by Ray Marston

Part 1 +ve supply rail

Op-Amp Basics Inverting

Offset
compensation
stage Figure 1.
input (-) Out Simplified
op-amp
Non- equivalent
Inverting (+}
input circuit.
Ray Marston presents the opening episode of a Common
new four-part survey of op-amp principles and rail (OV} ov
applications. This first episode concentrates on -ve supply rail
basic principles and configurations.

A
conventional op-amp impedance (constant-current) tail to +ve supply
(operational amplifier) can give a high input impedance and Figure 2.
be simply described as a good common-mode signal rejec- Basic
high-gain direct-coupled input - symbol (a)
tion. It also has a high-impedance and
amplifier 'block' that has a single collector (or drain) load, to give a Non-inverting Op-&f11P. Out
input + supply
output terminal, but has both invert- large amount of signal-voltage gain connections
ing and non-inverting input termi- (typically about lOOdB). (b) of an
nals, thus enabling the device to The output of the differential op-amp.
function as either an inverting, non- amplifier is fed to the circuit's output (a) (b)
inverting, or differential amplifier. stage via an offset compensation
Op-amps are very versatile devices. network which - when the op-amp
When coupled to suitable feedback is suitably powered - causes the op-
networks, they can be used to make amp output to center on zero volts +ve
+ve
supply
precision AC and DC amplifiers and when both input terminals are tied supply
filters, oscillators, level switches, and to zero volts. The output stage takes
comparators, etc. the form of a complementary emit-
Three basic types of operational ter follower, and gives a low-imped-
amplifiers are readily available. The ance output. -ve
most important of these is the con- Conventional op-amps are rep- -ve supply
supply
ventional 'voltage-in, voltage-out' op- resented by the standard symbol
amp (typified by the popular 741 shown in Figure 2(a). They are nor- ov ov
and CA3140 !Cs), and this four-part mally powered from split supplies, (a) Inverting de amplmer (b} Non-Inverting de amplmer
mini-series takes an in-depth look at as shown in Figure 2(b ), providing +ve
the operating principles and practi- positive, negative, and common supply
cal applications of this type of (zero volt) supply rails, enabling the
device. The other two basic types of op-amp output to swing either side Figure 3.
op-amp are the current-differencing
Methods of using
of the zero volts value and to be set the op-amp as a
Input
or Norton op-amp (typified by the to zero when the differential input high gain, open
LM3900), and the operational voltage is zero. They can, however,
e2 Input -ve
e, loop, linear DC
transconductance amplifier or OTA also be powered from single-ended
! supply
amplifier.
(typified by the CA3080 and
LM13700); these two devices will be
described in some future editions of
supplies, if required.

BASIC CONFIGURATIONS
* nhov
(e) Differential de amplifier

this magazine.
The output signal of an op-amp nal voltage at the inverting input ter- op-amp as shown in Figure 3(c).
OP-AMP BASICS is proportional to the differential sig- minal). Note in the latter case that if identi-
nal voltage between its two input ter- Thus, an op-amp can be used cal signals are fed to both input ter-
In its simplest form, a conven- minals and, at low audio frequen- as a high-gain inverting DC amplifi- minals, the op-amp should - ideally
tional op-amp consists of a differen- cies, is given by: er by grounding its non-inverting ter- - give zero signal output.
tial amplifier (bipolar or FET) fol- minal and feeding the input signal to The voltage gains of the Figure
lowed by offset compensation and the inverting terminal, as shown in 3 circuits depend on the individual
output stages, as shown in Figure 1. Figure 3(a). Alternatively, it can be op-amp open-loop voltage gains,
All of these elements are integrated where Ao is the low frequency open- used as a non-inverting DC amplifi- and these are subject to wide varia-
on a single chip and housed in an IC loop voltage gain of the op-amp er by reversing the two input con- tions between individual devices.
package. The differential amplifier (typically lOOdB, or xl00,000, e 1 is nections, as shown in Figure 3(b), One special application of the
has inverting and non-inverting the signal voltage at the non-invert- or as a differential DC amplifier by 'open-loop' op-amp is as a differen-
input terminals, and has a high- ing input terminal, and e 2 is the sig- feeding the two input signals to the tial voltage comparator, one version
Nuts & Volts Magazine/J11&:t 2001 15
 Figure 4. Circuit (a) and transfer Supply
characteristics (b) of a simple +w
differential voltage comparator. +ve saturation

+ve

Reference Figure 6.
voltage Typical
-ve
e2 Out frequency

l l7t7ov
! -ve saturation
Supply
response curve
of the 741
op-amp.
-ve
(a} (b}

10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M

Frequency. Hz
+ve

SOkHz output
39k waveform

+ve

ov ov
1
(a) Inverting de amplifier (b} Non-inverting de amplifier

l
+ve

ov
Figure 5.
v0 u1 Closed-loop linear Figure 7. Effect of slew-rate
Input = Vin amplifier circuits. limiting on the output of an V- li.•----lime •I
(Vin)
op-amp fed with a squarewave
+ nhov * input.
(c} Voltage follower.
value. voltage of only 200mV is needed to
Figure 4(b) shows the voltage swing the output from a negative to
of which is shown in Figure 4(a). (close to the positive rail value) transfer characteristics of the above a positive saturation level, this
Here, a fixed reference voltage is when the sample voltage is more circuit. Note that it is the magnitude change can be caused by a shift of
applied to the inverting terminal and than a few hundred microvolts of the input differential voltage that only 0.01 % on a 2VO signal applied
a variable test or sample voltage is above the reference voltage, and to determines the magnitude of the to the sample input. The circuit thus
fed to the non-inverting terminal. negative saturation (close to the output voltage , and that the functions as a precision voltage
Because of the very high open-loop negative supply rail value) when the absolute values of input voltage are comparator or balance detector.
voltage gain of the op-amp, the out- sample is more than a few hundred of little importance. Thus, if a 2VO
put is driven to positive saturation microvolts below the reference reference is used and a differential CLOSED-LOOP
AMPLIFIERS
The most useful way of using
an op-amp as a linear amplifier is to
connect it in the closed-loop mode,
with negative feedback applied from
Variable 20,000 volt pulser used for Detects living bodies over the output to the input, as shown in
laser flash tube, spark gap and pyro 300' Heat leaks etc. Built in
ignitor, garden pest shocker, electric chopper and sens control the basic DC-coupled circuits of
fence, snake venom removal etc. BHT6 Plans .. $10.00 BHT6K Kit.. .. $99.95 Figure 5. This technique enables the
12 volt battery operation .
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BHT60 Ready to use .. .. ................ $149.95 overall gain of each circuit to be pre-
TRIG10 - Lab Asserrbled .............. $49.95 Ultra Bright Green La cisely controlled by the values of the
Star Wars Technology Demonstrates Weapons external feedback components,
Potential. Force Fields. lonMolors. Antigravity etc. 30 to 50x brighter than most red po· almost irrespective of the op-amp
Projects electric shocks without contact/I
Conduct many weird and bizarre experiments.
Full 5 m.v range in excess of 6000 feet I!
Operates for hours from 2 "AAA" batteri es
lii'i=ii;!I! characteristics (provided that the
Handheld battery operated and easy to operate.
LAPNGR5 Pointer. ... $Cati for Price II open-loop gain, Ac,, is large relative
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1007K KiVPlans .. ......... ....................$99.50
to the closed-loop gain, A).
10070 Asserrbled!Tested ........ ...... $149.95 Figure 5(a) shows how to wire
Higher Powered Device the op-amp as a fixed-gain inverting
1009K Kit/Plans ............................. $129.95
10090 Asserrbled!Tested .... .. ....... $199.95 DC amplifier. Here, the gain (A) of
the circuit is dictated by the ratios of
Rl and R2 and equals R2/Rl, and
the input impedance of the circuit
equals the R1 value; the circuit can
thus easily be designed to give any
desired values of gain and input
impedance.
Note in Figure 5(a) that
although R1 and R2 control the gain
of the complete circuit, they have no
effect on the parameters of the actu-
al op-amp. Thus, the inverting ter-
minal still has a very high input
impedance, and negligible signal
16 JUL'/ 2001/Nuts & Volts Magazine Circle #95 on the Reader Service Card.
current flows into the termi-
nal. Consequently, virtually Bipolar op-amps MOSFET op-amps JFE"f. OP-8!l1>S FREQ.
PARAMETER OFFSET N1 COMP
all of the R1 signal current 741 NE531 CA3130E CA3140E LF351 LF441 TL081 TL061
also flows in R2, and signal IN- V+
currents i 1 and i 2 can (for Supply voltage ±3Vto ±5Vto ±'N5to ±'Nto %5Vto %5Vto %5Vto t.2V to IN+ OUT
most practical purposes) be ±18V ±22V ±8V ±18V ±18V ±18V ±15V ±15V V- OFFSETN2
(5 to 16V (4to 3IN
regarded as being equal, as (a)
shown in the diagram. Also Supply current 1.7mA 5.5mA 1.8mA 3.6mA 0.8mA 1.8mA 1.8mA 0.2mA
note that R2 has an appar- Input olfset volts 1mV 2mV 8mV 5mV 5mV 0.8mV 5mV 3mV NC
IN- V+
ent value of R2/ A when
Input bias current 200nA 400nA 5pA 10pA 50pA 50pA 50pA 5pA IN+ + OUT
looked at from the inverting
V- 4 5 OFFSET N2
terminal, and the R 1-R2 Input resistance , O 1MO 20M 1.5T 1.5T 1.ar 1.0T 1.ar 1.ar
junction thus appears as a Voltage gain, A 0 106dB 96dB 110dB 100dB 106dB 106dB 76dB
(b)
88dB
low-impedance 'virtual
CMMR 90dB 100dB 90dB 90dB 100QB 100dB 100dB 86dB OFFSET STROBE
ground' point.
IN- V+
Figure 5(b) shows how fr 1MHz 1MHz 15MHz 4.5MHz 4MHz 4MHz 3M Hz 1MHz
IN+ + OUT
to connect the op-amp as a Slew rate (V/µS) 0.5 35 10 9 13 15 13 3.5 V- 4 5 OFFSET N2
fixed-gain non-inverting
amplifier. In this case, the IC outline b a c c b b b b (c)
voltage gain equals
(Rl+R2)/R2, and the input
impedance approximates Figure 8. Parameter and outline details of eight popular 'single' op-amp types.
(Ao/A)Zin, where Zin is the
open-loop input impedance of the
op-amp. The above circuit can be R2 R3 R2
made to function as a precision volt-
age follower by connecting it as a +ve
unity-gain non-inverting amplifier, V+
C1
as shown in Figure 5(c}, where the In+-;
op-amp operates with 100% nega- Out=
tive feedback. In this case, the input
ltn = R3
R3
v (R1+R2)
and output signal voltages are iden- R3 -ve Output
tical, but the input impedance of the
circuit is very high, approximating ov ov J,ov
Ao x Zin. (a) (b)
The basic op-amp circuits of
Figures 5(a) to 5(c) are shown as Figure 10. Basic inverting (a) and non-inverting Figure 9. Typical offset
DC amplifiers, but can readily be (b) AC amplifier circuits. nulling system.
adapted for AC use by AC-coupling
their inputs. Op-amps also have Typical values are IMO for op-amps loop. Values of a few hundred ohms by lb, and is typically a fraction of a
many applications other than as with bipolar input stages, and a mil- are typical of most op-amps. microamp in bipolar op-amps, and a
simple linear amplifiers. They can lion megohms for FET-input op- few picoamps in FET types.
be made to function in precision amps. 4. lb (input bias current). The
phase splitters, as adders or sub- input terminals of all op-amps sink 5. Vs (supply voltage range).
tractors, as active filters or selective 3. Z0 (output impedance). This or source finite currents when Op-amps are usually operated from
amplifiers, and as oscillators or mul- is the resistive output impedance of biased for linear operation. The split (+ve and -ve) supply rails,
tivibrators, etc. Some of these appli- the basic op-amp when used open- magnitude of this current is denoted which must be within maximum and
cations are shown later in this arti-
cle; in the meantime, let's look at
some important op-amp parame-
ters. M·icroprocessor Test Equipment
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Practical op-amps fall short of all of Instruction Manual contains
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performance parameters are and hardware control. The
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• Design a DTMF Autodialer I Remote Controller
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The PRIMER can be purchased as an unassembled kit ($120) or as an
and output terminals of the op-amp, assembled/tested kit ($170). Upgrades provide battery-backed RAM and PC modules for test and data logging. Units to lOOMSPS. 8
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Clrcle #96 on the Reader Service Card. Nuts & Volts Magazine/JIA:t 2001 17
 v1 R1 C1
R2 R2
C1 R1
V2 -.-jt--.1'1.Ar--e +ve
C1
v3 -.-f 1--.1'\o/\/'o--+--i
C1

