies often have to allow for local variations.
tell the class what they have decided, and invite
Other issues which could interest students are:
others in the class to comment and discuss.
• sport sponsorship by multinationals
4 Introduce task 2 with a short discussion of the
forces referred to in a and b. For example: • worldwide sports tournaments.
a McDonalds, Nike, Nokia and Coca-Cola, who
through their branding encourage local people Linked activities
to accept a product and therefore a lifestyle 1.7, 1.10, 4.8, 4.9
which will owe more to its origins (often, but
not always, American) than to local preference, Further reading
b the increase in local representation, growth of
For a discussion on global strategy and culture, see
local craft work, the encouragement of minority
pp. 3-14 in
languages and local dialects, and the popularity
of local clubs and organisations for activities such International D im ensions o f O rganizational
as traditional dancing, local history and folklore. Behavior, by Nancy Adler, 2001, Cincinnati: South-
Western College Publishing.
5 Ask students to work in their small groups again
for a few minutes and then return to a whole One way out of the dilemma of standardised
class discussion. Draw up a list on the board or production versus multiple markets has been
overhead projector, and use it to speculate about offered in
the world in 20 years’ time or more. Mass Custom ization: The New Frontier in Business
Com petition, by loseph Pine, 1999, Harvard
Business School Press.
 1.6 The global dimension
One of the biggest challenges facing multinational companies in the 21st century

1 Why does culture matter?

is to ‘think global, act local’ - how to be on the one hand:

a global supplier of quality goods and

services using a closely coordinated
supply chain and organisation

and, on the other

a local company whose people speak
the custom er’s language.

It is claimed that the first of these phenomena - the global organisation - is

destroying local cultures by imposing one standard way of buying, thinking and
acting. Or, at least, that cultures are becoming more similar to each other.
What do you think?

1 For each of the following statements on this subject, show how much you
agree or disagree by putting the appropriate number in the box:
5 = Agree strongly 4 = Agree 3 = No opinion 2 = Disagree 1 = Disagree strongly
Compare and discuss your results.

1 The further the world shrinks,

the greater the need for cultures
to be different.

2 Modern civilisation requires that

all human societies will become
increasingly similar.

3 As economies get closer, cultures

get further apart.

2 Give examples of how national cultures are:

a becoming more and more like each other, for example, through the effects
of worldwide publicity, franchises and sponsorships on the way people
dress, eat and behave
b asserting their own identities, for example, in the way people speak, the
traditional goods they produce and the local organisations they form.

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004

 1 .7 obal business
Aims
• To examine the changes that have taken place in the world economy and society in the recent past.
• To explore the impact this has had on national cultures and on behaviour.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Introduce the idea of how, for many people, In task 1, a wide range of opinions could be
contact with other nationalities and cultures has expressed by students, and discussion should be
increased because of easier international travel encouraged. Items like numbers 5 and 6 may be
and communication. Ask for examples, such as difficult to challenge, but some, like 4, 7, 8, 14 and
better telecommunications, satellite TV, the 15, are more contentious.
internet, cheaper and more frequent flights, In task 2, responses will vary from group to group,
Teacher’s notes

more tourist facilities, and increased educational but encourage the comparison in attitudes (more
exchanges. Ask for ideas as to how this might informed, broad-minded, tolerant?) as well as
change people’s attitudes as well as their appearance and behaviour (smarter, more
behaviour. Travel broadens the mind - or does it? informal, better communicators?).
2 Introduce task 1. Ask students to read through
the statements and make sure the meaning is Development
clear. Most of them refer to the wrorld of
business, but there are also references to Students should be encouraged to challenge
education (3), customer service (9), politics (12) simplified views of ‘glocalisation’ (global activities
and society in general (15). Form pairs or small with local marketing presence) and ‘globalphobia’ -
groups and ask them to read and respond to the the idea that individual cultures are all being
statements, trying to produce one set of answers swallowed up by one global culture. Also raise the
for the group, but allowing individual differences question of whether increased contact between
if preferred. cultures actually leads to easier and better
relations. Get students to give examples.
3 Ask a spokesperson from each group to report
back the results. Either ask each group to Focus on the implications of some of the
illustrate the results on the wThiteboard, and then phenomena mentioned here, and the effects on
compare; or go through each statement one by everyday life. This could lead to a discussion of
one, comparing each group’s results. Encourage which developments have been for the better and
discussion. which for the worse.
4 Introduce task 2. Each group should draw up a
list after a brief discussion. Changes may have
Linked activities
been observed in the students’ own lifetime, or 1.6, 1.9, 1.10,4.8
they may have heard parents or elderly people
comparing life in their youth with life today. Try Further reading
to bring in examples both from the world of work
The effects of globalisation on culture (and vice
and from society in general.
versa) are discussed in pp. 35-51, ‘Communication
in a Global Village’, by Dean Barnlund, in
B asic Concepts o f Intercultural C om m unication:
Selected Readings, edited by Milton J. Bennett, 1998,
Yarmouth: Intercultural Press.
1 .7 The effects of global business
Lv___________________________ 5 __________________________

Technical, commercial and political developments over the last few years have

1 Why does culture matter?

affected society in general, and business in particular.

1 Look at the following statements which compare the state of business

today with that of 25 years ago.
a Put the appropriate number in the box:
1 = True 2 = False 3 = Don’t know
b For those that you think are true, explain how they affect and
change people’s attitudes and behaviour.

Compared w ith 25 years ago ...

1 M an u factu rin g co m p an ies 8 C om p an y o rg a n isa tio n h as

source th e ir m a te ria ls from a b eco m e sim pler.
w ider ra n g e of suppliers.
9 C ustom ers ex p ect to b e tre ate d
2 B ran d in g of prod ucts is d on e m ore o n th e ir ow n term s.
m ore on a w orldw ide scale.
10 Em ployees of la rg e co m p an ies
3 E d u catio n al e x c h a n g e s give m ust e x p e ct to c h a n g e th eir
p eop le m ore e x p e rie n ce of p la ce o f w ork m ore
living in o th e r cou n tries. r j regularly.

11 Lifelong em p lo y m en t w ith on e
4 Sm all co m p an ies h av e less
co m p an y is less likely.
hop e of surviving.

12 Political b a rrie rs b etw een ea st

5 Im proved te le co m m u n ica tio n s
an d w est a re less strong.
h av e m ad e life e a sie r for m ost
com p an ies.
13 Projects requ ire p eop le to work
m ore h arm o n io u sly tog eth er.
6 Travel is e a sie r a n d m ore
accep ted by business
people. 14 Large co m p an ies resem b le
e a c h o th e r m ore a n d m ore.
7 C om puters h av e led to h ig h er
stan d ard s o f p e rfo rm a n ce a t 15 Business p eop le u n d erstan d
work. o th e r cultures better.

2 Explain briefly the four things that have changed most in your own national
culture in the last 25 years or so.

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable

 ctations
Aims
• To examine the expectations people have when meeting people from other cultures.
• To see how these expectations can affect the attitudes and behaviour of both sides.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Ask the students to imagine that they are about Task 1 will not yield uniform results, but should
to meet a person they have never seen before - a illustrate the point made in task 2 that expectations
surprise visitor or a long-lost relative, for can have both positive and negative effects.
example, or a person they have often heard
spoken of but never met. What expectations Development
would they have, and what would they be based
on? Also ask the students what they expected to The discussions above should lead to a
<2> consideration of what we think about other
4-» see and experience when moving to a new
o school or a new company. What were their nationalities and other cultures before we actually
c come into contact with them. It should raise the
expectations of their future colleagues? Do we
im all form the same picture? question of prejudice and stereotypes. Everybody
<s> makes assumptions about people or situations with
Draw out the fact that these ideas are usually
o which they are not familiar. These assumptions are
very subjective, sometimes based on false
a necessary part of preparation, and can contribute
information or emotion. Draw the parallel with
£ to a successful contact. They can also lead to the
our expectations of people from other cultures:
creation of stereotypes and prejudices which are
our ideas of them are often based on scanty
forced onto the situation, and which may clash
information or experience, but often affect the
with the reality. A person who sees ready-formed
way we behave towards them.
attitudes in another may well find them offensive,
2 Ask students to read task 1, and check that they particularly if, as can often be the case with
understand the words and the task: they should stereotypes, those views are negative.
select two different nationalities with which they
are familiar and try to predict what preconceived
Linked activities
ideas each of the two characters will have about
the other. At this stage do not raise the question 1.4, 1.5, 2.5, 2.8, 6.4
of where these ideas come from. Form pairs or
groups to do the task, and ask a spokesperson to Further reading
report back. Discuss and compare results. The crucial role that expectations play in our
3 Introduce task 2, which is simply a discussion of experience of other cultures is explained in
the usefulness or otherwise of expectations. The Art o f Crossing Cultures (2nd Edition), by Craig
Though they are a useful and natural way of Storti, 2001, Yarmouth: Intercultural Press.
preparing for an unknown situation, they carry
See also:
the possible dangers of inaccuracy, prejudice and
stereotyping. Some examples of both useful and U nderstanding Culture’s Influence on Behavior, by
potentially harmful expectations may well have Richard Brislin, 1999, Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace
come out in the preceding discussions. Jovanovich.

II
1 .8 I Expectations

1 Why does culture matter?

Before meeting someone from another culture, people often form ideas of what to
expect. These may be founded on fact, on hearsay or on imagination.
These expectations could be a useful form of preparation, or they could lead to
stereotyped ideas which get in the way of successful communication.

1 Think of two different nationalities. Imagine what qualities people from each of
those countries would expect to find in the other before they met. Choose from
the list below, but add any others you think likely.

communication in short sentences little direct eye contact

direct style o f communication lots o f talk about food

displays o f emotion iots o f gesticulation

emotional volatility loud speech

emphasis on entertainm ent periods o f silence

extrovert behaviour quiet speech

extreme politeness reserved behaviour

rapid speech slowness to speak

indirect style o f communication talkativeness

limited body language

2 Do you think that expectations that you have before you meet someone from a
different culture are generally helpful or unhelpful?

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable 27

1 .9 I Case study: One person’s experience

Aims
• To examine an example of a situation in which two different cultures have to work together.
• To think about how to make such a situation work.

Procedure Development
1 Ideally, students should read the case study Students should work in the same groups to
before coming to the lesson. Explain the aim of prepare a short action plan for Dave and his
this activity, which is based on a real business company. The form and length of the report should
case. be adapted to the experience of the group. Each
2 Check that students understand the text and the group should prepare its action plan on paper,
list of possible actions. In task 1, it is worth whiteboard, flipchart, or OHP transparency.
noting that the suggestions fall into two broad Written reports can be distributed between the
categories: steps to modify Dave’s behaviour, and groups for comparison.
steps to modify that of the local company.
3 Divide the class into pairs or small groups and
Linked activities
ask them to discuss the pros and cons of each 1.7, 1.10, 6.11
of the possible actions listed, prioritise them
and make any additions they feel necessary Further reading
Each group should appoint one person to take
For further exercises and case studies see
brief notes.
Intercultural Business C om m unication, by Robert
4 Ask the spokesperson from each group to
Gibson, 2002, Oxford: Oxford University Press
present their group’s ideas by summarising the
main points. Allow time for questions and and also pp. 207-214, ‘Case Study: Salman Rushdie
comments. and The Satanic Verses’, by Janet M. Bennett in
5 Encourage comparisons and discussion of each Intercultural Sourcebook: Cross-Cultural Training
group’s ideas. M ethods (Volume 1), by Sandra M. Fowler and
Monica G. Mumford, 1995, Yarmouth: Intercultural
Press.
Outcomes
It should be possible for students to arrive at a
realistic list of actions which should include
opportunities for development for both the
Canadian and the Taiwanese groups. It might be
stressful for everybody involved in the project to
include all the options.
Discussion of possible actions that Dave could take
should lead to an awareness of the way in which
normal business management problems can
become more complicated where there is a strong
cultural element - in this case the clear contrast
between Canadian and Taiwanese styles. This
activity also provides scope for experiencing a real
decision-making situation.
1.9 Case study: One person’s experience

1 Why does culture matter?

This case study exemplifies a contrast between two Canada
working cultures: Canadian and Taiwanese.
m m *
~

Read the text and the list of possible actions. Then make
recommendations as to what the Canadian should do.
1 Choose from the list below those activities you think
he should carry out.
2 Rank them in order of priority.
3 Add any other actions you think necessary.

Oocumentl
C7 ' l2i ' ■
___

Dave Thompson is a Canadian working for a ‘Baby Bell’ company which owns shares in a
Taiwanese mobile phone company. They have recently acquired a licence to operate in this
crowded and competitive market. Dave has been posted to Taiwan on a three-year contract.
He has now been living there for three months. He has good experience of the mobile
phone business, both technically and strategically, and was previously involved in the start­
up of a new mobile phone company in Lithuania.
He believes he has the opportunity to make the new company a great success by adopting
the management style of his home company: open, innovative, confident and aggressive.
In Taiwan he faces a tradition based on Chinese hierarchies and family-run businesses.
The Taiwanese company Dave works for belongs to one of these families, but the current
generation sees the advantages of a western approach in what is for them a new kind of
business. So they back his efforts to ‘turn the company around’.
Dave’s biggest problem is one of time: he wants to get on with building up a westem-style
company, and is prepared to trust people, take risks, and act fast to improve market share
in a rapidly developing market. The deregulated market is not so transparent to him,
depending as it does on old traditions, complicated business practices, and personal
connections. On top of all this, only a few of his top managers speak English. The rest of
his managers speak Mandarin, and have to be addressed through an interpreter.
Although Dave is keen to leap into action, his colleagues need time to build up trust with
him, as with all strangers. They also believe in consensus, not the kind of questioning and
challenging of ideas which leads easily to conflict. At meetings, they always appear to
accept what Dave suggests, deferring to his status as a respected senior and an outsider.

Dave decides he must do something, He draws up the following list of

possible actions:

learn Mandarin send some of his managers to

bring in more Western managers work m North America
organise lectures for his employees organise a one-day seminar on
on Western business practices business cultures
organise a meeting at which all the
learn more about Taiwan
cultural problems are discussed
slow down his approach
bring in a local management consultant

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable

 f\ Combining global and loca

Aims
• To show how companies need both a global and a local approach to business.
• To analyse measures helping a company to meet the challenges of global business.

Procedure Development
1 Students could read the case study and fill in the Where students have considerable experience of
boxes before coming to the lesson. Check that international business, it could be useful to
students understand the words and what they compare the relative value of practical issues, such
have to do. as cheap sourcing and efficient production and
2 Form pairs or small groups to fill in or check the logistics, with the more long-term issues of
contents of the boxes. investing time and resources in developing positive
Teacher’s notes

attitudes in people.
Ask a spokesperson from one group to read out
their replies, and invite comments and
discussion. Linked activities
3 With an experienced group, ask students to look 1.6, 1.7, 1.9, 4.2, 4.8
at task 2, spending as much time as their
experience allows on prioritising and adding to Further reading
the list. The results could be summarised in a See 1.9.
short presentation.

Outcomes
Some of the actions contain elements of both
objectives, but a possible classification is:
1A 2 B 3 A 4 A 5B 6B 7A 8A 9B
10 B 11 B 12 B
But disagreement is likely and will fuel discussion.

■■
 1.10 [[ Case study: Combining global and local
Two large vehicle manufacturers - one from Sweden, the other from the USA -

1 Why does culture matter?

have set up a joint venture to produce trucks worldwide.
In a very competitive, low-margin market, they have two objectives:
A to minimise costs and maximise efficiency
B to develop strong sales and a positive image in a wide range of developed
and developing markets.

They decide on a number of steps to achieve these objectives.

1 Read the actions 1-12 below, and write A or B in each box, depending on
which of the above objectives is being followed.
2 Add any further actions you consider useful, and rank the final list in
order of priority.

Q Encourage managers to speak at least two languages, and to

understand at least one more.

Q Run briefing sessions to make managers aware of the diversity

of the market and of the workforce.

Q Standardise and share logistical systems with their parent companies.

Q Source and purchase materials and components together,

using the resources of the parent companies.

Q Encourage innovative products for each market.

Q Have a strong local marketing force which identifies national and local
needs and preferences, and adapts the standard products to them.

Q Manufacture standard platforms as a basis for all their vehicles.

O Mass produce all components which are not seen by the customer.

Q Set up a number of focus groups to examine customer requirements.

® Organise seminars on customer-focused business.

^ Make sure that top and middle management all work for some time in
countries other than their own.

© Organise seminars for middle management to examine the challenge

of working with colleagues and customers from a wide range of
cultural backgrounds.

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable 31

 The culture onion
Aims
• To focus on the range of cultures which can influence an individual’s behaviour.

