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CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Electrical Conductors and Insulators

Some materials permit electric charge to move from one region of a material to another, while others do not. It
is convenient to classify substances in terms of the ability of charge to move within the substance. Conductors
are materials in which electric charges move relatively freely while insulators are materials in which electric
charges do not move freely. All metals are good conductors especially silver and copper. These materials have a
large number of electrons in them which are free to move through them. Graphite (found in pencils) conducts
electricity but less than metals. Also electrolytes, water and silicon. These use both electrons and positive
charge-carriers to allow current to flow but they are not as many or mobile as the electrons in metals. Insulators
are the substances where it is very difficult for any current to pass through. Polythene, pvc (used to insulate
electrical cables), nylon, plastics, glass, rubber, wax. These materials have no mobile and free charge-carriers.

CO N D UCTO RS IN S U L A T O R S

( 1 ) . D o n o t p e r m it t h e
( 1 ) . P e r m it t h e m o v e m e n t o f
m o v em en t o f c h arg e
c h a r g e th ro u g h th e m . th ro u g h th e m .

( 2 ) . M o s t m e t a ls a r e g o o d ( 2 ) . M o s t n o n - m e t a ls a r e
c o n d u c to r s . in s u la t o r s .

( 3 ) . E x a m p le s o f t h e s e i n c l u d e ( 3 ) . E x a m p l e s o f t h e s e in c l u d e
c o p p e r , a lu m i n i u m , a n d g la s s , r u b b e r , a n d
s i lv e r . n y lo n .

( 4 ) . F r e e m o v e m e n t o f e le c t r o n s
a s th e y a re d e ta c h e d a r e th e y a r e (4 ). N o free m o v em en t o f
d e t a c h e d f r o m t h e ir r e s p e c t iv e e le c t r o n s . H e n c e e le c t r ic c h a r g e
a t o m . H e n c e e le c t r ic c h a r g e c a n n o t m o v e f r e e ly f r o m o n e
c a n m o v e f r e e ly f r o m o n e r e g io n r e g i o n o f a m a t e r ia l t o a n o t h e r .
o f m a t e r ia l t o a n o t h e r .
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Electric Currents

Charges that produce repulsion and attraction between objects can also produce an electric current if
the charge can flow through it. An electric current therefore is the flow of electric charge moving a
particular direction. To maintain an electric current, the charge needs a continuous path to travel around
(closed circuit).  The particles that carry charge through wires in a circuit are mobile electrons; while
electrons are the charge carriers in metal wires, the charge carriers in other circuits can be positive
charges, negative charges or both (eg charge carriers in semiconductors, street lamps and fluorescent
lamps are simultaneously both positive and negative charges traveling in opposite directions).

Ben Franklin, who conducted extensive scientific studies in both static and current electricity,
envisioned positive charges as the carriers of charge. As such, an early convention for the direction of
an electric current was established to be in the direction that positive charges would move (from the
positive terminal to the negative one). The convention has stuck and is still used today. Thus, the
current in the external circuit is directed away from the positive terminal and toward the negative
terminal of the battery. Electrons would actually move through the wires in the opposite direction.

Convectional Current and Electron Flow

The flow of electrons is termed electron current. Electrons flow from the negative terminal to the
positive (electron flow). Conventional current or simply current, behaves as if positive charge carriers
cause current flow. Conventional current flows from the positive terminal to the negative. Perhaps the
clearest way to think about this is to pretend as if movement of positive charge carriers constituted
current flow.
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Definitions

We can compare the flow of charge to that of water in a river. The current in a river is strong if a large
quantity of water was flowing down a river. The strength or size of the current would be measured in
litres of water flowing past a point in the river in a certain time, thus the rate of flow of water.
Similarly, the strength or size of an electric current is measuring the rate of flow of electric charge past
a point in an electric circuit or through a conductor.

Current (I) Units: Amperes (A)

Current is charge on the move. A flow of charge consists of electric current.

A current of one (1) ampere is the flow of charge at a rate of one (1) coulomb per second. Current is the
force between the current carrying conductors. We can use the ammeter to measure the current. One of
the formulas we can use to measure the current is:

charge Q
current = I=
time t

The quantity of electric charge is Q measured in coulombs (C).

The strength of an electric current I is measured in ampere (A)

Charge (Q) Units: Coulombs (C)

A Coulomb is the quantity of electric charge, which passes a point in the conductor at a steady current
of one (1) ampere for one (1) second.
Charge=current x time
Q=I x t

Examples

1. A battery circulates a charge around a circuit of one (1) minute. If the current in the circuit is
five (5) amperes, what quantity of charge passes through the battery?

2. A charge of 120 coulombs goes through a lamp every two minutes. Calculate the electric
current.
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Alternating Current vs DC Current

Alternating current (AC) is an electric current which direction and changes its magnitude continuously

with time, as a result, the voltage level also reverses along with the current. AC is used to deliver
power to houses, office buildings, etc. in contrast to direct current (DC) which flows only in one
direction, batteries and cells supply d.c. electricity.

Why is AC used over DC?