R3
C2I -ve

rtnov
ov ov (a) (b)

Figure 11. Differential ampli- Figure 12. Inverting analog Figure 13. High-pass (a) and low-pass
fier or analog subtractor. adder or audio mixer. (b) second-order active filters.

V+ V+ V+

R1
R1

R1 R2

ov ov ov
Figure 14. Supply-line Figure 15. Adjustable- Figure 16. Adjustable-voltage Figure 1 7. Bridge-
splitter. voltage reference. DC power supply. balancing detector/switch.

minimum limits. If voltages are too cause it to act as though a small off- output if identical signals are 1OOdB, and in the interest of stabili-
high, the op-amp may be damaged set or bias voltage exists on its applied to both inputs simultaneous- ty, its open-loop frequency response
and, if too low, the op-amp will not inputs under this condition. ly, i.e., in common mode. In prac- is internally tailored so that the gain
function correctly. Typical limits are Typically, this V; 0 has a value of only tice, such signals do not entirely falls off at a rate of 6dB/ octave (=
±3V to ±15V. a few mV, but when this voltage is cancel out within the op-amp, and 20dB/decade), eventually falling to
amplified by the gain of the circuit in produce a small output signal. The unity (OdB) at a transition frequency
6. vi(max) (input voltage range) . which the op-amp is used, it may be ability of an op-amp to reject com- denoted fT· Figure 6 shows the typi-
Most op-amps will only operate cor- sufficient to drive the op-amp output mon mode signals is usually cal response curve of the type 7 41
rectly if their input terminal voltages well away from the 'zero' value. expressed in terms of CMMR, i.e., op-amp, which has an fT value of
are below the supply line values. Because of this, most op-amps have the ratio of the op-amp's gain with 1MHz and a low-frequency gain of
Typically, V;(max) is one or two volts some facility for externally nulling differential signals versus the gain 106dB. Note that, when the op-amp
less than Vs· out the effects of this offset voltage. with common mode signals. CMMR is used in a closed loop amplifier cir-
values of 90dB are typical of most cuit, the circuit's bandwidth depends
7. V; 0 (differential input offset 8. CMMR (common mode rejec- op-amps. on the closed-loop gain. Thus, in
voltage). Ideally, an op-amp's output tion ratio). An op-amp produces an Figure 6, the circuit has a bandwidth
should be zero when both inputs are output proportional to the difference 9. fT (transition frequency). An of only 1kHz at a gain of 60dB, or
grounded, but in practice, slight between the signals on its two input op-amp typically gives a low-fre- 1OOkHz at a gain of 20dB. The fT fig-
imbalances within the op-amp terminals. Ideally, it should give zero quency voltage gain of about ure can thus be used to represent a
gain-bandwidth product.

10. Slew rate. As well as being

subject to normal bandwidth limita-
tions, op-amps are also subject to a
phenomenon known as slew rate
limiting, which has the effect of lim-
iting the maximum rate of change of
voltage at the op-amp's output.
Figure 7 shows the effect that slew-
rate limiting can have on the output
of an op-amp that is fed with a
squarewave input. Slew rate is nor-
mally s'pecified in terms of volts per
microsecond, and values in the
range 1V/mS to 1OV /mS are usual
with most popular types of op-amp.
One effect of slew rate limiting is
to make a greater bandwidth avail-
able to small-amplitude output sig-
nals than to large-amplitude output
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in a variety of types of IC construc-
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and in a variety of types of packag-
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etc.). Some of these packages
Stocked in NY by Saelig Company: Virtual Instruments, 12C and embedded controllers, BIT/ink 2-wire house two or four op-amps, all shar-
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18 Jut.-t 2001/Nuts & Volts Magazine Circle #94 on the Reader Service Card.
tions. Figure 8 gives parame-
C2 R2= R1
ter and outline details of eight R2 =22.2k 1µO
popular 'single' op-amp types, C1
all of which use eight-pin OIL 01
(DIP) packaging.
The 741 and NE531 are
bipolar types. The 741 is a
ac
popular general-purpose op- R1 C1 ac input
amp featuring internal frequen- input
cy compensation and full over-
load protection on inputs and ov
outputs. The NE531 is a high- ov
performance type with very Figure 20. Wien-bridge Figure 18. Precision
high slew rate capability; an sinewave generator. Figure 19. Precision half-wave half-wave rectifier.
external compensation capaci- AD/DC converter.
tor ( 1OOpF) - wired between pins 6 as an analog subtractor.
and 8 - is needed for stability, but Figure 12 shows the cir- Squarewave
can be reduced to a very low value cuit of an inverting 'adder' output R1
( 1.8pF) to give a very wide band- or audio mixer; if RI and R2 C1
width at high gain. have equal values, the
The CA3130 and CA3140 are inverting output is equal to OV
Tliangle-
MOSFET-input type op-amps that the sum of the input volt- wave C1
can operate from single or dual ages. output Squarawave
power supplies, can sense inputs Op-amps can be made R3 output
R2
down to the negative supply rail to act as precision active fil-
value, have ultra-high input imped- ters by wiring suitable filters R3
ances, and have outputs that can be into their feedback net-
ov
strobed; the CA3130 has a CMOS works. Figure 13 shows the
output stage, and an external com-
Figure 22. Sine/square function Figure 21. Free-running
basic connections for mak-
generator. multivibrator.
pensation capacitor (typically 47pF) ing second-order high-pass
between pins 1 and 8 permits adjust- and filters; these
ment of bandwidth characteristics; circuits give roll-offs of 12dB/octave. figure 17 shows the basic circuit useful waveform generator circuits.
the CA3140 has a bipolar output Next month's episode of this mini- of a DC bridge-balancing detector, in The figure 20 design uses a Wien
stage and is internally compensated. series will show more sophisticated which the output swings high when bridge network to generate a good
The LF351, LF411, TL081 , and versions of these basic circuits. the inverting pin voltage is above sinewave; amplitude stabilization is
TL061 JFET types can be used as Figures 14 to 16 show some use- that of the non-inverting pin, and vice obtained via a low-current lamp (or
direct replacements for the 741 in ful applications of the basic voltage versa. This circuit can be made to thermistor). figure 21 is a very use-
most applications; the TL061 is a follower or unity-gain non-inverting function as a precision opto- or ther- ful squarewave generator circuit, in
low-power version of the TL081 . DC amplifier. The figure 14 circuit mo-switch by replacing one of the which the frequency can be con-
acts as a supply line splitter, and is bridge resistors with an LDR or ther- trolled via any one of the passive
OFFSET NUWNG useful for generating split DC sup- mistor. component values. The frequency of
plies from single-ended ones. Figure Figures 18 and 19 show how to the Figure 22 function generator cir-
All of the above op-amps are 15 acts as a semi-precision variable make precision half-wave rectifiers cuit can also be controlled via any
provided with an offset nulling facili- voltage reference, and figure 16 and AC/DC converters. These are one of its passive component val-
ty, to enable the output to be set to shows how the output current drive very useful instrumentation circuits. ues, but this particular design gen-
precisely zero with zero input, and can be boosted so that the circuit Finally, to complete this opening erates both square and triangle out-
this is usually achieved by wiring a acts as a variable voltage supply. episode, Figures 20 to 22 show some put waveforms. NV
1Ok pot between pins 1 and 5 and
connecting the pot slider (either

