Stephen Krashen's Theory of Second Language
Acquisition
Ricardo Schütz
Last revision: March 28, 2005
"Language acquisition does not require
extensive use of conscious grammatical rules,
and does not require tedious drill." Stephen
Krashen
"Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in
the target language - natural communication -
in which speakers are concerned not with the
form of their utterances but with the messages
they are conveying and understanding." Stephen
Krashen
"The best methods are therefore those that
supply 'comprehensible input' in low anxiety
situations, containing messages that students
really want to hear. These methods do not force
early production in the second language, but
allow students to produce when they are 'ready',
recognizing that improvement comes from
supplying communicative and comprehensible
input, and not from forcing and correcting
production." Stephen Krashen
"In the real world, conversations with sympathetic native speakers who are willing to
help the acquirer understand are very helpful." Stephen Krashen
Introduction
Stephen Krashen (University of Southern California) is an expert in the field of linguistics,
specializing in theories of language acquisition and development. Much of his recent
research has involved the study of non-English and bilingual language acquisition.
During the past 20 years, he has published well over 100 books and articles and has
been invited to deliver over 300 lectures at universities throughout the United States
and Canada.
This is a brief description of Krashen's widely known and well accepted theory of second
language acquisition, which has had a large impact in all areas of second language
research and teaching since the 1980s.
1
Description of Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition: Krashen's
theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses:
the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis,
the Monitor hypothesis,
the Natural Order hypothesis,
the Input hypothesis,
and the Affective Filter hypothesis.
The Acquisition-Learning distinction result of the learned grammar. According to
is the most fundamental of all the Krashen, the acquisition system is the
hypotheses in Krashen's theory and utterance initiator, while the learning system
the most widely known among performs the role of the 'monitor' or the
linguists and language practitioners. 'editor'. The 'monitor' acts in a planning,
editing and correcting function when three
According to Krashen there are two specific conditions are met: that is, the
independent systems of second second language learner has sufficient time at
language performance: 'the acquired his/her disposal, he/she focuses on form or
system' and 'the learned system'. The thinks about correctness, and he/she knows
'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the rule.
the product of a subconscious
process very similar to the process It appears that the role of conscious learning
children undergo when they acquire is somewhat limited in second language
their first language. It requires performance. According to Krashen, the role
meaningful interaction in the target of the monitor is - or should be - minor, being
language - natural communication - used only to correct deviations from 'normal'
in which speakers are concentrated speech and to give speech a more 'polished'
not in the form of their utterances, appearance.
but in the communicative act.
Krashen also suggests that there is individual
The 'learned system' or 'learning' is variation among language learners with
the product of formal instruction and regard to 'monitor' use. He distinguishes
it comprises a conscious process those learners that use the 'monitor' all the
which results in conscious knowledge time (over-users); those learners who have
'about' the language, for example not learned or who prefer not to use their
knowledge of grammar rules. conscious knowledge (under-users); and
According to Krashen 'learning' is less those learners that use the 'monitor'
important than 'acquisition'. appropriately (optimal users). An evaluation
of the person's psychological profile can help
The Monitor hypothesis explains the to determine to what group they belong.
relationship between acquisition and Usually extroverts are under-users, while
learning and defines the influence of introverts and perfectionists are over-users.
the latter on the former. The Lack of self-confidence is frequently related
monitoring function is the practical to the over-use of the 'monitor'.
2
The Natural Order hypothesis is based on research findings (Dulay & Burt, 1974;
Fathman, 1975; Makino, 1980 cited in Krashen, 1987) which suggested that the
acquisition of grammatical structures follows a 'natural order' which is predictable. For a
given language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others
late. This order seemed to be independent of the learners' age, L1 background,
conditions of exposure, and although the agreement between individual acquirers was
not always 100% in the studies, there were statistically significant similarities that
reinforced the existence of a Natural Order of language acquisition. Krashen however
points out that the implication of the natural order hypothesis is not that a language
program syllabus should be based on the order found in the studies. In fact, he rejects
grammatical sequencing when the goal is language acquisition.
The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires a second
language. In other words, this hypothesis is Krashen's explanation of how second
language acquisition takes place. So, the Input hypothesis is only concerned with
'acquisition', not 'learning'. According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and
progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she receives second language 'input' that
is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a
learner is at a stage 'i', then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to
'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level 'i + 1'. Since not all of the learners can be at
the same level of linguistic competence at the same time, Krashen suggests that natural
communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each
learner will receive some 'i + 1' input that is appropriate for his/her current stage of
linguistic competence
Finally, the fifth hypothesis, the Affective Filter hypothesis, embodies Krashen's view
that a number of 'affective variables' play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second
language acquisition. These variables include: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety.
Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image,
and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language
acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to
'raise' the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input
from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes
language acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient
on its own, for acquisition to take place.
