European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering, 2015
Vol. 19, No. 4, 467–481, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19648189.2014.960100
Transfer behaviour and durability of cementitious mortars
containing polycarbonate plastic wastes
Kinda Hannawi* and William Prince-Agbodjan
Laboratoire de Génie Civil et Génie Mécanique (LGCGM), INSA-Rennes, Rennes, France
(Received 28 December 2013; accepted 26 August 2014)
In this work, we investigate the use of Polycarbonate Plastic particles (PC) as fine
aggregate substitutes in mortar by conducting experimental tests on mortars contain-
ing different percentages (3, 10, 20 and 50%) of PC-aggregates as sand substitutes.
Various transfer properties, such as gas permeability, ultrasonic wave velocity and
thermal conductivity have been measured. Freezing/thawing cycles and heat/cool
cycles have also been performed in order to evaluate the durability of the compos-
ites. The results obtained show that the new composites exhibit an improvement in
the performances of sound and thermal insulation. The durability test results indicate
that the freeze/thaw cycles induce a mechanical property loss in all cases. The com-
pressive and flexural strength of all mixtures increases after heat/cool cycles, which
is mainly attributed to the formation of new hydrates during thermal cycles. The
results show that PC wastes may be successfully used as partial volume substitutes
in cementitious composites. This could potentially help resolve some of the solid
waste problems created by the production of plastics.
Keywords: recycling; cementitious mortars; transfer behaviour; durability
1. Introduction
Plastic wastes form a significant portion of the municipal solid waste generated over the
last few years. Due to both the extended life cycle as well as the visibility of these
wastes, their management has become imperative from the environmental, economic as
well as social point of view.
Landfill and incineration were the solutions initially proposed for handling these
wastes (Alter, 1993; Yakowitz, 1990). However, the exponential growth seen in the
quantities of these wastes generated today forces us to seek other potential uses through
recycling efforts. Building materials may represent one effective solution, and the possi-
bility of employing this kind of plastic waste in concrete or mortar has already been dis-
cussed in previous works (Adrados et al., 2012; Breslin, Senturk, & Berndt, 1998;
Choi, Moon, Kim, & Lachemi, 2009; Flaga, 2000; Hınıslıoglu & Agar, 2004; Kim, Yi,
Kim, Kim, & Song, 2010; Mahdi, Khan, & Abbas, 2007; Siddique, Khatib, & Kaur,
2007; Simonsen, 1996; Yesilata, Isıker, & Turgut, 2009).
Various types of plastics have been investigated; polyethylene terephthalate (PET),
high-density polyethylene, polypropylene, etc. These studies have focused on the effect
of adding plastic on the workability of the new composites formed and on the
© 2014 Taylor & Francis
468 K. Hannawi and W. Prince-Agbodjan
mechanical properties of the hardened mixtures. (Choi, Moon, Chung, & Cho, 2005;
Gavela et al., 2004; Sobhan & Mashnad, 2002).
Albano, Camacho, Hernández, Matheus, and Gutiérrez (2009) analysed the
mechanical behaviour of concrete containing PET by varying the water/cement ratio
(.50 and .60), the PET content (10 and 20 vol.%) and the particle size (.26 and
1.14 cm). They found that as the volume proportion and particle size of PET increased,
PET-filled concrete showed a decrease in compressive strength by 62%, splitting tensile
strength by 37%, elastic modulus by 41% and ultrasonic pulse velocity by 17% (these
values were obtained for concrete containing 20% of PET with a water/cement ratio of
.60).
Yazoghli, Dheilly, and Queneudec (2007) used waste PET lightweight aggregate
(WPLA) by partially or completely replacing the natural aggregate to produce concrete
composites. The compressive strength of the concrete composites obtained was greater
than 3.5 MPa, while the thermal conductivity of the specimens was found to be about
.69 W/m K. They concluded that their product could be effectively used as a bearing
insulator.
