Pneumatics

and hydraulics
Version 1.0

Index:

1. Introduction to pneumatics 1
2. Generation of compressed air 1
3. Pneumatic actuators 2
4. Pneumatic valves 3
5. Basic pneumatic circuits 3
6. Pneumatic automation 4
7. Hydraulics 5

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1. Introduction to pneumatics

1.1. Introduction to pneumatics

Pneumatics is the field of technology that studies the use of compressed air to produce useful work.
If we exert force over the air contained in a sealed container, it is compressed (its volume is reduced) and presses
against the walls of the container. Compressing air is a way to store mechanical energy that can be used later to
perform work.
An example of work performed using compressed air is moving pieces from a distance. We can easily see this if we
connect two syringes using a plastic tube: when we press the plunger of one of them, the plunger of the other one will
move, driven by the force of compressed air. This is the basis for the applications of pneumatic technology.
In real pneumatic systems, pneumatic cylinders are used to perform motion. As in the case with syringes, when
pressurised air in introduced inside them, the piston moves and it can perform mechanical work.

1.2. Advantages and disadvantages of pneumatics

Pneumatic systems are widely used in industrial applications. The reason is that they allow for the easy design of
machines that perform very complex movements, such as the ones used in chain manufacturing. Unlike electrical
systems, pneumatic systems don't generate sparks in their operation so they are very useful in environments where
people work with flammable substances. As disadvantages, we can mention that these are more expensive pieces of
equipment than their electrical counterparts and their operation is noisier.

1.3. Examples of applications for pneumatics

The applications of pneumatics are numerous. Some of the best-known are the following:
- Driving machines in industrial operations.
- Opening and closing doors in trains and buses.
- Brakes in lorries and other heavy vehicles.
- Portable tools: drills, screwdrivers, staple guns, etc.

2. Generation of compressed air

2.1. Generation of compressed air

The first part of a pneumatic circuit is always a system to generate compressed air.
Its main components are: compressor, accumulator or tank, maintenance unit and pipes.

2.2. Compressor
The compressor is an air pump driven by an electric motor or an internal combustion engine. Its purpose is to produce
compressed air. The two most common types are piston compressors and vane compressors. The first feature a
piston that moves alternately, compressing air in the same way as a bicycle pump. Vane compressors rotate. In a
cylinder-shaped chamber, a rotor with vanes that rub against the walls is made to turn. The vanes create air
chambers that become increasingly smaller. Air goes into the vane compressor when the chamber is large and comes
out when the chamber is small. The result is that the air becomes compressed.

2.3. Accumulator or tank

The pressurised air generated by the compressor is accumulated inside an air tank. Use of the accumulator avoids
having to keep the compressor working constantly as it will be activated when pressure in the accumulator is low. Air
tanks have several associated devices. The most important ones are:
- Pressure switch. Its function is to maintain the pressure inside the tank. This is a pressure sensor that engages or
disengages the motor driving the compressor. If pressure inside the tank becomes too low, the pressure switch
engages the compressor until pressure is restored.
- Safety valve. If there is a malfunction and the compressor doesn't stop pumping air, the pressure in the tank may
become excessive, putting the facilities and the people working there at risk. To prevent this, there is a safety valve
that allows air to escape outside in case pressure becomes too high.
- Regulator. It allows for the control of the pressure sent into the circuit. This is a valve, similar to a tap, that allows
more or less air to come out. So that we can know the output pressure, the regulator features a manometer.

2.4. Maintenance unit

For a pneumatic installation to operate without problems for a long time, it is necessary to condition the air flowing out
of the pressure tank. This is achieved by installing a maintenance unit in each branch of the circuit. Each unit is made
up of 3 elements:
- Filter: it prevents the passage of airborne particles.
- Pressure regulator with manometer: it allows for the selection of an operating pressure for that branch of the circuit
and makes pressure constant, reducing it if it rises.
- Lubricator: it injects tiny droplets of oil into the air. Oil prevents oxidation of metal parts in the circuit and facilitates
the operation of moving parts (it oils them).

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2.5. Pipes
Compressed air is sent to the actuators (cylinders and pneumatic motors) using pipes made of different materials.
Solid pipes, in metal or plastic, are used in parts of the installation that will not be modified over time and flexible
plastic pipes are used in parts that may change frequently or moving parts. To join two pipes together, a piece called
a connector or fitting is used.

Scheme of a compressed air generation system..

3. Pneumatic actuators

3.1. Pneumatic actuators

Actuators are the components of pneumatic circuits that transform the energy in compressed air into mechanical work
(such as, for instance, pushing, pulling or rotating pieces or machines).

