LESSON 1

COMMUNICATION: AN OVERVIEW

TOPICS
1. What is Communication?
2. The Characteristics of Communication
3. Functions and Importance of Communication in Organization
4. Principles of Communication
5. Meaning and Nature of Development Communication
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
1. understand communication concepts and principles; and
2. apply communication concepts and principles to manage NGO activities for
the functions of communication in organization.

TOPIC 1: WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

Dear students, as it is clearly known different types of communication usually require
different sets of knowledge and skills and thus, affect people and organizations. In this
chapter, we shall review the concepts of communication, its importance and the role it
plays in organizations, and the functions of communication.

The term communication is derived from the Latin word communis, which means to
share that is, sharing of ideas, concepts, feelings and emotions. Literally it means to
inform, to tell, show or to spread information. Even though we communicate constantly,
scholars have not agreed on definitions of communication. Each definition has elements
of truth and utility but not complete. A look at some of the definitions given by
specialists will help us see what the general parameters might be. Some of the definitions
as given by the scholars are as follows:

Communication is basis to an organization‘s existence. A manager spends much of his

time communicating to coordinate human and physical element of the organization. The
success of the institution depends very much upon the coordinated efforts of people
working at different level to achieve the common goals. Pertinent information, facts
feeling, ideas must be communicated before meaningful organizational decision can be
made. Hence, when communication fails, organized activity also fails. It is a managerial
skill based upon human behavior.

Communication is the sum of all the things one person does when he wants to create
understanding in the mind of another. It is a bridge of meaning. It involves a systematic
and continuous process of telling, listening and understanding‖ (Allen, 2009).

Communication may be defined as the process of transmitting information. It is the

linking process that enables to information for a variety of reasons: (1) to achieve
coordinated action; (2) to express feelings and emotions; and (3) to share information
regarding: (a) organizational goals, (b) task directions, (c) results of efforts, and (d)
decision making. Thus effective communication may be defined as the process of
transmitting information such a way that the message as received, is as close in terms of
meaning as possible to the intended meaning.

1
Communication is therefore the transfer of information and understanding from one
person to another. It is a way of reaching others with ideas, facts, thoughts, feelings, and
values. It is a bridge of meaning among people so that they can share what they feel and
know. It always involves at least two people: sender and receiver.

TOPIC 2: THE CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNICATION

Although communication is too complex a process to sum up in a short, there are several
characteristics shared by all communication. These are as:
A. Communication is a process. Unlike objects, communication is not discrete,
static, or solitary. It involves at least two persons, one sender and the other
receivers. There is interchange of information among persons. It is a systematic
and continuous process. As a process, communication exists in time and changes
constantly. Communication involves an interaction between or among people.
The interaction is usually complex. The process, on its most basic level,
communication involves someone who initiates the exchange, usually called a
sender or source. The sender has something to communicate and sends a message
to a second person, the receiver. This indicates one has to be sensitive to the many
things occurring all at the same time as well as over a period of time.
B. Communication uses symbols. The media of communication can be numerous
such as oral media (conversation, meetings, telephone calls and presentations),
written media (memos, letters, reports, language and environmental elements).
When we say that communication is symbolic, we are referring to the nature of
messages rather than to the process of communicating. Several of the definitions
of communication given above emphasize the exchange of meaning or the
transmission of messages. If we define communication simply as a process, then
we can never get at the important issue of the exchange of meaning. Human
evolution made it possible for us to develop into complex, interesting creatures by
developing our ability to use symbols
C. Communication is contextual. The shared or common symbol system is part of
what we refer to when we say that communication occurs in a context. All
English speakers, for example, share a certain basic understanding of the world.
Other languages provide different contexts. Amharic is one way that
communication is contextual. Our languages are conditioned by our job
(specialized languages; eg Medical Doctors have specialized language), hobbies
class (social group), culture, and educational levels.
D. Communication is purposive. Basically, communication is done for a purpose.
We have some motivation for communicating, even if we may not be consciously
aware of it. We turn on the radio to relax, or because we are lonely, or to cover up
the sounds of an argument in the next neighborhood. We strike up a conversation
with new people at work because we think they are attractive, or because we want
to impress them, or because we are curious about their backgrounds. In other
words, we have some motivation behind our communication efforts.
Understanding that communication is purposive and motivational would help to
explain some of the behaviors of both the sender and receiver. What motivates the
sender to speak may not be what motivates the receiver to listen. If one person
want to impart information, but the receiver is hoping to be entertained then
conflict can result. Individual differences play a big role in understanding
communication as purposive. What motivates one person may not motivate
another, and what motivates one person one day may not motivate him/her the
next day. Communication is essential to each of the five basic management
functions. It is a pervasive function. In order to plan, organize, staff, lead, and
control, managers must be able to communicate well with other persons.
E. Communication is two ways. The existence of both a sender and a receiver in a
communication activity presupposes that the communication process is, generally
speaking, two-way. Even in intrapersonal communication, when we are talking to
ourselves, communication is essentially two-way because we are acting both as
sender and receiver. Communication researchers have specific terms to describe