Ismail and Al-Hashmi (2008) found that as the percentage of waste plastic mixture
(80% polyethylene and 20% polystyrene) increased, the workability increased by 68.3,
88.33 and 95.33% and the bulk density decreased by 5, 7 and 8.7% for mixtures con-
taining 10, 15 and 20% of waste plastic, respectively. This last result was due to the
low density of plastic aggregates compared to conventional ones.
Akçaözoğlu, Atiş, and Akçaözoğlu (2010) investigated the mechanical properties of
two group mortars using WPLA as partial and full substitutes for sand. Granulated Blast
Furnace Slag was used as the replacement in Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) at a ratio of
50% on a mass basis. The WPLA–binder (WPLA/b) and water–binder (w/b) ratios were
.50 and .45, respectively. The results of the study were compressive strengths of over
20 MPa flexural–tensile strengths over 4.7 MPa for the mortar specimens. The researchers
concluded that the specimens produced could be considered to be in the structural
lightweight concrete category based on their unit weight and strength properties.
Silva, de Brito, and Saikia (2013) analysed the effect of curing conditions on the
durability of concrete mixes containing PET plastic waste aggregates by carrying out
tests for shrinkage, water absorption by immersion, water absorption by capillarity
action, carbonation and chloride penetration. Their test results showed a decline in the
properties of concrete made using plastic aggregates, in terms of durability, compared to
conventional concrete.
A review of the existing literature reveals limited research thus far on the durability
of composites containing plastic aggregates. Relatively few studies have been performed
on the durability performance of concrete made using PET wastes. The main aim of this
study then is to investigate the transfer behaviour and the durability performance of
cementitious mortars containing polycarbonate (PC) plastic wastes, which have not yet
been studied in the literature.
2. Materials and mixtures
The materials used in this study are the following:
Portland cement (CEM I 52.5) having 3.15 density and 432 m²/kg Blaine
fineness.
Normalised silica sand having 1730 kg/m3 bulk density and 2.65 specific gravity.
European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering 469
Table 1. Physical and mechanical properties of PC aggregates.
Type of plastic PC
Bulk density .612
Specific gravity (kg/m3) 1240
Colour White
Maximum size 5 mm
Shape Spherical
Melting point (°C) 230–250
Thermal conductivity (W/mK) .19–.22
Water absorption in 24 h at 23 °C (%) .15
Young’s modulus (MPa) 2700
Tensile yield stress (MPa) 61
PC plastic aggregates with 5 mm maximum size obtained from a recycling com-
pany “Recycle logistique” located in south Brittany, France. A sample of the PC
aggregates is shown in Figure 1, and their physical and mechanical properties are
presented in Table 1.
Plastic aggregates have been introduced in the mortar mixture as a partial replace-
ment for the natural aggregates. Various volume fractions of sand 3, 10, 20 and 50%
have been substituted by an equivalent volume of PC aggregates. The reference mortar
composition is 513 kg/m3 cement, 1539 kg/m3 sand and 256.5 kg/m3 water (W/C = .5,
S/C = 3). Three specimens were cast from each mixture and for each test. After 24 h,
the samples were removed from the molds and cured for over 28 days at 20 °C and
100% relative humidity.
3. Test method
3.1. Apparent porosity
Cylindrical specimens of 40 mm diameter and 60 mm height were cast for these tests.
The apparent porosity was calculated according to the RILEM 49TER recommendation
Figure 1. Sample of PC aggregates.
470 K. Hannawi and W. Prince-Agbodjan
Percolation gas
Cell
Sample
Membrane
Confinement gas
Flowmeter
Figure 2. Scheme describing the experimental set-up of permeability test.
(1984), based on dry mass (Md) and total volume (V). The sample was dried over a
period of several days at 60 °C in order to remove any moisture from the voids. The
apparent porosity (Pa) values were then calculated using Equations (1) and (2).
