1

1. Chapter-1

1.1 Introduction

High intensity discharge lamp (HID) presently used for urban street light are based on
principle of gas discharge, thus the intensity is not controllable by any voltage reduction
method as the discharge path is broken. White Light Emitting Diode (LED) based lamps are
soon replacing the HID lamps in street light. Sensors used on either sides of the road send
logic commands for the LEDs at the output to get glowing for a patch ahead. Intensity
control is also possible by pulse width modulation based on sensing the movement and
density of vehicles. The pulse width becomes very narrow on sensing no movement of
vehicles. As the vehicle moves forward, the intensity goes on increasing for few lights
ahead, and as it passes away the intensity goes on falling. Thus this way of dynamically
changing intensity or off to on helps in saving a lot of energy.

In this project we are going to design a power efficient street light system which
according to the physical environment is on and off that time basis. In the day time all the
streets light are off. In the evening time all the street light are on and in the night the street
light are managed as per the vehicle arrival. In this we have designed one lane system.
However this can be implemented for two lane system also.
 2

1.2 Circuit Diagram

Figure 1.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

 3

1.3 Working

1. First of all we have to take some components like resistors, LEDs, LDR sensors,
transistors12v battery, connecting wires of battery and connecting wire.

2. In the first step we take 2 transistor and then we joint two lead(emitter and collector) by
soldering them.

3. Then we are connect resistance R1 to transistor B base and resistance R2 to transistor B

collector.

4. In the next step we connect transistor A base to transistor B collector.

5. Then we are connect LDR. The LDR sensor is used to sense day or night. Thus we are
connect LDR leads to transistors b leads.

6. In the next step we connect LEDs in the project. The LEDs has two leads. The LED is
connect to both the transistor (transistors A and transistor B).

7. In the last step we are going to connect 12v d.c. battery. The battery is connect to both
the collector leads of the transistors.
 4

2. Chapter-2

2.1 Coding

void main()
{
start:
p0=0x00;
i=0;
while(1)
{
if(p2_0==0)
{
i=1;
p0=0x01;
}
while(i>0)
{
if(p1_0==0)
p0=0x02;
if(p1_3==0)
p0=0x10;
if ((p1_0==0)&&(p1_1==0))
p0=0x06;
if ((p1_0==0)&&(p1_2==1))
p0=0x0a;
if ((p1_0==0)&&(p1_3==0))
p0=0x12;
if ((p1_2==1)&&(p1_1==0))
p0=0x0c;
if ((p1_1==0)&&(p1_3==0))
p0=0x14;
if ((p1_2==1)&&(p1_3==1))
p0=0x18;
if ((p1_2==1)&&(p1_1==0)&&(p1_3==0))
p0=0x1c;
if ((p1_2==1)&&(p1_1==0)&&(p1_0==0))
p0=0x0e;
if ((p1_0==0)&&(p1_1==0)&&(p1_3==0))
p0=0x16;
if ((p1_2==1)&&(p1_3==0)&&(p1_0==0))
p0=0x1a;
if ((p1_2==1)&&(p1_3==0)&&(p1_0==0)&&(p1_1==0))
p0=0xff;
if(p2_0==1)
goto start;
}
}
}
1
 5

2.2 Testing

1.Check all the connections of the project.

2.Check the resistance that is 1k or the given quantity.

3.Check the transistor that is BC547.

4.Check the connection of LDR.

5.Make sure that all the connections of the circuit should be righted.

6.Check that the connections of battery should not be loose.

7.All the connections should iron should.

 6

3. Chapter-3

3.1 Accessories

3.1.1 Battery

This is 9V D.C. battery. This is supply source of ours LEDs. This is a battery that
gives 9V D.C. Voltage. The 9V battery or 9V battery is a common size of battery that was
introduced radios. It has a rectangular prism shape with rounded edges and a polarized
snap connector at atop. This is commonly used in walkie-talkies, clocks, smoke detectors
and automatic street light project.

The nine-volt battery format is commonly available in primary carbon-zinc and

alkaline chemistry, in primary lithium iron disulfide, and in rechargeable form in nickel-
cadmium, nickel-metal hydride and lithium-ion. Mercury-oxide batteries of this format,
once common, have not been manufactured in many years due to their mercury content.