2
 the two-way nature of communication exchange. Interactive is the term they use
to describe human interactions in which a source and receiver exchange messages
in a predictable fashion. In interactive communication, a specific message from
the sender elicits a predictable response from the receiver.
F. Communication is irreversible. At one time or another, we have all wished we
could take back words we regretted uttering. Unfortunately, this is not possible.
Our words and deeds are recorded in others’ memories that we can‘t erase them.
As the old saying goes, ―people may forgive, but they don‘t forget‖. In fact, often
the more vigorously you try to erase an act, the more vividly it stands out. This
means you should weigh your words carefully. An offhand comment or a critical
remark uttered in the heat of a conflict can haunt you long afterwards.
G. Communication is not a panacea. It is the indispensable part of management
process. An organization cannot exist without communication. It aims at
developing mutual understanding and cooperation towards the achievement of
organizational goals. Although communication can smooth out the bumps and
straighten the road to success, it will not always get you what you want. If the
quality of communication is poor, the results are likely to be disappointing. This
explains why some problems grow worse, the longer they are discussed.
Misunderstandings and ill feelings can increase when people communicate badly.
Even effective communication may not solve all problems: there can be some
situations in which the parties understand one another perfectly and still disagree.
These limitations are important to understand as you begin to study
communication on the job. Boosting your communication skill can increase your
success, but it cannot cure all.

LEADING QUESTIONING

RATIONALIZING

3
 ACTIVITY 1

Name: ________________________________________ Date: _________________

Course, Year & Section: ________________________ Rating: _______________
INSTRUCTIONS: Dear students, everyone uses communication and organizations are
also using it. Answer the following questions on the spaces provided after each item.

1. How do you define communication?

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

2. Is personal communication and organizational communication similar or different?

What element/s do they share in common, if any?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

3. Based on definitions of communication and your own knowledge, list the

characteristics of communication:

4
 ACTIVITY 2

Name: ________________________________________ Date: _________________

Course, Year & Section: ________________________ Rating: _______________
INSTRUCTIONS: Explain the purposes of communication in organizations? Write your
answer and compare your responses with the discussion that follows.

5
 TOPIC 3: FUNCTIONS AND IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION IN
ORGANIZATION
Communication in an organization serves at least one of four purposes. Of course, many
instances of communication serve two or more of these purposes at the same time. The
purposes are:

Job related communication that presents information is common in most jobs. Sometimes
this means explaining how to do a job-for example, how to fill in a purchase requisition
to order supplies, how to use the computer terminal to see whether an order has been
shipped, or how to approach potential customers about a new product your company has
developed. Sometimes you need to explain what is going on in your organization-for
example, you may have to report your progress on an assignment to a client or explain to
new employees how work is trafficked through your department.
To Sell: Where as telling deals almost exclusively with facts, selling also involves
feelings and attitudes. You do not have to have the word ―sale your job title to be a
salesperson. In fact, everyone needs to be persuasive communicator at one time or
another. Convincing the boss that you deserve a raise or more responsibility calls for
selling. So does getting approval for a new project, motivating employees to work their
hardest, and convincing a supplier that you need the shipment today. It doesn‘t take much
imagination to see that the success or failure of a career depends on the ability to
persuade others.
To Learn: The ability to understand others might be less obvious and dramatic than
telling or selling skill, but it is no less important. Take a moment to recall the most
effective on-the-job communicators you have known, and you will see that they were
almost certainly good listeners.
To Decide: As you advance in your career, the number and importance of decisions you
face will grow. What is the best approach to a new job? How can we handle these
people? Where should we put the resources we have? Even the highest decision makers
in the biggest companies do not make judgments like the on their own. They trade ideas
with others; testing and evaluating. In other words, good decisions require good
communication.

The following are also functions of communication in an organization.

1. The Emotion Function: It is people who communicate, even when one of the
communicators is a group or organization. People have emotions, which they express to
others through communication. The emotion function of communication is aimed at
increasing acceptance of the organizational goals and actions.
2. The Motivation Function: Communication concerned with motivation (that is,
influencing others) is designed to solicit commitments to the organization‘s objectives.
Virtually all approaches to motivation plus the leadership approach require this type of
communication. Most of the major qualities of leaders, especially those involved in the
implication of plans, ensure communication. Instructing, rewarding, disciplining,
informing subordinates about objectives and defining roles all require communication.
3. The Information Function: the Objective of the information function is to provide the
information necessary for decision making. The information involved is often technical.
Financial information, for example, is part of the technical information necessary to make
proper purchase decision. Most of the communication involved in the information
function takes place through the organization‘s formal management information systems.
Whenever a manager is ready to make a decision, he or she needs information – which
meeting to go to, what to do when the plane arrives, where the lecture is to be given,
whether performance is measuring up to standard and the like.
4. The Control Function: Report, policy and plan function to control behavior of an
organization‘s member. They define role, clarify duty, authority and responsibility; and
reinforce organizational structure (defined as job and authority to do them). By providing
a means of checking for the achievement of objectives, these types of communication
further the organization‘s mission. For example, communicating control information is
especially important in total quality management programmes.

6
In this age of competition, communication is an indispensable part of the management
process. The organization cannot survive and grow without an effective communication
system. Since the job of a manager is to get things dome though others, he has to spend a
major portion of his time on communication. Thus, it is an indispensable part of
management. The success of the communication system is the success of the business. In
the words of Chester I Bernard, ―The first executive function is to develop and maintain
a system of communication.