Msat:air Msat:water
V ¼ (1)
qwater
Msat:air Md
Pa ¼ (2)
V
where Msat.air is the saturated mass measured in air, Msat.water is the saturated mass mea-
sured in water and ρWater is the density of water.
3.2. Gas permeability
Three cylindrical specimens (40 mm × 60 mm) of each mixture were tested to determine
the mean value of the gas permeability. Figure 2 describes the experimental set-up used
in this study. A string of data acquisition (LABVIEW) was used to monitor the gas
flow.
The gas permeability test was conducted according to the recommendation standard
RILEM TC 116-PCD (1999). The apparent permeability value (ka) was calculated using
the Hagen Poiseuille equation for laminar flow of a compressible fluid through a porous
body under steady state conditions according to formula (3):
2 Q Patm: L:l
Ka ¼ (3)
AðPi 2 Patm
2 Þ
where ka: apparent permeability (m²) at fixed pressure; L: length of the sample (m); Q:
gas flow (m3/s); A: cross-sectional area (m²); μ: gas dynamic viscosity coefficient (Pa.s);
Pi: applied absolute pressure; and Patm: atmospheric pressure.
The intrinsic permeability (kv) was then determined using the Klinkenberg approach
by measuring the apparent permeability at different pressures (.2, .3, .4 and .6 MPa) and
European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering 471
by plotting it against the inverse of the mean pressure (1/Pm). The intrinsic permeability
was then obtained for 1/Pm = 0.
3.3. Ultrasonic test
The waves were produced by an ultrasonic device (Sofranel model 5800 PR) and the
velocity of the ultrasonic wave (VL, m/s) was determined by measuring the time (t, s)
that the waves took to pass through the length (L, m) of the specimen (40 mm ×
60 mm).
3.4. Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivities were measured on dry half-cubic samples of (10 cm × 10 cm ×
4 cm) using a non-stationary method, which gives several advantages, particularly in
terms of contact resistance, power and duration of the emitted signal. The theoretical
basis of this technique has been discussed by various authors (Bouguerra, Laurent,
Goual, & Queneudec, 1997; Gustafsso, 1991). The experimental device used in this
study consists of a transient plane source element, a power supply stabilised in tension,
a Wheatstone bridge, an acquisition power station and a microcomputer for data control
and processing.
3.5. Freezing/thawing cycles
Samples of 40 × 40 × 60 mm were subjected to freezing/thawing cycles. The samples
were first saturated with water for 24 h using the vacuum saturation method; each cycle
involved first freezing the specimens at −20 °C for 12 h followed by thawing them in
water at 20 °C for 12 h (Takarli, Prince, & Siddique, 2008). After 25 cycles, the ultra-
sonic wave velocity was measured. After 60 cycles, the ultrasonic wave velocity was
measured again; the compressive strength and the flexural strength were determined and
compared with those at a healthy state (before cycling).
3.6. Heat/cool cycles
Samples of 40 × 40 × 60 mm were subjected to heat/cool cycles. Each cycle consisted of
first heating the specimens at 65 °C for 12 h followed by cooling them at room temper-
ature 20 °C and 50% RH for 12 h. After 40 cycles, the compressive and flexural
strengths of specimens were measured and compared with those of specimens kept at
ambient temperature (20 °C).
3.7. Microstructure characterisation
Differential thermal analysis/thermo-gravimetric analysis (DTA/TGA) was performed
using a MATTLER simultaneous thermal analyser equipped with a differential scanning
calorimeter and a thermo-gravimetric system. A heating rate of 10 °C min−1 under nitro-
gen gas flush or chromatographic air was maintained in the temperature range 25–
1000 °C. The crystalline phase was investigated using the powder XRD technique
(Marinoni, Pavese, Voltolini, & Merlini, 2008).