3.2. Single-acting cylinders

Cylinders are the most widely used actuators. As their name suggests, they are made up of a hollow cylinder with a
piston inside it. You can see a picture that shows the inner part of a cylinder below.
Single-acting cylinders are characterised because they only have one air intake. When they receive pressurised air,
the piston moves and is able to exert trust on the stem. By interrupting pressure, a spring forces the piston to return to
its initial position and the air in the cylinder is vented.

Single-acting pneumatic cylinder.

3.3. Double-acting cylinders

Double-acting cylinders have two air intakes, one at each end. The piston moves to the right or to the left depending
on where compressed air comes in. It can push as well as pull.

3.4. Rotary cylinders

Rotary cylinders are used when rotational motion is needed, without having to make a complete turn. They have two
pistons connected by a rack. The rack is interlocked with a pinion that turns when the pistons move.

3.5. Pneumatic motors

Pneumatic motors provide rotational motion. There are several types of pneumatic motors even though the most
common ones are vane motors. These are turbines that rotate when they receive compressed air. They consist of a
rotor with an axis that is offset with the housing, which surrounds it. The rotor features vanes that are driven by
springs or by centrifugal force itself to rub against the housing walls. Compressed air hits the vanes and pushes them,
making the rotor turn. This type of motor is commonly used in manual tools such as pneumatic wrenchs.

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4. Pneumatic valves

4.1. Pneumatic valves

In other mini-units, we've seen how to obtain pressurised air using a compressor and how to use it to perform useful
work using cylinders or pneumatic motors. However, to build a complete circuit, something else is needed: valves.
Pneumatic valves are components that control the flow of compressed air. The most common ones are distributing
valves, which allow us to activate or stop a circuit or to make it work following a set sequence of movements, simply
by sending air towards one part or another in the installation.
Distributing valves are characterised by the number of lines (input and output holes they feature) and the number of
positions (the movements they can perform).

4.2. Pneumatic circuit with a valve and a cylinder

In a circuit in which a 3/2 valve controls the operation of a single-acting cylinder, upon pressing the button, the valve
allows air to go through to the cylinder. The cylinder piston then moves and performs its mechanical work. When the
button is released, the valve returns to its initial position and the spring forces the piston to move back.

4.3. Automatically operated valves

The simplest valves, such as the ones we've just seen, are operated manually. There are other ways to operate a
valve, using air pressure (pneumatic control), using a mechanical part that, upon moving, pushes or pulls the valve
(mechanical operation) or using a solenoid (electrical operation). These types of operation are of great importance in
the industry as they allow for the automation of pneumatic systems and for the construction of complex machines that
operate without human intervention.
Electrically operated valves or solenoid valves, are very widely used since, being directly controlled by electricity, it is
very easy to connect them to a computer. They operate through the action of a solenoid which is nothing more than a
coil of conducting wire. When electrical current flows through a solenoid, it acts as a magnet and attracts iron objects.
A solenoid valve has one or two solenoids that, upon activation, attract metal parts that open or close the flow of
compressed air.
In this circuit a 5/2 solenoid valve (5 lines and two positions) controls the operation of a double-acting cylinder. Upon
activating solenoid 2, the iron part inside the valve is attracted by the magnetic field generated by the solenoid and
moves to the right. As a result, compressed air enters from the left side of the cylinder and pushes the piston. For the
piston to go back to its initial position, it's enough to activate solenoid 1.

Double-acting pneumatic cylinder controlled by a 5/2 solenoid valve.

5. Basic pneumatic circuits

5.1. Introduction
In this unit we'll study some of the simplest pneumatic circuits. These are circuits where one or several valves directly
control the operation of a pneumatic cylinder.

5.2. Tab 1. Control of a single-acting cylinder

In a pneumatic circuit, at which a single-acting cylinder with spring return is controlled by a 3/2 valve (3 lines and 2
positions), when the valve button is pressed, compressed air enters the cylinder and the piston goes forward. When
the button is released, the spring in the cylinder pushes the piston and returns it to its initial position.

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A practical example of the circuit above is a parts dispenser. When the valve is pressed manually, the cylinder pushes
one of the parts stacked in a dispenser. The part then falls, but only one of them, so it can be used, for instance, in a
production line.

5.3. Tab 2. Control of a double-acting cylinder

In a pneumatic circuit, at which a double-acting cylinder is controlled by a 4/2 valve (4 lines and 2 positions), is used
when the cylinder has to exert force in both directions of motion (hence “double-acting”). The cylinder pushes when it
moves to the left and pulls when it moves to the right. The piston will remain to the right unless the valve is kept
pressed.
Another way of controlling a double-acting cylinder is by using two 3/2 valves (3 lines and 2 positions). In this case,
the behaviour of the circuit is different. One of the valves makes the piston move to the left and the other one to the
right. The piston does not move until the opposite valve is pressed.