• a part of a country:
Procedure California, Siberia, western Norway, Yorkshire
1 Ask students which cultures they feel they are • a company:
influenced by: how their ideas and their IBM, Ericsson, Nissan, Alcatel
behaviour are moulded to some extent by the • a team:
people and events around them. Include large China Sea project team, new software
groups such as nationality, and also smaller ones implementation project
such as clubs or teams. • a function:
2 Look at the culture onion and ask if other layers mechanical engineers, financial controllers
could be added in addition to those already • a professional association:
discussed. Possibilities include geographical the American Institute of Certified Public
regions within a country, social class, Accountants, the British Medical Association.
departments within a company and work teams. At the centre of all these groups is the individual,
3 Form groups to discuss task 2. Ask each group to whose combination of inherited genes and specific
rank the relative importance of the different environmental influences have made him or her a
cultures mentioned so far, in shaping people’s unique person.
ideas and behaviour. At this stage they should be This individual will be a member of many different
thinking in general terms, although of course cultures.
every person is a unique product of different
At the same time as sharing some of the
influences, including individually inherited
characteristics of each of these groups, he or she as
characteristics. Thinking generally should help
an individual will have much in common with
recognise and avoid the danger of stereotyping.
people outside the same groups.
Compare results through a spokesperson from
each group, and encourage discussion. Categories will inevitably overlap: a Colombian
employee of Ericsson may derive certain cultural
4 Introduce task 3. Ask the groups to choose a
characteristics from his or her country and others
person whom they can briefly analyse in terms
from the company. The former could make him or
of how representative they are of the cultural
her different from an Ericsson employee in Britain;
groups they belong to. Ask a spokesperson to
the latter could make him or her different from a
report back from each group, and encourage
Colombian working for Siemens.
discussion.
Linked activities
Outcomes 2.5, 2.7, 2.8, 3.1, 6.4
This activity should encourage students to consider
how far we are a product of our different cultures, Further reading
and how far we are unique individuals. It should
also allow them to reflect on the complex cultural The many influences that colour our acts of
situations in which we all live and work. communication are thoroughly analysed in
C om m unicating with Strangers (4th Edition), by
Development William B. Gudykunst and Young Yun Kim, 2002,
New York: McGraw-Flill.
Culture is normally associated with the place where
For valuable insights into the dimensions of
you were born or have spent most of your life, usually
national culture and how these affect societies,
a country. This is because countries often share vital
institutions and the workplace, see
characteristics such as history, climate, laws, art or
geography. But there are other groups which have Cultures a n d Organizations: Softw are o f the Mind,
their own distinctive cultures, for example: by Geert Hofstede and Gert Jan Hofstede, 2004
Third Millennium Edition, New York: McGraw-Hill.
• a larger geographical area:
south-east Asia, North America,
southern Europe
2.1 The culture onion
The onion shows five different layers of culture which might affect an

2 Types and stereotypes

individual’s identity:
• Local community
• Profession/occupation
• Company
• Business sector
• Country

1 Can you add other layers to the onion?

2 Which layers of culture do you think are the most influential on a person’s behaviour?
3 Choose a person you know quite well and explain how he or she has been
influenced by the different cultures he or she belongs to.

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable 33

 Aims
• To show that sports possess cultural characteristics which influence the people who play them.
• To focus on the team cultures of certain sports.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Ask the class about their own experiences of Two points may emerge from this activity:
sport, whether as an individual or as a member • People who play certain sports will often develop
of a team, and ask them to describe the people attitudes and behaviour similar to those of the
they play with. Together with the physical people they play with.
characteristics they mention (strength, speed, • By sharing certain characteristics with
etc.), try to include some non-physical colleagues, individuals can cooperate
characteristics such as patience and versatility. successfully as a team.
Students who play different sports should be
asked to compare the different qualities
required, for instance, for tennis and skiing.
Development
Encourage students to look at the distinction Many students will relate easily to sport, others less
between the individuals who play particular so. In discussion, encourage students to consider
sports and the clubs, teams and associations how the idea of teams can relate to areas other than
involved in the same sport. sport, such as business, where departments or
2 Introduce task 1, checking that the list of project teams can benefit from sharing cultural
characteristics is understood. In pairs or small characteristics.
groups, ask students to choose a sport which is
familiar to most members of the group, and to Linked activities
suggest three characteristics from the list. (Other 2.1, 2.5, 4.2
characteristics may be added if desired.) Those
who claim to play no sport at all should be Further reading
encouraged to draw on their impressions gained
from the media. Ask a spokesperson from each Little has been written about sport as a cultural
group to call out the characteristics or list them phenomenon, but a good start has been made in
on the board. Encourage discussion. The Rites o f Men: M anhood, Politics a n d the Culture
3 Task 2 concentrates on the team aspect, and tries o f Sport, by Varda Burstyn, 1999, Toronto: University
to identify why some teams are more successful of Toronto Press.
than others. Certain sports such as athletics and
golf may be seen as mainly individual sports, but
most of them can be seen to have teams at
national level. Ask students for a few examples of
local, regional or international teams which have
had success, and speculate as to why this is so.
Ask pairs or small groups to draw up their list,
and to report on their results. During feedback,
encourage them to spot points of agreement
between groups, and any similarities between
sports, such as the need for cooperation in figure
skating and sailing.
 2.2 Sport and teams

2 Types and stereotypes

Sports have their own sets of cultural characteristics, and these characteristics
have an impact on the identities of individuals, teams and clubs involved in them.

1 Choose a sport from the list below, and identify three characteristics
which you associate with people who practise it.

Sport Characteristics

Athletics: A b ility to take criticism

• 4 x 100m relay Aggression
• pole va u lt
Calmness
• m arathon
C ooperation
Baseball
D e term ination to practise
Basketball
Egotism
Boxing
Extroversion
D ow nhill skiing
Patience
Figure skating
Perseverance
G olf
Quick th in k in g
Ice hockey
Sensitivity
M o to r racing
Sharing
M o untaineering
Stamina
Rowing
Team work
Rugby
Toughness
Sailing
V ersatility
Soccer
Squash
Tennis:
• doubles
• singles

2 For three of these sports:

• choose a successful team
• discuss the characteristics which have contributed to the success of the team.

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable 35

 end r
Aims
• To focus on the role that gender plays in defining cultures.
To identify some gender characteristics.

Procedure Outcomes
1 The role of gender in society is a big and The following division is offered merely as a
potentially controversial topic. Try to limit the guideline drawn from a mainly British or European
scope of this activity by focusing on standpoint: there is obviously scope for different
communication, and by explaining that interpretations of some of the words. For example,
‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ are labels used to cooperating could be seen as a strong element of
identify two broad clusters of characteristics male teamwork or as an important part of female
rather than to describe the way all men and all supportive collaboration. The important thing is
women communicate. Open up discussion by that students form a clear idea of choices and
asking students what they understand by the two variety in communicating styles.
terms when applied to communicating styles. Feminine Masculine
2 The first two paragraphs should help summarise Advising Challenging
this discussion. Make sure the list in task 1 is Affiliating Competing
clearly understood, and ask students to work in Asking Contesting
groups to separate them into the predominantly Communicating Correcting
masculine and predominantly feminine. Explain Confirming Criticising
that there is no absolutely ‘correct’ division Consulting Directing
(some of the words may be interpreted in Cooperating Humiliating
different ways) but that certain trends may Empathising Informing
appear. Compare results through a spokesperson Enquiring Ordering
from each group, and discuss how far they Networking Protesting
conform to a regular pattern. If desired, copy the Reconciling Reacting
list in Outcomes onto the board or flipchart or Sharing Solving
onto an overhead transparency. Compare this list
with theirs and discuss any differences. Development
3 Depending on the students in your class, decide
There is a considerable body of specialist and
with them whether they should discuss national
popular literature on this subject, on which most
or corporate culture in tasks 2 and 3. Students
people have strong opinions. Discussion should
should work in pairs or small groups and try to
follow quite easily, and one of your main roles may
decide in general terms whether the culture in
be to contain it within the confines described
question is predominantly masculine or
above.
feminine, based on the qualities suggested
above, and whether they would prefer it to be
otherwise. Ask a spokesperson from each group
Linked activities
to describe results, and encourage discussion. 2.4, 2.5, 6.3, 6.9

Further reading
See chapter 4 (‘He, she and (s)he’) for background
on the cultural constructs of masculinity and
femininity in
Cultures a n d Organizations: Softw are o f the Mind,
by Geert Hofstede and Gert Ian Hofstede, 2004
Third Millennium Edition, New York: McGraw-Hill.
2 .3 Gender
Gender can play a fundamental role in defining the identity of an individual

2 Types and stereotypes

or the culture of a group.

Certain companies or groups are said to have characteristics which are

predominantly masculine or predominantly feminine. These characteristics tend
to be based on a general view of the roles of men and women, rather than the
notion that ‘men/women always do th is’.

1 Based on your own feeling for what is ‘masculine’ and what is ‘feminine’,
divide the following actions or characteristics into those you would describe
as predominantly masculine and those you would describe as predominantly
feminine. Put M or F by each one.

Advising □ Directing □
Affiliating □ Empathising □
Asking □ Enquiring □
Challenging □ Humiliating □ A

Communicating □ Informing □
Competing □ Networking □
Confirming □ Ordering □
Consulting □ Protesting □
Contesting □ Reacting □
Cooperating □ Reconciling □
Correcting □ Sharing □
Criticising □ Solving □
2 Would you describe your own culture (national or corporate) as
predominantly masculine or predominantly feminine?
3 Which of the above characteristics would you wish to be more evident, and
which less evident in your own organisation?

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable 37

 94
mmm ■ ■ Gendi n
Aims
• To show that gender can have an impact on communication style.
• To identify sources of potential conflict when different styles meet.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Ask students to reflect on conversations which The most common categorisation is:
they have had with people in the past. Ask them 1 A feminine, B masculine
what makes a successful conversation, and why 2 A masculine, B feminine
some conversations are not successful. Ask if 3 A feminine, B masculine
they think mixed groups of men and women 4 A feminine, B masculine
V)
<D have more difficulty than single-gender groups.
A successful conversation requires listening,
O If so, why? This could suggest that each gender
showing respect, showing understanding and
c has a different style of communication. Try to
interest, sympathising and turn taking. Body
avoid stereotyping by explaining that ‘masculine’
Im language, facial expression and eye contact are also
© and ‘feminine’ refer to styles of communicating
very important.
rather than to a division between the sexes.
3 Many people have a blend of these two sets of Breakdowns in effective communication occur
because:
characteristics.
£
2 Check that students understand the introduction 1 A is cooperating, consulting, reconciling; B is
and four dialogues, and explain that in task 1 contesting, correcting, challenging.
they have to identify which of the speakers in 2 A is challenging; B is enquiring, empathising.
each dialogue has a more masculine style and 3 A is asking; B is directing, ordering.
which a more feminine one. Ask them to do the 4 A is asking, communicating, enquiring; B is
activity in pairs or small groups, then compare competing, informing, contesting.
answers and discuss the results.
3 Explain task 2: to identify the main differences in Development
style of the two characters. Students may use Ask for more examples of the kind of breakdown
their own words, but those given in Outcomes shown in these dialogues, from life and from
could be given as examples. fiction. Ask students to rephrase the dialogues so
that more positive communication results.

Linked activities
2.3, 2.5, 6.1

Further reading
For the effects of gender on communication, see
Gender a n d Discourse, by Deborah Tannen, 1996,
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
 2 .4 Gender and communication
People with very different communication styles often have difficulty developing a

2 Tvoes and stereotvoes

real understanding. Two styles which can produce conflict come from so-called
‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ cultures. The terms do not necessarily relate to all men
and all women, but are used to denote characteristics often seen to be typical of
each gender.

Read the following dialogues.

1 Identify A and B as ‘masculine’ or ‘feminine’.
2 Summarise the difference in approach of the two people.

A: There's a good film on television this A: W hat time do we take off tomorrow?
>
evening, it's about a m ad doctor. B: Be ready by 10.30.
) B: Yes, I know. He's not m ad actually, just
eccentric.
A: There was a good review of it in the
newspaper yesterday.
4
B: It was on Monday. I remember, I read
it on the train. A: ... and what do you do?
A: It sounds quite interesting. B: I'm a product development m anager,
B: Yes, not quite so good as th at one we working mainly in the area of
saw about ghosts last week. bearings for the automotive industry.
A: It would be something different from I'm responsible for development
what we usually see, th at will be nice. worldwide, so I travel quite a lot,
B: Really? I thought we saw a film about especially in south-east Asia. How
a mad doctor just a few weeks ago. about you?
A: I'm a journalist.
B: Oh, my brother's a journalist, he's
freelance, but he works a lot for the
New York Herald. He's done th at for
A: Morning. quite a few years now ...
> B: Morning, how are you feeling today? A: Oh, th at sounds interesting.
A: I'm OK. Why do you ask? B: Yes, it is, but it has its boring moments. /
I could have been a journalist too, but
I was good at engineering ...

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable 39

 Aims
• To illustrate the existence of stereotypes.
• To explore whether there is any legitimate basis to national stereotyping.

Procedure Development
1 Ask the class what is meant by stereotype (an It may be interesting to consider where certain
exaggerated, often uncomplimentary view of stereotypes originated. The idea that all Swedes are
someone from another culture), and ask for sex-mad probably had some link with Ingmar
examples. It should not be too difficult to Bergman’s films, and that Scots people are said to
■
- I establish that the most common stereotypes are be mean probably originated from a time when
W
<D often untypical of the group they portray, and food was very scarce. It could also be interesting to
+-»
O almost always out of date. But it may be possible mention individuals who go completely against the
c to argue that there is an element of truth in some stereotype, such as ‘the shy Italian’ or ‘the talkative
of them: the challenge is not to apply a blanket Japanese’. Other examples can be given from the
m description to a whole group of people. students’ own national culture or cultures.
o 2 Introduce task 1, and ask pairs or groups to
cc match the two columns. Compare each group’s Linked activities
|2 results, and tell them the results in Outcomes 1.5, 1.8, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8
below. Discuss any discrepancies and consider to
what extent these national stereotypes are Further reading
justified and to what extent they are inaccurate.
For the genesis and functions of stereotypes and
3 Introduce task 2. Form pairs or small groups to
prejudice and their effects on attitude, see pp.
come up with some examples of stereotypes. Ask
169-205, chapter 6 (‘Intergroup Relations: Cultures
a volunteer from each group to summarise the
in Contact’) in
feelings of their group. Encourage a class
discussion as to the validity of these stereotypes. Understanding Culture’s Influence on B ehavior (2nd
Edition), by Richard Brislin, 1999, Fort Worth:
4 Finally, ask students to reflect and comment on
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
stereotypical views of their own national culture.

Outcomes
The stereotypes suggested:
British - hypocritical
Germans - arrogant
Italians - cowardly
Spaniards - lazy
Swedes - sex-mad
This activity should allow an open discussion on
the danger of stereotyping and to what extent it
makes cooperation difficult between different
nations. It should not be difficult to prove that it is
unlikely for all the inhabitants of one country to
have one over-riding characteristic.

■ I
■
 2 .5 [[ Stereotyping
Sexism, racism, ageism and religious intolerance are examples of prejudice which
are only too frequently observed. Another form of prejudice is stereotyping,
which occurs when someone claims that members of another culture all
share the same, often inferior or offensive characteristics.

A recent report from the European Union listed some of the national
perceptions which make cooperation difficult.

1 Match each of the nationalities with the stereotype you think is often
attached to it:

British

G erm ans

Italians

Spaniards

Swedes

2 Which nationalities are stereotypically associated with the following

characteristics?
• Obsessed with fashion
• Slow-thinking
• Insincere
• Obsessed with tradition
• Mean
• Reserved
• Obsessed with food

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable

 g attit des

Aims
• To recognise the kinds of attitude commonly held towards other cultures.
• To evaluate these attitudes.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Introduce the idea of different attitudes to other The reactions of individual students to these
cultures by asking students about attitudes they statements will obviously differ. There is room for a
have met. Students should be brief. Don’t allow good deal of disagreement, so it is not necessary to
them to begin long anecdotal stories. Limit look for a consensus. However, it would be useful
discussion to a few minutes at this stage. for students to pick out those with which they agree
<0
© 2 Students should read the statements. Check that and formulate a short description of what they
<** know and think about culture and attitudes in
O they understand the sentences and what they
c have to do in task 1. Get them to fill in their general.

V.
responses individually. They should then work in
<D
JZ
small groups and compare and contrast their Development
o responses.
Students may like to consider which of the
TO 3 A spokesperson for each group should then statements show a helpful approach to formulating
£ summarise the results for the rest of the class. attitudes towards culture in general and other
Compare and discuss these, and see if there is cultures in particular. Some, such as 9 and 12,
some sort of consensus. could be said to be negative, while 8, 13 and 14, for
4 Tasks 2 and 3: individually, students should now example, suggest flexibility and tolerance.
select their ‘best’ and ‘worst’ statements and be
prepared to justify them. Linked activities
5 As a class activity, invite individuals to present 2.5, 2.7, 2.8, 4.8, 6.12
their ‘best’ and ‘worst’ statements, explaining
and justifying their choices. Invite comment and Further reading
discussion.
See 2.5.
 2.6 Evaluating attitudes
How do you form your attitudes towards people from other cultures? Do you expect

2 Types and stereotypes

them to be very different from you? Do you think of them as all being the same?
Are you aware of how you appear to them?

1 Read the statements below and show how much you agree or disagree by
putting the appropriate number in the box:
5 = Agree strongly 4 = Agree 3 = No opinion 2 = Disagree 1 = Disagree strongly

1 Observation o f differen t cultures 8 We must learn to recognise

I allows us to form patterns. the existence o f differen t but
equally valid styles.

2 I don't wish to be classified.

I am an individual. 9 Different is dangerous.

3 Generalisations capture 10 The fish is the last one to

sim ilarities and hide recognise the water.
differences.

11 Statistical fa c ts about cultures

4 Regarding p eop le o f the sam e help us classify them.
culture as all being the sam e is
harm ful and dangerous.

12 Other p eop le don't try

to ad ap t enough.
5 People from other cultures
often act strangely.

13 One man's m eat is another

man's poison.
6 Ignoring the differences betw een
cultures is dangerous. K

14 Beauty is in the eye

o f the beholder.
7 We can categorise certain
groups o f p eop le according
to how they behave.