BIG POWER
directly or via a 4k7 range-limiting

PIC'n
resistor) to the negative supply rail
(pin 4), as shown in Figure 9. In the
case of the CA3130, a lOOk offset Books
nulling pot must be used. LOW COST
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Operational amplifiers are very digital 1/0 with a fast control-
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an almost infinite variety of linear provide a one-stop computation
and switching applications. Figures and control solution for cost-
sensitive control tasks. Used
10 to 22 show a small selection of stand alone or connected via
basic 'applications' circuits that can RS-232;RS-485, Dominos are
be used, and which will be looked at true plug-and-go control.
in greater detail in the remaining
three episodes of this 'Op-Amp' mini- Domino 1 features: Domino 2 has:
series. In most of these diagrams, • Full floating-point ROMed BASIC
• everything in Domino 1 plus
• 32-KB SRAM and 32-KB EEPROM
the supply line connections have • I 2 bits of parallel 1/0 • 16 more bits of high-current parallel 1/0
been omitted for clarity. • 2 PVVM outputs • Hardware clock/calendar
• l'C bus • Wide-range power operation
Figure 10 shows basic ways of • Hardware PVVM output
• 2-channel 12-brtADC
using op-amps to make fixed-gain • Serial port: 19.2-kbps RS-232A.
inverting or non-inverting AC ampli-
•
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Circle 197 on the Reader Service Card. Nuts & Volts Magazine/Jra't 2001 19
17/04/2020 OP-AMP COOKBOOK — Part 2 | Nuts & Volts Magazine
NUTS & VOLTS MAGAZINE (AUGUST 2001)

OP-AMP COOKBOOK — PART 2

By Ray Marston

Our opening episode of this four-part ‘op-amp’ series described the basic operating principles
of conventional voltage-differencing op-amps (typi ed by the 741 type) and showed some
basic circuit con gurations in which they can be used. This installment looks at practical ways
of using such op-amps in linear ampli er and active lter applications.

When reading this episode, note that all practical circuits are shown designed around a
standard 741-type op-amp and operated from dual 9V supplies, but that these circuits will
usually work (without modi cation) with most voltage-differencing op-amps, and from any DC
supply within that op-amp’s operating range (allowing for possible differences in the op-amp’s
offset biasing networks).

INVERTING AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS

Figure 1 shows the practical circuit of an inverting DC ampli er with an overall voltage gain (A)
of x10 (= 20dB), and with an offset nulling facility that enables the output to be set to precisely
zero with zero applied input. The voltage gain and input impedance are determined by the R1
and R2 values, and can be altered to suit individual needs. The gain can be made variable — if
required — by using a series combination of a xed and a variable resistor in place of R2. For
optimum biasing stability, R3 should have a value equal to the parallel values of R1 and R2.

FIGURE 1. Inverting DC ampli er with offset-nulling facility and x10 voltage gain.

Note that the Figure 1 circuit will continue to function if the RV1 offset-nulling network is
removed, but its output may offset by an amount equal to the op-amp’s input offset voltage
(typically 1mV in a 741) multiplied by the closed-loop voltage gain (A) of the circuit, e.g., if the
circuit has a gain of x100, the output may be offset by 100mV with zero input applied.

Also note that the circuit’s bandwidth equals the fT value (typically 1MHz in a 741) divided by
the ‘A’ value, e.g., the Figure 1 circuit gives a bandwidth of 100kHz with a gain of x10, or 10kHz
with a gain of x100.

FIGURE 2. Inverting AC ampli er with x10 gain.

The Figure 1 circuit can be adapted for use as an AC ampli er by simply wiring a blocking
capacitor in series with the input terminal, as shown in Figure 2. Note in this case that no
offset nulling facility is needed, and that (for optimum biasing) R3 is given a value equal to R2.

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NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS

An op-amp can be used as a non-inverting DC ampli er with offset compensation by using the
connections shown in Figure 3, which shows an x10 ampli er. The voltage gain is determined
by the ratios of R1 and R2, as indicated. If R1 is given a value of zero, the gain falls to unity;
alternatively, if R2 is given a value of zero, the gain equals the open-loop gain of the op-amp.
The gain can thus be made variable by replacing R1 with a pot and connecting its slider to the
inverting terminal of the op-amp, as shown in the circuit in Figure 4, in which the gain can be
varied over the range x1 to x101 via RV2.

FIGURE 3. Non-inverting DC ampli er with FIGURE 4. Non-inverting variable

offset-nulling facility and x10 gain. gain (x1 to x101) DC ampli er.

Note that — for correct operation — the input (non-inverting) terminal of each of these circuits
must be provided with a DC path to the common or zero-volts rail; this path is provided by the
DC input signal. In Figure 3, the parallel values of R1 and R2 should ideally (for optimum
biasing) have a value equal to the source resistance of the input signal.

A major feature of the non-inverting op-amp circuit is that it gives a very high input impedance.
In theory, this impedance is equal to the open-loop input resistance (typically 1M0 in a bipolar
741) multiplied by AO/A. In practice, input impedance values of hundreds of megohms can
easily be obtained in DC circuits such as those in Figures 3 and 4.

Figure 5 shows how the Figure 3 circuit can be modi ed for use as an x10 non-inverting AC
ampli er by removing the offset biasing network, connecting the non-inverting terminal to
ground via biasing resistor R3, and connecting the input signal via a blocking capacitor. Note
that gain-control resistors R1-R2 are isolated from ground via blocking capacitor C2, which has
negligible impedance at practical operating frequencies; the voltage gain is thus determined
by the ratios of R1 and R2, but the op-amp’s inverting terminal is subjected to virtually 100%
DC negative feedback, thus giving the circuit excellent DC stability. For optimum biasing, R3
should have the same value as R1.

FIGURE 5. Non-inverting x10 AC FIGURE 6. Non-inverting x10 AC

ampli er with 100k input impedance. ampli er with 50M input impedance.

Note that the input impedance of the Figure 5 circuit equals the R3 value, and is limited to a
few megohms by practical considerations. Figure 6 shows how the basic circuit can be
modi ed to give a very high input impedance (typically 50 megohms).

Here, the positions of C2 and R2 are transposed, and the low end of R3 is tied to the C2-R2
junction. As a consequence, near-identical operating (AC) signal voltages appear at both ends
of R3, which thus passes negligible signal current and has an apparent impedance that is
massively increased by this ‘bootstrap’ action.

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In practice, the circuit’s input impedance is typically limited to about 50 megohms by leakage
impedances of the op-amp’s socket and the PCB to which it is wired. Note that — for optimum
DC biasing — the sum of the R2 and R3 values should equal R1. In practice, the R3 value can
differ from this ideal by up to 30%, and an actual value of 100k can be used in the Figure 6
circui, if desired.

VOLTAGE FOLLOWER CIRCUITS

A voltage follower circuit produces an output voltage that is identical to that of the input
signal, but has a very high input impedance and a very low output impedance. The circuit
actually functions as a unity-gain non-inverting ampli er with 100% negative feedback. Figure
7 shows the idealized design of a precision voltage follower with offset biasing. Note that —
for optimum biasing — feedback resistor R1 should have a value equal to the source
resistance of the input signal.

In practice, the basic Figure 7 circuit can often be greatly simpli ed. Eliminating the offset
biasing network, for example, adds an error of only a few mV to the output of the op-amp.
Again, the value of feedback resistor R1 can be varied from zero to 100k without greatly
in uencing the circuit’s accuracy.

FIGURE 7. Precision DC voltage follower FIGURE 8. AC voltage follower with

with offset null facility. 100k input impedance.