Most nine-volt alkaline batteries are constructed of six individual 1.5 V LR61 Cells
enclosed in a wrapper. There cells are slightly smarter than LR8D425 AAAA cells and can
be used in their place for some devices even though they are 3.5 mm shorter.
 7

Figure 2 HI_WATT BATTERY

3.1.2 SWITCHES

In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical

circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another.

Figure 2.1 SWITCHES

The most familiar form of switch is a manually operated electromechanical device with
one or more sets of electrical contacts, which are connected to external circuits. Each set of
contacts can be in one of two states: either "closed" meaning the contacts are touching and
electricity can flow between them, or "open", meaning the contacts are separated and the
switch is non-conducting. The mechanism actuating the transition between these two states
(open or closed) can be either a "toggle" (flip switch for continuous "on" or "off") or
"momentary" (push-for "on" or push-for "off") type.

A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system, such

as a computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a circuit, such as a light switch.
 8

Automatically operated switches can be used to control the motions of machines, for
example, to indicate that a garage door has reached its full open position or that a machine
tool is in a position to accept another work piece. Switches may be operated by process
variables such as pressure, temperature, flow, current, voltage, and force, acting as sensors
in a process and used to automatically control a system. For example, a thermostat is a
temperature-operated switch used to control a heating process. A switch that is operated by
another electrical circuit is called a relay. Large switches may be remotely operated by a
motor drive mechanism. Some switches are used to isolate electric power from a system,
providing a visible point of isolation that can be padlocked if necessary to prevent
accidental operation of a machine during maintenance, or to prevent electric shock.

An ideal switch would have no voltage drop when closed, and would have no limits on
voltage or current rating. It would have zero rise time and fall time during state changes,
and would change state without "bouncing" between on and off positions.

Practical switches fall short of this ideal; they have resistance, limits on the current and
voltage they can handle, finite switching time, etc. The ideal switch is often used in circuit
analysis as it greatly simplifies the system of equations to be solved, however this can lead
to a less accurate solution. Theoretical treatment of the effects of non-ideal properties is
required in the design of large networks of switches, as for example used in telephone
exchanges.

here are varying types of switches:

Micro-switch: This is small switch for interconnection. It has 4 terminals with 2 in pair
already connected .when you press the switch all four get connected.

Figure 3.2

MICRO SWITCH
 9

Power switch: This is 6 terminal switches for bidirectional connectivity on press

Figure 3.3

POWER SWITCH

Toggle switch: A toggle switch is a class of electrical switches that are manually actuated
by a mechanical lever, handle, or rocking mechanism. This is a two state switch that is not
connected, and connected. It remains in the state till not forced again to change the state.

Figure 3.4 TOGGLE SWITCH

DPDT switch: A DPDT switch is a class of electrical switches that are manually actuated
by a mechanical rocking mechanism. This is a three state switch that is not connected,
connected to one and connected to second. It remains in the state till forced in that
particular state els4e goes to normal state.

Figure 3.5 DPDT SWITCH

 10

3.1.3 Adapters

The adapters are the device that has inbuilt circuitry for converting the 230V AC in to
desired DC like +5V adapter, +12V adapter, +9V adapter and many more. This consists of
inbuilt circuit for HIGH AC to low voltage DC conversion.

Figure 4 ADAPTERS

3.1.4 Connectors

Connectors are wire connection and interface to connect two different points. It has
different configuration like 2- pin connector, 3 -pin connector, 4- pin connector and many
more

Figure 5 CONNECTORS

3.1.5 D.C. Connectors

 11

A DC connector (or DC plug, for one common type of connector) is an electrical

connector for supplying direct current (DC) power.

Figure 6 D.C. CONNECTORS

Compared to domestic AC power plugs and sockets, DC connectors have many more
standard types that are not interchangeable.

3.2 Equipments required for project

3.2.1 Resistances

3.2.1.1 Introduction

There is always some resistance in every circuit.

• A circuit is always made up of some wire, so there will be some resistance there.
• Even the battery has parts that offer resistance to the flow of electrons.
• The only circuits that come near to zero resistance are superconductors.
• This resistance that is from the parts of the circuit itself (especially the battery) is called

internal resistance.
• This internal resistance is usually drawn into a circuit diagram (schematic) as shown in
Figure 1.
 12

• Notice the squiggly line just before the positive terminal of the battery? That’s to show
the internal resistance of the circuit.
• That symbol, drawn any other place in the circuit, represents an actual resistor placed in
the circuit.
• A resistor is a device found in circuits that has a certain amount of resistance. Why would
you ever want to add resistance to a circuit by using a resistor?
• The most common reason is that we need to be able to adjust the current flowing through
a particular part of the circuit.
• If voltage is constant, then we can change the resistor to change the current. I=V R If “V”
is constant and we change “R”, “I” will be different.