2 Select the statement which most appeals to you, and justify it with examples.
3 Decide which one you find least accurate.

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable

 l-jar graph

Aims
• To show how generalisations about cultures may have a certain statistical validity.
• To show that they can also be highly misleading.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Ask students to give examples of a typical When thinking of specific cultures, be careful to
stereotype close to their own experience. It could distinguish between a general statement based on
be a national stereotype, or a professional one statistics and likelihood, on the one hand, and
such as a very serious judge. Then ask if this specific cases on the other. The latter can be very
means that all judges are serious. The different from the former, and students should be
</>
<D generalisation that judges are serious could be ready to meet the ‘exception’ as well as the
4“* true, but that does not mean to say that the next ‘stereotype’.
o
c judge you come into contact with will be serious.
ff) This is what the bell-graph illustrates: statistical Development
1-
o probability, together with the possibility of
x: exceptions. Discussion could lead on to how one prepares for
o meeting members of other cultures: whether to
cs 2 Check that students understand the general idea
assume that most people will be typical of their
1^
JNMK of the graph and the four figures shown: two
culture, or be ready to meet many exceptions. Both
‘stereotypes’ and two ‘exceptions’.
stances will be useful; the important thing is to
3 Explain task 1. Students should work in pairs or keep both in mind.
small groups to put together a description of the
graph, explaining in their own words the Linked activities
existence of both stereotypes and exceptions.
Each group then presents their results, followed 2.5, 2.6, 2.8
by questioning, comment and discussion.
4 Move on to tasks 2 and 3, in which pairs or small
Further reading
groups discuss which cultures could be used as The difference between stereotype and
examples of the graph shown. In Europe, for generalisation is explained by Milton J. Bennett in
example, the Italians are often characterised as his article ‘Intercultural Communication: A Current
emotional, and the Finns as reserved. Ask each Perspective’ in
group to give its examples, then discuss whether B asic Concepts o f Intercultural C om m unication:
everybody else agrees. Selected Readings, edited by Milton ]. Bennett, 1998,
5 A further test may be to apply the bell-jar idea to Yarmouth: Intercultural Press.
the culture or cultures of the students
themselves. In both cases, study the validity of
the generalisation and look for examples of
exceptions.
2 .7 [[The bell-jar graph

The graph shows the range of positions of two cultures, A and B, on a scale
ranging from reserved to emotional.
1 Study the graph and explain how it helps break down stereotypical ideas about
members of other groups.
2 Give examples of cultures which are similar to A.
3 Give examples of cultures which are similar to B.

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable

 Aims
• To discover some of the forces which cause people to adopt stereotypical attitudes.
• To assess their relative importance.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Ask students if they can imagine the landscape Many different outcomes are possible, but students
and the people of a country they have never should increase their understanding of how
visited. Ask them how they gathered these attitudes are formed in themselves and in other
impressions. The landscape can be seen in people.
photos, but there may be a variety of inputs
about people, such as films and books, or friends Development
who have made a visit. Ask if there is a possibility
of getting prejudiced or one-sided views from Ask students to evaluate their own attitudes to
these. other cultures in general or to any specific one, and
to tty to find out where they came from. Encourage
2 Ask students to look at the list and, working in
comparison between students.
pairs or groups, to do task 1, adding any other
influences they can think of. If so, quickly add
these to the list.
Linked activities
3 Set the pairs or groups to work on task 2. Within 2.5, 2.6, 6.4
each group they should try to come to some
agreement, in order to promote discussion. Each Further reading
group then appoints a spokesperson to explain See 2.7.
what they chose and why. Encourage comment
and discussion.
 2.8 Where do stereotypes come from?

2 Types and stereotypes^]

Stereotypes usually involve negative views of other cultures. How are they formed?

1 Look at the list below and add any influences you think are missing.
2 Select the four which you consider most common.

x u m y T JT T T ju T r
Inherited characteristics

Parents and family

The media
Friends
Education (school, university)

Inferiority complexes
The neighbourhood

Clubs and societies

Religion

Travel
Laziness

Fear
A sense of superiority
Limited imagination
Lack of experience of people
Poor communication skills

Envy

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable

 es

Aims
• To identify some of the factors that can shape a national culture.
• To show the difference between describing your own national culture and describing somebody else’s.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Ask students for ideas on the main factors which Focus on the difference between describing aspects
shape and define different national cultures. of your own national culture and those of another.
Encourage them to include attitudes and Did students find it easier to do one than the other.
institutions as well as the more obvious Also ask students to identify any differences
behavioural aspects. between how they see their own national culture
2 Explain that they should study the lists and do and how others see it. Is one view more critical
SO than another? Were they surprised by the
<D task 1 in pairs or groups, adding or removing any
Hh* items they think necessary. If they have no (in)accuracy of other people’s views? There should
o
suggestions, move quickly on to task 2. be a variety of responses here, leading to
discussion.
3 The aim of task 2 is, with the help of the lists, to
m provide useful information for a visitor to a given
jz
o country. Each student should consider their own Development
03 country and another one; in multicultural Ask the class to develop their ideas into a more
£ classes this will mean forming pairs, but larger
groups can be formed in less varied classes. You
generalised description of their own national
culture, still focusing on the key factors. This is
may prefer to ask students to select the three or similar to the exercise in 3.4; here it may also be
four most important factors. Feedback through a applied to a culture other than the student’s own.
spokesperson should pick out which factors are
important, and how the visitor can benefit from Linked activities
being aware of them.
3.3, 3.4

Further reading
A short discussion of how cultures originate can be
found in pp. 25-8 in
Culture’s Consequences: Comparing values,
behaviors, institutions and organizations across
nations, by Geert Flofstede, 2001 2nd Edition,
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
See also
The Silent Language, byE.T. Flail, 1997, New York:
Anchor Books.
3.1 Cultural influences
___________________________________________

National cultures are formed and influenced by a wide range of factors.

3 Profiling national cultures

The lists below contain some of these factors, grouped into three main
categories: structural, social and physical.

SOCIAL
STRUCTURAL
Balance between
Geography family and work

Communications Class distinctions

Dress PHYSICAL
Climate
Population density Punctuality Physical co n ta ct
and spread Emotional displays Physical gestures
Centralisation of ; Ideas of physical Physical distance
power beauty
Speech: volume,
Role of religion \i Taboos speed
Political system rl Humour Handshakes and
Role of authority Respect for age greetings
Gender Body language
Politeness to the
outsider

1 Look through the lists and make any improvements you think necessary:
add items which are missing, and take away any which you consider
to be unimportant.

2 Try to decide which of these factors are important in shaping:

• your own national or regional culture
• another culture which you know well.

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable

 Aims
• To show how certain physical actions are more acceptable than others in different cultures.
• To define what is and is not acceptable in different situations.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Ask students to think of certain physical actions Encourage students to consider whether the
which annoy them, such as people who speak actions can be divided into three groups:
loudly, or gesticulate excessively, or stand close • generally unacceptable, such as yawning
to you when they speak. Discuss whether the • generally acceptable, such as nodding your head
same actions are annoying to everyone, and • variable, depending on how you do it, such as
whether they would be more acceptable in some hands on hips.
cultures than in others. You may also consider
This will not necessarily bring consensus, but will
the attitudes of people from other cultural
encourage experimentation and discussion.
backgrounds to greetings, such as handshakes,
bows, kisses and hugs.
2 Introduce task 1, checking understanding of the
Development
actions and of the instructions. Working in pairs Students could be encouraged to think about what
or small groups, encourage students to agree on actions are generally considered unacceptable in
one response, rather than say ‘It depends’. their own country. This could lead to a discussion
Encourage them also to give graphic examples of of possible taboos, such as the discussion of death,
what is or is not acceptable, such as a gentle and cannibalism, or incest, and how these are
an over-vigorous scratch of the head. This should changing.
provide some light relief. Students could also consider and discuss whether
3 Move on to task 2 and ask for feedback and there are any actions in their country which are
encourage comparison and discussion. acceptable for men but not for women.
4 If the question has not already arisen, ask the
class whether their answers would be different if Linked activities
they were referring to an informal situation such 5.5, 6.12
as a group of friends at a social gathering. This
would help to show that within the same Further reading
national culture there can be enormously
different norms for different social settings. For an amusing survey of body language across the
globe, see
Gestures: The D o’s a n d Taboos o f Body Language
Around the World, by Roger Axtell, 1997, New York:
John Wiley.
 3 .2 Body language

3 Profiling national cultures^

Different physical signals mean different things to different people, depending on
factors such as nationality, status and situation.

1 Look at the list of physical actions below. Put the appropriate number in the box
to say if in your national culture they are:
1 = perfectly acceptable 2 = just about acceptable
3 = unacceptable in a formal situation such as a business meeting
2 Choose a culture other than your own and decide which of the actions would be
in a different category.

(T ) laughing loudly □
(T ) scratching your head □
(3) touching somebody on the arm as □
you speak to them

(4) looking somebody straight in the □

eye for 5 seconds or more

( s ) sitting with your legs wide apart □

( 6 ) adjusting your clothing: tie, bra, □
trouser belt

( 7) moving close to someone □

( s ) standing with hands on hips □
(9) crossing your arms □
(jo) putting your feet on the table □
(TT) not looking at someone when you □
speak to them

(|2) yawning □
(j3) whispering to a colleague □
(\4) nodding your head emphatically □
(j5) blowing your nose □
(|6 ) smoking □

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I
 3 .3 Time capsule
Aims
• To get students to reflect on the main characteristics of the contemporary culture of their country.
• To evaluate some of those characteristics.

Procedure Development
1 Raise the idea of a time capsule, and ask for any The same exercise could be applied to other
examples of regional, national or international national cultures.
time capsules. Explain that the purpose of this Introduce the element of personal choice by asking
activity is to devise one for a specific culture. students to choose the three things they most like
2 Check that students understand the task, and about their national culture, and the three things
clarify which culture is to be described. In they least like about it. This could lead to a
</) discussion on the quality of life in a particular
CD monocultural classes this should be the ‘home’
4-» culture, but in multicultural classes the target country today.
o
c culture will have to be negotiated between the
*rVi
v pairs or groups doing the task. Linked activities
s-
O Encourage students to bring in examples of the 1.4, 3.1, 3.4
-C
o things they decide on, or to make drawings or
to bring photos. They should give their feedback as Further reading
£ a group presentation using these visuals.
For a classification of a given culture, E.T. Hall
refers to the manipulation of the physical world as
Outcomes ‘exploitation’ in pp. 196-7, ‘Map of Culture’ in
The result of the activity should be an interesting The Silent Language, by E.T. Hall, 1997, New York:
presentation, or a display using objects and visuals. Anchor Books.

O
3 .3 Time capsule

3 Profiling national cultures^

Some aspects of culture change quite quickly, others change more slowly.

Imagine you have been commissioned to devise a time capsule which, in one
thousand years’ time, will give a clear idea of the culture of your country at the
beginning of the 21st century. Try to make the capsule as representative as possible
of the things that shape or have shaped your national culture today. Include ten
items, only one of which may be a book.

Possible categories:
Technology
Fashion
Art
Leisure
Literature
Customs
Behaviour
Demonstrations
Politics and politicians

W h ic h country?

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable

 Aims
• To encourage students to take a detailed look at a national culture they know.
• To be able to describe a national culture in practical terms for a visitor.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Ask students about visits they have made to The feedback session - a form of cultural briefing
other countries, and how far they have found it (see activities 1.4 and 1.5) - should show how some
useful to prepare themselves in advance. How types of information can be useful preparation for a
much information is useful and/or necessary, visit to or residence in another country.
either for a holiday or for a period of residence?
This activity will give practice in preparing that Development
kind of advice.
Discuss what kinds of information are most useful
2 Check that task 1 is clear, and that the list of
in this situation. Some may be very practical, such
suggestions is understood in the same way by
as public transport. Others, such as social relations,
everybody. Wherever possible, the target culture
may be more open to different interpretations and
should be the student’s own, but in multicultural
therefore varied, depending on the informant.
groups some will contribute as ‘outsiders’. The
list of suggestions given can be added to in a
quick brainstorming session. Then students
Linked activities
should do the task in pairs or small groups. They 1.4, 1.5, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3
should select their main headings, then prepare
a few notes under each one. Further reading
3 Introduce task 2 by asking whether you would Background information on the problems involved
need to point out to a German that business when entire families move abroad can be found in
people in Belgium shake hands when they first pp. 264-81, ‘Social Support and the Challenges of
meet. Then explore how much explanation International Assignments: Implications for
might be needed for the way people greet each Trainers’, by Gary Fontaine in
other in other countries - particularly ones
H an d book o f Intercultural Training (2nd Edition),
which are further away. Ask students to compile
edited by D. Landis and R.S. Bhagat, 1996,
a list of aspects of their own national culture that
Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc.
might surprise people from other countries.
4 Ask for feedback in the form of group mini­
presentations followed by questions and
discussion.
3 .4 Family briefing
1 A family of four (parents and two teenage children) are about to move to your

3 Profilinq national cultures

country for a period of five years. Prepare some information and advice. Think
about these categories, among others:

SERVICES
public transport
education
housing
shops and shopping
bureaucracy

SOCIAL
entertaining
visiting
clubs and societies
sport and leisure
religion
clothing
home life
street life
formality / informality
currency and prices

WORK
working hours
dress
formality o f address
written / verbal styles
[ punctuality

2 Would certain types of information be more useful for some cultures or

nationalities than for others? If so, give examples.

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 any dimensions
Aims
• To illustrate some of the dimensions used to describe corporate culture.
• To find examples of companies exemplifying these dimensions.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Ask students if they think that different The matchings are: 1 f, 2 a, 3 d, 4 h, 5 e, 6 c, 7 g, 8 b.
companies have different profiles or cultures - Where there is disagreement, ask students to
that is, different ways of behaving and doing explain the correct choice. It would be possible, for
business. Some students may have a wide example, to describe relationships wdth colleagues
experience to draw on, but if not, ask them to (7) as formal or informal (b), but this would cause
contrast what it must be like working for a small problems with impersonal or personal (g).
local firm compared with a large multinational
m
food company. Try to include mention of some
B of the dimensions listed in the activity. You could
Development
o
c also point out that companies in the same Background reading from Recommended reading
(0
wv business sectors (such as banking, software on page 9 or from Further reading below could be a
w useful addition to this activity.
<1> development, or the automotive industry) also
x: share certain cultural characteristics.
o
CO 2 Explain the activity, which is a simple matching Linked activities
£ exercise. To make it easier, start with the example 4.2, 4.3, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7
given. Then tell students, working in pairs or
groups, to start with the dimensions they find Further reading
easiest (1 and 8, perhaps), and do the matching
through a process of elimination. See
Compare results through a spokesperson from M ind Your M anners, by John Mole (3rd Edition),
each group, and try to introduce examples of 2003, London: Nicholas Brealey
each dimension as it is identified. for practical suggestions for assessing the cultural
3 Task 2 may be more successful with students matrix of a company’s communication,
who have some experience of international organisation and leadership.
business, but can still be done by the less An essential read for a more in-depth account of
experienced, based on their perceptions of the effect of culture on corporations is
different companies, both international and Cultures a n d Organ iza tions: Softw are o f the Mind,
local. If possible, try to place experienced by Geert Hofstede and Gert Jan Hofstede, 2004
students in a group with those who are less Third Millennium Edition, New York: McGraw-Hill.
experienced. The task should lead to discussion
about what it is like to work in different types of
company.
4.1 [[Company dimensions

4 Profiling corporate cultures

All companies have their own unique culture. The culture of an international
company is often strongly influenced by the culture of the parent company.
Subsidiaries often display a mixture of characteristics, some coming from
headquarters and some from the local culture.

The list on the left below shows some of the dimensions which can be
used to define company culture. On the right are two extreme points
for each of the same dimensions, but in a different order.

1 Match each dimension with the pair which suits it best.

For example: Planning perspective (3) is best described as long-term or
short-term (d).

a hierarchical
1 Image of leader or flat

b formal
2 Company structure or informal

c normative, based on rules

3 Planning perspective or pragmatic, depending on the situation

d long-term
4 Timing o f activities or short-term

e who you are

5 Basis for status in company or what you do

f strong individual
6 Decision-making process or leader of group

g impersonal
7 Relationships with colleagues or personal

h sequential/monochronic (one activity at a

8 Dress codes time) or synchronic/polychronic (several
activities at the same time)

2 Give examples of any companies you know which display cultural characteristics
of types shown in the right-hand column (for example, a company with a strict,
formal dress code).