If an op-amp with a low fT value (such as the 741) is used, the R1 value can usually be reduced
to zero. Note, however, that many ‘high fT’ op-amps tend towards instability when used in the
unity-gain mode and, in such cases, R1 should be given a value of 1k0 or greater to effectively
reduce the circuit’s bandwidth and thus enhance stability.

Figure 8 shows an AC version of the voltage follower. In this case, the input signal is DC-
blocked via C1, and the op-amp’s non-inverting terminal is tied to ground via R1, which
determined the circuit’s input impedance. Ideally, feedback resistor R2 should have the same
value as R1. If R2 has a high value, however, it may signi cantly reduce the circuit’s bandwidth.
This problem can be overcome by shunting R2 with C2, as shown dotted. If the latter
technique is used with a ‘high fT’ op-amp, resistor R3 can be connected as shown to ensure
circuit stability.

If a very high input impedance is required from an AC voltage follower, it can be obtained by
using the basic con guration shown in Figure 9, in which R1 is ‘bootstrapped’ from the op-amp
output via C2, thus raising its impedance to near-in nity. In practice, this circuit can easily give
an input impedance of 50 megohms from a 741 op-amp; this limit being set by the leakage
impedance of the op-amp’s IC socket and the PCB.

FIGURE 9. AC voltage follower with 50M input impedance without the guard ring, or
500M with the guard ring.

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If an even greater input impedance is needed, the area of PCB surrounding the op-amp input
pin should be provided with a printed ‘guard ring’ that is driven from the op-amp output, as
shown, so that the leakage impedances of the PCB, etc., are themselves bootstrapped and
raised to near-in nite values. In this case, the Figure 9 circuit gives an input impedance of
about 500 megohms when used with a 741 op-amp, or even greater if an FET-input op-amp is
used.

CURRENT-BOOSTED ‘FOLLOWER’ CIRCUITS

Most op-amps can provide maximum output currents of only a few milliamps, and this is the
current-driving limit of the voltage follower circuits in Figures 7 to 9. The current-driving
capacity of a voltage follower can easily be increased, however, by wiring a simple or a
complementary emitter follower current booster stage between the op-amp output and the
nal output terminal of the circuit, as shown in the basic designs in Figures 10 and 11. Note
that the base-emitter junctions of the transistors are wired into the negative feedback loop of
the op-amp, to minimize the effects of junction non-linearity.

FIGURE 10. Unidirectional DC voltage FIGURE 11. Bidirectional DC voltage

follower with boosted output-current follower with boosted output-current
drive. drive.

The Figure 10 circuit is able to source large currents (via Q1), but can sink only relatively small
ones (via R1). This circuit can thus be regarded as a unidirectional, positive-only, DC voltage
follower.

The Figure 11 circuit can both source (via Q1) and sink (via Q2) large output currents, and can
be regarded as a bidirectional (positive and negative) voltage follower. In the simple form
shown in the diagram, the circuit produces signi cant cross-over distortion as the output
moves around the zero volts value. This distortion can be eliminated by suitably biasing Q1
and Q2.

In practice, the Figure 10 and 11 circuits have maximum current-drive capacities of about
50mA, this gure being dictated by the low power ratings of the speci ed transistors. Greater
drive capacity can be obtained by using alternative transistors.

ADDERS AND SUBTRACTORS

Figure 12 shows the circuit of a unity-gain analog DC voltage adder, which gives an inverted
output voltage equal to the sum of the three input voltages. Input resistors R1 to R3 and
feedback resistor R4 have identical values, so the circuit acts as a unity-gain inverting DC
ampli er between each input terminal and the output. The current owing in R4 is equal to the
sum of the R1 to R3 currents, and the inverted output voltage is thus equal to the sum of the
input voltages. In high-precision applications, the circuit can be provided with an offset nulling
facility.

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FIGURE 12. Unity-gain inverting DC adder. FIGURE 13. Unity-gain audio mixer.

The Figure 12 circuit is shown with three input connections, but can, in fact, be given any
number of inputs (each with a value equal to R1), but in this case, the R5 value should (for
optimum biasing) be altered to equal the parallel values of all other resistors. If required, the
circuit can be made to give a voltage gain greater than unity by simply increasing the value of
feedback resistor R4. The circuit can be used as a multi-input ‘audio mixer’ by AC-coupling the
input signals and giving R5 the same value as the feedback resistor, as shown in the four-input
circuit in Figure 13.

FIGURE 14. Unity-gain DC differential ampli er, or subtractor.

Figure 14 shows the circuit of a unity-gain DC differential ampli er, or analog subtractor, in
which the output equals the difference between the two input signal voltages, i.e., equals e2 -
e1. In this type of circuit, the component values are chosen such that R1/R2 = R3/R4, in which
case, the voltage gain, A, equals R2/R1. When — in Figure 14 — R1 and R2 have equal values,
the circuit gives unity overall gain, and thus acts as an analog subtractor.

BALANCED PHASE-SPLITTER
A phase-splitter has a pair of output terminals, which produce outputs that are identical in
amplitude and form, but with one output phase-shifted by 180° (i.e., inverted) relative to the
other. Figure 15 shows an easy way of making a unity-gain balanced DC phase-splitter, using a
pair of 741 op-amps.

FIGURE 15. Unity-gain balanced DC phase-splitter.

Here, IC1 acts as a unity-gain non-inverting ampli er or voltage follower, and provides a
buffered output signal that is identical to that of the input.

This output also provides the input drive to IC2, which acts as a unity-gain inverting ampli er,
and provides the second output, which is inverted but is otherwise identical to the original
input signal.

ACTIVE FILTERS

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Filter circuits are used to reject unwanted frequencies and pass only those wanted by the
designer. A simple R-C low-pass lter (Figure 16(a)) passes low-frequency signals, but rejects
high-frequency ones.

The output falls by 3dB at a ‘break’ or ‘cross-over’ frequency (fC) of 1/2πRC), and then falls at a
rate of 6dB/octave (= 20dB/decade) as the frequency is increased (see Figure 16(b)). Thus, a
simple 1kHz lter gives roughly 12dB of rejection to a 4kHz signal, and 20dB to a 10kHz one.

FIGURE 16. Circuit and response curves of simple 1st-order R-C lters.

A simple R-C high-pass lter (Figure 16(c)) passes high-frequency signals, but rejects low-
frequency ones. The output is 3dB down at a break frequency of 1/2πRC), and then falls at a
6dB/octave rate as the frequency is decreased below this value (Figure 16(d)). Thus, a simple
1kHz lter gives roughly 12dB of rejection to a 250Hz signal, or 20dB to a 100Hz signal.

Each of the above two lter circuits uses a single R-C stage, and is known as a ‘1st order’ lter.
If a number (n) of similar lters are effectively cascaded, the resulting circuit is known as an
‘nth order’ lter and has an output slope, beyond fC, of (n x 6dB)/octave.

Thus, a 4th order 1kHz low-pass lter has a slope of 24dB/octave, and gives 48dB of rejection
to a 4kHz signal, and 80dB to a 10kHz signal.

One way of effectively cascading such lters is to wire them into the feedback networks of
suitable op-amp ampli ers; such circuits are known as ‘active lters,’ and Figures 17 to 23
show practical examples of some of them.

ACTIVE FILTER CIRCUITS

Figure 17 shows the practical circuit and formula of a maximally- at (Butterworth) unity-gain
2nd-order low-pass lter with a 10kHz break frequency. Its output falls off at a 12dB/octave
rate beyond 10kHz, and is about 40dB down at 100kHz, and so on. To change the break
frequency, simply change either the R or the C value in proportion to the frequency ratio
relative to Figure 17; reduce the values by this ratio to increase the frequency, or increase
them to reduce it. Thus, for 4kHz operation, increase the R values by a ratio of 10kHz/4kHz, or
2.5 times.

FIGURE 17. Unity-gain 2nd-order FIGURE 18. ‘Equal components’ version of 2nd-
10kHz low-pass active lter. order 10kHz low-pass active lter.

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A minor snag with the Figure 17 circuit is that one of its C values must be twice the value of
the other, and this may demand odd component values. Figure 18 shows an alternative 2nd-
order 10kHz low-pass lter circuit that overcomes this snag and uses equal component
values. Note here that the op-amp is designed to give a voltage gain (4.1dB in this case) via R1
and R2, which must have the values shown.

FIGURE 19. 4th-order 10kHz low-pass lter.

Figure 19 shows how two of these ‘equal component’ lters can be cascaded to make a 4th-
order low-pass lter with a slope of 24dB/octave. Note in this case that gain-determining
resistors R1/R2 have a ratio of 6.644, and R3/R4 have a ratio of 0.805, giving an overall voltage
gain of 8.3dB. The odd values of R2 and R4 can be made up by series-connecting 5% resistors.

FIGURE 20. Unity-gain 2nd-order FIGURE 21. ‘Equal components’ version of 2nd-
100Hz high-pass lter. order 100Hz high-pass lter.

Figures 20 and 21 show unity-gain and ‘equal component’ versions respectively of 2nd-order
100Hz high-pass lters, and Figure 22 shows a 4th-order 100Hz high-pass lter. The operating
frequencies of these circuits, and those of Figures 18 and 19, can be altered in exactly the
same way as in Figure 17, i.e., by increasing the R or C values to reduce the break frequency, or
vice versa.

FIGURE 22. 4th-order 100Hz high-pass lter.