472 K. Hannawi and W. Prince-Agbodjan
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Workability
The relationship between workability and the plastic aggregate content is shown in
Figure 3. The slump value of mixtures containing PC aggregates increases as the
replacement ratio increases. Compared to a control mixture, the improvement ratios of
workability represent 29, 48, 108 and 125% for mortars containing 3, 10, 20 and 50%
of PC aggregates, respectively. This may be attributed not only to the spherical and
smooth shape but also to the low water absorption of PC – plastics (about .15%) com-
pared to silica sand (about .7%). Namely, the workability improvement achieved by
containing the PC aggregates is capable of reducing the water content and the water-
reducing agent content. It is expected that the reduction of the water content could com-
pensate for the predictable strength reduction of the PC aggregates mixtures.
4.2. Apparent porosity
The apparent porosity values of the different mixtures are provided in Table 2. The
results reveal that replacing 3% (by volume) of sand by 3% of PC aggregates does not
exert a significant influence on the apparent porosity (Pa) of the composites. However,
for higher content, the apparent porosity appears to increase slightly with plastic con-
tent.
4.3. Gas permeability
For each mixture, three samples were tested at four different pressures (.2, .3, .4 and
.6 MPa) in order to determine the intrinsic permeability using the Klinkenberg approach.
Table 3 summarises the average values of the apparent permeability obtained for each
mixture at different pressures. Mo, M3PC, M10PC, M20PC and M50PC correspond to 0,
3, 10, 20 and 50% addition of PC aggregates as sand replacement, respectively. The
results in Figure 4 show that introduction of plastic aggregates causes an increase in the
intrinsic permeability. The permeability increases slightly until a replacement of 20%
(about 10−17 m2) but it increased more significantly beyond 20% (about 10−16 m2 for
replacement of 50%). This increase remains less than that found in mixtures containing
10
8
Slump (cm)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Plastic aggregates content (%)
Figure 3. Slump vs. volume of sand replaced by PC aggregates.
European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering 473
Table 2. Experimental values of dry density and apparent porosity.
Mixture Mo M3PC M10PC M20PC M50PC
Apparent porosity (%) 15.4 15.41 15.53 15.67 15.8
Table 3. Apparent permeability of all mixtures at different pressures.
Mixture
Pressures (MPa) Mo M3PC M10PC M20PC M50PC
.2 3.742 4.309 5.289 16.41 44.21
.3 3.431 4.183 5.164 13.39 43.83
.4 3.141 3.945 4.841 11.97 42.14
.6 3.032 3.964 4.770 10.21 38.06
1.E-14
Intrinsic permeability (m2)
1.E-15
1.E-16
1.E-17
1.E-18
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%
Plastic aggregates content (%)
Figure 4. Intrinsic permeability according to the volume of sand replaced by PC aggregates.
PET aggregates (about 10−14 m2 for mixtures with 50% of PET aggregates) (Hannawi,
Prince, & Kamali, 2010). To explain this increase, one may assume that the matrix–
plastic aggregates interface frequently exhibits open pores and microcracks which
increase the permeability, as can be seen in the SEM images in Figure 5.
4.4. Thermal conductivity
The thermal conductivity values for the different mixtures are given in Figure 6. It is
clear that the increase in plastic content causes a reduction in the thermal conductivity.
For mixtures containing 50% of PC aggregates, this reduction reaches 38%. This is due
to the low thermal conductivity of PC aggregates (.19 W/mK) compared to that of sand
(2 W/mK). The plastic aggregates tend to slow down the heat propagation which in turn
decreases the global conductivity of the composite. Despite this decrease in the thermal
conductivity of PC composites, the values remain greater than .3 W/mK (thermal con-
ductivity of cellular concrete, according to the classification of RILEM LC2 (1978)).
474 K. Hannawi and W. Prince-Agbodjan
Figure 5. (a) SEM images show an interface more porous between the PC aggregates and the
cement matrix and (b) compared to that between the cement matrix and the conventional sand.
1.8
Thermal conductivity (w/m.k)
1.6
1.4
1.2
0.8
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Plastic aggregates content (%)
Figure 6. Thermal conductivity vs. volume of sand replaced by PC aggregates.