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable 57

 Aims
• To see whether a company’s brand image can be related to its culture.
• To identify important cultural characteristics of some well-known companies.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Ask students what springs to mind when they A link may be seen between the way a company
think of certain big companies, such as media produces or encourages a certain culture in its own
companies, or makers of food or drink, sports organisation, and the image it wishes to project in
equipment, computers or household furnishings. public, to help it sell its products.
They might think of young people, fashionable
clothes, healthy bodies, social acceptability, or Development
the character of the head of the company. Try to
bring in some of the characteristics listed in the Suggestions for further reading are given below.
activity. You may also wish to mention other You may choose to discuss more generally the use
characteristics, such as: of brands as a marketing tool designed to attract a
aggressive marketing certain part of the market. Sport sponsorship, TV
worker participation campaigns, merchandising, press releases, logos
discipline and other devices could be mentioned, together
respect for colleagues perhaps with some of the things companies may
identification through products wish to hide, such as accusations of exploitation
strong customer focus and excessive profits.
good internal communications
traditional products Linked activities
traditional image 4.1, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.7, 4.8
technological innovation
good design Further reading
long history
shareholder value For more information on the challenges of
environmental friendliness marketing in a cross-cultural context, see
advertising designed to shock M arketing Across Cultures, by Fons Trompenaars
Discuss whether companies make an effort to and Peter Woolliams, 2003, New York: John Wiley
appeal to certain types of market or customer by
the way they present themselves to the public,
and also by the way they are organised and the
way they behave internally. Also, encourage
students to think about the distinction between
the culture of a company and the image the
company wants to project.
2 Introduce task 1, asking students to choose, in
their pairs or groups, a company which they
know well. Alternatively, they may each choose a
different company. In each case, ask them to
report back to the class the characteristics they
have identified, adding, if possible, an overall
view of the company and whether they find its
image attractive.
3 Do task 2 in a similar way, preferably with a
smaller, local company, in order to create a
contrast. After feedback, see if there has been a
big difference in perceptions between the first
company and the second.
 Brand, image and culture

4 Profiling corporate cultures^

Some large companies ‘brand’ themselves by creating an image which many
people recognise. This brand helps customers to identify and remember the
company and its products. Brands can be related to the culture of the company,
but brand, image and culture are not always closely linked.

1 From the list of companies below, choose one you know reasonably well.
Identify the characteristics which most help to identify its culture and
develop its brand image. The list of characteristics may be useful.

Companies
Jack Daniels IKEA
IBM Gucci
BP Amoco Ericsson
Levi Faberge
Cisco Systems Zanussi
Monsanto Microsoft
GAP Time Warner
Sony Ben & Jerry's
Apple Nokia /"
Characteristics
Im age of leader: strong individual o r team person
Company stru cture: h ierarch ical o r flat
Planning perspective: long-term o r short-term
B asis for statu s in company: who you are o r
w hat you do
D ecision-m aking process: norm ative, based on
rules o r pragm atic, depending on the situ ation
R elation sh ip s w ith colleagues: im personal
or personal
D ress codes: form al o r inform al

2 Choose another company that you know well. Describe it by selecting

its most important characteristics, as above.

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable

 4 .3 I Case study: Telephone language
Aims
• To show how the way the telephone is used by employees forms part of a company’s culture.
• To devise a suitable telephone style for the students’ own national culture.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Ask students for examples of telephone phrases Identify points of agreement and disagreement,
and habits which annoy them, such as being cut encouraging debate. It may be possible to give
off early or being left waiting a long time with amusing examples of language which students find
music playing; and things which they like, such particularly annoying, such as over-long phrases of
as a friendly tone of voice. Students do not need the type: ‘Good afternoon, thank you for calling
to agree on these points, but they will realise that Dodsworth and Sturdy, specialists in landscape
good telephone behaviour can be influential in development consultancy. This is Mandy your
forming people’s attitudes to a company. executive sales representative speaking. How may I
& help you?’
o 2 Introduce the activity, checking that the
c language is understood, and explaining that the
m
** aim is to give advice appropriate to the students’ Development
<D own national culture. In multicultural classes
JZ Consider the question of standardisation: How
o this may involve covering more than one culture.
much telephone language and style can or should
Ask pairs or groups to cover the role of both call
CD be standardised? How many guidelines are
r~ centre personnel, who work on the phone all
necessary, if any?
day, especially on incoming calls, and other
employees, who may phone out as much as in,
and usually do not know who is phoning them
Linked activities
when they pick up the phone. 4.8, 6.7, 6.9
The questions come in two parts:
General tips, with no specific language Further reading
mentioned, and Use of English, in which specific The telephone forefronts the problems of tone of
examples are given. Here students may comment voice, appropriate volume and other paralinguistic
on the use of English by an international elements which convey meaning. For an
company they know. introduction to the cross-cultural dimensions of
3 Ask a spokesperson from each group to give communicative competence, see ‘Language: Its
feedback, and allow comment, comparison and Cultural and Intercultural Dimensions’ by Alvino
discussion. If possible, compile on the board a Fantini, in
list of points on which agreement has been New Ways o f Teaching Culture, edited by Alvino
reached. Fantini, 1997, Alexandria, VA: TESOL.
4 .3 [[ Case study: Telephone language

4 Profiling corporate cultures

A logistics company, Logico, is about to set up business in your country. Their
employees will use the phone a lot to communicate with partners and customers,
so they must be as effective as possible on the telephone.
Logico already has a number of guidelines about the use of the telephone by call
centre personnel and other employees, but wishes to adapt them to your country.
Logico has sent out the following consultation document and your Managing
Director has asked you to respond.

s---
Give advice for:
General
a all employees
Tone of voice: Formal and efficient /informal and friendly?
b call centre
personnel. Accents: Avoid /encourage regional variations?
Use of names: Always /never use first names after a certain
time
Length of call: As short as possible /depends on caller
Practical tips: Smile as you speak /never get irritated /don't get
involved with people /try to make everyone
your friend

Use of English
Opening phrases: ‘Logico /Good morning, Logico, this is
Monica speaking, how can I help you?’
Closing phrases: ‘It’s been a pleasure talking to you, have
a good day /Goodbye.’
Types of phrase to b e avoided: ‘Thanks for calling /Thanks for your time /It’s
been nice talking to you /Have a good day .., ’
Phrases to b e encouraged: ‘Thank you for your help. ’
Examples of bad telephone technique: Talking to someone else during your conversation
............. ...... .............................

Your own favourite DOs and DON’Ts: ...

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable 61

 Aims
• To understand the principles of Hofstede’s model for describing corporate cultures,
• To illustrate attitudes and dialogue typical of the dimensions of the Hofstede model.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Ask students for any experiences they have of 1
working in different companies or organisations 1 c, 2 a, 3 d, 4 e, 5 b
where things are done very differently from what 2
they are used to. Try to introduce some of the A MAS (4, e), B IDV (3, d), C PDI (1, c), D LTO (5, b),
ideas from the activity, such as the accessibility E UAI (2, a)
of bosses (1, c), or individualism and teamwork
(3, d), and ask how this changes the atmosphere
or culture of an organisation.
Development
2 Introduce task 1, checking understanding of Students who are interested may like to follow up
words and of the matching process. Encourage this activity by reading parts of the Introduction to
pairs or groups to start with the more accessible Intercultural studies at the beginning of this book.
items (1 and 3, perhaps), and to collect from See also Further reading below.
their experience examples of some of the
characteristics described. Ask for feedback and Linked activities
discussion, reconciling any differences and 4.1, 4.8, 5.5
comparing examples.
3 Introduce task 2, which relates specific language Further reading
and attitudes to the dimensions. Answers are
Standard references for Hofstede’s work are
given below, but points of overlap should be
used as a basis for discussion and exploration. Culture’s Consequences: C om paring values,
behaviors, institutions a n d organizations across
nations, by Geert Hofstede, 2001 2nd Edition,
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications
and
Cultures a n d Organiza tions: Softw are o f the Mind,
by Geert Hofstede and Gert Jan Hofstede, 2004
Third Millennium Edition, New York: McGraw-Hill.

Background briefing
Geert Hofstede is the author of perhaps the most comprehensive study of culture’s influence in the
workplace. He analysed data collected by IBM from over 70 countries of which he first used 40; later from
50 countries plus three regions. From those results, published in his Culture’s Consequences (2nd Edition
2001), Hofstede extrapolated a model which identifies four primary dimensions of national culture; power
distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism/collectivisim and masculinity/femininity (this last dimension
tends to draw unwarranted criticism for its name alone; for a full account of this dimension, see Hofstede’s
Masculinity and Femininity: The Taboo Dimension o f National Cultures, 1998).
Later work with Bond produced another dimension, Long-Term Orientation, which characterises a culture’s
orientation towards time, i.e. short-term or long-term (G. Hofstede and M. H. Bond, ‘Confucius and
economic growth: New trends in culture’s consequences’, in Organizational Dynamics, 1 6 (4), 4-21).
Since the completion of Hofstede’s landmark study in 1973, subsequent studies of commercial airline pilots
and students in 23 countries, civil service managers in 14 countries, ‘up-market’ consumers in 15 countries
and ‘elites’ in 19 countries have replicated his results.
Dr Hofstede is Emeritus Professor of Organizational Anthropology and International Management at
Maastricht University, and he was Senior Fellow of the Institute for Research on Intercultural Cooperation,
which he co-founded in 1980, until it closed in 2004. He holds an MSc in Mechanical Engineering from Delft
Technical University and a PhD in Social Psychology from the University of Groningen. He continues as
Fellow of the Center for Economic Research, University of Tilburg.
 The Hofstede model

4 Profiling corporate cultures^

Geert Hofstede, author of Culture’s Consequences and Cultures and Organizations,
uses five dimensions to describe company cultures, as listed below.

1 For each one, select the definition (a-e) which best describes it.

1 Power Distance Index (PDI) The degree to which people can:

• take risks
• accept conflict and stress
• work without rules.
2 Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI)
The degree to which people:
• have a short- or long-term view of their work
• accept convention
3 Individualism/Collectivism (IDV) • persevere with a job
• spend or invest.
The acceptance of the unequal distribution
4 Masculinity/Femininity (MAS) of power - the degree to which:
• employees are independent
• structures are hierarchical
• bosses are accessible
5 Long-Term Orientation (LTO) • people have rights or privileges
• progress is by evolution or by revolution.
The degree to which people:
• work in groups or alone
• relate to their task or to their colleagues.
The degree to which people:
• believe in consensus
• put work at the centre of their lives
• expect managers to use intuition.

2 In the following pairs of contrasting statements, say

which dimension is being exemplified:

A: That was a very useful discussion, Nick, we've A: We'll have to look carefully at this plan. It has
A made a lot of progress. Thanks for coming. D implications for our investment programme,
B: I don't care how you do it, just let me have B: We'll get some guick returns out of this,
the results. I'm busy too, you know, especially if we put a lot of money into it,

A: It's up to me. I'm going to get this contract j A: This is a very unconventional approach, It will
B signed before the end of the week, whatever put us under a lot of strain, and we have no
else happens. guarantee it will work,
B: We don't seem to be pulling together. We haven't done this before, certainly there
Perhaps some of our support team have are a few risks, but it's a great opportunity to
been pressurised by this project. break new ground,

A: She's the boss, so what she says is fine by me.

C B: I'm going to have a word with my manager
to say why I think that isn't reasonable,

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 4.5 Trompenaars mode*1
Aims
• To understand the principles of the Fons Trompenaars model for describing corporate cultures.
• To illustrate attitudes and behaviour typical of the different dimensions of this model.

Procedure A Individualism / communitarianism (2, a)

1 Ask students for any experiences they have of B Specific/diffuse (3, g)
working in different companies or organisations C Neutrality / affectivity (4, e)
where things were done very differently. Try to D Achieved status / ascribed status (6, d)
introduce some of the items from the activity, E Sequential time / synchronic time (7, c)
such as whether individual or group attitudes are F Inner-directed / outer-directed (5, b)
prevalent (2, a), things are done in sequence or G Universalism / particularism (1, f)
all together (7, c), and ask how this changes the
0)
atmosphere or culture of an organisation.
4m* Development
o 2 Introduce task 1, checking understanding of words
c and of the matching process. Encourage pairs or This would be a good time to explain a little more
« groups to start with the more accessible items about the Trompenaars model (see Further reading
a» below).
<D such as 2 or 7, and to collect from their experience
mCm examples of some of the characteristics described.
O
<3 Ask for feedback and discussion, reconciling any Linked activities
differences and comparing examples. 4.1, 4.2, 4.8
3 Task 2 gives practice in identifying types of
language and behaviour typical of the Further reading
Trompenaars dimensions. Answers are suggested
Details on Trompenaars’ system of characterising
below, but use points of disagreement as a basis
cultures are in
for discussion.
Riding the Waves o f Culture: Understanding
Diversity in G lobal Business, by Alfons
Outcomes Trompenaars, Charles Hampden-Turner and Fons
Trompenaars, 1997, New York: McGraw-Hill.
1 f, 2 a, 3 g, 4 e, 5 b, 6 d, 7 c

Background briefing
Fons Trompenaars’ first encounters with multiculturalism took place at home: he is the son of a French
mother and a Dutch father. His lifelong study of cultural differences in organisational structure grew from
these beginnings. Academically, these studies peaked in his doctoral dissertation at the Wharton School,
University of Pennsylvania entitled The organisation of meaning and the meaning of organisation’, which
focused on the way culture affects how we perceive organisational structures. Professionally, he has been
active as a consultant and trainer, and in 1989 he founded the Center for International Business Studies,
which is now known as the Trompenaars Hampden-Turner, and is based in Amsterdam and Boston, USA.
As an economist by training and a multiculturalist by nature, Trompenaars’ work has focused on the
interface of corporate and national cultures, particularly on how the reconciliation of cultural differences
within organisations can lead to competitive advantage. He has posited a series of dimensions in which
cultures differ. To those identified by Hofstede, Trompenaars adds:
• Universalism vs. particularism (rules vs. relationships)
• Specific vs. diffuse (correlating to Hall’s low vs. high context)
• Neutrality vs. affectivity (concealing vs. displaying emotions)
• Achieved status vs. ascribed status (who you are vs. what you do).
These dimensions are described in his (co-written) book, Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding
Cultural Diversity in Global Business (1997). In a more recent book, Did the Pedestrian Die? (2002), he
explores in depth the phenomena of universalism and particularism. His most recent book (co-written) is
Business Across Cultures (2003), in which he shifts the emphasis from knowledge of cultures to knowledge
for cultures by providing a new conceptual framework for dealing with the business implications of culture.
4 .5 The Trompenaars model
Fons Trompenaars, in his book Riding the Waves of Culture, uses seven dimensions to

4 Profiling corporate cultures

describe different corporate cultures. The dimensions are shown below (1-7).

1 For each one, select the pair of contrasting characteristics (a-g) which best suits it.

D Universalism /particularism
Personal qualities and originality or loyalty
and duties to the group

Individualism /communitarianism
H Controlling and directing your environment or
being influenced by it and coordinating it

Specific / diffuse
H Doing things one by one, step by step or
doing things all at the same time

B Neutrality /affectivity
What you do is important and brings status or
who you are and what your contacts are
Controlling your emotions in a professional
Inner-directed/outer-directed
way or showing them and becoming involved
Following rules or believing in individual
Achieved status /ascribed status
cases and exceptions

Q Sequential time /synchronic time

Sticking to facts and data relating to the
case or using general feelings

2 In the following pairs of contrasting statements about the way project teams
behave in a company, say which dimension is being exemplified:

Each team member is given a specific

A area of responsibility and a number of
rewards to be had if he/she meets them. At meetings all items must be concluded
with a clear decision before moving on
Rewards won by meeting targets are to
to the next.
be divided amongst the team,
At meetings different issues are dealt with
at the same time, often illustrating common
■ Brainstorming sessions are used as a way
B to get started on new problems.
elements between the different issues,

■ Each member is proud of their ability to

Members of the team keep a low profile
stick to target times and results.
with outside bodies until the
implementation phase.
■ Team meetings stress the need for discipline
C and self-control, even in stressful situations,
Members of the team work to change
attitudes in the community and other
■ Meetings tend to be noisy. Sometimes they companies.
are confrontational sometimes very
friendly.
Decisions are often taken according to
G precedent and usual company
Talent is spotted quickly within the team procedure.
D and promoted to positions of responsibility.
Calls are frequently made for new
Reputations, based on background, social solutions to what are often new problems,
status and contacts, count for a lot when
appointing people to posts of responsibility.

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable

 Aims
• To explain the Mole method of showing differences between corporate cultures in different countries.
• To illustrate the use of this model to profile corporate and national cultures.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Ask students for any experiences they have of The following are the most likely results in task 1:
working in companies or organisations where Leadership style
things were done very differently from what they I I 2 G 3 G 41 5 G 6G 71 81
had been used to. Then briefly describe some of
Company structure
the behaviours shown in the activity, such as
IS 2 S 3 0 4 0 5 S 60 7S 8 0
whether leaders act more as individuals than as
group leaders, or whether the company’s
structure and procedures are firmly fixed or Development
flexible. Ask how this can affect the atmosphere Ask students to present and/or discuss examples of
or culture of an organisation. companies they know which exhibit some of the
2 Introduce task 1, going through the dimensions characteristics shown in this activity, and to decide
first and then the list of attitudes and explaining whether they are, on balance, more individual- or
that each one is to be ascribed to one of the two group-based, and more organic or systematic.
categories in each case. Ask pairs or groups to
work quickly and instinctively rather than have Linked activities
long debates about meanings. Ask for feedback
4.1, 4.2, 4.8
and discussion, reconciling any differences and
comparing results. If possible, collect from their
experience examples of some of the attitudes
Further reading
and behaviours described. The Mole Map is presented in
3 In classes where students have experience of M ind Your M anners, by John Mole (3rd Edition),
working in different cultures, ask them to 2003, London: Nicholas Brealey.
consider task 2. Use any experience they have in
an open brainstorming session, identifying the
characteristics given in the activity. As always, try
to relate their conclusions to actual experiences
rather than to stereotypes.
 4 .6 "he Mole model

4 Profiling corporate cu lture s^

The differences between corporate cultures in different countries are illustrated by
John Mole in his book Mind Your Manners. He uses two main dimensions, each
with two contrasting poles:

( \
Leadership style Company structure
... ........ ' ~~ ~ ....
• Individual-based, in which a strong • Organic, in which loosely-defined
leader takes initiatives and directs roles and relationships allow things
his/her people firmly along lines to develop in a natural, largely
which he/she mainly decides. undirected way.
• Group-based, in which a consensus • Systematic, in which clearly defined
is sought among the group before roles and relationships mean that
major decisions are taken. people know what to do and how to
behave towards other people.