The importance of communication can be explained by the following benefits:

1. Smooth and Efficient Operation: Communication is necessary for smooth and
uninterrupted working of the organization. It helps the management in explaining the
policy, plan and objective of the organization to the employee. It is through
communication that a manager issues order and instruction, and changes and regulates
the behavior of subordinates to achieve the organizational goals.
2. Basis of Managerial Functions: Communication plays an important role in
discharging the various functions of management. The management function, planning,
organizing, directing and leading, depends on the communication process. And all
managerial functions rely heavily on communication. It is the most effective means of
creating cooperation and coordination among 10 individual efforts. It helps in controlling
the activities of individual, department and group. Thus, it is an indispensable part of
management process. The role of communication in performing each managerial function
is described briefly hereunder.
a. Planning and communication
Planning includes setting goals, determining objectives, and working with others to
develop guidelines and procedures to follow. These activities involve collecting data,
both inside and outside an organization, interpreting these collected data, drawing
appropriate conclusions from the interpretations, and recommending the best course of
action. It would be the manager‘s responsibility to persuade others, and to support the
best course of action for the organization. Here one may use clear organizational
manuals, standardized instructions and procedures to carryout policies and activities,
explaining the company‘s internal ―rules of the game‖ among others. Communication
thus, plays a major role to perform planning functions. Alternatively, planning requires
good communication.
b. Organizing and communication
An organizational chart among others shows who reports to whom. The organizational
chart shows the formal channels of communication. A channel of communication is the
path through which communication messages should flow. Official directives traveling
downward and official information traveling upward in the organization generally follow
formal lines of communication. People in an organization also use informal
communication channels to deal with day to day affairs. Managers use communication to
organize and coordinate human and non- human resources. Communication helps them to
examine the situation, investigate possible solutions, decide on the best solution, and
implement that solution. In short, organizing requires good communication.
c. Staffing and communication
Communication is an important part of hiring employees, staff training, evaluating staff
performance, and changing the status of employees in the organization. Managers use
written job descriptions in hiring, they use interview and written selection tests, they use
different forms of communication to orient new staff, they use both formal and informal
communication to evaluate employee performance. Generally, managers rely on
communication to perform all human resource function from human resource planning to
human resource separation. Efficient communication is crucial to perform all human
resource functions.
d. Directing and communication
Managing other people requires technical, conceptual, and human skills. Being able to
communicate and work well with others lets mangers work successfully with their
subordinates. Managers must be able to compose memos and reports and develop policy

7
statements and workable procedures. However, directing involves much more than
communicating only in writing. An ability to speak clearly and concisely is crucial to a
manger‘s success. An ability to listen is also crucial for managers. A manager is usually
called upon to make oral reports to upper-level managers and to talk with employees
about job and personnel matters. Mangers must participate in business meetings to
describe current situations, identify problems and suggest solutions. All these tasks would
require a strong understanding of communication principles and the ability to apply those
principles in speaking and listening. In a nut shell, directing requires good
communication.
e. Controlling and communication
Managers need strong communication skills to control and evaluate employees and
organizational performance. Determining standards, measuring performance, and
analyzing the differences between standards and performance also call for
communication skills. And taking corrective action requires communicating the
necessary changes to the workers who will carry out the tasks.
3. Maximum Production at Minimum Cost:
Every organization aims at getting maximum output at minimum cost. For this purpose, it
requires an effective communication system. Effective communication system
coordinates the various factors of production, which makes maximum output with
minimum cost possible through establishing good human relations, operating efficiently
and removing misunderstandings among personnel.
4. Prompt Decision and Implementation:
In order to make prompt decision, necessary information must be obtained. Thus,
communication is primary requirement. The quality of decision depends upon the quality
of information on which it is based. Again to implement the decision effectively, the
management needs to communicate to all subordinates. The manager may give warning
to subordinates when immediate actions are needed. Common cases that require warning
may include –tardiness, negligence, defiance, tempering with records, mishandling 12
equipment and tool, lack of regularity and punctuality, gossiping, pilfering office
stationery and materials etc.
5. Motivation and Morale:
Through communication workers are motivated to achieve the goals of the organization
and their morale is boosted. The motivation and morale tend to be high when they clearly
understand what they have to do and how. Morale stands for mental health. High morale
(confidence, enthusiasm, etc.) go hand in hand with productivity. It binds people together
with a sense of cooperation in the organization the manager can also motivate them by
effective communications, clear out instructions, and the way they communicate. In case
of order and persuasion, the communicator enjoys an upper hand. But in motivation,
he/she keeps himself in the background. He/she motivates workers so that they work
willingly and eagerly. Communication enhances motivation by:
Creating belongings to the organization though participation and sharing of
information.

ect and confidence of

workers.
6. Sound Relations: It can establish mutual trust and confidence between management
and employee. It enables management to come into close contact with employee. It
serves as a bridge between them and creates team spirit in the organization. Thus, it is a
prerequisite of good employee management relations.
7. Public Relations: In the modern business world, every organization must create and
maintain a good corporate image in the society. It is through communication that
management can keep cordial relations with the government, trade unions, customers,
and the community. It increases the goodwill of the organization. Hence, it is an
indispensable means of developing a favorable public opinion.
The following are also general purposes of communication:

8
1. Information: It is passing /receiving information about a particular fact/ circumstance.
It is the major inputs in the decision making process and can involve external or internal
information.
2. Advice: It involves personal opinions for group/individual inside/ outside the
organization. It is given to influence/support the receiver‘s opinion/ behavior. It becomes
more and more important as the complexity of organization involves the growing need
for specialized handling.
3. Order: It is a somewhat authoritative communication which is directive to somebody
(Usually a subordinate) to do something; to modify or alter the course of something he/
she is already doing or not to do something. The downward flow of information is
dominated by orders.
4. Suggestion: The organizational member or external entities can make it. It is
advantageous over other means of communication because the person making a
suggestion presents it for approval.
5. Persuasion: It is an effort to influence the attitudes, feelings, or beliefs of others or to
influence action based on these attitudes or beliefs. It is an important objective of
communication. The art of persuasion has tremendous use and thus should be practiced
by all individuals who get through to others with their ideas, decisions, to influence the
latter.
6. Education: It involves both teaching and learning, extended over considerably longer
periods of time. The purpose may be for-management, employee and outside public.