5.4. Tab 3. Control of a cylinder with speed regulation

A flow regulator has been installed in a circuit. This is a type of valve that allows more or less compressed air to flow,
like a tap. It's used to regulate the speed that the piston moves forward in a double-acting cylinder. As the regulator
closes, the piston will advance more slowly. Backward motion is fast since its speed cannot be adjusted as a one-way
valve has been installed to allow air to flow out quickly.
Also can be regulated the backward speed: the piston advances quickly but recedes gradually, and modify both, the
forward and backward motion, by adjusting the regulator to reduce the airflow that can go through it.
A practical example of speed regulation is a circuit with a double-acting cylinder with two regulators that makes an
industrial drill advance and recede at a controlled speed. By adjusting each of the regulators independently, we can
make it advance and recede at different speeds.

5.5. Tab 4. “AND” logical function

The “AND” logical function allows something to happen, for example that a cylinder is being activated only if two
conditions are met: condition A and condition B, both at the same time, hence the name “AND”. There are several
ways to implement an “AND” logical function. It can be done by using two 3/2 valves connected in a series. The
conditions that must be met for the cylinder to operate is that both valves, 1.1 and 1.2, must be pressed.
In other case, the “AND” logical function is implemented using two 3/2 valves connected in parallel and a third valve, a
dual-pressure valve, in between, before the cylinder. Dual-pressure valves only allow compressed air to flow when
they receive pressure from all inputs.
An example of the application of the circuits above is the activation of a machine using a two-handed button. Many
industrial machines have safety systems based on the circuits we've just seen. Two-handed button are an example of
this. To keep the machine from hurting the operator, it only activates itself when the operator pushes two buttons at
the same time, one with each hand. This simple technique helps prevent accidents by ensuring that operators are
away from the machine's reach.

5.6. Tab 5. “OR” logical function

The ”OR” logical function allows the cylinder to be activated if at least one of several conditions is met: condition A,
condition B, etc. For example, the cylinder will be activated if one of the two valves is pressed. It is implemented using
two 3/2 valves connected in parallel and a third valve, a shuttle valve. Shuttle valves allow two circuits to be
connected to a common output keeping pressure from a circuit from creating interference in the behaviour of the other
one.
The pneumatic circuit controlling the door on buses or trains implements the ”OR” logical function. The door must be
opened from either the driver's seat or the emergency buttons. Valves feature interlocking operation, which allows
them to be kept fixed in a certain position (they are locked in that position).

6. Pneumatic automation
6.1. Pneumatic automation
Many applications of pneumatics are manual, meaning they are controlled by a person who activates the valves when
necessary. The other type of application is automated systems. There is no human intervention in them and the entire
process takes place automatically, controlled by a computer. Automated pneumatic installations are very common,
more so than manual ones, since they are used in industrial applications, replacing people in repetitive or dangerous
tasks. Two examples: a parcel sorting machine (parcels are pushed by pneumatic cylinders when they need to be
taken off the belt) and a bottling, labelling and cap-fitting machine for bottles.

6.2. Structure of an automated pneumatic system.

An automated pneumatic system is made up of sensors, actuators and one or several controllers. In the drawing, you
can see the most basic automated system, with a sensor (a barcode scanner), a controller (of the PLC type, we'll look
at these later) and an actuator (a solenoid valve).

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 Basic structure of an automated pneumatic system.

6.3. Sensors
Sensors capture information from their surroundings and send it as electrical impulses (signals) to the controller.
There are many types of sensors: temperature, pressure, presence, proximity, etc. In the example you can see a
barcode scanner.

6.4. Controller
The controller is the “brains” of the system, it makes decisions taking into account the data it receives from sensors
and sends orders to the actuators. The controller can be a simple electronic circuit designed for a specific application
or a personal computer like the ones we use at home, even though a type of controller called PLC is most often used
(this stands for programmable logic controller). A PLC, as the one you can see above, is a small computer specialised
in controlling machines. The wires from sensors and those for actuators are connected to the PLC.

6.5. Actuators
Actuators are responsible for executing the decisions made by the controller so they receive commands directly from
it. In the case of automated systems, actuators are usually solenoid valves, meaning pneumatic valves operated by
electricity. When they receive electrical current, they open or close a circuit of pressurised air. They are used to
control pneumatic cylinders and motors (which are the final actuators). When a solenoid valve allows air to reach a
cylinder, it is activated and performs mechanical work (such as pushing a part, moving the machine, etc.).

6.6. Programming the system's operation

The PLC has a memory chip where the program running is recorded. By changing the program in memory, we can
change the operation of the machine controlled by the PLC. The most common way to do this is to connect a personal
computer to the PLC and open up an application that allows us to program it.