1 Look at the lists of attitudes below.

For Leadership style, say whether each attitude should be listed as being
individual-based (I) or group-based (G).
For Company structure, say whether each attitude should be listed as being
organic (O) or systematic (S).

A
Leadership style Company structure
1 Autocratic: taking decisions alone □ 1 The company is important, not □
2 Bottom-up: employees talking
freely to superiors
□ the individual
2 Functional hierarchy: believing
□
3 Democratic in the system
□
4 Directive: giving orders □ 3 The individual is important
□
5 All having equal rights □ 4 Personal
□
6 Participative □ 5 Rational □
7 Believing in superiority □ 6 Social hierarchy □
8 Top-down: telling people what □ 7 WHAT you do matters □
to do, without consulting 8 WHO you are matters
□
2 Consider a country in which you have some experience of working. Think of
the working styles and workplace culture, and say whether you have found
people in this country to have, on the whole:
• a leadership style which is predominantly individual-based or group-based
• a corporate culture which is predominantly organic or systematic.

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable 67

 e Hall mode
Aims
• To explain the Hall method of distinguishing between two groups of contrasting cultures.
• To illustrate the kind of language and behaviour representative of these cultures.

Procedure Development
1 Ask students to describe any experiences they Ask students in small groups to think of situations
have of the way different companies approach in which the four characteristics given are
time. This could contrast the one-thing-at-a- significant: for example, when giving a presentation
time approach with multi-tasking, and will or introducing a factory tour, the presenter can use
prepare for the monochronic/polychronic a high or low context style. Many students will
distinction shown in the activity. Do the same benefit from the opportunity to illustrate these two
with the slightly less black-and-white distinction pairs of styles, so groups could be encouraged to
© between high context and low context cultures develop mini role-plays. The short extracts in the
(see Further reading). activity could serve as a starting point.
C 2 Introduce the activity checking that the words
m
m are clear. Ensure that pairs or groups take Linked activities
Xm
0> decisions as collectively as possible. Ask for 4.1, 4.2, 4.8
o feedback and discussion, reconciling any
CO differences and comparing results. Further reading
,<u
3 Ask groups to discuss whether any of these
E. T. Hall’s writings are a rich mine of anecdotal
cultural characteristics are predominant in any
examples of culture. He outlines his system of
cultures they know. Americans, for example, are
Primary Message Systems in chapter 3, ‘The
found by many people to have a low context
Vocabulary of Culture’, in
style, and the Japanese a high context style.
The Silen t Language, by E.T. Hall, 1997, New York:
Anchor Books.
Outcomes
Another source for Hall’s thinking is
1 Monochronic 3 High context
2 Low context 4 Polychronic U nderstanding Cultural Differences by E. T. Hall,
1990, Yarmouth: Intercultural Press.

Background briefing
Edward T. Hall is considered by many to be the founder of the study of intercultural communication. He
grew up in New Mexico and worked on Navajo and Hopi reservations there, becoming a practical student of
anthropology before going on to study it more formally at university. During the Second World War, he
commanded an African American regiment in Europe and the Philippines; after the war he conducted
research on the US military government administration of Truk.
These wide-ranging experiences with various cultures fuelled Hall’s ground-breaking work in intercultural
communication. His work in the human use of space, time and context has become the foundation for many
further studies.
Space: Hall pioneered the study of the human use of space, called proxemics. In The Hidden Dimension
(1966), Hall shows that human perceptions of space are moulded and patterned by culture.
Time: In many of his writings E. T. Hall discusses the way time is used to structure human experience.
Cultures tend to be either monochronic or polychronic: in monochronic (linear, divisible) time, events are
scheduled one at a time and this schedule takes precedence over interpersonal relationships; in polychronic
time many things occur simultaneously, and interpersonal interaction is more important than being ‘on time’.
His most in-depth treatment of the cultural perception of time can be found in The Dance o f Life (1983).
Context: In Beyond Culture (1997), Hall discusses the phenomena of high versus low context cultures,
which to a large extent correspond with polychronic and monochronic cultures respectively. High and low
context refers to the amount of information that a person can comfortably manage.
 The Hall model
In his books The Silent Language and Understanding Cultural Differences, E.T. Hall

4 Profilinq corporate cultures

distinguishes between two pairs of contrasting cultures:

High context cultures, in which people speak indirectly,

show respect, and maintain harmony. They consider it
rude to be too direct.
Low context cultures, in which people speak directly,
and say what they mean without adding unnecessary
details or formulae. They are suspicious of people who
speak indirectly.

Monochronic cultures, in which people like to do things

one at a time and in sequence.
Polychronic cultures, in which people prefer to do many
things at the same time.

Which styles do you think are represented in these extracts?

Do come to the point. I need to get

back with a decision by four o'clock.

©
In the circumstances it would seem to be inappropriate
to attribute more than a general description of those
characteristics we will be seeking in our new em

Don’t worry about the timing. Just come

when you're ready. I have a few things going
on at the moment, but I’m sure we can always

\
A

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable 69

 Diversity or conformity?
Aims
To show the need to consider to what degree international companies can and should create a common
culture worldwide.
To give examples of such standardisation.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Raise the question of whether multinational Try to get the class to negotiate a set of guidelines
companies should try to standardise their for a large multinational company - one based in
company culture, and if so, to what extent? If their country or in a country chosen by them.
necessary, give examples of dress, and forms of
address, both of which bring in the question of Development
formality or informality.
The discussions above could lead to a more general
2 Introduce the activity, dealing with a first - the
consideration of how the creation of a common
question of which things, if any, should be
culture can be one possible result of the
standardised, or at least checked for some degree
internationalisation of a company, and the
of conformity. Ask groups to consider this, then
advantages and disadvantages this can have both
report back through a spokesperson. There
for the parent and for its subsidiaries.
should be enough items chosen as suitable for
standardisation to carry on and ask pairs or
groups to decide what the decisions should be
Linked activities
on each issue. For example, should it be 1.6, 1.7, 5.6
recommended that all meetings and
appointments should take place within a Further reading
maximum of 15 minutes of the appointed time?
For background information on the issues of
This should lead to detailed discussion which
diversity and conformity in organisations, see
groups should feed back to the plenary session.
If possible, try to reach a consensus at both International D im ensions o f O rganizational
group and class level. Behavior, by Nancy J. Adler, 2001, Cincinnati:
South-Western College Publishing.
 4.8 Diversity or conformity?
Some international companies seem able to adapt their corporate cultures

4 Profilina comorate cultures

successfully to at least some of the different national cultures in which they
operate. But the successful blend of these two dimensions is not always easy.
The parent company has to face the issue of whether to encourage diversity or
impose conformity.

The following issues are typical of those which may have to be faced.
Read them through and for each one decide:
a whether you think it is an issue which should be decided on
b if so, what you think the decision should be.

1 What dress to b e worn on company

premises
2 Importance of punctuality at appointments
3 Which languages to b e used at official
meetings
4 Level of politeness at meetings
5 Use of private telephone calls at work
6 What forms of address (Mr/Mrs/first
name/family name?) to b e used
7 Accessibility of managers to their
subordinates
8 Flexibility of work time
9 Length of time to b e spent at work
10 Issue of reserved car park spaces
11 Responsibilities and roles of spouses
12 Need for written confirmation of verbal
m essages
13 Use of email, including copying emails
to other people
14 Need for social gatherings to complement
contact at work

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable 71

r
 4 .9 I Case study: A takeover
Aims
• To examine decisions that have to be taken by one company taking over another with
a strong local identity.
• To advise on the best decisions to take.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Ask if any students have been involved in a There is room for flexibility but the overall
takeover, and if so what happened. Draw on any approach in the real case was to make heavy
local experiences, especially of an international investment in machinery, to encourage production;
takeover, and bring out examples of despair, and in marketing and public relations, to
frustration, anger, relief or happiness. encourage positive local reaction. Major changes in
2 Introduce the activity, which is based on a real culture involving company names, brands,
<li personalities and working styles were very limited
© case, and which has an international dimension.
Hh* in the early stages, although they became
o Check for understanding, then ask pairs or
c groups to go through the list and decide on their increasingly marked over time.
(J) attitude to each item: at this stage, simply ask
v.
©
JC
whether they would act on it or not. Go through Development
o the list point by point, seeing how many groups
Students who are interested could write up this
re agree, and encouraging discussion.
example as a short report, including final
£ 3 Encourage groups to put together a short recommendations.
presentation of this case study, outlining the
situation and making their own Linked activities
recommendations for an action plan for Eagle
Foods. Some students may wish to do the same 1.6, 1.10, 4.1, 4.8
for Birch, although their side of the case will have
m
been less well rehearsed. Further reading
An entertaining book-length case study in
takeovers and acquisitions is
Taken fo r a Ride: How D aim ler Benz Drove O ff with
Chrysler, by Bill Vlasic and Bradley Stertz, 2001,
New York: HarperCollins.
4 .9 Case study: A takeover

4 Profiling corporate cultures^

A Swiss multinational food company, Swiss Foods, has bought a large traditional
UK company, Birch Confectionery, with popular brand names but rather old
production plant. Birch employees and other members of the local community
were opposed to the takeover, and are in fear of losing their jobs. Birch has
strong links with the local community.

Imagine you are advising the multinational, Which of these recommendations

would you follow?

Invest large amounts in updating the Sponsor local teams and organisations.
production processes.
v __ _________________________
Make sure your managers make the ir
/
W a it at least three years before you presence felt in the local company by
make any major changes. making regular visits and inspections.

Launch a campaign to help local f Change the name o f the local

people and workers get to know your [ company to that o f your own.
; company (Eagle Foods) better ..
Find the people who were most
[ Promote a local manager to a position opposed to the takeover and brief them
o f authority in your company. on your plans for the future o f Birch.

Begin to use the brand names in your ( Keep the local press out o f the factory,
international product range.
[' Hold regular information sessions with
Reduce middle management in the : the trade unions.
local company, mainly through
voluntary redundancy. O ffer generous redundancy terms to
V,
blue collar workers.
Make sure local managers have as
much contact as possible w ith your
head office.

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable

 5.1 Group characteristics
Aims
• To illustrate different types of group culture.
• To examine group behaviours in different situations.

Finance department: careful and conservative in

Procedure terms of spending, control and auditing.
1 Ask the class if they have any experience of working Sales department: keen to spend where this may
in two contrasting types of organisation, such as result in more sales; responsive to the market.
public and private sector, or even a voluntary
Head office: formal procedures; responsible for
organisation as opposed to a commercial one.
records and uniformity, even conformity.
Draw on this experience if it is available; if not, ask
</> them to imagine what differences there might be Local company: flexible, adapting head office
0)
between the different types. procedures to local circumstances; bearing less
o responsibility for methods, only for final results.
c 2 Look at task 1, asking groups to sort the list into
« contrasting pairs. Start with the more obvious Parent company: keen to enforce some sort of
v. standard procedure, behaviour, and results. Could
a> ones, such as public/private sector, leaving more
difficult choices to the end. Explain that some be paternalistic, cautious or restrictive.
o
CO pairings (public sector/private sector, for example) Subsidiary company: may conversely be more
.0 are very close, so students need not spend too active, inventive, keen on development, but -
long on fine distinctions. repressed by the parent - reluctant or even
3 Ask groups to compare results (see Outcomes), rebellious.
then move on to task 2, in which they have to State organisation: can be bureaucratic, slow to react,
imagine the differences between the different cautious of innovation, keen to establish and follow
pairs. Make sure the suggested parameters are routines, with an impersonal style of communication.
clear (they may add more if they wish), and ask Private organisation: has more entrepreneurial
them to draw on any experience in the group, or spirit; attention to customers and to shareholders
simply to answer the question impressionistically. (if any), aware of profit motive and need for
Compare results and discuss. business efficiency.
4 In task 3 they should use some of the results from Public sector: formal, transparent, accountable to
task 2 to imagine a more specific reaction to the the public, with clear reporting procedures.
situations given. Ask pairs or groups to choose two
Private sector: able to be more informal, dynamic,
differing groups of organisation, and to imagine
responsive to local and temporary situations.
the contrast in their reactions.
Professional association: has a sense of shared values
and interests which must be protected and fostered.
Outcomes Sports club: local clubs can have a more informal,
Contrasting pairs Company department / Project even minimalist approach to administration.
team; Finance department / Sales department;
Head office / Local company; Parent company /
Subsidiary company; Private organisation /
Development
State organisation; Public sector /Private sector; The relevance of group cultures may be extended
Professional association / Sports club. into the social area, in which students could
Reactions Although no firm answers are possible, compare different clubs or societies to which they
the following may help as a starting point for belong.
discussion and for the task. Students can also discuss
how far these are over-generalised and stereotypical Linked activities
views of each organisational type. 2.2, 5.4, 6.1, 6.3, 6.6, 6.11
Company department: a known and usually accepted
way of working and behaving; well accepted roles, Further reading
regular routines, few surprises or changes.
For a focus on the various types of diversity in
Project team: short-term results require careful teams, see chapter 5, ‘Multicultural Teams’, of
planning, regular adjustment to circumstances, International D im ensions o f O rganizational
dynamic approach to routines and roles. B ehavior, by Nancy J. Adler, 2001, Cincinnati:
South-Western College Publishing.
 5.1 II Group characteristics

5 Profiling group cultures^

People working together in a group tend to adopt distinctive
behavioural characteristics. Some typical groups are shown below.

^ Company department Professional association

^ Finance department Project team
=3 Flead office Public sector
=0 Local company Sales department
Parent company Sports club
=□ Private organisation State organisation
=□ Private sector Subsidiary company

1 Arrange the groups into contrasting pairs, for example: Company department /
project team. Give an example of each type, for example: Human Resources /
China Sea exploration project team.

2 For each contrasting pair, identify the main cultural characteristics (the way
the members tend to think and behave). Consider, among other things:
• structure: hierarchical or flat
• attitudes: paternalistic or entrepreneurial; egalitarian or authoritarian;
cautious or daring
• style: formal or informal; personal or impersonal; flexible or inflexible
• communication: written or spoken; fast or slow
• decision-taking: slow or dynamic; individual- orgroup-led
• approach to other people: direct or indirect.

3 Choose any two contrasting pairs from the list. Imagine how they
would each react in the situations below.
a A general call for cost-cutting measures
b Reorganisation
c A takeover bid for the organisation
d The appointment of a new manager or managing director

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable

 Case study: Troubleshooting

Aims
• To show how different cultural expectations can make project work difficult to coordinate.
• To consider ways of improving communication in project teams.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Students can read the text in preparation for the No single solution is desirable here, but encourage
class. the groups to identify and deal with all the apparent
2 Ask students for any experience or knowledge problems as positively and sympathetically as
they may have of the kind of situation described possible. The members of the project have to carry
in the case study. If so, draw on it; if not, ask on working together for some time!
them to imagine what kind of problems could
occur. Deal with any possible problems of Development
understanding.
Ask students for other experiences of project work,
3 Ask pairs or groups to consider the task - how and other potential sources of friction, particularly
the project manager could improve the quality with regard to meetings.
and efficiency of this kind of meeting. You may
suggest they first analyse the areas of potential Linked activities
conflict: punctuality, irregular absence, changes
of agenda, family commitments, different 1.9, 4.1, 6.1, 6.9, 6.11
attitudes to paperwork, haste, bluntness, mobile
phones - all in addition to the usual practical Further reading
problems such as late delivery and change of For a more in-depth case study on multicultural
contract. They should not try to ascribe any of project teams (in this case, German-American), see
these problems to one particular member of the
‘Crossing the Cultural Divide’ by Patrick Schmidt,
team, but simply consider some of the ways of
published in Consum er Goods in March 2001, at
addressing the situation. Should they be
http://www.agcc.de/resources or
addressed:
www.consumergoods.com.
• directly or indirectly
• in the short term or the long term
• with individuals or with the group?
When groups have finished, ask them all to give
a short summary of the steps they would take,
leading to general discussion.
5 .2 Case study: Troubleshooting
Read this short case study in order to decide what action should

5 Profiling group cultures

and could be taken by the project manager.

A six-person project team of a US construction company

building a new leisure complex in south-east Asia gathers for
a project meeting scheduled for 11.00.

The American project leader arrives at 10.55 to find two project members
chatting outside the room. One disappears without explanation. The
American and the British financial expert look at the agenda and add two
new items, but nobody else appears until 11.15, when a Norwegian
construction engineer com es in, only to say he has to leave soon as one of
his children has a doctor’s appointment. The American rings the two other
members o f the team, who say they are on their way. W hen they arrive, they
don’t have their agenda, but are fully briefed. Informal discussions begin,
which the Am erican interrupts, explaining they have a lot to do in a short
time. The first item on the agenda is the date o f arrival o f a m ajor piece o f
equipment - an earth-moving m achine - from the U S. The news is that there
has been a further delay. Secondly, the client has changed some o f the
requirements: the com plex must be ready one week earlier than agreed in
the contract. The British mem ber's mobile phone rings, and she starts a
conversation about the budget in the com er o f the room.

Suggest what actions could be taken to improve the quality and the
usefulness of this kind of meeting.