TOPIC 4: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION

To compose effective messages, anyone needs to apply certain specific communication

principles. The principles closely related with the basic concepts of the communication
process and are important for both written and oral communications. They also provide
guidelines for the choice of content and style of presentation. The principles are called
the ―seven C‘s‖. Any forms of communication should adhere to the 7C‘s principles of
communication. These principles of communication are discussed below.

1. Credibility. If the sender can establish credibility, the receiver has no problems in
accepting the message. Establishing credibility is not the outcome of a one-shot
statement. It is a long-drawn out process in which the receiver through constant
interaction with the sender understands his/her credible nature and is willing to accept the
message as being truthful and honest.
2. Courtesy. Once the credibility of the sender has been established, attempts should be
make at being courteous in expression. In the business world, almost everything starts
with and ends in courtesy. Much can be accomplished if tact, diplomacy and appreciation
of people are woven in the message. Courtesy implies consideration. Consideration in
communication may be defined as putting one‘s self in the place of message recipient. It
is about art of visualizing readers (or listeners) – with their desires, problems,
circumstances, emotions, and probable reactions and handling their concern while
communicating. It is all about the ―you-attitude, empathy, the human touch, and
understanding of human nature. It does not however, mean that one should overlook the
needs of the organization. Applying integrity and ethics (fair treatment, honesty and
sincerity) helps to become considerate. Furthermore, to become courtesy / considerate/,
one should follow a sincere you-attitude: be sincerely tactful, thoughtful, and
appreciative; omit expressions that irritate, hurt, or belittle; and grant and apologize
pleasantly.
3. Clarity. Clarity means getting the message across so that the receiver will understand
what sender is trying to convey without distorting the intended meaning of the sender.
The message must be as clear as possible so that the receiver may interpret it in the same
sense and spirit, in which it is communicated. There should be no ambiguity. Thus, the
message to be communicated must be very clear in the minds of the communicator.
Absolute clarity of ideas adds much to the meaning of the message. The first stage is
clarity in the mind of the sender. The next stage is the Makes comprehension easier

9
transmission of the message in a manner which makes it simple for the receiver to
comprehend. As far as possible, simple language and easy sentence constructions, which
are not difficult for the receiver to grasp, should be used. Clarity calls for completeness.
Completeness is necessary for several reasons:

Some specific ways that may help to make the messages clear in written
communication

 Choose short, familiar, conversational words.

 Construct effective sentences and paragraphs.
 Include examples, illustrations, and other visual aids, when desirable.

4. Correctness. At the time of encoding, the sender should ensure that his knowledge of
the receiver is comprehensive. The level of knowledge, educational background and
status of the decoder help the encoder in formulating his/her message. In case there is any
discrepancy between the usage and comprehension of terms, miscommunication can
arise. If the sender decides to back up his/her communication with facts and figures, there
should be accuracy in stating the same. A situation in which the listener is forced to
check the presented facts and figures should not arise. Finally, the usage of terms should
be nondiscriminatory. Here one has to ensure use of correct language, punctuation, tone
and word to effectively transmit of message.
5. Consistency – The approach to communication should, as far as possible, be
consistent. The message to be communicated should be consistent with the plan, policy,
program and goal of the organization. This will increase the credibility of the message
and promote better understanding. Inconsistent message always creates chaos and
confusion in the mind of the recipient. There should not be too many ups and downs that
might lead to confusion in the mind of the receiver. If a certain stand has been taken, it
should be observed without there being situations in which the sender is left groping for
the actual content or meaning. If the sender desires to bring about a change in his /her
understanding of the situation, he/she should ensure that the shift is gradual and not hard
for the receiver to comprehend.
6. Concreteness. Concrete and specific expressions are to be preferred in favor of vague
and abstract expressions. Communicating concretely involves being specific, definite,
and vivid rather than vague and general. The facts and figures presented should be
specific. Abstractions or abstract statements can cloud the mind of the sender. Instead of
stating: There has been a tremendous reduction in the HIV/AIDS figure‖, suppose the
sender made the following statement: ―There has been reduction in the HIV/AIDS
figures by almost 50% as compared to last year.‖ The receiver is more apt to listen and
comprehend the factual details. The following guidelines may help to compose concrete,
convincing messages:
Use specific facts and figures. Avoid vague and general words such a few, high, low,
more, quick and soon can as they lead to uncertainty, misunderstanding, or confusion
Choose vivid, image-building words
7. Conciseness. The message to be communicated should be as brief and concise as
possible. A concise message saves time and expense for both the sender and receiver.
Conciseness should be fulfilled without compromising ―C‖ qualities. Weighty language
definitely sounds impressive but people would be suitably impressed into doing precisely
nothing. As far as possible, only simple and brief statements should be made.