6.7. Example: automated parcel sorting

In an installation that automatically separates domestic parcels from international ones, parcels have a label with a
barcode specifying their destinations. A sensor located next to the belt reads the code using a laser beam and sends
the information to the controller, a PLC. The program in the controller indicates that if the parcel has a national
destination, it must continue on the conveyor belt while, if it is international, it must go to the other belt. In the latter
case, the PLC sends an electric current to the solenoid valve. The solenoid in the valve is activated and opens up the
flow of compressed air. The pneumatic cylinder then receives pressurised air, its piston moves and pushes the box
towards the belt for international destinations.

7. Hydraulics

7.1. Liquids cannot be compressed

Hydraulic systems are similar to the pneumatic systems that we've studied in previous mini-units. Both use the same
types of components: cylinders and rotational motors as actuators, pipes, valves that control the circuit and
compressors or pumps that transfer energy to fluids.
They also have important differences. The main one is that, while pneumatic systems use gas (compressed air) to
transfer motion and force, hydraulic systems use a liquid, hydraulic fluid, a type of mineral oil (oil extracted from
petroleum). Liquids cannot be compressed, if we exert pressure on a liquid enclosed in a recipient, it will not be
compressed, unlike gases, such as air. This gives hydraulic systems many advantages in their technological
applications... as well as a disadvantage or two.

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7.2. Hydraulic brakes
Brakes in cars, motorcycles or bicycles are an example of hydraulic systems. Upon depressing the brake pedal, a
piston exerts force on a liquid, the brake fluid. The fluid transfers force to the brakes, located at the wheels. In each
brake, one or several pistons receive this force and apply it against the axle of the wheel, with the purpose of stopping
it or slowing it down. In the front wheels, disc brakes are used. These are made up by a steel disc and brake pads.
The rear wheels usually use drum brakes, made up of brake shoes and a rotating drum attached to the wheel.

Schematic of the hydraulic brakes of a car.

7.3. A hydraulic system can multiply force, like a lever.

Hydraulic systems, unlike pneumatic ones, are sealed. The fluid inside them is not lost. This, coupled with the fact
that, being a liquid, it is not compressible, makes a hydraulic system composed of a cylinder with a small surface and
a cylinder with a large surface behave as a lever. Upon exerting force on the small cylinder, we obtain great force in
the large cylinder. The force obtained can be calculated using the formula: F1/S1=F2/S2. In exchange for obtaining
greater force, the displacement that the small cylinder must perform is much greater than the one for the large
cylinder.

7.4. Hydraulic systems can generate enormous forces.

By applying the phenomenon we've seen, hydraulic systems can generate enormous force. This feature is used in all
types of machines requiring great force, such as excavators, tractors, construction machinery, lorries, cranes, etc. In
these machines, the small-diameter cylinder is substituted by a pump driven by an electric motor or internal
combustion engine.
Another example of machinery requiring the great force that a hydraulic system may provide is a hydraulic press.
Presses are used to strongly press a part or material.

7.5. Hydraulic cylinders can be stopped at any point in their path.

The function of cranes is to lift heavy loads safely. This is possible thanks to their use of hydraulic cylinders that may
be stopped at any point in their path, since the oil inside them is not compressible. A crane with pneumatic cylinders
wouldn't be safe, as air can be compressed, which would make cylinders move suddenly upon loading or unloading.

7.6. Hydraulic actuators can perform movements with great precision.

Hydraulic actuators (cylinders and rotary motors) can move with pinpoint accuracy, stop at any point in their paths and
exert or withstand force in a static position. This makes them very useful in the design of all sorts of industrial
machinery, such as robotic arms.

7.7. Operation of pump-driven hydraulic systems

Some hydraulic systems operate thanks to the force exerted by a person (car breaks, hydraulic jacks used to lift cars
at garages etc.), even though the great majority are driven by a pump connected to a motor. In industrial machines,
like presses, an electric motor is used and, on heavy vehicles, such as excavators or cranes, it is the actual
combustion engine of the vehicle that drives the pump. One of the simplest pump-driven circuits are the ones found in
tipper lorries, like the one you can see in the image. A hydraulic pump (a gear pump) drives the fluid from a tank. The
fluid is sent to the actuators, a cylinder in this example. A distributing valve controls the motion of the cylinder, making
the fluid flow in one direction or the other.

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 Schematic of a pump-driven hydraulic system.

7.8. Disadvantages of hydraulics compared to pneumatics

The main disadvantage of hydraulic systems compared to pneumatic ones is that the former are sealed circuits. Fluid
cannot escape from the circuit (unlike compressed air), which makes its parts more difficult and expensive to build
and require more complex maintenance. Many hydraulic applications are very powerful, as excavators. Due to having
to withstand greater internal pressures and external forces, their parts have to be much more reinforced and are,
therefore, more expensive, even though this isn't really a disadvantage but, rather, a consequence of the type of work
they are designed to perform.

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