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable

 analysis
Aims
• To examine the challenges of international project work.
• To show how these can be seen both as opportunities and as threats.

Family life: exciting travel for family or possible

Procedure disruption to children’s education; would the
1 Students can read the text in preparation for the family move to join him?
class.
2 Make sure students are familiar with the concept Outcomes
of SWOT analysis, and if not, explain the
principles. Ask if anyone has experience of Student feedback could take the form of a short
Ui project work - short periods of work with a team group presentation, including recommendations
© for Robert on how to make the most of the
o entrusted with a specific purpose, a budget and
Hat personnel. If so, share it; if not, ask for ideas as to experience by keeping the weaknesses/threats
what project work would involve for its to a minimum, and maximising the strengths/
»
opportunities, both before he takes up the job,
© members.
JC and while he is doing it.
Q 3 Form pairs or groups to pool ideas on the task.
CB Students should be encouraged to identify as
|2 many new challenges as possible faced by Development
Robert, and to view them from as many angles as Discussion could move on to other ways in w4iich
possible. Most of the challenges could be seen as internationalisation could change people’s lives,
both positive and negative, depending on the such as enforced movement disrupting family lives
wray they are approached. as well as giving valuable personal and professional
The following suggestions may help as a basis experience.
for discussion;
New working styles: more flexible, dynamic or Linked activities
stressful and time-consuming 1.6, 1.10, 4.8, 5.1, 6.1
Mixed nationalities: ability7to compare different
working styles or misunderstandings, time Further reading
needed to adapt
Cultural difference can be perceived both as a
Different working backgrounds of colleagues: strength and as a weakness. See pp. 609-31,
stimulating new areas of knowledge from Attitudes toward the culturally different: the role of
specialists or difficult to keep up with and intercultural communication barriers, affective
coordinate with responses, consensual stereotypes, and perceived
Short-term work: will need to adjust, then threat’, in
readjust or may offer new opportunities for w^ork International Jou rn al o f Intercultural Relations, Vol.
Short time to act: hurried, stressful, may sacrifice 26, No. 6, by J. Spencer-Rogers and T. McGovern,
quality for speed or new dynamic work ethic November 2002.
Frequent travel: see new places, faces or tiring;
hotels and airports can be boring places
Regular contact with clients: expand experience
of job, meet interesting people, constant
socialising or getting to know people can be
tiring and disruptive
New locations: stimulating places, lots to talk
about or bewildering mixture is destabilising
Communication: may learn something of new
languages and communication skills or several
languages, little time available
 5 .3 [[SWOT analysis

5 Profiling group cultures^

For any project team, it is possible to identify on the one hand a number
of strengths and opportunities; and on the other hand weaknesses and
corresponding threats to it.

An individual joining a project team from a more traditional form of organisation

will face many new challenges. Some of these challenges can be seen either
as a strength/opportunity, or as a weakness/threat. Some may be both.

The following situation is typical of those faced by a project worker.

Robert, a mechanical engineer from Mozambique working for a large petroleum

company is 35, married w ith tw o children. His company offers him a new
contract as transportation coordinator in a multinational eight-person team
reviewing and improving logistics worldwide:

■ all members are International specialists, two are academics

■ 9-12 month project, good salary
■ extensive interviewing o f internal and external clients
■ based in Holland, with regular travel to Brazil, Papua New Guinea,
New Zealand, Colombia

■ quick set-up, quick close-down o f project after publication o f results

Consider the challenges he faces and say in what ways they can be considered
as strengths or opportunities, and in what ways as weaknesses or threats.

s w

0 T

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable 79

 5.4 Group perceptions
Aims
• To examine group perceptions of other groups.
To show how these differ from the groups’ perceptions of themselves.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Without encouraging stereotypes, ask students if The choice of departments, and the results
they have any views o f ‘typical' members of themselves, will vary from group to group. One
groups, especially of members of certain outcome should be that students see that the wide
company departments. They may come up with range of perspectives implies that no one view of
stem or dry finance people, woolly or vague HR people or groups is necessarily accurate or final.
people, or studious, self-contained research and
development people. Ask if these people have Development
the same view of themselves, and what they in
turn think of other departments. A natural sequence would be to continue the
discussion of perceptions and expectations into the
2 Introduce the task, checking first that the list
area of prejudice, and the misunderstandings and
of words and phrases is clear, and that the
prejudice this can cause.
departments mentioned are clearly understood.
The idea is to visualise how one particular group
views another. This may be done with a certain
Linked activities
degree of humour, which could raise the 1.8, 2.5, 4.1, 5.1
question of stereotypes (see Linked activities).
An example might be: Further reading
Finance, thinking about Human Resources: See 5.3.
How do you see yourselves? in control
How do you see them? theoretical
How do you think they see you? (too)
disciplined
Human Resources, thinking about Finance:
How do you see yourselves? very human
How do you see them? dry
How do you think they see you? (too) people-
centred

■
 5 .4 [[Group perceptions
People with different backgrounds working closely together can have very
different perceptions of their own and others’ identities and work styles.

Here is a list of attitudes and descriptions which members of one

group might apply to another group.

i o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o i
A \AJ \M
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C A u t ions p ro b le m -s o lo in g p t o pI \ t- o t] A .tr tA
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oVtA r in kones-t p r t c ls t
I

e x p re s s io n kum An yiAlACtlAAi
A it t r w x / L t A kum oYous Y A tio iA A l
A isc ijp liv ttA im A A in A tiv e - re lia b le
A r$ in c o n t r o l
A\^h a im .{c in g e n io u s sociable
fussiA m t t k o A io A i t k t o r t t io A i
aooA A t ^aiaA H iaa o b ) & c tiv t u n d is c ip lin e d
V-/ t

U r ^ e A m o u n ts o u ts p o k e n VA^jUt
in^ovwA-fcion f c d l- p r t p A r t A

Choose two of the following departments and list some of the different
perceptions they might be expected to have of each other. Use
words and phrases from the list above, and add others where applicable.

IT Production
Public Relations Marketing
Finance Human Resources
Legal Research and Development
Training and Development Operations and Maintenance
Logistics

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable

 g conventions
Aims
• To assess to what extent written guidelines can help in defining desired behaviour in a multicultural group.
• To give practice in trying to establish norms.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Students can read the text in preparation for the There are no fixed outcomes, but plenty of
class. opportunity to discuss ways of containing a wide
2 Ask students for any examples they may have of range of cultural behaviours even within a single
cross-cultural friction, from their work or leisure code.
experience. Ask if any of these could have been
avoided by trying to agree norms of behaviour or Development
o communication beforehand. Establish that this
Discussion can examine the legitimacy of this
£Z* i kind of friction is always possible in
exercise and could then lead on to general
» multicultural groups, and that this activity
questions about project teams. It is often
0) examines the possibility of avoiding it by setting
commented that the human relations problems
JZ up norms.
o caused by the coming together of a disparate range
RS 3 Check that the sentences and tasks are clear, and of people can be greater than those caused by
O ask pairs or groups to collate their responses. In
P technical or practical problems.
task 1, students first give their responses
individually, but then in their groups they can Linked activities
add together the scores for each statement,
giving each one a group score. Ask groups to 5.2, 5.6, 6.3, 6.6
compare scores, identifying and discussing any
major differences. At this point task 2 may be Further reading
introduced, asking for alternatives for statements For a handy catalogue of cultural conventions
with which students disagree. across the globe, see
4 For task 3, brainstorm any extra ideas under D o’s a n d Taboos Around the World, by Roger Axtell,
either of the headings, business and social, and 1993, New York: John Wiley.
ask for comments from the rest of the class.

i
I

i
%, -
 5 .5 Observing conventions
A multicultural project team which meets regularly both for business and socially

5 Profiling group cultures

may try to establish certain rules about behaviour.

1 Read the list of provisional guidelines below, and then put the appropriate
number in the box:
5 = Agree strongly 4 = Agree 3 = Neutral 2 = Disagree 1 = Disagree strongly

2 Suggest an alternative to those with which you disagreed (2 and 1).

3 Add any other items you consider necessary.

r \
Business Social
1 Arriving late for an appointment 1 Dress casually for social events.
is unforgivable. 2 Aways separate business life
2 A company’s image is reflected from personal life.
in the way its people dress. 3 If you don't know what to say
3 Talk to all people as colleagues, talk about the weather.
not subordinates. 4 Never ask anyone their age.
4 Say what you mean clearly and 5 Men should talk to women
directly differently from the way they
5 Interrupting somebody who is talk to men.
speaking at a meeting is impolite 6 Only speak when you are
and counter-productive. spoken to.
6 Never say directly that you don’t Z Never disagree with a
agree with somebody suggestion about what to do
7 Meetings should have a strictly or where to go.
observed timetable. 8 Make sure you pay for any food
8 Always explain to a colleague or drink you are offered in a
any doubts you have about their restaurant.
suggestions. 9 Aways consult a guest about
9 Never disagree with a superior. what they would like to do.
10 Never say ‘no’ to a request. 10 Use compliments freely.
11 Aways ask for permission to 11 Don't discuss salaries.
speak in a meeting. 12 Employees’ spouses should
12 Aways offer to do something, not talk about work.
even if you are not sure you can. 13 Never talk about colleagues.
13 Aways pretend to listen, even 14 Aways arrive a little late at
if you are not doing so. social functions,
14 If somebody offends you,
always explain to him/her what
has happened.

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable

5 .6 I Cultural dilemmas

Aims
• To examine differing communication styles within multicultural teams.
• To practise dealing with these differing styles.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Ask students for any examples of occasions In task 1, responses will vary, but usually at least
when, in a multicultural group, they have been one response will seem more sensible than the
surprised by what a colleague has said, or how others. In task 2, aspects of behaviour will also be
they have behaved. There should be no shortage brought in.
of examples, some of them humorous.
2 In task 1, ask pairs or groups to read the cases, Development
discussing and if possible agreeing on, their
Allow discussion to develop into areas of flexibility
choice of the best reply. There is again scope for
and tolerance, and how these characteristics can
humour here, perhaps with some mimicry of the
contribute to good relationships, even if they are
more inappropriate responses. Collect feedback
difficult to achieve.
and see if there is any degree of agreement.
3 Move on to task 2. Collect responses and discuss Linked activities
the advantages and disadvantages of each.
Students could be encouraged to role-play some 1.9, 2.6, 3.2, 4.8, 5.5, 6.3,6.11
of the situations, which again offer scope for
humour. Further reading
For more information on the role of culture in
specific business situations, see part III, ‘Business
Communication’, of
Intercultural Business Com m unication, by Robert
Gibson, 2002, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
 5 .6 Cultural dilemmas
The following situations are examples of what can happen

5 Profilina arouo cultures

within a multicultural team.

1 Imagine you are a member of the team, and select the reply
you find most appropriate.

Together with a colleague, you are visiting Together with a colleague, you are
a client in Rio de Janeiro. You have been making a sales visit to an important
waiting in reception for 45 minutes. Your customer. Your colleague turns up dressed
colleague is angry and gets up to leave. casually (trousers and sweater). You are
You say: dressed formally. You comment:
a Sit down this minute, a You look very casual, □
b Perhaps we should wait a b They’re quite formal around here, □
little longer. He may turn you know,
up eventually, c We normally dress up for □
c See you back at the hotel. important customers. Do you
think it’ll be OK if you go like that?
It’s 11.30 pm on a Sunday. You receive a
phone call from a colleague concerning At a team meeting, one of your
next week’s team meeting. You say: Scandinavian colleagues who you know
a Hello, nice to speak to you. has some very good product development
W hat’s the problem? ideas, fails to speak because Italian and
b It’s rather late for this, isn't it? French colleagues don’t give her the
But what can I do for you? opportunity. You say to the latter:
c This is far too late to ring me. a Please listen, won’t you? □
One of your colleagues receives a phone
b Let’s give somebody else a chance □
to speak,
call, but soon puts the receiver down in
disgust, because his Greek colleague on
c I think Annika might have □
something to say.
the other end ‘speaks such bad English I
haven’t a clue what he’s talking about’.
You reply:
a Yes, terrible, isn’t it?
b Yes, I know he’s difficult to
understand, but his English is better
than my Greek. Shall I talk to him?
c That’s a narrow-minded attitude. □
2 Imagine a suitable response to the following situations.
What would you do and say?

A colleague has just given a carefully You have planned a conference in a hotel in
planned presentation on a proposed the mountains. The main purpose is team
reorganisation. At the end, another building, although this is not explicitly
colleague leans over and says ‘Bullshit’. stated. The instant reaction of one of your
team members is: ‘Great. My husband loves
Your team meeting is over-running. It is
the mountains, he'll really enjoy it there.’
17.30 and you have promised your partner
you will pick up the children from their You have scheduled some regular team
after-school activity. What do you do? meetings for next year. One member of your
team tells you he can’t make it to the one in
Your boss works so hard he never takes a
June, saying ‘You see, in the first week in
holiday. He is beginning to look tired and is
June I always take my mother to the coast.’
less efficient than usual. Do you say
anything?

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable

 a
0 .1mi ndividual characteristics
Aims
• To examine the part played by individual characteristics in a person’s cultural profile.
• To exemplify different styles of communication, and relate them to cultural types.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Ask for examples of particular styles of Task 1: Suggested pairings
communication that students have observed analytical/instinctive; articulate/reserved;
in their daily lives or in the media. Encourage atheistic /religious; cautious/impulsive;
contrasts such as direct/indirect, cooperative/competitive; direct/indirect;
formal/informal (see the list in the activity). Ask emotional/impassive; erratic/stable;
where these differences come from - from extrovert/introspective; flexible/rigid;
inherited characteristics or from the follower/leader; formal/informal; generous/mean;
tfi environment in which people live and work. gregarious/loner; humorous/serious;
s Encourage discussion. listener/speaker; methodical/spontaneous;
o observer/participator; optimistic/pessimistic;
c 2 Introduce task 1, in which students have to put
the list of words into pairs of opposites. Make pro active /reactive; quiet /talkative
»
k Task 3: Suggested descriptions of styles
sure they are familiar with all the words, and
Smk
m explain that some of the words are similar in A - articulate, impulsive, direct, speaker, proactive
O
CO meaning, and that more than one set of pairings B - reserved, cautious, indirect
is possible. Check the responses, including any C - cooperative, extrovert, generous, gregarious
£ additions, and introducing where possible D - cautious, competitive, reserved, loner?, mean?
examples of well-known figures who represent
these styles. A suggested set of responses is given Development
under Outcomes.
Further examination of individual communication
3 Explain that task 2 requires a little self-analysis in
styles could be undertaken. Classes whose
relation to students’ own communication styles.
members know each other well and have
In pairs, each student chooses five words from
confidence in each other could talk about class
the list that best describe his/her style. Partners
members; in other cases, discussion is best limited
may be allowed a brief comment, but then
to figures from the media or from local society.
individuals report back to the whole group on
Some radio or TV interviewers, for example, have
their results. Again, brief comment may be
a very aggressive style, while others have a gentler
allowed, but avoid too much analysis as this
approach.
could prove complicated and potentially
embarrassing. Consider also whether certain styles can be
attributed to specific companies or professions as
4 In task 3, ask pairs or groups to read the
well as nationalities.
dialogues and ascribe describing words - about
four or five words each, from the list or other
sources - to each of the four styles. Groups then
Linked activities
feed back their results, giving examples to 1.8, 3.2, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.10
explain their decisions, and discussing any
disagreements. Further reading
5 Ask for views as to whether any of the describing An excellent exercise for demonstrating the
words fit any specific national cultures. For culturally determined values that underlie
example, do some nationalities tend to be more individual characteristics is ‘Cross-Cultural Value
formal or more impassive than others? Draw on Cards’ and can be found in pp. 33-7 o f ‘Cross-
students’ experience as much as possible, rather Cultural Value Cards’ in
than on their impressions, and ask for examples.
D eveloping Intercultural Awareness, by L. Robert
Kohls and John M. Knight, 1994, Yarmouth:
Intercultural Press.
 6.1 Individual characteristics
Individual characteristics may be inherited (due to genetics or ‘nature’), or learnt

anrl rnmmuninatinn
(from the environment or due to ‘nurture’). The following is a list of some of the
words - nouns and adjectives - used to describe people and their characteristics,
and particularly the way they communicate.

1 Arrange in pairs any words which are opposites or nearly opposites.

Add any other words which you consider important.

fi Culture
analytical fo llo w e r leader reactive
articulate form al listener religious
atheistic generous loner reserved
cautious gregarious mean rigid
com petitive humorous methodical serious
cooperative impassive observer speaker
direct impulsive optim istic spontaneous
em otional indirect participator stable
erratic inform al pessimistic talkative
extrovert instinctive proactive
flexible introspective quiet

2 Choose the five which best describe you and your own communication style.

3 In these short dialogues, describe the types of communicator represented by

each speaker: A, B, C and D.
1
A: OK, come on, let's get th is proposal Those sales figures for the new
finished. product range look p retty good.
B: I'm not sure we have all the fa cts. In fa ct there are some of the old
A: We've got enough to be going on products included in those figures,
w ith. We can always add a few so they're not quite accurate.
more later, or w ork them out Yes, but on the whole they are
roughly. im pressive. The R & D people
B: Do you think th at's accu rate did well.
enough? D: I should think so, w ith th eir
A: Of course. W e'll go back later and in creased budget. Anybody could do
adju st them if the clien t thinks w ell w ith alm ost double the money.
there's any sort of discrepancy. C: I think it's im pressive. Anyway,
Let's not be too scrupulous about w e're having a little celebration
th is, we don't have all week to do th is evening. Are you coming?
it, you know. Everything w ill be OK. D: Actually, I have quite a lot to do
B: Perhaps we should ju s t w ait a little ton igh t ...
b it longer?

