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Computer Memory
Memory is used to store the information (programs and data)
that the computer is currently using. It is sometimes called
main or primary memory. There are 2 types:

RAM - Random Access Memory.

This means that any location in memory may be accessed in the
same amount of time as any other location. Memory access
means one of two things, either the CPU is reading from a
memory location or the CPU is writing to memory location.
When the CPU reads from a memory location, the contents of
the memory location are copied to a CPU register. When the
CPU writes to a memory location, the CPU copies the contents
of a CPU register to the memory location, overwriting the
previous contents of the location. The CPU cannot carry out any
other operations on memory locations.

RAM is a form of short term or volatile memory. Information

stored in short term storage is lost when the computer is
switched off (or when power fails). There is therefore a
requirement for permanent or long term storage which is also
referred to as secondary storage or auxiliary storage. This role
is fulfilled by disk and tape storage.

RAM is of two types

• Static RAM (SRAM)
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

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Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents
as long as power is being supplied. However, data is lost when
the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM need not
have to be refreshed on a regular basis in order to maintain the
data. SRAM is used as cache memory and has very fast access.

Characteristic of the Static RAM

• It has long life
• There is no need to refresh
• Faster
• Used as cache memory
Large size
• Expensive
• High power consumption

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed (recharged)
in order to maintain the data. This is done by placing the
memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several
hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most system
memory because it is cheap and small.

Characteristics of the Dynamic RAM

• It has short data lifetime
• Need to be refreshed continuously
• Slower as compared to SRAM
• Used as RAM
• Lesser in size

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• Less expensive
• Less power consumption

Read Only Memory (ROM)

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which
we can only read but cannot write on it. This type of memory is
non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such
memories during manufacture. A ROM, stores such instructions
that are required to start a computer. This operation is referred
to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer
but also in other electronic items like washing machine and
microwave oven.

Following are the various types of ROM

MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a
pre-programmed set of data or instructions. These kind of
ROMs are known as masked ROMs which are inexpensive.

PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a
user. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.

EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for
a duration of up to 40 minutes.

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EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only

Memory)
The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be
erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times.

Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows:
• Non-volatile in nature
• These cannot be accidentally changed
• Cheaper than RAMs
• More reliable than RAMs
• These are static and do not require refreshing
• Its contents are always known and can be verified

Special Purpose Memories

Apart from ROM and RAM there are several types of special
purpose memories found inside the CPU or in the input and
output devices. These memories are vital because they increase
the overall performance of data and instructions moving in and
out of the CPU. Cache and Registers are special purpose
memories.

Cache Memory
The speed of CPU is extremely high compared to the access
time of main memory. Therefore the performance of CPU
decreases due to the slow speed of main memory. To decrease
the mismatch in operating speed, a small memory chip is
attached between CPU and Main memory whose access time is
very close to the processing speed of CPU. It is called CACHE

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memory. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and Main memory

CACHE memories are accessed much faster than conventional
RAM. It is used to store programs or data currently being
executed or temporary data frequently used by the CPU. So
cache memory “makes main memory to be faster and larger
than it really is”. It is also very expensive to have bigger size of
cache memory and its size is normally kept small.

Advantages
 Cache memory is faster than main memory.
 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be executed within a short
period of time.
 It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages
 Cache memory has limited capacity.
 It is very expensive

Registers
The CPU processes data and instructions with high speed; there
is also movement of data between various units of computer. It
is necessary to transfer the processed data with high speed. So
the computer uses a number of special memory units called
registers.
They are not part of the main memory but they store data or
information temporarily and pass it on as directed by the
control unit.

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Registers hold one piece of data at a time and are inside the
CPU.

Examples of registers are:

An accumulator: This temporarily holds the results of the last
processing step of the ALU.

Instruction register: This temporarily holds an instruction just

before it is interpreted into a form that CPU can understand it.

An address register: This temporarily holds next piece of data

waiting to be processed.
Storage register: This temporarily holds a piece of data that is
on its way to and from the CPU and the main memory.

Memory capacities
Memory and storage capacity is measured in special units
called bytes. A byte is equivalent to a single character.
Characters can be a number from 0 to 9, letters A to Z or a
special symbo1.