Excessive information can also influence the receiver into either a wrong direction or into
inaction. Quantum of information should be just right, neither too much nor too little.
Conciseness contributes to emphasis and concerned with eliminating unnecessary words.
The following suggestion may help to ensure conciseness principle:
 Stick to the purpose of the message
 Cut out irrelevant words and rambling sentences
 Omit information obvious to the receiver; do not repeat at length what that person
has already told you.
10
TOPIC 5: MEANING AND NATURE OF DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION
DEFINITION OF DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION

There are many ways to classify communication. The broader typologies include:
Corporate communication, internal communication, Advocacy communication, and
Development Communication.
 Corporate communication is concerned with communicating the mission and
activities of the organization mostly for external audiences. It uses media outputs
and products to promote the mission and values of the institution; inform selected
audiences about relevant activities.
 Internal communication facilitates the flow of information within an
institution/project. Sometimes this area can be included in corporate
communication. It is concerned with timely and effective sharing of relevant
information within the staff and institution units. It enhances synergies and avoids
duplication.
 Advocacy communication meant to influence change at the public or policy level
and promote issues related to development. It raises awareness on hot
development issues; use communication methods and media to influence specific
audiences and support the intended change.
 Development communication support sustainable change in development
operations by engaging key stakeholders. It is concerned with establishing
conducive environment for assessing risks and opportunities; disseminate
information; induce behavior and social change. The operational implications of
the emerging paradigm in development have broadened the scope and function of
communication in a way not yet fully understood by all those concerned.

While communication specialists are usually familiar with the different branches of
communication, they do not always have the in-depth knowledge to apply each one of
these appropriately to different situations.

For example a political communication consultant may not be the most appropriate
person to design a health campaign in a developing country. A journalist who is working
corporate communication department may not design good communication program for a
community-driven development project. The general rule is that, although most
specialists possess a number of different skills, they usually master one of those broader
areas of communication, and each of those areas requires well-defined professional
knowledge, competencies, skills, and specific sensitivities.

Scholars and practitioners defined development communication in many different ways

each sharing common elements. Some the definitions of development communication are
as follows:
 World Bank considers development communication as an interdisciplinary field
based on empirical research that helps to build consensus while it facilitates the
sharing of knowledge to achieve positive change in development initiatives. It
involves creating mechanisms to broaden public access to information on reforms;
strengthening clients’ ability to listen to their constituencies and negotiate with
stakeholders; empowering grassroots organizations to achieve a more
participatory process; and undertaking communication activities that are grounded
in research. That is it is not only about effective dissemination of information but
also about using empirical research and two-way communication among
stakeholders. It is also a key management tool that helps assess sociopolitical
risks and opportunities (World Bank, 2006).
 Development Communication is the study of social change brought about by the
application of communication research, theory, and technologies to bring about
development.... Development is a widely participatory process of social change in
a society, intended to bring about both social and material advancement, including
greater equality, freedom, and other valued qualities for the majority of people
11
 through their gaining greater control over their environment. —Everett Rogers,
1976.
 First World Congress of Communication for Development (2006) conceives
development communication as a social process based on dialog using a broad
range of tools and methods. It is also about seeking change at different levels,
including listening, building trust, sharing knowledge and skills, building policies,
debating, and learning for sustained and meaningful change. It is not public
relations or corporate communication.
 Development communication is the process of intervening in a systematic or
strategic manner with either media (print, radio, telephony, video, and the
Internet), or education (training, literacy, schooling) for the purpose of positive
social change. Interpersonal communication too must play a fundamental role.
The change could be economic, personal, as in spiritual, social, cultural, or
political.
Communication for Development is about dialogue, participation and the sharing of
knowledge and information among people and institutions. It takes into account the needs
and capacities of all concerned in the development process. Thus, broadly development
communication refers to the sharing of knowledge aimed at reaching a consensus for
action that takes into account the interests, needs and capacities of all concerned. It is
thus a social process.

Scholars and practitioners may differ in the wording they use to define the subject
(development communication), but their intent is constant. Put simply, development
program cannot produce change without an ongoing, culturally and socially relevant
communication dialogue among development providers and clientele, and within the
recipient group itself. Development communication enables to explore and assess
operational situations, building wider consensus among stakeholders and using
communication approaches, methods, and media to promote change and enhance project
effectiveness and sustainability. The importance of Communication for Development in
achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), and especially those related to
sustainable development, is being increasingly acknowledged by international agencies,
government and NGOs. Therefore, all those involved in the analysis and application of
communication for development and social change—or what can broadly be termed
development communication—would probably agree that in essence development
communication is the sharing of knowledge aimed at reaching a consensus for action that
takes into account the interests, needs and capacities of all concerned. It is concerned
with establishing conducive environment for assessing risks and opportunities;
disseminate information; induce behavior and social change. It is a social process.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION

According to World Bank (2008), development Communication consist the following

basic principles.
1. Dialogic —Dialog is the heart of the new communication paradigm. The
professional application of dialog, the two-way model of communication, is
widely endorsed by most development institutions and should be the basis of any
initiative. Development communication should foster dialog to facilitate mutual
understanding, to assess the situation, and to seek wider consensus. Dialogic
approaches guarantee that relevant stakeholders have their voices heard and that
project priorities are aligned with people priorities. Professionally directed, dialog
is an invaluable research tool and is absolutely to build trust, optimize knowledge,
minimize risks, and reconcile different positions. To facilitate dialog
professionally and effectively, a communication specialist must be conversant
with proper communication skills, including principles of active listening.
2. Inclusive —Inclusion is a first step in any situation analysis, whereby
Development Communication identifies, defines, hears, and understands relevant
stakeholders. In this respect, inclusiveness is one of the basic principles of the