Finally, to complete this installment of the series, Figure 23 shows how the Figure 21 high-
pass and Figure 18 low-pass lters can be wired in series to make (with suitable component
value changes) a 300Hz to 3.4kHz speech lter that gives 12dB/octave rejection to all signals
outside of this range.

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FIGURE 23. 300Hz to 3.4kHz speech lter with 2nd-order response.

In the case of the high-pass lter, the C values in Figure 21 are reduced by a factor of three, to
raise the break frequency from 100Hz to 300Hz and, in the case of the low-pass lter, the R
values in Figure 18 are increased by a factor of 2.94, to reduce the break frequency from
10kHz to 3.4kHz.  NV

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NUTS & VOLTS MAGAZINE (SEPTEMBER 2001)

OP-AMP COOKBOOK — PART 3

By Ray Marston

The opening episode of this ‘op-amp’ series described the basic operating principles of
conventional voltage-differencing op-amps (typi ed by the 741 type), and showed some basic
circuit con gurations in which they can be used. The present episode looks at practical ways
of using such op-amps in various oscillator and switching applications.

When reading this installment, note that most practical circuits are shown designed around a
standard 741 or 3140-type op-amp and operated from dual 9V supplies, but that these circuits
will usually work (without modi cation) with most voltage-differencing op-amps, and from any
DC supply within that op-amp’s operating range.

SINEWAVE OSCILLATORS
An op-amp can be made to act as a sinewave oscillator by connecting it as a linear ampli er in
the basic con guration shown in Figure 1, in which the ampli er output is fed back to the input
via a frequency-selective network, and the overall gain of the ampli er is controlled via a level-
sensing system.

Figure 1. Conditions for stable sinewave oscillation.

For optimum sinewave generation, the feedback network must provide an overall phase shift
of zero degrees and a gain of unity at the desired frequency. If the overall gain is less than
unity, the circuit will not oscillate and, if it is greater than unity, the output waveform will be
distorted.

Figure 2. Basic Wien Bridge sinewave oscillator.

One way of implementing the above principle is to connect a Wien Bridge network and an op-
amp in the basic con guration shown in Figure 2. Here, the frequency-sensitive Wien Bridge
network is constructed from R1-C1 and R2-C2. Normally, the network is symmetrical, so that
C1 = C2 = C, and R1 = R2 = R. The main feature of the Wien network is that the phase
relationship of its output-to-input signals varies from -90° to +90°, and is precisely 0° at a
center frequency (fO) of 1/2πpCR. At this center frequency, the symmetrical network has a
voltage gain of 0.33.

Thus, in Figure 2, the Wien network is connected between the output and the non-inverting
input of the op-amp, so that the circuit gives zero overall phase shift at fO, and the actual
ampli er is given a voltage gain of x3 via feedback network R3-R4, to give the total system an
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overall gain of unity.

The circuit thus provides the basic requirements of sinewave oscillation. In practice, however,
the ratios of R3-R4 must be carefully adjusted to give overall voltage gain of precise unity that
is necessary for low-distortion sinewave generation.

The basic Figure 2 circuit can easily be modi ed to give automatic gain adjustment and
amplitude stability by replacing the passive R3-R4 gain-determining network with an active
gain-control network that is sensitive to the amplitude of the output signal, so that gain
decreases as the mean output amplitude increases, and vice versa. Figures 3 to 7 show some
practical versions of Wien Bridge oscillators with automatic amplitude stabilization.

THERMISTOR-STABILIZED CIRCUITS
Figure 3 shows the basic circuit of a 1kHz thermistor-stabilized Wien bridge oscillator of the
type that has been popular in the UK and other European countries for many years. The
thermistor used here is a rather expensive and delicate RA53 (or similar) negative-
temperature-coe cient (ntc) type. The thermistor (TH1) and RV1 form a gain-determining
network.

Figure 3. Thermistor stabilized 1kHz Wien Bridge oscillator.

The thermistor is heated by the mean output power of the op-amp, and at the desired output
signal level has a resistance value double that of RV1, thus giving the op-amp a gain of x3 and
the overall circuit a gain of unity. If the oscillator output starts to rise, TH1 heats up and
reduces its resistance, thereby automatically reducing the circuit’s gain and stabilizing the
amplitude of the output signal.

Figure 4. 150Hz-1.5kHz lamp-stabilized Wien Bridge oscillator.

An alternative method of thermistor stabilization is shown in Figure 4; this circuit variant is

very popular in the USA. In this circuit, a low-current lament lamp is used as a positive-
temperature-coe cient (ptc) thermistor, and is placed in the lower part of the gain-determining
feedback network.

Thus, if the output amplitude increases, the lamp heats up and increases its resistance,
thereby reducing the circuit gain and providing automatic amplitude stabilization. This circuit
also shows how the Wien network can be modi ed by using a twin-gang pot to make the
oscillator frequency variable over the range 150Hz to 1.5kHz, and how the sinewave output
amplitude can be made variable via RV3.

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Note in the Figure 3 and 4 circuits that the pre-set pot should be adjusted to set the maximum
mean output signal level to about 2V RMS, and that under this condition, the sinewave has a
typical total harmonic distortion (THD) level of about 0.1%.

If the circuit’s thermistor is a low-resistance type, it may be necessary to interpose a

bidirectional current-booster stage between the op-amp output and the input of the amplitude
control network, to give it adequate drive.

Finally, a slightly annoying feature of thermistor-stabilized circuits is that, in variable-frequency

applications, the sinewave’s output amplitude tends to judder or ‘bounce’ as the frequency
control pot is swept up and down its range.

DIODE-STABILIZATION CIRCUITS

Figure 5. Diode-regulated 150Hz-1.5kHz Wien Bridge oscillator.

The amplitude ‘bounce’ problem of variable-frequency circuits can be minimized by using the
basic circuits in Figures 5 or 6, which rely on the onset of diode or zener conduction for
automatic gain control. In essence, RV2 is set so that the circuit gain is slightly greater than
unity when the output is close to zero, causing the circuit to oscillate, but as each half-cycle
nears the desired peak value, one or other of the diodes starts to conduct and thus reduces
the circuit gain, automatically stabilizing the peak amplitude of the output signal.

Figure 6. Zener-regulated 150Hz-1.5kHz Wien Bridge oscillator.

This ‘limiting’ technique typically results in the generation of 1% to 2% THD on the sinewave
output when RV2 is set so that oscillation is maintained over the whole frequency band. The
maximum peak-to-peak output of each circuit is roughly double the breakdown voltage of its
diode regulator element. In the Figure 5 circuit, the diodes start to conduct at 500mV, so the
circuit gives a peak-to-peak output of about 1V0; in the Figure 6 circuit, the zener diodes are
connected back-to-back and may have values as high as 5V6, giving a pk-to-pk output of about
12V.

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Figure 7. Three-decade (15Hz-15kHz) Wien Bridge oscillator.

The frequency ranges of the above circuits can be altered by changing the C1 and C2 values;
increasing the values by a decade reduces the frequency by a decade. Figure 7 shows the
circuit of a variable-frequency Wien oscillator that covers the range 15Hz to 15kHz in three
switched decade ranges. The circuit uses zener diode amplitude stabilization; its output
amplitude is variable via both switched and fully-variable attenuators. Note that the maximum
useful operating frequency of this type of circuit is restricted by the slew-rate limitations of the
op-amp. The limit is about 25kHz with a 741 op-amp, or about 70kHz with a CA3140.

A TWIN-T OSCILLATOR
Another way of making a sinewave oscillator is to wire a Twin-T network between the output
and input of an inverting op-amp, as shown in the diode-regulated 1kHz oscillator circuit in
Figure 8. The Twin-T network comprises R1-R2-R3-RV1 and C1-C2-C3, and in a ‘balanced’
circuit; these components are in the ratios R1 = R2 = 2 (R3 + RV1), and C1 = C2 = C3/2.

When the network is perfectly balanced, it acts as a frequency-dependent attenuator that gives
zero output at a center frequency (fO) of 1/2 π R1.C1, and a nite output at all other
frequencies. When the network is imperfectly balanced, it gives a minimal but nite output at
fO, and the phase of this output depends on the direction of the imbalance: if the imbalance is
caused by (R3 + RV1) being too low in value, the output phase is inverted relative to the input.

Figure 8. Diode-regulated 1kHz Twin-T oscillator.

In Figure 8, the 1kHz Twin-T network is wired between the output and the inverting input of the
op-amp, and RV1 is critically adjusted so that the Twin-T gives a small inverted output at fO;
under this condition zero overall phase inversion occurs around the feedback loop, and the
circuit oscillates at the 1kHz center frequency.

In practice, RV1 is adjusted so that oscillation is barely sustained and, under this condition, the
sinewave output distortion is less than 1% THD. Automatic amplitude control is provided via
D1, which provides a feedback signal via RV2; this diode progressively conducts and reduces
the circuit gain when the diode forward voltage exceeds 500mV.

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To set up the Figure 8 circuit, rst set RV2 slider to the op-amp output and adjust RV1 so that
oscillation is just sustained; under this condition, the output signal has an amplitude of about
500mV pk-to-pk. RV2 then enables the output signal to be varied between 170mV and 3V0
RMS. Note that Twin-T circuits make good xed-frequency sinewave oscillators, but are not
suitable for variable-frequency use, due to the di culties of varying three or four network
components simultaneously.