4.5. Freezing/thawing cycles
4.5.1. Effects on mechanical strength
The compressive and flexural strength of the different mixtures before and after
60 freeze/thaw cycles are presented in Figures 7a and 7b, respectively.
These results confirm well-known tendencies: the incorporation of plastic aggregates is
highly detrimental to mechanical properties (Frigione, 2010; Li, Li, & Li, 1998; Segre &
Joekes, 2000; Toutanji, 1996). For mixtures containing 50% of PC aggregates, the
decrease in compressive strength reaches 64% and the reduction in flexural strength
reaches 33% (Note that Ismail and Al-Hashmi (2008) have found a decrease of 60% for
mixtures with 20% of plastic waste (Ismail, 2008)).
It can be seen as well that the freeze/thaw cycles induce, in all cases, a loss of
mechanical strength (to be precise, we observe after 60 a decrease of 13, 7, 7, 14 and
17% in compressive strength and of 13, 9, 8, 14 and 15% in flexural strength for mix-
tures containing 0, 3, 10, 20 and 50% of PC aggregates, respectively). This reduction is
European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering 475
60
Compression strength (MPa)
50
40
30
20
Before freeze / thaw cycles
10
60 freeze / thaw cycles
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Plastique aggregates content (%)
Figure 7a. Effect of freezing–thawing cycles on compressive strength.
5
Flexural strength (MPa)
Before freeze / thaw cycles
1
60 freeze / thaw cycles
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Plastique aggregates content (%)
Figure 7b. Effect of freezing–thawing cycles on flexural strength.
probably due to the degradation of composites by cracking and creation of voids during
the freeze/thaw cycles. The cracks develop as a result of repeated differential thermal
contraction/dilatation of the materials. In all cases, the compressive strength values
obtained (RC > 3.5 MPa) are compatible with the use of these composites as bearing
material, according to the RILEM LC2 classification (1978).
4.5.2. Effects on ultrasonic properties
The ultrasonic wave velocity (VL) of different mixtures was measured before freezing/
thawing cycles, and then after 25 and 60 cycles. The results are grouped together in
Figure 8, they show that:
476 K. Hannawi and W. Prince-Agbodjan
The ultrasonic wave velocity decreases as the proportion of PC aggregates
increases. It decreases from 4326 m/s for the reference mixture (M0) to 2370 m/s
for the M50PC mixture. This is probably due to the ability of plastic to absorb the
ultrasonic waves and also due to the discontinuity created by the bond defects
plastic aggregates/matrix (Czarnecki, Garbacz, & Krystosiak, 2006). This decrease
in VL reflects an improvement of the acoustic insulation.
The ultrasonic wave velocity decreases during successive cycles (a decrease of 6,
5, 6, 7 and 16% for mixtures with 0, 3, 10, 20 and 50% of PC aggregates, respec-
tively, was observed after 60 cycles). This reduction is probably due to the crea-
tion of new microcracks or the propagation of pre-existing ones.
4500
4000
Utrasonic wave velocity (m/s)
3500
3000
2500
Before freeze / thaw cycles
2000 25 freeze / thaw cycles
60 freeze / thaw cycles
1500
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Plastique aggregates content (%)
Figure 8. Effect of freezing–thawing cycles on ultrasonic wave velocity.
70
Compressive strength (MPa)
60
50
40
30
20
ambient temperature (20C°)
10
heat–cool cycles (20°C / 65°C)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Plastique aggregates content (%)
Figure 9a. Effect of heating and cooling cycles on compressive strength.
European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering 477
Flexural strength (MPa)
7
2
ambient temperature (20C°)
1 heat–cool cycles (20°C / 65°C)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Plastique aggregates content (%)
Figure 9b. Effect of heating and cooling cycles on flexural strength.