Figure 7.1

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF INTERNAL RESISTANCE AND

BAATTERY
 13

3.2.1.2 Actual Resistance

The Example 1: What is the resistance of this resistor?

Notice that the colors on this resistor are (in order) Red, Green, Orange, and Silver.
1. The first line is the first digit → Red = 2
2. The second line is the second digit → Green = 5
3. The third line is the multiplier → Orange = 103
4. The last line (if any) is the tolerance → Silver = } 10%
So the final answer would be 25 x 103 Ω ± 10%

Figure 7.2

RESISTANCE
 14

3.2.1.3 Watt ranting of the resistor and its use

The watt rating for any resistors is very important factor. It defines that how much
current can flow across the resistor at particular voltage without damaging the resistor.
According to the watt rating the thickness of the resistor varies. Now we have to take in
consideration how much current is going to flow across the resistor and depending upon
the rating we can calculate the power or wattage rating of the resistor. Because of this
reason only the resistors having same value come in different wattages like 100ohm,
1/4watt (quarter watt), 100ohm, 1/2watt (half watt), 100ohm, 1watt and many more.

3.2.2 LED

3.2.2.1 Introduction

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator
lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Appearing as practical
electronic components early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are
available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high
brightness.

Figure 8.1 LED

When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased (switched on), electrons are able to

recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons.
This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the
 15

energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. A LED is
often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical component

Symbol 01

LED SYMBOL

may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs present many advantages over
incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved
physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. LEDs powerful enough for room
lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management
than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive

lighting, advertising, general lighting, and traffic signals. LEDs have allowed new text,
video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful
in advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote
control units of many commercial products including televisions, DVD players and other
domestic appliances.
TYPE Passive opto-electronic device
Working principle Electroluminescence

Figure 8.2 LEDs

3.2.2.2 Applications
 16

In general, all the LED products can be divided into two major parts, the public lighting
and indoor lighting. LED uses fall into four major categories:

Figure 8.3(A) LEDs

Figure 8.3(B) LEDs

 Visual signals where light goes more or less directly from the source to the human
eye, to convey a message or meaning.
 Illumination where light is reflected from objects to give visual response of these
objects.
 Measuring and interacting with processes involving no human vision.
 Narrow band light sensors where LEDs operate in a reverse-bias mode and respond
to incident light, instead of emitting light

3.2.3 Transistors

A transistor is a semiconductordevice used
to amplify or switch electronic signalsand electrical power. It is composed
of semiconductor material usually with at least three terminals for connection to an
external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals
 17

controls the current through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled
(output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a
signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found
embedded in integrated circuits.

The first BJTs were made from germanium (Ge). Silicon (Si) types currently predominate

but certain advanced microwave and high-performance versions now employ
the compound semiconductor material gallium arsenide (GaAs) and the semiconductor
alloy silicon germanium (SiGe). Single element semiconductor material (Ge and Si) is
described as elemental.

3.2.2.3 Application and its uses

 The core use of transistors include switching applications or both as amplification

and switches.

 There is a kind of transistors which produce current flow depending on the amount of light shined
upon them, those are known as phototransistors.

 Bipolar Junction Transistors(BJT) can cause a greater current flow from the emitter
to collector when a small amount of current is passed through the base.

 Field Effect Transistors acts as voltage controlled devices. Field Effect

Transistors (FETs) have very high input impedance and it helps to run very little
current through them. This is helpful for not causing the power source to load down
as they are not disturbing the original circuit power elements on which they are
connected to. FETs are cheaper and easier to manufacture and cause less loading.

 Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors (HBT) can provide faster switching speeds and
is used in analog and digital microwave applications. They are priceless to fabricate
and can provide better lithographic yield. They are used in mobile and laser drivers
as power amplifiers.