SQUAREWAVE GENERATORS

Figure 9. Basic relaxation oscillator circuit.

Figure 9 shows a basic op-amp relaxation oscillator or squarewave generator using dual (split)
power supplies. Its circuit action is such that C1 alternately charges and discharges (via R1)
towards an ‘aiming’ or reference voltage set by R2-R3, and each time C1 reaches this aiming
voltage, a regenerative comparator action occurs and makes the op-amp output switch state
(to positive or negative saturation); this action produces a symmetrical squarewave at the op-
amp’s output and a non-linear trianglewave across C1.

Figure 10. Simple 500Hz-5kHz squarewave generator.

The operating frequency can be varied by altering either the R1 or C1 values or the R2-R3
ratios; this circuit is thus quite versatile. A fast op-amp such as the CA3140 should be used if
good output rise and fall times are needed from the squarewave.

Figure 11. Improved 500Hz-5kHz squarewave generator.

Figure 10 shows the basic circuit adapted to make a practical 500Hz to 5kHz squarewave
generator, with frequency variation obtained by altering the R2-RV1-R3 attenuator ratio. Figure
11 shows the circuit improved by using RV2 to pre-set the range of the RV1 frequency control,
and by using RV3 as an output amplitude control.

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Figure 12. Four-decade, 2Hz-20kHz, squarewave generator.

Figure 12 shows how the above circuit can be modi ed to make a general-purpose
squarewave generator that covers the 2Hz to 20kHz range in four switched decade ranges.
Pre-set pots RV1 to RV4 are used to precisely set the minimum frequency of the 2Hz to 20Hz,
20Hz to 200Hz, 20Hz to 2kHz, and 2kHz to 20kHz ranges, respectively.

VARIABLE SYMMETRY
In the basic Figure 9 circuit, C1 alternately charges and discharges via R1, and the circuit
generates a symmetrical squarewave output. The circuit can easily be modi ed to give a
variable-symmetry output by providing C1 with alternate charge and discharge paths, as
shown in Figures 13 and 14.

Figure 13. Squarewave generator with variable M/S-ratio and frequency.

In the Figure 13 circuit, the mark/space (M/S) ratio of the output waveform is fully variable
from 11:1 to 1:11 via RV1, and the frequency is variable from 650Hz to 6.5kHz via RV2. The
circuit action is such that C1 alternately charges up via R1-D1 and the left-hand side of RV1,
and discharges via R1-D2 and the right-hand side of RV1, to provide a variable-symmetry
output. In practice, variation of RV1 has negligible effect on the operating frequency of the
circuit.

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17/04/2020 OP-AMP COOKBOOK — Part 3 | Nuts & Volts Magazine

Figure 14. Variable-frequency narrow-pulse generator.

In the Figure 14 circuit, the mark period is determined by C1-D1-R1, and the space period by
C1-D2-R2; these periods differ by a factor of 100, so the circuit generates a narrow pulse
waveform. The pulse frequency is variable from 300Hz to 3kHz via RV1.

TRIANGLE-SQUARE GENERATION
Figure 15 shows the basic circuit of a function generator that simultaneously generates a
linear triangle and a square waveform, using two op-amps. IC1 is wired as an integrator, driven
from the output of IC2, and IC2 is wired as a differential voltage comparator, driven from the
output of IC1 via potential divider R2-R3, which is connected between the outputs of IC1 and
IC2. The squarewave output of IC2 switches alternately between positive and negative
saturation. The circuit functions as follows.

Suppose initially that the output of IC1 is positive and the output of IC2 has just switched to
positive saturation. The inverting input of IC1 is a virtual earth point, so a current (i) of
+Vsat/R1 ows into R1, causing the output of IC1 to start to swing down linearly at a rate of
i/C1 volts per second. This output is fed — via the R2-R3 divider — to the non-inverting input of
IC2, which has its inverting terminal referenced directly to ground.

Consequently, the output of IC1 swings linearly to a negative value until the R2-R3 junction
voltage falls to zero, at which point IC2 enters a regenerative switching phase, in which its
output abruptly switches to negative saturation. This reverses the inputs of IC1 and IC2, so IC1
output starts to rise linearly, until it reaches a positive value at which the R2-R3 junction
voltage reaches the zero volts reference value, initiating another switching action. The whole
process then repeats add in nitum.

Figure 15. Basic triangle/square function generator.

Important points to note about the Figure 15 circuit are that the pk-to-pk amplitude of the
linear triangle waveform is controlled by the R2-R3 ratio, and that the circuit’s operating
frequency can be altered by changing either the ratios of R2-R3, the values of R1 or C1, or by
feeding R1 from a potential divider connected to the output of IC2 (rather than directly from
IC2 output. Figure 16 shows the practical circuit of a variable-frequency triangle/square
generator that uses the latter technique.

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17/04/2020 OP-AMP COOKBOOK — Part 3 | Nuts & Volts Magazine

Figure 16. 100Hz-1kHz triangle/square function generator.

In Figure 16, the input current of C1 (obtained from RV2-R2) can be varied over a 10:1 range
via RV1, enabling the frequency to be varied from 100Hz to 1kHz; RV2 enables the full-scale
frequency to be set to precisely 1kHz. The amplitude of the linear triangle output waveform is
fully variable via RV3, and of the squarewave via RV4.

Figure 17. 100Hz-1kHz ramp/rectangle generator with variable slope-M/S ratio.

The Figure 16 circuit generates symmetrical output waveforms, since C1 alternately charges
and discharges at equal current values (determined by RV2-R2, etc.). Figure 17 shows how the
circuit can be modi ed to make a variable-symmetry ramp/rectangle generator, in which the
slope is variable via RV2. C1 alternately charges via R2-D1 and the upper half of RV2, and
discharges via R2-D2 and the lower half of RV2.

SWITCHING CIRCUITS
To conclude this month’s edition of the ‘OP-AMP COOKBOOK,’ Figures 18 to 20 show three
ways of using op-amps as simple regenerative switches. Figure 18 shows the connections for
making a simple manually-triggered bistable circuit. Note here that the inverting terminal of
the op-amp is tied to ground via R1, and the non-inverting terminal is tied directly to the output.
The circuit operates as follows.

Figure 18. Simple manually-triggered bistable.

Normally, SW1 and SW2 are open. If SW1 is brie y closed, the op-amp inverting terminal is
momentarily pulled high and the output is driven to negative saturation; consequently, when
SW1 is released again, the inverting terminal returns to zero volts, but the output and the non-
inverting terminals remain in negative saturation.

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17/04/2020 OP-AMP COOKBOOK — Part 3 | Nuts & Volts Magazine

Figure 19. Single-supply manually-triggered bistable.

The output remains in this state until SW2 is brie y closed, at which point, the op-amp output
switches to positive saturation, and locks into this state until SW1 is again operated. The
circuit thus gives a bistable form of operation. Figure 19 shows how the circuit can be
modi ed for operation from a single-ended power supply. In this case, the op-amp’s inverting
terminal is biased to half-supply volts via R1 and the R2-R3 potential divider.

Figure 20. Schmitt trigger.

Finally, Figure 20 shows how to connect an op-amp as a Schmitt trigger, which can (for
example), be used to convert a sinewave input into a squarewave output. The circuit operates
as follows.

Suppose initially that the op-amp output is at a positive saturation value of 8V0. Under this
condition, the R1-R2 divider feeds a positive reference voltage of 8V x (R1+R2)/R2 (= about
80mV in this case) to the op-amp’s non-inverting pin. Consequently, the output remains in this
state until the input rises to a value equal to this voltage, at which point the op-amp output
switches regeneratively to a negative saturation level of -8V0, feeding a reference voltage of
-80mV to the non-inverting input.

The output remains in this state until the input signal falls to -80mV, at which point, the op-amp
output switches regeneratively back to the positive saturation level. The process then repeats
add in nitum. The actual switching levels can be altered by changing the R1 value.  NV

https://www.nutsvolts.com/magazine/article/op-amp-cookbook-part-3#content-extras 9/9
by Ray Marston

Part 4 • Instrumentation
Ray Marston looks at practical op-amp instrumentation
and test-gear circuits in the final episode of this four-
part survey of op-amp principles and applications.
and Test Gear Circuits

T
he opening episode of this variable voltage-reference and DC
four-part 'op-amp' series power supply circuits. R2
described the basic operating When reading this episode,
10k
principles of conventional note that most practical circuits
voltage-differencing op-amps (typi- are shown designed around a
fied by the 741 type) and showed standard 741 , 3140 ,or LF351-
some basic circuit configurations in type op-amp and operated from
which they can be used. dual 9V supplies, but that these -9V
ac Out
This month's concluding circuits will usually work (without R1
Input input 100k
Half-wave
episode looks at practical ways of modification) with most voltage- R3
-9V
Output
using such op-amps in various differencing op-amps, and from 4k7 ov
instrumentation and test-gear appli- any DC supply within that op-
cations, including those of precision amp's operating range . Also note ov Figure 1. Simple half-wave
rectifiers, AC/DC converters, elec- that all 741-based circuits have a Figure 3. Precision half-wave rectifier circuit.
tronic analog meter drivers, and very limited frequency response, rectifier.