Since high voltages are more efficient for sending electricity great distances, AC electricity has an
advantage over DC. This is because the high voltages from the power station can be easily reduced to a
safer voltage for use in the house. This device uses properties of AC electromagnets to change the
voltages.
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Electrical Circuits

Potential Difference (p.d.) Units: Volts (V)

The voltage or potential difference between two points (ends of the conductor) is the work done, per
coulomb, when electrical energy is converted to another form of energy when current flows through a
circuit.
The p.d between the ends of a conductor is 1 volt if 1 joule of energy is converted when 1 coulomb of
charge flows through it.
energy W
potential difference= V=
charge Q

Electromotive Force (e.m.f.) Units: Volts (V)

This is the driving force behind the cell. It is responsible for propelling the electrons or ions from a
state of inertia to kinetic energy in order to move around the circuit. It is the amount of energy a cell
delivers per unit charge when it sends electrons around a complete circuit. An electromotive force is
the work done per coulomb when another form of energy is converted to electrical energy at a cell or
generator. The e.m.f. is the total amount of energy a cell or a generator can produce and it is the sum of
all the p.d. inserted.

Both the electromotive force and the potential difference can be measured by using the voltmeter.
N.B. one (1) volt = one (1) joule / coulomb [1 J/C]

Examples

3. A current of 20 amps flows through a heater for one (1) hour converts 8.6  106 joules of
electrical energy into heat energy. Calculate:

(a) the total charge flowing through the heater.

(b) p.d. across the heater.
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4. A battery circulates 80 C of charge around a circuit. If the p.d. across a lamp in the circuit is
12 volts. How much energy is converted into heat and the light by the lamp? If the charge
flows at a constant rate for 40 seconds, what is the current during this time?

Resistance (R) unit (Ω) Ohms

This is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit. Resistance is measured in

ohms, symbolized by the Greek letter omega (Ω). 
Power

When the energy is converted from one form to another the rate of conversion is defined as power.
Units of power: watts (W)

They are three basic formulas we can use calculate the power of an electrical circuit.

P=VI

P=I 2 R

V2
P=
R

E
P=
t

Examples

a) An electric fire has a power rating of 3 kW. Calculate the current that will flow through the
fire when it is connected to the 240 V mains supply.

b) A torch bulb is labelled 2.5 V, 0.3 A. Calculate the power of the bulb and the energy
converted in 10 minutes.

c) An electric kettle has a heating element rated 2 kW when connected to a 250 V electrical
supply. Calculate:
(i) The current that would flow when the element was connected to the 250 V
supply.

(ii) The resistance of the element.

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(iii) The heat produced by the element in one (1) minute.

Circuits and components

Circuit Symbols

Commonly used Circuit Components

Ammeters

We use the ammeters to measure the current in a circuit; therefore it should not change the amount of
current that is flowing. If the ammeter has any resistance it would increase the total resistance in the
circuit and reduce the amount of current flowing. Hence the ideal ammeter should have zero resistance.
Ammeters are connected in series with the current to be measured.
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Voltmeters

The voltmeter is used to measure the voltage across a given part of the circuit. The resistance of the
voltmeter is very high to prevent any current flowing through it. Any current flowing through the
voltmeter means an increase in the current in the circuit hence affecting the reading of the voltmeter.
Hence the ideal voltmeter has an infinite resistance and zero current passing through it. The voltmeter
is connected in parallel with or across the voltage to be measured.

Series and Parallel Connections

There are basically two ways in which conductors can be joined together in a circuit. These are:

a) Series Connections

The lamps in the diagram above are connected in series. When lit they shine at equal brightness. That
means that the same current flows through all the lamps. If one lamp fails or is loose the circuit is
broken, hence no current flows and all the lamps go off. Example Christmas tree lights. Lamps
connected in series in a circuit follow one after the other like a series of events.
b) Parallel Connections
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The lamps in the diagram above are in parallel connection. In parallel connection the current splits up
and only part of the current flows through each lamp. If one of the lamp fails it does not affect the other
lamps in the circuit. Example the lights in your home. Each one can be switched on independently.
When any one switch is closed there is a complete circuit from the fuse box through the switch and
lamp, back to the fuse box.

I - V Relationships

Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law states that the current through an Ohmic conductor at a constant temperature is directly
proportional to the potential difference between its ends. Therefore:

I αV
V
=constant
I

Where the constant the is the resistance of the conductor

V
=R
I
or

V =IR

Examples

a) A current of 4A flows through a headlamp when it is connected to a car battery providing that
a voltage of 12 V flows across the headlamp. Calculate the resistance of the headlamp.
b) What is the voltage needed to drive a current of 0.2 A through a torchlight lamp of resistance
0.4 ?
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c) What is the potential difference required to produce a current of 2.5A through a conductor of
resistance 12?

Resistors
Resistors are small devices, which oppose the flow of current in the circuit.

Resistors in Series

R1 R2

We can calculate the total resistance for resistors in series by using:

RT = R1 + R2 Units: ohms ()

Examples

Find the equivalent resistor for the following circuit diagrams.

a)
2 3
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b) 5 2 1

Resistors in Parallel

R1

R2

R3

We can calculate the total resistance for resistors in parallel by using:

1 = 1 + 1
RT R1 R2

Product divided by sum

Examples

Find the equivalent resistor for the following circuit diagrams.

a)
6

3
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b)
6

Mixed Series and Parallel Combinations of Resistors

Examples

Find the equivalent resistors for the following circuit diagrams.

a) 6

b)
5
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Examples

1. Calculate 3A
a) total resistance
b) total voltage
c) voltage across
(i) 4
(ii) 2 resistors
4 2

2. Calculate: 3A
a) total resistance
b) total voltage
c) voltage across
(i) 4
(ii) 2 resistors 2

4

3. Calculate: 15V
a) total resistance
b) total current
c) voltage across 3
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(i) 2 2
(ii) 3
(iii) 6 6

20V
4. Calculate:
a) total resistance
b) total voltage
c) voltage across 6 4
(i) 4
(ii) 2 5 7
(iii) 30 resistors 30