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable 87

6 .2 I Work types

Aims
• To identify a schema for discussing individual working styles and preferences, and to identify the main
characteristics of each one.
• To identify students’ preferred working styles.
• To relate working styles to specific cultures.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Discuss working styles (the way people work or Task 1: Possible results
seem to prefer to work) and ask for words which Innovator/Explorer Checker/Regulator
describe them. Try to introduce some words articulate, creative, consistent, fair,
from the list. innovative, impulsive, analytical, cautious,
2 Make sure the four work types are clear, asking extrovert, instinctive, introspective, methodical,
for examples of how a person from each one leader, proactive, stable
might approach their work. Check that the list of spontaneous
words is clear, then ask pairs or groups to do task Developer/Organiser Adviser/Coordinator
1, selecting at least two for each type. Explain articulate, far-sighted, cooperative, enthusiastic,
that different answers are possible. Compare methodical, optimistic, flexible, gregarious,
results, asking each group spokesperson to proactive, resourceful imaginative, participator,
explain why particular characteristics fit a stable
certain type, and to give examples from their
own experience. Suggestions are given in Development
Outcomes.
Students may wrish to discuss whether the type of
3 Use task 2 as an opportunity for students to
work they do is the type they prefer. This may not
examine their own preferred working style. In
always be the case! Consider also whether certain
pairs they should choose four words which best
working styles can be said to be typical of specific
describe their style, then say which group they
organisations or professions.
best fit. Colleagues should comment briefly with
their own opinion. Each pair then reports back
to the class, who may comment, again briefly
Linked activities
4 Ask students to consider whether any of the 1.8, 4.1, 5.4, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.10
given characteristics tend to be common in
specific national cultures. For example, do some Further reading
cultures tend to be more methodical or more See 6.1.
creative than others? Ask for examples from
students’ experience where possible.
6.2 Work types
L n________________ ________

People can be categorised according to the type of work they like

6 Culture and com m unication

to do or are best at.
Four possible categories are:

The following words are used to describe the way people work,
behave and communicate.

analytical far-sighted methodical

articulate flexible optimistic
cautious gregarious participator
consistent imaginative proactive
cooperative impulsive resourceful
creative innovative spontaneous
enthusiastic instinctive stable
extrovert introspective
fair leader

1 Select at least two words to describe people in each of the four

categories above.

2 Consider your own qualities as a worker or as a student. Select:

a at least four words from the list which accurately describe you
b the category to which you most closely belong.

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable 89

 Aims
• To illustrate ways in which individual styles of communication can be profiled using a number of parameters.
• To relate these styles to different cultures.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Explain that this activity is about identifying Students should arrive at a short profile of their
overall characteristics of communication styles, own communication style. Although the list of
both of individuals and of cultures. Ask for the parameters is wade, it may be possible to add some
opposites of styles such as direct more to the list (for example: loud, quiet, etc.).
(diplomatic/indirect), inductive (deductive), and
any others from the list, quoting examples. Development
2 Check that the sets of parameters and their
Students could present verbally or in writing a
explanations are clear, then introduce task 1.
short summary of the prevalent communication
Form pairs in which each person identifies the
style of a cultural group with which they are
description which best fits him or herself.
familiar: this could be a country, a region, a
Encourage them to use modifiers such as ‘very
company, a profession, etc.
systematic’, ‘fairly diplomatic’, or even ‘in the
middle’. Partners should briefly express their
reactions to the choices. Ask pairs to feed back
Linked activities
the results for brief comment by the class. 2.7, 3.2, 5.4, 6.1, 6.2, 6.4
3 Do task 2, forming small groups to consider how
these parameters can be used to describe Further reading
national characteristics. Explain that An effective training video that illustrates these
generalisations will be necessary (see activity 2.7, points is
The bell-jar graph), so ask for specific examples
C om m unicating Styles, by Jeremy Comfort and
wherever possible. In monocultural groups,
Derek Utley available through York Associates
choose both the common culture and one other.
(www.york-associates.co.uk).
Multicultural groups should choose a maximum
of two, to be decided by the group themselves.
Ask a spokesperson from each group to report
back, and compare similarities and differences in
their respective reports.
6 .3 Communication styles
People communicate in different ways. Here are some sets of parameters which

6 Culture and com m unication

help identify communication styles.

1 Systematic - organic 5 Head - heart

Some people like to present information, Some people rationalise and speak
or deal with topics, in a systematic, objectively and reflectively; others speak
sequential manner. Others prefer to instinctively, following their feelings,
explore things randomly, relying on instinct
or experience to help them touch upon 6 High context - low context
the major areas.
Low context communicators state the
message simply and clearly, with no
2 Direct - diplomatic
redundant material; for high context
Some people go straight to the point of communicators, the situation, surroundings
a communication, with no time spent and other associated details are an
on introduction, preparation or formality. important part of the communication,
Others will spend time on social talk or
on related matters before moving to 7 Colleague - friend
the central point.
Some people treat others as a colleague
with whom they have a strictly professional
3 Formal - informal
relationship; others assume that most other
Some people use formal and possibly people are their friends, and treat them
complex language as opposed to as such.
a more relaxed, familiar and friendly
style; the tone of voice can be distant
or intimate.

4 Inductive - deductive
Some people make a suggestion or state
an idea, then explain or justify it; others
will present information first, then draw a
conclusion or recommendation from it.

1 For each set of parameters, select the characteristic that best describes your
own communication style.

2 Do the same for another culture (national, corporate, etc.) with which you
are familiar.

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable 91

 I
you co ?I

Aims
• To explore some of the factors influencing the communication style and cultural profile of individuals.
• To gain a better understanding of one’s own profile.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Ask the class what they think has made them Students could prepare a short verbal or written
who they are, particularly in terms of the way summary of the points they have covered,
they communicate with other people. Encourage describing their personal development.
them to think of innate characteristics as well
as traits they have acquired from the different Development
environments they have been in.
Students may wish to consider how representative
2 Check that the language of the task is clear. Then
they are of the national culture they belong to. If so,
ask students to do it in pairs, suggesting that
why? And if not, why not?
1O they keep the question as open as possible, and
c using the guidelines where necessary. Each
tn student should take about five minutes, the
Linked activities
"L
m partner simply listening and asking occasional 2.1, 2.5, 3.1, 5.4, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.9
JZ questions if they wish. Each student should then
o
CB give feedback on his/her partner, summarising Further reading
i® and pointing out anything they found
See 6.1, 6.2.
particularly interesting. Ask for general
comments as to whether students were aware of
any strong cultural influences they had felt
during their lives from any of the factors
mentioned in the activity.
6 .4 Where do you come from?
In order to define some of your own cultural characteristics, consider the question

6 Culture and com m unication

Where do you come from?

Work with a colleague, and speak for five minutes on the subject. Interpret
the meaning of the question in the way you think most suitable. Be as
honest as you can. Try to cover some of the points below.

Nature Work
Inherent personal characteristics, inherited The influence of job, daily work activities
at birth: emotional and physical attributes and working environment

Nurture ^Nationality
Early life: general environment, family Any characteristics you consider fairly
atmosphere, friends, school, social groups typical of your nationality, including any
regional features

Education Organisation
E
School, college, university: the influence The culture of the organisation you
of teachers and colleagues, and of the work for
subjects you studied

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable 93

r
 Aim
• To highlight different cultural perceptions of what should happen in a meeting.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Ask students to describe a typical meeting they Groups covering the same culture should be
have attended, and any of the characteristics encouraged to compare their results and discuss
they remember, such as a high/low degree of any differences. A short profile could be drawn
organisation, formality or preparedness. Ask up by each group of the meeting culture of their
whether they think things are different in organisation, which could then be presented to the
different companies or organisations, or in rest of the class.
different countries. They will probably agree that
the term ‘meetings’ can cover a very wide range Development
of different events. Ask for anecdotal experiences
of the strange things that can happen in Students could explore other business situations
meetings. which different cultures approach differently, such
as negotiations, presentations, purchasing,
2 Check that the list of questions and possible
appraisals or employment interviews.
responses is clear, and that students understand
that they are looking for the most likely option or
options, rather than a correct answer. Decide Linked activities
which national culture is to be considered. If all 2.6, 3.1, 3.2, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 5.1, 6.2, 6.3
the students are from one company, they may
consider the culture of that company. Do the Further reading
task in small groups, trying to reach consensus.
For more information, see ‘Multicultural Meetings’
Ask a spokesperson from each group to give
in
feedback, and encourage comment and
discussion. M ind Your M anners (3rd Edition), by John Mole,
2003, London: Nicholas Brealey
as well as ‘Communication Patterns at Meetings’ in
Cross Cultural Com m unica tion: A Visual Approach,
by Richard D. Lewis, 1999, Transcreen Publications.
 6 .5 Meetings
All organisations have their own written or unwritten rules about what should

6 Culture and com m unication

happen in professional encounters such as meetings or negotiations.

Here is a set of options for the conduct of meetings in a medium-sized company.

Select the options which best describe what happens in your own organisation or
one you know quite well. If they are all possible, select the one which is most likely
to happen. Add any other options that you think are relevant.

WHERE does the meeting take place? WHEN can you speak?
• In a formal meeting room • When given permission by
• Around a coffee table the chairperson
• In a restaurant • W henever you like
• In a private home • W hen the speaker has stopped
• During a natural pause
WHO takes part?
• After a silence of several seconds
• Senior managers
• As often as possible
• Anyone with experience of the subject
• Only when essential
• A close-knit team
• In strict order of hierarchy
WHOM can you talk directly to?
HOW do you speak?
• Everyone
• In a low voice
• Those under you
• Loudly
• Anyone who has spoken to you
• Using eye contact
WHAT can be said? • With physical gestures
• Anything you like
WHAT TONE do you adopt?
• Only what you really mean
• Confident
• Only things acceptable to your superiors
• Modest
• Only things acceptable to other
• Humorous
participants
• Serious
• Anything that will impress other people
HOW MUCH do you say?
WHAT can be discussed?
• As much as you like
• Business only
• W hat is necessary for the
• A mixture of business and social topics
purpose of the meeting
• Social topics first, then business
• The absolute minimum
• Business first, then social topics

WHAT OBJECTIVES do you have?

• Clear
• Regularly restated
• Never mentioned
• Hidden from some participants
• Clear from the context
• Referred to indirectly

Photocopiable 95
Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004

r
 6 .6 I Following the rules
Aims
• To understand how the conduct of meetings is influenced by the underlying behavioural rules of the
participants.
• To develop a more sensitive and flexible approach to the behaviour of different people in meetings.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Ask students for any particular rules they General feedback and discussion should focus on
have observed in meetings, such as all remarks what it is like to have to remember and apply rules
being directed to the chairperson, or participants in a way which you rarely have to do in a familiar
holding up a hand in order to get permission to situation. This is a regular feature for most people
speak; or even to talk about experiences where new to multicultural meetings: if possible, draw on
there appeared to be no rules at all. This should students’ experience of such situations. This
Teacher’s notes

draw out a wide range of procedures and practice should make students more aware of what
understandings, some visible (holding up the other participants are thinking and doing, and help
hand), some simply understood (senior people them adapt to a given situation.
have more right to interrupt). You may at this
point discuss the relative merits of strict Development
discipline in meetings, as opposed to a more
natural, organic approach. There are arguments Ask students to consider what for them would
on both sides. be the best set of rules to apply for an efficient
meeting. This should raise the question of length
2 Explain that the task consists of holding a
of contributions, clarity of language and argument,
number of short meetings, in each of which a
the right and need to interrupt and clarify and
rule or convention is to be observed. Check that
the need to avoid jargon which excludes certain
students understand the list of rules, and look at
people. This last point may lead on to the question
the list of topics. Form groups, ideally of five or
of interaction between native and non-native
six, and ask each group to choose a topic (they
speakers (see activity 6.8).
may take one of their own choice if they wish).
(The topics in themselves are not of great
significance here since the focus will be on the
Linked activities
process.) 3.1, 3.2, 4.1, 4.2, 4.8, 5.1, 5.5, 6.3, 6.4, 6.8, 6.9
One member should be chairperson and one
member should make sure the rule is observed, Further reading
pointing out any failures to comply. Run the task See 6.5.
once, and ask for feedback from a spokesperson.
Get each group to have as many meetings as
possible, applying a different rule in each one.
Issues which arise could include the level of
politeness of both language and behaviour, the
exercise of the right to speak and to interrupt,
and the use of humour.

96
 6.6 [[ Following the rules
Rules of behaviour in a meeting are often followed unconsciously, and
when different people have different rules this can lead to confusion.

Hold a series of mini-meetings lasting up to ten minutes with a group of

three to six people on one of these topics:
• Technology of the future
• The lack of contact between people in modern society
• The separation of work and leisure
• Gender and work opportunities
• The effect of the internet on society

For each meeting, select one of the following rules and apply it firmly.

Rule 1
Before each individual can speak, he/she
must briefly summarise what the previous
speaker has said,
Rule 2
Each time a participant has spoken for
more than 30 seconds, another participant
must try to interrupt politely The speaker
must give way within 10 seconds.
Rule 3
If they don’t agree with something the
speaker says, participants must interrupt
and express another view clearly and firmly.
Rule 4
After one minute of speaking, a participant
must hand over to another person.
Rule 5
As soon as somebody says something
which is jargon or too technical for
colleagues to understand, other participants
clap their hands.

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable

 guage?
Aims
• To discuss some of the advantages and disadvantages of English as an international language.
• To examine ways in which it can best be used as an international language.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Ask the class about their attitudes to English, Some of the statements will be seen as advantages
whether as their first, second or third language. (its flexibility, its use on the internet) and some as
Reactions may include a painful learning disadvantages (its complexity, its colonial
process, difficulties in expressing and associations). Many however, can be interpreted in
understanding ideas, and happy experiences different ways, such as its wide range of vocabulary,
from social opportunities, travel and literature. which on the one hand helps the expression of
The mix of both painful and positive experiences complex or sensitive ideas, and on the other makes
in should be useful for this activity. it difficult to learn and sometimes to understand.
0
o 2 Introduce task 1, going quickly through the Sharing views and experiences on international
statements and checking understanding. In English could lead to a more realistic and positive
& pairs or groups, students say whether they use of the language in an international context.
1m*■
0 agree or not, and try to reach a consensus.
-C
o
Collect and compare results. Development
to 3 Introduce task 2, explaining that the intention
I® Encourage the continued sharing of experiences of
is for the groups to try to decide whether each
using English in multicultural settings, and discuss
statement can be seen as an advantage for
techniques for using the language constructively
the language and its users, or as a disadvantage.
within certain limits, in order to avoid feelings of
There is no need for consensus here. Some
linguistic inferiority. Discussion of the role of the
possible reactions are to be found in
native speaker may come in here (see Activity 6.8).
Outcomes.

Linked activities
4.3, 5.6, 6.1, 6.3, 6.5, 6.8, 6.10, 6.13

Further reading
For a general overview of the role of English, see
English as a G lobal Language, by David Crystal,
1998, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

k m
 6 .7 [[Which language?
English is the w orld’s main business language, and for at least part of the 21st
century it is bound to be the lingua franca of international business transactions.
But there is evidence that it will become less prevalent as the 21st century
progresses.

The following statements about English as an international language all

have their supporters.

Read the statements.

1 Say whether you agree with each statement or not.
2 Say whether you think each statement is an advantage or a
disadvantage for international communication in general.

It is spoken by a large proportion of the developed world.

It is the language of the internet.

It has a relatively simple grammar.

It is considered to be a complex language.

It has a wide range of vocabulary.

A lot of people feel uneasy using it.

People from other language 'families' are disadvantaged.

You can make a difficult request very politely in English.

It is an old language, with many literary references.

It is the language of science and technology.

It is the international language of political, economic and cultural imperialism.

It is the language of international business.

It is being overtaken by Spanish in the USA.

There are more non-native than native speakers of English in the world today.

It will no longer be the dominant world language in 10 or 20 years' time.

It is a flexible language, adjusting rapidly to the demands of international use.

It is the language of the world's greatest economic power - the USA.

Other languages, such as Chinese, Spanish and Hindi, are growing rapidly in
global importance.

English is used widely in all continents.

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable

 L
The native and the non- peake
Aims
To show how different attitudes and behaviours can be adopted by native and non-native speakers of
a language.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Draw on students’ experience of speaking a A few of the statements may be clearly typical of
language other than their own first language. Ask the monolingual native speaker (9, 11), or the non­
them to compare their performances in each native speaker (1, 16, 24), but many will be
language, and try to identify typical signs: applicable to both (3, 6, even 8). Encourage
nervousness, hesitation, apparent inadequacy in students to see the situation from as many angles
the speaker, and impatience and frustration in as possible, and to discuss ways of minimising
the listener. Usually the language in question will problems or friction (see Development).
be English, but some students may have
O
+-
O
experience of another language being used in a Development
C similar situation.
Use students’ experience of the native/non-native
« 2 Introduce the task. Make sure the list of attitudes
i- speaker situation to develop a discussion of ways of
<U and behaviours is clear, and ask pairs or groups
X making both sides feel comfortable, including
to decide which of the five categories to place
o developing attitudes of tolerance, patience and
w each one in. Ask them to consider implications
© assertiveness.
F carefully, as some of the decisions may not be as
clear-cut as appears. For example, Asks for
repetition’ will obviously be typical of the non­
Linked activities
native speaker, but it could also be a frequent 2.5, 3.2, 4.3, 5.6, 6.4, 6.5, 6.7, 6.10
activity of the native speaker who has difficulty

j understanding a strong accent. Although

students should enter a number, ask them to be
Further reading
For a polemical viewpoint of the role of English, see
ready to explain details of this kind when they
give their feedback: see Outcomes. English as a Lingua Franca: D ouble Talk in G lobal
Persuasion, by Karin Dovring, 1997, New York:
Greenwood Press.

fly
6.8 II The native and the non-native speaker
Many international meetings are held in English. In such meetings some of the

6 Culture and nommuninatinn

participants use their native language, others a language which they have learnt
with different degrees of success. This can affect attitudes and behaviour.