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loop of an op-amp, in such a way follow all positive input signals

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greater than a few microvolts. The
circuit thus acts as a voltage follow-
e Mail Orders: PO BOX 730 - Morgan Hill, CA 95038-0730 op-amp's open-loop voltage gain; er to positive input signals.
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near-perfect rectifier that can tive, the op-amp output swings
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62 OcToeER 2001/Nuts & Volts Magazine Circle #69 on the Reader Service Card.
 R4 RS C1 1 0

R2 10k 10k Figure 5.

Figure 4. Precision
Precision R2 22k2
10k full-wave rectifier.
half-wave AC/DC
converter. 02
IN4148
D1
6
6
IN4148
de output
-9V R3 (0. 2V)
R6 6k8
4k7

ov ov

R2 R4 RS
Note:
01 • D2 =IN4148 R2 10k 11k1

C2 10k

C1 DVM
ac input C3 MODULE
100n
ac input
(must have de 220n (O · 2V rms)
path to common)
INLOW

COMMON
Figure 6. Precision full-wave AC/DC converter.

Figure 7. AC/DC converter for use with DVM module. (R2+R 0 )/R 1, where R0 is the positive, the op-amp output swings
active resistance of this diode. negative, but the negative swing is
leakage resistance of D1 (typically formance at the expense of a great- Thus, when D1 is operating below limited to -600mV via D2, and the
hundreds of megohms) acts as a ly reduced input impedance. its knee value its resistance is large output at the D 1-R2 junction does
potential divider with R1 and deter- In Figure 3, the op-amp is and the circuit gives high gain, but not significantly shift from zero
mines the negative voltage gain of wired as an inverting amplifier with when D1 is operating above the under this condition. This circuit
the circuit; typically, with the com- a 1Ok (= R1) input impedance. knee value its resistance is very low thus produces a positive-going
ponent values shown, the negative When the input signal is negative, and the circuit gain equals R2/R 1. half-wave rectified output. The basic
gain is roughly -60dB . The circuit the op-amp output swings positive, The circuit thus acts as an inverting circuit can be made to give a nega-
thus 'follows' positive input signals forward biasing D1 and developing precision rectifier to negative input tive-going half-wave rectified output
but rejects negative ones, and an output across R2. Under this signals. by simply reversing the polarities of
hence acts like a near-perfect signal condition the voltage gain equals When the input signal goes the two diodes.
rectifier.
Figure 2 shows how the above
circuit can be modified to act as a
peak voltage detector by wiring C1
in parallel with R1 . This capacitor
charges rapidly, via D1, to the peak
positive value of an input signal,
The Standard for checking Locate shorted or leaky
but discharges slowly via R1 when
Capacitors in-circuit components or conditions
the signal falls below the peak Good enough to be the to tlie exact spot in-circuit
value. IC2 is used as a voltage-fol-
choice of Panasonic, Still cutting up the pcb,
lowing buffer stage, to ensure that
R1 is not shunted by external load- Pioneer, NBC, ABC, Ford, and unsoldering every
ing effects. JVC, NASA and thousands part trying to guess at
Note that the basic Figure 7 of independent service where the short is?
and 2 circuits each have a very high technicians. $179
input impedance. In most practical
applications, the input signal should Inexpensive enough to pay for itself in just Your DVM shows the same shorted reading all
be AC-coupled and pin 3 of the op-
amp should be tied to the common
one day's repairs. At $179, it's affordable. along the pcb trace. LeakSeeker 82B has the
rail via a 1OOk resistor. resolution to find the defective component.
And with a 60 day trial period, satisfaction Touch pads along the trace, and LeakSeeker
PRECISION RECTIFIER guaranteed or money-back policy, the only beeps highest in pitch at the defect's pad. Now
CIRCUITS thing you can lose is all the time you're you can locate a shorted part only a quarter of
currently spending on trying to repair all an inch away from a good part. Short can be
The Figure 1 rectifier circuit has
a rather limited frequency response,
those dogs you've given up on. from 0 to 150 ohms
and may produce a slight negative CapAnalyzer 88A LeakSeeker 82B
output signal if D 1 has poor reverse
resistance characteristics. Figure 3 Available at your distributor, or call 561-487-6103
shows an alternative type of Electronic Design Specialists www.eds-inc.com
half-wave rectifier circuit, which has
a greatly improved rectifier per-

Circle #71 on the Reader Service Card. Nuts & Volts Magazine/ OcTOfJER 2001 63
 Figure 4 shows how a ative output, so IC2 generates an them with voltage-gain values suit- high output impedance, and the
negative-output version of the output of +2Ein via IC1 and -Ein via able for form-factor correction, and output must be buffered if it is to
above circuit can be combined with the original input signal, thus giving by then integrating their outputs to be fed to low-impedance loads.
an inverting 'adder' to make a pre- an actual output of +Ein· The out- give the AC/DC conversion, as In the full-wave AC/DC convert-
cision full-wave rectifier. Here, IC2 put of this circuit is thus positive, shown in Figures 5 and 6, respec- er in Figure 6, the circuit has a volt-
inverts and gives x2 gain (via R3-R5) and always has a value equal to the tively. Note that these circuits are age gain of xl .11 to give form-fac-
to the half-wave rectified signal of absolute value of the input signal. intended for use with sinewave tor correction, and integration is
IC1, and inverts and gives unity input signals only. accomplished via Cl-RS. This circuit
gain (via R4-R5) to the original input AC/DC CONVERTER In the half-wave AC/DC con- has a low-impedance output.
signal (Ein). Thus, when negative CIRCUITS verter in Figure 5, the circuit gives a
input signals are applied, the out- voltage gain of x2.22 via R2/R 1, to DVM CONVERTER CIRCUITS
put of IC1 is zero, so the output of The Figure 3 and 4 circuits can give form-factor correction, and
IC2 equals +Ein· When positive input be made to function as precision integration is accomplished via Precision 3-1 /2 digit Digital
signals are applied, IC1 gives a neg- AC/DC converters by first providing C1-R2. Note that this circuit has a Voltmeter (DVM) modules are readi-
ly available at modest cost, and can
easily be used as the basis of indi-
vidually-built multi-range and
multi-function meters. These mod-
ules are usually powered via a 9V
battery, and have a basic full-scale
measurement sensitivity of 200mV
DC and a near-infinite input resist-
ance. They can be made to act as
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• Low pass filter for great audio library of pre-designed circuits. Drag and drop multi-range DC current meters by
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Our FM1 00 is used all over the world by serious hobbyists as well as churches, passive components. Test using a complete list feeding the test current to the mod-
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FM100 Super-Pro FM Stereo Radio Station Kit $249.95 PLAB4 Electronic Prototype Software, Win95/98 $49.95
A DVM module can be used to
FM100WT 1 Watt, Wired Export Version $399.95 measure AC voltages by connecting
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ter. Dip switch settable for any frequency between plies, level switches, pulsers, pots, LEDs and a LARGE
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Wireless crystal clear reception, yet smaller than a
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quarter! Transmits color or BBNY with fantastic
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more! Basic 20mW unit goes up to 300' while the AC125 12VDC Power Supply $9.95 Figure 70 shows a circuit that
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Lets video cameras "see in the dark". Invisible light source to BL1 LED Blinky Kit $3.95
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AC125 12VDC Power Supply $9.95 the Rx value) is read by the DVM
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Victor, NY 1'1564
116-924-4560
[email protected]
,
r::.
El
lower, in which Ql emitter precisely
follows the voltage set on RV1 slid-

64 OCTOBER 2001/ Nuts & Volts Magazine Circle #73 on the fleader Service Card.
 0-200 A 0-200mV

r
R1 C1 R1
900R 100n 9MO
0-2mA Voo 0-2V Voo
R2 R2
90R ac/dc
IN 0-20mA converter
IN HI 900k 0-20V ac/dc
INHI
converter
SW1 R3 (Figure 7) (Figure 7)
R3 SW1
9RO
0-200mA gok0-200V
Vss TODVM TODVM
R4 MODULE R4 Vss
OR9 MODULE
0-2A R6 9k0
0-2kV
1MO
RS RS (450V max)
F1 0.09R 1k0
COM F1 COM
COM
2A
2A

Figure 9. Five-range AC current-meter converter for Figure 8. Five-range AC voltmeter converter for
use with DVM modules. use with DVM modules.