.
 18

Semiconductor material characteristics

Semiconducto Junction forward Electron Holes Max

r mobility mobility Junction
Voltage Temp.
material m2 (V-S) m2(V-S)
V@25 C C
@25 C @25 C

Ge 0.27 0.39 0.19 70 to 100

Si 0.71 0.14 0.05 150 to 200
GaAs 1.03 0.85 0.05 150 to 200
Al-Si junction 0.3 - - 150 to 200

Figure 9 TRANSISTOR

3.2.4 Capacitors

3.2.4.1 Introduction
 19

The function of capacitors is to store electricity, or electrical energy. The capacitor also
functions as filter, passing AC, and blocking DC. The capacitor is constructed with two
electrode plates separated by insulator. They are also used in timing circuits because it
takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They can be used to smooth varying DC
supplies by acting as reservoir of charge.

The capacitor's function is to store electricity, or electrical energy. The capacitor also
functions as a filter, passing alternating current (AC), and blocking direct current (DC).
This symbol ( )is used to indicate a capacitor in a circuit diagram. The capacitor is
constructed with two electrode plates facing each other but separated by an insulator.

When DC voltage is applied to the capacitor, an electric charge is stored on each

electrode. While the capacitor is charging up, current flows. The current will stop flowing
when the capacitor has fully charged.
Commercial capacitors are generally classified according to the dielectric. The most used
are mica, paper, electrolytic and ceramic capacitors. Electrolytic capacitors use a molecular
thin oxide film as the dielectric resulting in large capacitance values. There is no required
polarity, since either side can be the most positive plate, except for electrolytic capacitors.
These are marked to indicate which side must be positive to maintain the internal
electrolytic action that produces the dielectric required to form the capacitance. It should
be noted that the polarity of the charging source determines the polarity of the changing
source determines the polarity of the capacitor voltage.

Figure 10 CAPACITOR
 20

3.2.5 Diode

3.2.5.1 Introduction

A device having two terminals and has a low resistance to electrical current in one
direction and a high resistance in the other direction. Diode is a two-element device which
passes a signal in one direction only. They are used most commonly to convert AC to DC,
because they pass the positive part of the wave, and block the negative part of the AC
signal, or, if they are reversed, they pass only the negative part and not the positive part.

SYMBOL NO. 03

DIODE SYMBOL

The stripe stamped on one end of the diode shows

indicates the polarity of the diode. The stripe shows the cathode side. The top two devices
shown in the picture are diodes used for rectification. They are made to handle relatively
high currents. The device on top can handle as high as 6A, and the one below it can safely
handle up to 1A.However, it is best used at about 70% of its rating because this current
value is a maximum rating. The third device from the top (red color) has a part number of
1S1588. This diode is used for switching, because it can switch on and off at very high
speed. However, the maximum current it can handle is 120 mA. This makes it well suited
to use within digital circuits. The maximum reverse voltage (reverse bias) this diode can
handle is 30V.

The device at the bottom of the picture is a voltage regulation diode with a rating of 6V.
When this type of diode is reverse biased, it will resist changes in voltage. If the input
voltage is increased, the output voltage will not change. (Or any change will be an
insignificant amount.) While the output voltage does not increase with an increase in input
voltage, the output current will.
 21

This requires some thought for a protection circuit so that too much current does not
flow. The rated current limit for the device is 30 mA. Generally, a 3-terminal voltage
regulator is used for the stabilization of a power supply. Therefore, this diode is typically
used to protect the circuit from momentary voltage spikes. 3 terminal regulators use
voltage regulation diodes inside.

3.2.5.2 Featurs

 Low forward voltage drop.

 Diffused Junction
 High Current Capability
 ROHS Compliant

3.2.6 P.C.B. Board

A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically

connect electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks or signal
traces etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. It is also
referred to as printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. Printed circuit boards
are used in virtually all but the simplest commercially produced electronic devices.

A PCB populated with electronic components is called a printed circuit

assembly (PCA), printed circuit board assembly or PCB Assembly (PCBA). In informal
use the term "PCB" is used both for bare and assembled boards, the context clarifying the
meaning.

Alternatives to PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction. PCBs must

initially be designed and laid out, but become cheaper, faster to make, and potentially more
reliable for high-volume production since production and soldering of PCBs can be
automated. Much of the electronics industry's PCB design, assembly, and quality control
needs are set by standards published by the IPC organization.
 22

PCBs are inexpensive, and can be highly reliable. They require much more layout effort
and higher initial cost than either wire-wrapped or point-to-point constructed circuits, but
are much cheaper and faster for high-volume production. Much of the electronics
industry's PCB design, assembly, and quality control needs are set by standards that are
published by the IPC organization.