4.6. Heat/cool cycles
4.6.1. Effects on mechanical strengths
The effect of heating/cooling cycles (65 °C/20 °C) on the compressive and flexural
strength of different mixtures after 40 cycles is shown in Figures 9a and 9b, respec-
tively. The mechanical strengths were compared with those of specimens kept at ambi-
ent temperature (20 °C). The results show an unexpected improvement in compressive
and flexural strength of all mixtures after thermal cycling. (after 40 cycles, we observed
an increase of 16, 21, 28, 15 and 24% in compressive strength and of 48, 49, 42, 27
and 18% in flexural strength for mixtures with 0, 3, 10, 20 and 50% of PC aggregates,
respectively). This result is most probably due to the formation of new hydrates during
thermal cycles (Yang et al., 2013) (caused by the increase in temperature), which is
demonstrated in the following investigation of the microstructure.
Figure 10. Comparison of XRD patterns between the reference specimen and that after thermal
cycles 65 °C/20 °C.
478
K. Hannawi and W. Prince-Agbodjan
Reference specimen
Thermal cycling treated specimen
Figure 11. DTA/TGA curves of the reference specimen and the thermal cycling-treated specimen.
European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering 479
4.6.2. Comparison of microstructure analysis after heat/cool cycles
For the microstructure analysis, we prepared two samples with a substitution rate of
10% PC. The first was kept at ambient temperature 20 °C, while the second was sub-
mitted to 40 heat/cool cycles at 65 °C/20 °C. The XRD patterns of the reference speci-
men and the thermal cycling-treated specimen are compared in Figure 10. The mineral
phases of both specimens are practically identical, i.e. ettringite, quartz, portlandite and
C–S–H. However, the intensities of the corresponding peaks of the typical hydration
products of C–S–H and portandite in the sample submitted to thermal cycles are appar-
ently stronger than those of the reference samples’.
This trend appears to have been confirmed by the Thermal Analysis TGA/DTA.
Figure 11 reports the DTA/TGA curves of the reference specimen and of the thermal
cycling-treated specimen. The endothermic peak at 450 °C is attributed to the dehydr-
oxylation of portlandite. The thermal analysis shows a slight increase in portlandite con-
tent (8.72% against 7.47%) in the case of the thermal cycling-treated specimen.
The formation of new hydrate identified in the XRD and TGA analyses has also
been detected in the reference mixture after thermal cycling, so this is a result of the
chemical bonding reactions within the cement matrix after thermal cycling.
5. Conclusions
In this paper, we presented a new way to recycle PC wastes by using them as aggre-
gates in cementitious materials. Mortars containing different proportions of PC aggre-
gates were tested and also its transfer behaviour and durability under various conditions
were investigated and discussed. The experimental results show that:
The addition of the PC aggregates as partial replacement of sand improves the
workability of the mortar. Compared to a control mixture, the slump values of
waste plastic mixtures tend to increase by 29, 48, 108 and 125% for a mortar con-
taining 3, 10, 20 and 50% of PC aggregates, respectively.
The permeability increases significantly when the replacement exceeds 20%,
although this is lower than the permeability obtained using PET aggregates.
Mixtures with PC aggregates exhibit an improvement in the performances of
sound and thermal insulation, thus showing true potential for application in many
fields, such as in sound/crash barriers, retaining structures and pavement struc-
tures.
The mechanical strength of PC mixtures decreases with the plastic aggregate con-
tent. In all cases, the values of compressive strength obtained (RC > 3.5 MPa) are
compatible with the use of these composites as bearing materials according to the
RILEM LC2 classification.
The durability test results indicate that the freeze/thaw cycles induce a mechanical
property loss in all cases. This reduction is probably due to the degradation of
composites by cracking and the creation of voids during the freeze/thaw cycles.
A new hydrate has been identified by XRD and TGA analyses in the samples sub-
mitted to thermal cycling. This could explain the improvement in mechanical per-
formance after heat/cool cycles.
Finally, the present study has shown encouraging results and opened a new way
for the recycling of PC waste aggregates in cement and concrete composites.
480 K. Hannawi and W. Prince-Agbodjan
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