Memory quantities can be expressed in;

1. Kilobytes (kB): Approximately one thousand bytes.(1024)
2. Megabytes (MB): Approximately one million bytes.
3. Gigabytes (GB): Approximately one billion bytes.
4. Terabytes: Approximately one trillion bytes.

Secondary Memory/ Storage Devices/Auxiliary Memory

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Auxiliary memory is much larger in size than main memory but

is slower. It normally stores system programs, instruction and
data 'les. It is also known as secondary memory.
It can also be used as an over virtual memory in case the main
memory capacity has been exceeded.
Secondary memories cannot be accessed directly by a
processor.
First the data/information of auxiliary memory is transferred to
the main memory and then that information can be accessed
by the CPU. Characteristics of

Auxiliary Memory are following characteristics

 Non-volatile memory − Data is not lost when power is cut off.
 Reusable −The data stays in the secondary storage on
permanent basis until it is not overwritten or deleted by the
user.
 Reliable − Data in secondary storage is safe because of high
physical stability of secondary storage device.
 Convenience −With the help of a computer software,
authorized people can locate and access the data quickly.
 Capacity − Secondary storage can store large volumes of data
in sets of multiple disks.
 Cost − It is much lesser expensive to store data on a tape or
disk than primary memory.

Storage has both medium and device:

(a) Storage Medium is the physical material upon which a
computer keeps data, instructions, and information.

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(b) Storage Device drive is the mechanism that drives the

storage medium. E.g. a CD Player would be considered the
storage device drive and the actual CD being played is the
medium. In other words, a storage medium is the computer
hardware that records and/or retrieves items to and from
storage media.
Access Time:
Access time measures:
(a) The amount of time it takes a storage device to locate an
item on a storage medium.
(b) The time required to deliver an item from memory to the
processor.

Hard disk
One of the most popular secondary storage devices is the Hard
Disk.
A hard disk contains one or more in flexible, circular platters
that use magnetic particles to store data, instructions, and
information. However, today, not all hard disks are magnetic!

Flash Memory Storage (another type of secondary storage):

Flash memory chips are a type of solid state media and contain
no moving parts!
Solid State Drives (SSDs) have several advantages over
magnetic hard disks:
(a) Faster access time
(b) Faster transfer rates

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(c) Generate less heat and consume less power (tablets and
some notebooks use it)
(d) Last longer.
(e) No noise.

Memory Card:
A memory card is a removable Flash memory device that you
insert and remove from a slot in a computer or mobile device.
(e.g. SD, microSD)

USB Flash Drives:

These plug into a USB port on a computer or mobile device.

Cloud Storage:
This is an Internet service that provides storage to computer
users. Persons subscribe for a number of reasons e.g
(a) Access 'les from any computer
(b) Store large 'les instantaneously
(c) Allow others to access their 'les
(d) Store offsite backups

Optical Discs:
- An optical disc consists of a Flat, round, portable disc made of
metal, plastic, and lacquer that is written and read by a laser.
- Typically storage software, data, digital photos, movies, and
music
- Read only vs. rewritable

Some types of optical discs:

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(a) CD-ROM: can be read from but not written to

(b) CD-R: is a multisession optical disc on which users can write,
but not erase.
(c) CD-RW is an erasable multisession disc (you must have a
CDRW drive). CDs have a capacity of 700 MB
(d) DVD-ROM: high capacity optical disc on which users can
read but not write or erase.
(e) Blu-ray Disc-ROM (BD-ROM) has a storage capacity of
100GB.
(f) DVD-RW, DVD+RW and DVD+RAM are high capacity
rewritable DVD formats. These are optical devices which have a
capacity of up to 17 GB of storage. They can hold full motion
pictures and many films are now produced on DVD for home
viewing.

Other Types Of Storage:

(a) Tape (Magnetic Tape)
(b) Magnetic stripe cards and smart cards
(c) Magnetic Diskettes/Floppy disks (1.44 MB)

Memory hierarchy
Characteristics of Memory Hierarchy are following when we go
from top to bottom.
 Capacity in terms of storage increases.
 Cost per bit of storage decreases.
 Frequency of access of the memory by the CPU decreases.
 Access time by the CPU increases.

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