Printed Circuit Boards are primarily an insulating material used as base, into which
conductive strips are printed. The base material is generally fiberglass, and the conductive
connections are e generally copper and are made through an etching process. The main
PCB board is called the motherboard; the smaller attachment PCB boards are called
daughter boards or daughter cards

Figure 11 P.C.B. BOARD

3.2.7 Voltage Regulator

3.2.7.1 Introduction
 23

A voltage regulator is designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. A

voltage regulator may be a simple "feed-forward" design or may include negative
feedback control loops. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic
components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or
more AC or DC voltages.

Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as computer power

supplies where they stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements. In
automobile alternators and central power station generator plants, voltage regulators
control the output of the plant. In an electric power distribution system, voltage regulators
may be installed at a substation or along distribution lines so that all customers receive
steady voltage independent of how much power is drawn from the line.

Voltage regulator ICs are available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable
output voltages. The maximum current they can pass also rates them. Negative voltage
regulators are available, mainly for use in dual supplies. Most regulators include some
automatic protection from excessive current (over load protection) and over-heating
(thermal protection). Many of fixed voltage regulator ICs has 3 leads. They include a hole
for attaching a heat sink if necessary.

Figure 12 VOLTAGE REGULATOR

3.2.7.2 Features

 Output current in Excess of 1.0 A

 No external component required
 24

 Internal thermal overload protection

 Internal short circuit current limiting
 Output transistor safe-area compensation
 Output voltage offered in 2% and 4% tolerance
 Available I n surface mount D2PAK and standard 3-lead transistor packages.

3.2.8 LDR

3.2.8.1 Introduction

A photoresistor (or light-dependent resistor, LDR, or photo-conductive cell) is a

light-controlled variable resistor. The resistance of a photoresistor decreases with
increasing incident light intensity; in other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. A
photoresistor can be applied in light-sensitive detector circuits, and light-activated and
dark-activated switching circuits.

A photoresistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. In the dark, a

photoresistor can have a resistance as high as several megaohms (MΩ), while in the light, a
photoresistor can have a resistance as low as a few hundred ohms. If incident light on a
photoresistor exceeds a certain frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give
bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting free
electrons (and their hole partners) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance. The
resistance range and sensitivity of a photoresistor can substantially differ among dissimilar
devices. Moreover, unique photoresistors may react substantially differently to photons
within certain wavelength bands.
 25

Figure 13 LDR

3.2.8.2 Applications

 Photoresistors come in many types. Inexpensive cadmium sulfide cells can be

found in many consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios, alarm
devices (as the detector for a light beam), nightlights, outdoor clocks, solar street
lamps and solar road studs, etc.

 Photoresistors can be placed in streetlights to control when the light is on. Ambient
light falling on the photoresistor causes the streetlight to turn off. Thus energy is
saved by ensuring the light is only on during hours of darkness.

 They are also used in some dynamic compressors together with a small

incandescent or neon lamp, or light-emitting diode to control gain reduction. A
common usage of this application can be found in many guitar amplifiers that
incorporate an onboard tremolo effect, as the oscillating light patterns control the
level of signal running through the amp circuit.

 The use of CdS and CdSe[3] photoresistors is severely restricted in Europe due to

the RoHS ban on cadmium.

 Lead sulfide (PbS) and indium antimonide (InSb) LDRs (light-dependent resistors)

are used for the mid-infrared spectral region. 

3.2.9 Diode bridge

 26

3.2.9.1 Introduction

A diode bridge is an arrangement of four (or more) diodes in a bridge

circuit configuration that provides the same polarity of output for either polarity of input.
When used in its most common application, for conversion of an alternating current (AC)
input into a direct current (DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier
provides full-wave rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and
weight as compared to a rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformer with a center-
tapped secondary winding

Figure 14.1 DIODE BRIDGE

Figure 14.2 DIODE BRIDGE

The essential feature of a diode bridge is that the polarity of the output is the same
regardless of the polarity at the input. The diode bridge circuit is also known as the Graetz
circuit after its inventor, physicist Leo Graetz.

3.2.9.2 Basic operation

According to the conventional model of current flow originally established by Benjamin

Franklin and still followed by most engineers today, current is assumed to flow
through electrical conductors from the positive to the negative pole. In actuality, free
electrons in a conductor nearly always flow from the negative to the positive pole. In the
vast majority of applications, however, the actual direction of current flow is irrelevant.
Therefore, in the discussion below the conventional model is retained.
 27

In the diagrams below, when the input connected to the left corner of the diamond
is positive, and the input connected to the right corner is negative, current flows from the
upper supply terminal to the right along the red (positive) path to the output, and returns to
the lower supply terminal via the blue (negative) path.