12
 Development Communication methodological framework, even if the appropriate
strategy might focus only on selected groups of stakeholders. Omitting a group
from the assessment on a basis that might not seem relevant can cause problems
further along and can increase the risk factors in the successful achievement of the
intervention. Two-way communication should always pay special attention to
groups that are marginalized or at a disadvantage in society. Gender issues are
always a primary concern in this context, as well as issues related to the poor, or
any other vulnerable group.
3. Heuristic —the investigative use of communication to discover or solve problems
during the initial phases of a development initiative is essential. Communication
is often defined as a way of sharing meanings or ―as a process in which two or
more people share information and converge toward mutual understanding,
mutual agreement, and collective action. This definition denotes the sharing of
information and knowledge, which usually generates more knowledge that in turn
can lead to effective collective action. The heuristic and explorative scope of
development communication, strengthened by its analytical and dialogic features,
constitutes its main value-added in addressing and rectifying the past failures in
development.
4. Analytical — Going beyond communicating could be a Development
Communication motto; a large amount of its work, such as the assessment of
political risks and opportunities, is analytical. In this context, the communication
function is not about relating messages but about uncovering and generating
knowledge to design better projects and programs that lead to sustainable change.
The effectiveness of diffusion and dissemination activities depends significantly
on how appropriately the analytical work is conducted and how effectively people
are empowered to voice their perceptions and opinions.
5. Participatory - While rarely employed in practice to its ideal and fullest extent,
participation is applied in different degrees according to the intervention. Its
relevance is echoed in virtually all development organizations and communities,
at the national and international levels. Only genuine communication can
facilitate effective participation, especially in its most advanced forms.
Participation can be applied in different degrees, and there are several
classifications describing the different types of participation. The most common
type and levels of participation include: information sharing, consultation,
collaboration, and empowerment. While the most common mode of operation in
development practices can be categorized as ―participation by consultation,
Development Communication also operates at a higher level, by collaboration.
This occurs specifically in the research phase, where dialog with relevant
stakeholders is sought and promoted and their input valued, especially in
community-driven development projects. This application is adopted according to
the circumstances; although it is a main feature in communication based
assessments, participation is not always a feature of communication approaches in
subsequent activities, such as a campaign to raise awareness about how to react to
an avian flu pandemic.
6. Contextual - There is no precooked universal formula applied a priori in
development communication. This means ―encouraging participatory processes‖
that are necessarily rooted in the cultural context of specific countries and their
socioeconomic reality. While investigating a local context and assessing needs,
problems, risks, and opportunities, Development Communication specialists tap
local resources to obtain a better understanding of the relevant situation and to
triangulate their findings. Even if the overall process of a communication
intervention (that is, executing communication-based assessment, designing
communication strategies, and implementing and evaluating related activities) is
consistently similar, the tools, content, and modes of applications vary
significantly according to the specific situation.
7. Interdisciplinary - To be effectively applied, a development communication
body of knowledge includes a number of principles borrowed from other

13
 disciplines. In addition to specific expertise in the theory and practices of
development communication, the specialist in this field is often required to be
familiar with other disciplines, such as ethnography, sociology, political
economy, adult education, and marketing. The specialist might be asked to assess
political risks, conduct negotiations to reduce conflicts, or mediate between
opposing views. While sector experts could address each of these areas with a
specific and narrower focus, the cross-cutting nature of communication makes it
an easier and more effective tool to acquire a comprehensive overview of the
situation.
8. Strategic - The principle of strategy, which contains many of the previous
elements, emphasizes the professional and timely application of communication
techniques and methods to achieve intended objectives. At the risk of
oversimplification, a strategy could be defined as a plan to achieve set objectives
with available resources in a given time frame. It is surprising how often the
basics of a strategy are overlooked, not only by communication specialists, but by
all sorts of decision makers. Often this occurs when practitioners jump into
strategy design without making sure that the objectives are technically sound, well
understood, and relevant to most stakeholders. If the project objectives do not
meet all these criteria, no matter what strategy one adopts, the initiative is bound
to fail—like building a house on a faulty foundation. The principles of
―strategic‖ imply that all parts of the process, from setting the objectives to
selecting the media, are carefully assessed, triangulated, and, if needed, modified
to allow the design and implementation of an effective strategy. The strategic use
of development communication should not be confused with ―strategic
communication, the narrower use of communication to persuade individuals to
change behaviors.
9. Persuasive - At times this term has a negative connotation, mostly due to past
uses of persuasion techniques taken to an extreme and often associated with
manipulation and propaganda. Persuasion per se should not be thought of in
negative terms. The renowned Greek philosopher Aristotle considered it as an
effective way to communicate. In development communication, persuasion can be
used to induce voluntary changes in individuals. The legitimacy for its use is
derived from this rationale and the definition of change. To avoid the
manipulation connotations of the past and be ethically appropriate, persuasion
should be based on accurate information and within a context of two-way
communication. Each party can present its points of view with the intention of
achieving the most appropriate change. Healthy two-way persuasive approaches
ensure that the best available options among the various parties are considered
and agreed upon, leading to sustainable change.