R2

+9V 1MO R1 R4
10k 10k SW1
Position Range
vfsd R1
1VO 1MO 1 0 • 200R
RS
100mV 100k 2 1. 2k0
10mV 10k 3 0- 20k
1mV 1k0 RV1 4 0- 200k
zero 22k 5 0 -2MO
Cal R
-9V
-ve Figure 11. A DC
ov millivoltmeter 10M
circuit.
IN HI} TODVM
MODULE
er. In practice, this voltage is set at Figure 11 shows a simple way COM
exactly 1VO below V00 , and the of converting the 1mA meter into a
emitter and collector (Rx) currents fixed-range DC millivolt meter with Figure 10. Five-range ohmmeter converter for
of 01 thus equal 1VO divided by a full-scale sensitivity of 1mV, use with DVM modules.
the R3 to R7 range-resistor value, 1OmV, 1OOmV, or 1VO. The circuit
e.g., 1mA with R3 in circuit, etc. has an input sensitivity of 1MO/volt,
The actual DVM module reads full and the table shows the appropri- Figure 12 shows a circuit that range 1µA to 1A. The table shows
scale when the Rx voltage equals ate R1 value for different fsd sensi- can be used to convert a 1mA alternative R1 and R2 values for dif-
200mV, and this reading is tivities. To set the circuit up initially, meter into either a fixed-range DC ferent ranges.
obtained when Rx has a value short its input terminals together voltmeter with any full-scale sensitiv- Figure 13 shows how the
one-fifth of that of the range resis- and adjust RV1 to give zero deflec- ity in the range 1OOmV to 1OOOV, above circuit can be modified to
tor, e.g., 200R on Range 1, or 2MO tion on the meter. The circuit is or a fixed-range DC current meter make a four-range DC millivolt
on Range 5, etc. then ready for use. with a full-scale sensitivity in the meter with fsd ranges of 1mV,

ANALOG METER CIRCUITS

An op-amp can easily be used

to convert a standard moving coil
meter into a sensitive analog volt-
age, current, or resistance meter, as
shown in the practical circuits of
Figures 11 to 16. All six circuits
operate from dual 9V supplies and Test Equipment Connection is looking to purchase vour excess or underutilized
are designed around the LF351
JFET op-amp, which has a very high
electronic test and measurement equipment We bu the largest varietv 01
input impedance and good drift electronic test equipment in the industrv.
characteristics. All circuits have an
offset nulling facility, to enable the
meter readings to be set to precise-
ly zero with zero input, and are
designed to operate with a moving
coil meter with a basic sensitivity of
1mA fsd .
If desired, these circuits can be
used in conjunction with the 1mA
DC range of an existing
multi-meter, in which case, these
circuits function as 'range convert-
ers.' Note that each circuit has a
2k7 resistor wired in series with the
output of its op-amp, to limit the
available output current to a couple
of milliamps and thus provide the
meter with automatic overload pro-
tection . Specialist in Hewlett-Packard, Tektronix, and manv more manutacwrers.
Circle #7 4 on the Reader Service Card.
Nuts & Volts Magazine/OCToeER 2001 65
 Figure 13. Four-range DC millivoltmeter.
Voltmeter
fsd R1 R2 R1
+9V 1000V 10M 1k0 1MO

+ve 100V 10M 10k

R1 10V 10M 100k +ve R2
SW1 +9V
(See 100k
1V 900k 100k
table)
100mV - 100k
R3 +
Current meter 10k
R2
(See 1A - OR1
In
table) 100mA - 1RO R4
-9V 10mA - 10R 1k0
1mA - 100R RS
-ve
ov 100µA - 1k0 110R
10µA - 10k
1µA - 100k -ve
ov
Figure 12. A DC voltage or current
meter.

R3 Figure 15.
Four-range AC
R1 1MO
millivoltmeter.
9k0 C1

f''
R2 vfsd R1
+9V
900R
1VO 1MO
100mV 100k
R3 + ac 10mV 1 Ok
90R input
RS 1mV 1 kO
zero 900R
Note:-
-9V
R4 01-04 are germanium
diodes .
10R
zero ov
-9V

ov Figure 16. Five-range linear-scale ohmmeter.

+9V R5 1k0
Figure 14. Four-range DC microammeter.

R1
1OmV, 1OOmV, and 1VO, and Figure AC millivoltmeter. The input imped- 1k0
74 shows how it can be modified ance of the circuit is equal to R1,
to make a four-range DC microam- and varies from 1kO in the 1mV fsd R2
3k9
meter with fsd ranges of 1µA, mode to 1MO in the 1V fsd mode.
1OµA, 1OOµA, and 1mA. The range The circuit gives a useful perform- ZD1
SV6
resistors used in these circuits ance at frequencies up to about
should have precisions of 2% or 1OOkHz when used in the 1mV to R3
1 kS
better. 100mV fsd modes. In the 1V fsd
Figure 15 shows the circuit of a mode, the frequency response
simple but very useful four-range extends up to a few tens of kHz. ov

This good frequency response is

NVEN22001EVEN • ensured by the LF351 op-amp,

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trol to give zero deflection on the
meter. Next, remove the short, con-
nect an accurate 1Ok resistor in the
Rx position, and adjust RV2 to give

66 OCTOBER 2001/Nuts & Volts Magazine Circle #76 on the Reader Service Card.
precisely full-scale deflection on the
meter. The circuit is then ready for +18V
ov
use, and should need no further Out R2
adjustment for several months. (-0 .SV to -12V)

VOLTAGE REFERENCE Figure 18.

CIRCUITS Variable
Out
negative (+0.2V to +12V)
An op-amp can be used as a voltage
fixed or variable voltage reference reference.
-18V
by wiring it as a voltage follower ov
and applying a suitable reference
to its input. An op-amp has Figure 17. Variable positive voltage
a very high input impedance reference.
+18V (unregulated)
when used in the 'follower'
mode and thus draws
R1
near-zero current from the 2k7
+18V (unregulated)
input reference, but has a Q1
R2 2N3053
very low output impedance
and can supply several mil- 3k9
liamps of current to an exter- + C1 R3 Out Q1
ZD1
nal load . Variations in output 6V8 1 µO 2k7 3- 1SV RV1 2N3053
0 - 100mA)
loading cause little change in 47k
the output voltage value. Out
Figure 77 shows a prac- (1V to 12V
0- 100mA)
tical positive voltage refer-
ence with an output fully Figure 20. 3V to 15V, 0 to 100 mA stabilized PSU. ov
variable from +0 .2V to + 12V
via RV1. Zener diode ZD1 Figure 19. Simple variable-voltage regulated
generates a stable 12V, which is Figure 78 shows a negative volt- wide-band power supply.
applied to the non-inverting input age reference that gives an output devices, and R2
of the op-amp via RV1 . A CA3140 fully variable from -0.5V to -12V via is used to
op-amp is used here because its RV1 . An LF351 op-amp is used in enhance their circuit stability. and 78 can be made to act as
input and output can track signals this design, because its input and high-current regulated voltage
to within 200mV of the negative output can track signals to within VOLTAGE REGULATOR (power) supply circuits by wiring
supply rail voltage . The complete about 0.5V of the positive supply rail CIRCUITS current-boosting transistor networks
circuit is powered from an unregu- value. Note that the op-amps used into their outputs. Figure 79 shows
lated single-ended 18V supply. in these two regulator circuits are The basic circuits in Figures 77 how the Figure 77 circuit can be

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Circle #70 on the Reader Service Card. Circle #75 on the Reader Service Card.
Nuts & Volts Magazine/ OcTonR 2001 67
 +40 to 45V (unregulated) +40 to 45V (unregulated)

R1 R1
1k2 1k2

R2
10k
02
2N3055
+ ZD1 + ZD1
33V 33V
1W 1W
ZD2
6VB Out ZD2
R4 3- 30V 6VB
2k7 0 - 1A
Out
3 - 30V
0-1A

Figure 21. 3V to 30V, 0 to 1 amp stabilized PSU. ov

Figure 22. 3V to 30V stabilized PSU with overload protection.

type of power supply circuit, Figure 21 shows how the

+1BV in which the output is vari- above circuit can be modified to
Output
0 - 30V able from 3V to 1SV at cur- act as a 3V to 30V, 0 to 1A stabi-
RI
5k6
0 - 50mA) rents up to 1OOmA. lized power supply unit (PSU).
R6 -ve OV +ve In this case, a fixed 3V Here, the available output current
R2 T reference is applied to the is boosted by the Darlington-con-
10k
1k0
RV1 non-inverting input terminal nected O1-02 pair of transistors,
+
of the 741 op-amp via ZD1 the circuit gain is fully variable from
10k
and the R2-C1-R3 network, unity to x 10 via RV1 , and the sta-
+ C1
ZD1
10µ and the op-amp plus 01 are bility of the 3V reference input to
5V6 the op-amp is enhanced by the
wired as a non-inverting
-1BV amplifier with gain variable ZD1 pre-regulator network.
via RV1. Figure 22 shows how the
ov When RV1 slider is set above circuit can be further modi-
to the upper position, the fied to incorporate automatic over-
Figure 23. Simple center-tapped 0 to 30V PSU. circuit gives unity gain and load protection . Here, R6 senses
gives an output of 3V; when the magnitude of the output cur-
modified to act as a 1V to 12V minimize offset effects. The circuit RV1 slider is set to the lower posi- rent and when this exceeds 1A,
variable power supply with an out- can be made to give an output tion the circuit gives a gain of x5 the resulting volt drop starts to
put current capability (limited by that is variable all the way down to and thus gives an output of 1SV. bias 03 on, thereby shunting the
01 's power rating) of about zero volts by connecting pin 4 of The gain is fully variable between base-drive current of Q 1 and auto-
1OOmA. Note that the base-emitter the op-amp to a supply that is at these two values. RV2 enables the matically limiting the circuits out-
junction of Q1 is included in the least 2V negative. maximum output voltage to be put current.
circuit's negative feedback loop, to Figure 20 shows an alternative pre-set to precisely 1SV. Finally, Figure 23 shows the cir-
cuit of a simple center-tapped 0 to
30V PSU that can provide maxi-
mum output currents of about
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68 0CT080 2001 Circle #68 on the Reader Service Card. Circle #72 on the Reader Service Card.