In each case, the upper right output remains positive and lower right output negative.
Since this is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not only produces a DC output
from an AC input, it can also provide what is sometimes called "reverse polarity
protection". 

SYMBOL NO. 3(A)

DIODE BRIDGE

SYMBOL NO. (3) DIODE BRIDGE

3.2.10 Soldering Iron

A soldering iron is a hand tool used in soldering. It supplies heat to melt solder so that

it can flow into the joint between two workpieces.
 28

A soldering iron is composed of a heated metal tip and an insulated handle. Heating is
often achieved electrically, by passing an electric current (supplied through an electrical
cord or battery cables) through a resistive heating element. Cordless irons can be heated by
combustion of gas stored in a small tank, often using a catalytic heater rather than a flame.
Simple irons less commonly used today than in the past were simply a large copper bit on a
handle, heated in a flame.

Soldering irons are most often used for installation, repairs, and limited production
work in electronics assembly. High-volume production lines use other soldering methods.
[1]
 Large irons may be used for soldering joints in sheet metal objects. Less common uses
include pyrography (burning designs into wood) and plastic welding.

Figure 15 SOLDERING IRON

Simple Iron

For electrical and electronics work, a low-power iron, a power rating between 15 and
35 watts, is used. Higher ratings are available, but do not run at higher temperature; instead
there is more heat available for making soldered connections to things with large thermal
capacity, for example, a metal chassis.[2] Some irons are temperature-controlled, running at
a fixed temperature in the same way as a soldering station, with higher power available for
 29

joints with large heat capacity. Simple irons run at an uncontrolled temperature determined
by thermal equilibrium; when heating something large their temperature drops.

3.2.11 Battery

This is 9V D.C. battery. This is supply source of ours LEDs. This is a battery that
gives 9V D.C. Voltage. The 9V battery or 9V battery is a common size of battery that was
introduced radios. It has a rectangular prism shape with rounded edges and a polarized
snap connector at atop. This is commonly used in walkie-talkies, clocks, smoke detectors
and automatic street light project.

The nine-volt battery format is commonly available in primary carbon-zinc and

alkaline chemistry, in primary lithium iron disulfide, and in rechargeable form in nickel-
cadmium, nickel-metal hydride and lithium-ion. Mercury-oxide batteries of this format,
once common, have not been manufactured in many years due to their mercury content.

Most nine-volt alkaline batteries are constructed of six individual 1.5 V LR61 Cells
enclosed in a wrapper. There cells are slightly smarter than LR8D425 AAAA cells and can
be used in their place for some devices even though they are 3.5 mm shorter.

Figure 16.1 BATTERY

 30

Figure 16.2 BATTERY CAP

3.2.12 Wires

A wire is a single, usually cylindrical, flexible strand or rod of metal. Wires are used to
bear mechanical loads or electricity and telecommunications signals. Wire is commonly
formed by drawing the metal through a hole in a die or draw plate. Wire gauges come in
various standard sizes, as expressed in terms of a gauge number. The term wire is also used
more loosely to refer to a bundle of such strands, as in "multistranded wire", which is more
correctly termed a wire rope in mechanics, or a cable in electricity.

Wire comes in solid core, stranded, or braided forms. Although usually circular in
cross-section, wire can be made in square, hexagonal, flattened rectangular, or other cross-
sections, either for decorative purposes, or for technical purposes such as high-
efficiency voice coils in loudspeakers. Edge-wound[1] coil springs, such as the Slinky toy,
are made of special flattened wire.

Figure 17 WIRES
 31

3.3 How To Activate System

1. First of all we have to take some components like resistors, LEDs, LDR sensors,
transistors, 12v battery, connecting wires of battery and connecting wire.
2. In the first step we take 2 transistor and then we joint two lead(emitter and collector) by
soldering them.
3. Then we are connect resistance R1 to transistor B base and resistance R2 to transistor B
collector.
4. In the next step we connect transistor A base to transistor B collector.
5. Then we are connect LDR. The LDR sensor is used to sense day or night. Thus we are
connect LDR leads to transistors b leads.
6. In the next step we connect LEDs in the project. The LEDs has two leads. The LED is
connect to both the transistor (transistors A and transistor B).
7. In the next step we are going to connect 12v d.c. battery. The battery is connect to both
the
collector leads of the transistors
8. In the last step then we connect the cap to the 9 volt battery. Then the supply is on. So
we
are going to activate system.
9. Thus we see that automatic street light system is on and we are going to test that system.
10.Thus we see that there is no more consumption and less wastage of energy.
 32

4. Conclusion

In this project we have studied and implemented a complete working model using a
LDR sensor. The programming and interfering anf LDR sensor has been mastered during
the implementation. This work includes the study of energy system im many applications.