TEN KEY ISSUES ABOUT DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION

The 10 points presented hereunder address some of the myths and misconceptions about
communication, especially when related to the field of development (World Bank, 2008).
These misconceptions can often be the cause of misunderstandings and lead to
inconsistent and ineffective use of communication concepts and practices. The first two
points on this list are about communication in general, while the others refer to
development communication in particular.

1. “Communications” and “communication” are not the same thing. The plural
form refers mainly to activities and products, including information technologies,
media products, and services (the Internet, satellites, broadcasts, and so forth).
The singular form, on the other hand, usually refers to the process of
communication, emphasizing its dialogical and analytical functions rather than its
informative nature and media products. This distinction is significant at the
theoretical, methodological, and operational levels.

14
2. There is a sharp difference between everyday communication and
professional communication. Such a statement might seem obvious, but the two
are frequently equated, either overtly or more subtly, as in, ―He or she
communicates well; hence, he or she is a good communicator.‖ A person who
communicates well is not necessarily a person who can make effective and
professional use of communication. Each human being is a born communicator,
but not everyone can communicate strategically, using the knowledge of
principles and experience in practical applications. A professional (development)
communication specialist understands relevant theories and practices and is
capable of designing effective strategies that draw from the full range of
communication approaches and methods to achieve intended objectives.
3. There is a significant difference between development communication and
other types of communication. Both theoretically and practically, there are many
different types of applications in the communication family. Each type of
communication has a different scope and requires specific knowledge and skills to
be performed effectively. Expertise in one area of communication is not sufficient
to ensure results if applied in another area.
4. The main scope and functions of development communication are not
exclusively about communicating information and messages, but they also
involve engaging stakeholders and assessing the situation. Communication is
not only about ―selling ideas.‖ Such a conception could have been appropriate in
the past, when communication was identified with mass media and the linear
Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver model, whose purpose was to inform
audiences and persuade them to change. Not surprisingly, the first systematic
research on the effects of communication was carried out soon after World War
II, when communication activities were mostly associated with a controversial
concept-propaganda. Currently, the scope of development communication has
broadened to include an analytical aspect as well as a dialogical one —intended to
open public spaces where perceptions, opinions, and knowledge of relevant
stakeholders can be aired and assessed.
5. Development communication initiatives can never be successful unless
proper communication research is conducted before deciding on the strategy.
A communication professional should not design a communication campaign or
strategy without having all the relevant data to inform his or her decision. If
further research is needed to obtain relevant data, to identify gaps, or to validate
the project assumptions, the communication specialist must not hesitate to make
such a request to the project management. Given its interdisciplinary and cross-
cutting nature, communication research should ideally be carried out at the
inception of any development initiative, regardless of the sector or if a
communication component would be needed at a later stage.
6. To be effective in their work, development communication specialists need to
have a specific and in-depth knowledge of the theory and practical
applications of the discipline. In addition to being familiar with the relevant
literature about the various communication theories, models, and applications,
development communication specialists should also be educated in the basic
principles and practices of other interrelated disciplines, such as anthropology,
marketing, sociology, ethnography, psychology, adult education, and social
research. In the current development framework, it is particularly important that a
specialist be acquainted with participatory research methods and techniques,
monitoring and evaluation tools, and basics principles of strategy design.
Additionally, a good professional should also have the right attitude toward
people, being empathic and willing to listen and to facilitate dialog in order to
elicit and incorporate stakeholders’ perceptions and opinions. Most of all, a
professional development communication specialist needs to be consistently
issue-focused, rather than institution-focused.
7. Development communication support can only be as effective as the project
itself. Even the most well-designed communication strategy will fail if the overall

15
 objectives of the project are not properly determined, if they do not enjoy a broad
consensus from stakeholders, or if the activities are not implemented in a
satisfactory manner. Sometimes communication experts are called in and asked to
provide solutions to problems that were not clearly investigated and defined, or to
support objectives that are disconnected from the political and social reality on the
ground. In such cases, the ideal solution is to carry out field research or a
communication-based assessment to probe key issues, constraints, and feasible
options. Tight deadlines and budget limitations, however, often induce managers
to put pressure on communication experts to produce quick fixes, trying to force
them to act as short-term damage-control public relations or ―spin doctors.‖ In
such cases, the basic foundations of development communication are neglected,
and the results are usually disappointing, especially over the long term.
8. Development communication is not exclusively about behavior change. The
areas of intervention and the applications of development communication extend
beyond the traditional notion of behavior change to include, among other things,
probing socioeconomic and political factors, identifying priorities, assessing risks
and opportunities, empowering people, strengthening institutions, and promoting
social change within complex cultural and political environments. That
development communication is often associated with behavior change could be
ascribed to a number of factors, such as its application in health programs or its
use in mass media to persuade audiences to adopt certain practices. These kinds of
interventions are among the most visible, relying heavily on communication
campaigns to change people‘s behaviors and to eliminate or reduce often fatal
risks (for example, AIDS). The reality of development, though, is complex and
often requires broader changes than specific individual behaviors.
9. Media and information technologies are not the backbone of development
communication. As a matter of fact, the value-added of development
communication occurs before media and information and communication
technologies (ICTs) are even considered. Of course, media and information
technologies are part of development communication, and they are important and
useful means to support development. Their application, however, comes at a later
stage, and their impact is greatly affected by the communication work done in the
research phase. Project managers should be wary of ―one-size-fits-all‖ solutions
that appear to solve all problems by using media products. Past experience
indicates that unless such instruments are used in connection with other
approaches and based on proper research, they seldom deliver the intended
results.
10. Participatory approaches and participatory communication approaches are
not the same thing and should not be used interchangeably, but they can be
used together, as their functions are often complementary, especially during
the research phase. Even if there are some similarities between the two types of
approaches, most renowned participatory approaches, such as participatory rural
appraisal (PRA) or participatory action research (PAR), do not usually assess the
range and level of people‘s perceptions and attitudes on key issues.