Read the list below. Assess how typical the attitudes and behaviours in the list are
of native speakers or non-native speakers. Put the appropriate number in the box.
1 = Very typical of native speaker 2 = Typical of native speaker 3 = Neutral
4 = Typical of non-native speaker 5 = Very typical of non-native speaker

1 Accepts decisions more easily

2 Agrees with suggested agenda □
3 Asks for repetition
4 Finds communication a problem □
5 Finds interrupting difficult
6 Gets frustrated by breakdowns in
communication
7 Hesitates often □
8 Holds back even when he/she has □
something important to say
9 Imposes decisions
10 Interrupts regularly
11 Is not aware of language problems
12 Makes many suggestions □
13 Misunderstands the meaning of other □
participants
14 Organises the agenda □
15 Reacts instinctively
16 Reacts more slowly □
17 Sees few difficulties in communication □
18 Speaks fast □
19 Speaks slowly
20 Spends a lot of time listening
21 Spends a lot of time speaking □
22 Uses dense language and idiom □
23 Uses simple language □
24 Is over-sensitive □

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable

 6 .9 Positive communication
Aims
• To show how communication can be improved by adopting a number of simple techniques.
• To practise some of these techniques.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Ask students about the common causes of Additional techniques could include:
breakdown or difficulty in communication. It • Make a strong start
may be best to focus on presentations they have • Explain and simplify jargon
attended, in which problems such as lack of • Put positive points before negative
preparation, lack of structure, excessive length, • Be aware of the expectations of your colleagues
and unclear speech meant the speaker didn’t get • Put simple things before complex
his/her point across. Difficulties of this sort are

+-
s particularly common in multicultural situations.
Explain that in this activity, ways are discussed
Development
o
c and practised of avoiding some causes of The mini-presentation practice could lead to more
ffi
■ms.
breakdown. general presentation practice, with particular
2 Introduce task 1 and go through the list of consideration for the expectations of a
CD
£ techniques. You may ask for additional items multicultural audience and how to adapt to them.
O
CO here or during their discussion. Groups should
I® then decide on the usefulness of the items. Linked activities
r-
The results will be subjective, but the important 3.1, 4.3, 5.6, 6.3, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.10
thing is to discuss and examine the different
techniques. Further reading
Ask for feedback from each group, collating and
Both observations and reflection are needed
comparing results. Any techniques which are
to keep communication open and positive in
consistently ranked low could be dismissed.
cross-cultural environments. How these skills
3 Task 2 gives practice in some of these can be trained is outlined in
techniques. Encourage individual students to
The Art o f Crossing Cultures (2nd Edition), by Craig
prepare a short talk on one of the suggested
Storti, 2001, Yarmouth: Intercultural Press.
topics or another of their choice. They should
each choose one of the techniques and
concentrate on it. Alternatively, the topic could
be dealt with by one group, with each member
i concentrating on one technique. The results
5
could be amusing, and should lead to further
discussion of the usefulness of the different
suggestions.
I lf

mmm
is P

1
■
6 .9 Positive communication
When intercultural communication is in danger of becoming confused or of

if Culture and rnmmnninatinn

breaking down, certain techniques may be useful. Here are some of the more
commonly used ones.

1 Rank them according to their usefulness by putting the appropriate

number in the box:
5 = Very useful 4 = Quite useful 3 = Neutral 2 = Not very useful 1 = Useless
Add to the list if you can.

1 Use good tone and tempo ( )

2 Emphasise the positive more ( )
than the negative
3 Be human, show warmth ( )
4 Ask lots of questions ( )
5 Keep It Short and Simple (KISS) ( )
6 Structure things clearly and ( )
logically
7 Summarise often
8 Use body language
9 Check that you are understood ( )
10 Show7that you are listening
11 Say exactly what you mean
12 Use humour where you can ( )
13 Avoid sarcasm ( )
14 Clarify any doubts you have ( )
15 Look for signs from the person or ( )
people you are speaking to

2 Give a short talk on one of the topics below. Choose one of the features
from the list (for example, being short and simple, and/or trying to
include a little humour), and use it as much as you can.

• The corporate image of my company or organisation

• Genetic engineering
• Globalisation
• The domination of American culture
• Stress and how to avoid it

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable 13

 6 .1 0 1 Multi-channelling
Aims
• To focus on the variety of non-linguistic ways of communicating.
• To practise using them effectively.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Ask students for examples of ways in which Students should see the effectiveness of
people ‘send messages’ other than by speech. appropriate body language, but should also realise
The eyes are an obvious starting point, then that it should be adapted to the situation. Different
other facial expressions and the hands. Ask for cultures have different conventions in this area,
examples of good, effective practice and also of both in terms of signs and gestures which are
negative habits, such as constantly clicking a appropriate or not, and in terms of how much body
pen. Numerous anecdotes should be available, language is desirable.
tn and the point should be made that different
o
+■»
O
cultures regard these messages in different ways. Development
c 2 Go through the list of transmitters and receivers,
Discuss body language dos and don’ts, including
JA and ask students to contribute more examples.
i- taboos, for any cultures with which students are
<D They may suggest adding bad habits such as the
x: familiar. Bring out the usual need for
pen-clicking mentioned above, or the slightly
o understanding of and sensitivity to counterparts’
sensitive questions of touch (much more
cultural backgrounds and expectations.
accepted in some cultures than in others) and
£
smell, which although often considered a taboo,
can - often unconsciously or sem i-consciously-
Linked activities
transmit strong messages. 3.2, 4.3, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.9
3 Practise some of these features with task 2. Both
members of each pair choose a topic to talk Further reading
about (it could simply be an account of last For more information on the interplay of para-
weekend, or of a recent holiday) and linguistic communication, see part II, ‘Cultural
communicate it to their colleague twice - each Dimensions’, of
time in a different way The first time should be
Intercultural Business C om m unication, by Robert
with as little body language as possible, the
Gibson, 2002, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
second with as much as possible. Both partners
then report back to the group how they felt
about both versions. The second should be
better than the first, but encourage students to
be critical in cases wiiere body language was
excessive or unsuitable. The point should also be
made that listeners/observers will have different
perspectives on body language.
6.10 II Multi-channelling
Words are only one part of communication. The body also transmits large amounts

6 Culture and communication

of non-verbal information. The sensitive use of all the different channels involved
(kinesthetics) can increase the effectiveness of intercultural communication, both for
giving signals and for receiving and decoding them.

1 Look at the list of transmitting and receiving agents, and add any more which
you think are possible.
/"
T ransm itters R eceivers
Mouth words Ears
sounds Eyes
variety/modulation of voice 'Sixth sense’?
Eyes contact/avoidance
lively/dull Others?
Hands position
together/separate
still/mobile
Arms position
still/mobile
Head angle
still/mobile
Body angle facing/alongside
Body positions legs crossed/apart
closeness to other person
Movement none/gentle/rapid

Others?

J
2 Take three minutes to talk to a colleague about something. It could be about
your present job, a hobby you have, or a group you belong to - anything you
want to talk about. Do the same thing twice:
• The first time, sit quite still and use as little body language as possible.
• The second time, use lots of body language, as in the list above.

Ask your colleague to comment on his/her perception of the two performances.

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable !5

 Aims
• To show different stages of development in awareness of intercultural matters.
To increase intercultural competence.

6 Beginning to work on the study of other

Procedure cultures - ‘There’s a lot to find out.’
1 Ask students about people they know with 7 Developing an interest in other cultures - ‘This
differing levels of cultural sensitivity. Discuss isn’t as strange as I thought.’
how the way they relate to people with different 8 Empathising - ‘I see why they act like that.’
backgrounds shows itself (for example, lack of 9 Trying different ways of doing things - ‘This
experience or refusal to understand, on the one might work here.’
hand, and beneficial experience and flexibility 10 Learning by making mistakes - ‘Oops, that was
on the other), and consider ways of becoming a bit of a disaster.’
more competent interculturally, 11 Developing one’s own style - ‘I’m sure this
2 Introduce the task as being an attempt to define should work well here.’
a progression in attitudes towards other cultures. 12 Becoming enthusiastic about cultural variety -
Make sure the language is clear to them, then ask ‘What great potential!’
pairs to arrange the different attitudes in the
most logical order. There is no fixed answer Development
(although a suggestion is given in Outcomes), so
encourage students to discuss different options. Students could try to place themselves on the scale,
In the feedback session, discuss the desirability or at least try to pick out attitudes which they feel
of different arrangements, taking the they have. At the same time they could discuss
opportunity to discuss the reasons for each one. wrays of encouraging progress along the scale -
simple measures such as travel, reading, and
actively trying to meet people; or more organised
Outcomes measures such as courses and seminars.
Different versions are possible. This is one
suggestion. Linked activities
1 Monocultural approach - ‘Everybody’s the same 1.4, 2.5, 3.1, 5.6, 6.4, 6.9, 6.12, 6.13
really.’
2 Recognition of difference - ‘There’s something Further reading
different about these people.’
3 Recognition of different types of culture - For a collection of articles dealing with (inter-)
‘There are national and regional differences, cultural competence in a variety of environments,
and corporate and professional cultures, and see chapter 7, ‘Communicating Interculturally:
y
Becoming Competent’, in
4 Realisation that most behaviour is culturally Intercultural C om m unication: A R eader (10th
conditioned - ‘There’s probably a reason for Edition), edited by L. Samovar and R. Porter, 2003,
this.’ New York: Wadsworth.
5 Recognition of possible dangers - ‘This could
cause problems.’
6.11 [vDeveloping intercultural competence
Awareness of culture, and competence in dealing with it effectively, takes time

6 Culture and communication

to achieve. Some of the different stages are listed in random order below.

Put them in what you consider to be the most logical sequence.

Becoming enthusiastic about cultural variety ~

□
What great potential!*

Beginning to work on the study of other

□
cultures ~ There's a lot to find out.m

□ Developing an interest in other cultures ~

*This isn't as strange as I thought.9

Developing one's own style ~

□
H'm sure this should work well here.

□ Empathising ~ I see why they act like that.

Learning by making mistakes ~

□
' Oops, that was a bit o f a disaster.

Monocultural approach ~
□
* Everybody's the same really.

Realisation that most behaviour is culturally

□
conditioned ~ 4There's probably a reason for this.

Recognition of different types of culture ~

* There are national and regional differences,
Q
and corporate and professional cultures, and ..."

Recognition of possible dangers ~

□
‘This could cause problems.

Recognition of difference ~
□
1There's something different about these people.

Trying different ways of doing things ~

* This might work here . *

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiabie

 Aims
• To examine different attitudes towards intercultural communication.
• To identify those which are most important for each individual.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Ask students if they have any fixed views on Try to establish a class version of the statements. In
intercultural communication. These views could order to do this, it will almost certainly be
be observations (‘These people usually do thisJ) necessary to modify some of them; adding to them
or advice (‘Always do this’, ‘Never do that’). See is also possible. The main objective, however, will
how much agreement can be found. It should still be to have a greater personal awareness of the
not be difficult to establish that complete issues involved.
agreement on this subject is rare.
2 Explain that the object of this activity is to work Development
towards a set of agreed views on intercultural
Interested students may wish to draw up a small
communication, but that no two people need
personal ‘rule book’, or present their conclusions
have exactly the same set. Task 1 is an
briefly to the class.
introduction to some common attitudes. Make
sure the language is clear, and ask pairs to decide
on their own preferred versions. A few may be
Linked activities
easy to agree on, but consideration will in most 1.9, 2.6, 4.8, 5.3, 6.1, 6.9, 6.10, 6.13
cases show the validity of each of the two
different options. In number 1, for example, the Further reading
meaning of ‘deep down’ is crucial: at a very deep
See 6.11.
level, everybody is ‘human’, at a higher level
everybody is clearly different. So discussion
should revolve around the issue of the level at
which differences become significant, and how
one recognises them.
3 In task 2, students should begin in pairs to
compare their respective priorities, picking three
(or more) statements wiiich they consider
important. They may modify or add to them if
they wish. In the feedback session, pairs may
give individual or joint conclusions, and results
should be compared around the class.
 6.12 Dos and don’ts
Lk__________________ I_________________

Rules about intercultural communication are difficult to establish or agree upon.

6 Culture and com m unication

People tend to draw on their experience to formulate their own ideas.

1 Read the following list of statements, and for each one decide which
version you think is most accurate.

2 Choose the three statements which you think are most important.

I D o / D o n ’t assume all people o r groups are the same, deep down.

2 Everybody has a very easily observed cultural identity, except /

including me.

3 Gestures usually / rarely mean the same thing to different people.

4 If you say something very clearly, m ost people / few people will
understand exactly w hat you mean.

5 If you look carefully at the face o f a person w h o speaks to you, you

will generally / sometimes be able to w o rk o ut w hat they mean.

6 'Yes' means ‘Yes’ always / sometimes.

7 The best way to get som ebody to do something is / is n ot to ask

them to do it directly and politely.

8 O th e r people's habits are usually / sometimes really interesting.

9 If you understand another culture, you will rarely / still find it hard
to get on w ith people w h o belong to it.

10 Many / Few people can operate successfully in m ore than

one culture.

II It is possible to learn m ost / some im p o rta nt things about a culture

simply by reading books about it.

12 Communicating w ith clients from a different national culture is

basically the same as / different from communicating w ith clients from
your own national culture.

14 Always / N ever tr y to make the differences in culture explicit

to the person you are dealing with.

Intercultural Resource Pack © Cambridge University Press 2004 Photocopiable 19

 Aims
• To become aware of different styles of learning.
• To consider which styles may help in the development of intercultural competence.

Procedure Outcomes
1 Ask students for examples of different teaching Task 1 This is a suggested division:
styles they have observed during their education Experiential Cognitive
and training; the younger the students, the easier Class talk Autocratic attitude
it should be. Encourage humour if appropriate. Debate is good Direction
2 Go through the list of styles in task 1. They may Democratic attitude Facts are learnt
not be familiar ideas, so take some time to make Experimentation Formulae are given
sure they are understood, asking for examples Ideas, suggestions Mistakes are bad
Teacher’s notes

where necessary. As a reference, the activities in Mistakes are part of learning Student acceptance
this book are designed to be largely experiential. Participation Teacher explains
Ask students in pairs or small groups to work Student feedback Teacher talks
through the list, and then to explain their Students work things out Things are right or
decisions to the rest of the class (see Teacher devises learning wrong
Outcomes). situations
3 Ask students if either of the two types of learning Task 2
can be considered predominant in their own Experiential: 1, 2, 4, 5, 9,
national or organisational culture. Cognitive: 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11(?), 12(?)
4 Use task 2 as an exemplification of how one of
the two styles might be preferable in certain Development
situations. In principle, where facts are to be Discuss students’ own learning and development
learned, the cognitive method will have plans for intercultural competence, and see if either
advantages; where understanding and attitudes of the two styles is preferable in their plans. Help
are to be developed, the experiential has them if possible to identify sources of information
strengths. Elements of both will exist in all cases, and interaction.
but a suggestion of the more predominant style
is given in Outcomes. Of course, one can debate Linked activities
how far these answers hold.
1.5, 6.11, 6.12

Further reading
A rich mine of information on the interplay of
culture and learning style can be found in pp.
201-15, ‘State of the art article: A crosscultural view
of learning styles’, in
Language Teaching, Vol. 28, No. 3, 1995, by Rebecca
L. Oxford and Neil J. Anderson.

1:
 6 .1 3 Learning styles
Different cultures learn in different ways. Two broad categories of learning are:

6 Culture and com m unication

Cognitive learning Experiential learning
Learning by listening, reading and Learning by doing, by practising.
understanding information. For example:
For example: • Learning through dialogue with
• Learning facts from a teacher or teachers and colleagues
book • Developing knowledge or
• Receiving and absorbing understanding through interaction
information • Working as part of a team
• Working alone

1 Read the following list of learning and teaching attitudes and activities,
and decide which ones you think are cognitive and which are experiential.
Put C or E in the appropriate box:

Autocratic attitude □ Mistakes are part □

Class talk □ of learning

□
Debate is good □ Participation

□
Democratic attitude □ Student acceptance

□
Direction □ Student feedback

□
Experimentation □ Students work things out

□
Facts are learnt □ Teacher devises learning

Formulae are given □ situations

□
Ideas, suggestions □ Teacher explains

□
Mistakes are bad □ Teacher talks
Things are right or wrong □
2 Discuss which of the two styles - cognitive and experiential - will
generally be more effective when learning about these aspects of
a culture other than your own:

1 body language 7 history and geography

2 directness or indirectness 8 institutions and government
of conversation 9 politeness
3 entertainment customs 10 religion
4 everyday life 11 social customs
5 family 12 taboos
6 gender differences

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