In this project we are done to design a power efficient street light system which
according to the physical environment in on and off that time basis. In the day time all the
streets lights are off. In the evening time all the street light are on and in the night the street
light are managed as pe rthe vehicle arrival. In this we have designed one lane system.
However this can be implememted for two lane system also.
 33

5. Scope of Future Work

1. In the street light power consumption is very high. So by the project we have
less power consumption.
2. To reduce the wastage of electricity. In the project we have a idea of consuming
less electricity.
3. By the project of street light we can save a large amount of energy.
4. The automatic street light is fully automatic control. This is project the manuly
operations are very less.
5. This project is fully automatic. Thus we are no more require of man power.
6. Through this project we save more energy as well as more power.
7. In future the manually operated street light become very less because the
automatic
street light are used everywhere.
8. In future the automatic street light is used everywhere because it use less power,
less energy and reduces the wastage of energy.
 34

6. Advantages

1. No need of any man power for maintenance

2. Our system will automatic control the switch ON/OFF
3 .Faster Response
4. Easy to set up
5. LDRs are sensitivity, inexpensive and readily available device. They have good
powerand
Power handling capabilities similar to those of a conversational resister
6. They are small senough to fit into virtually any electronics device and are used all
around
7. The world as basic component in many electrical systems.

7. Disadvantages

1. Can be more complicated to alie detector paired.

2. Is ensitive to ambient light and require careful shielding.
3. Photo resistors are only sensitive to light and no other force can force can power it
without risking damage. Also, they nare unable to detect low light levels and may take
a few seconds to deliver a cherge while their electrons build up momentum.
 35

8. Applications

1. Photo resistors have many uses, most of which involves detecting the presences of
light.
2. Street light used photo resisters to detect whether it is day or night and turn the lights
on and off accordingly.
3. photo resisters are also used in digital cameras to detect how much light camera sees
and adjest picture quality accordingly.
4. They are used in some clocks, alarms and some other electronic devices that are semi
dependent on sunlight.
5. This project is fully automatic. Thus we are no more require of man power.
6. Through this project we save more energy as well as more power.
7. In future the manually operated street light become very less because the automatic
street light are used everywhere.
8. In future the automatic street light is used everywhere because it use less power, less
energy and reduces the wastage of energy.
36

9. Appendix

The algorithm of the programme is very simple:

#PIN define…
#define Fan1 RA1_bit
#define Fan2 RA2_bit
#define Zero RA0_bit
#define Plus_button RC0_bit
#define minus_button RA3_bit
#define Switch1 RC2_bit
#define Switch2 RC3_bit
#define LED1 RC4_bit
#define LED2 RC5_bit
#define LED3 RA4_bit
#define LED4 RA5_bit
#define LDR RA5_bit

#global variables
Unsigned int current=5
Unsigned int ch_cnt=0
Unsigned short Lamp1,Lamp2;
Unsigned int auto_mode,intensity;
Unsigned int auto_cnt;
Unsigned int adc_rd;
Unsigned short mode=0;
Void Ato_Mode(void);
Void Manual_Mode(void);
 37

10. References

1. The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded systems by Muhammad Ali Mazidi

and Janice Gillispie Mazidi , Pearson Education.

2. Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, Boylestad.

3. Sensors: Advancements in Modeling, Design Issues, Fabrication and Practical

by Subhas Chandra

4. Handbook of Modern Sensors: Physics, Designs, and Applications by Jacob

Fraden.

5. The 8051 Microcontroller by Kenneth J. Ayala,

6. Hand Book of Electronics by A.K. Maini.

7. Digital Systems Principles and Application by Ronald Ltocci (Sixth Addition).

8. Digital Design by Moris Mano (Second Addition),

9. Relays and Its Application Sharma, M.C. (BPB-Publishers)

10. www.atmel.com,www.beyondlogic.org,www.wikipedia.org,www.howstuffwo
rks.com, www.alldatasheets.com, www.wikipedia.com.