16
 ASSESSMENT

Name: ________________________________________ Date: _________________

Course, Year & Section: ________________________ Rating: _______________
INSTRUCTIONS: Based on the definitions discussed on this lesson, create a three (3)
concept maps that illustrate the idea of: (1) communication; (2) organizational
communication; and (3) development communication.

17
 LESSON 2
PARADIGMS OF DEVELOPMENT
COMMUNICATION

TOPICS:
1. The Dominant Paradigm: Modernization Paradigm: and the Dependency
2. The Emerging Paradigm: Participation
3. Social Marketing Paradigm
4. Media Advocacy

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
1. understand the difference between dominant paradigm: modernization and
dependency;
2. to be able to understand development communication theories;
3. to be able use development communication theories to manage NGO activities;
and
4. know the social marketing and media advocacy

TOPIC 1: THE DOMINANT PARADIGM: MODERNIZATION PARADIGM:

AND THE DEPENDENCY

As already pin pointed elsewhere communication is a two-way process of giving and

receiving information through any number of channels. Awareness of the different
purposes and functions of various types of communication is the first step toward a better
understanding of the field of development communication and an effective way to
enhance necessary quality standards. Being familiar with the origin of this particular
discipline and the major theoretical frameworks underpinning it can help achieve a much
better understanding. The most dominate model are modernization, dependency,
participation, social marketing and media advocacy

THE DOMINANT PARADIGM: MODERNIZATION

This is oldest paradigm, rooted in the concept of development as modernization, dates
back to World War II. It has been called the dominant paradigm because of its pervasive
impact on most aspects of development. The central idea of the old paradigm was to
solve development problems by ―modernizing‖ underdeveloped countries—advising
them how to be effective in following in the footsteps of richer, more developed countries
by promoting economic growth spurred by free-market approaches. It is believed that the
best way, if not the only way, to achieve these goals consisted in the diffusion and
adoption of the values, principles, and models that ensured the success of the way of life
in wealthier countries. At the cultural level, modernization advocated for a change in the
mindset of individuals in poor countries who had to abandon traditional beliefs,
considered an impediment toward modernization, and embrace attitudes and behaviors
favorable to innovation and modernity. At the technocratic level, modernization required
people with inquisitive minds who were guided by faith in the scientific method and
rooted in the principles of enlightenment. At the political level, it required staunch
advocates of the doctrine of liberalism based on political freedom and the adoption of
democratic systems. Finally, at the economic level, it required blind faith in the virtues
and power of the free market, with no or minimal government intervention. Here
development was equated with economic growth, and communication was associated
with the dissemination of information and messages aimed at modernizing ―backward‖

18
countries and their people. Development is conceived as a linear one based on trust in
science, reason, technology, and the free market. The main role of communication was to
persuade people to embrace the core values and practices of modernization.
Among the merits of this paradigm, in addition to a certain number of successes in
specific instances and projects, there was the establishment of a more systematic and
rigorous approach to development initiatives. Overall, however, this theoretical approach
to development, with its related bag of practical tools, did not deliver the expected
results. By the end of the 1980s, it became evident that the promises of the modernization
paradigm had not materialized and that poor peoples’ conditions across the world had
failed to improve significantly. It is acknowledged (that because of too much focus on
economic development) modernization neglected to consider the relevance of other social
dimensions and failed to take into account a number of historical and broader
sociopolitical factors that impeded the autonomous development of many developing
countries. In the communication field, modernization theory led to the first systematic
and rigorous attempts to research communication applications in the development
context. Many scholars were particularly interested in studying how communication
could be used to foster national development, which at that time was conceived
predominantly in economic terms. Communication was expected to help modernize
people‘s attitudes and ways of thinking, which would be conducive to support of the
economic model already adopted successfully by the West, in accordance with the belief
that individuals had to change before development could truly take off.

Communication in the dominant paradigm is basically associated with the linear, mass
media model aimed at transmitting information and messages from one point to another
or many others, usually in a vertical or top-down fashion. It relied heavily on the
traditional vertical one-way model: Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver (SMCR). This
has been the model of reference for the diffusion perspective, which has often been
adopted to induce behavior changes through media-centric approaches and campaigns.
This idea was rooted in the strong belief in the persuasive power of media, especially
until the 1970s. Development communication was associated with the use of media to
persuade people to achieve, maintain, and strengthen development goals, and media‘s
role was paramount. The failures attributed, directly or indirectly, to modernization
caused a rethinking of the theoretical models of reference for communication. It has
become increasingly evident that media alone could not change people‘s mind-sets and
behaviors. With time, it became progressively more evident that media impact was not as
direct and as paramount as commonly believed, and that audiences were not as passive,
either. It should be noted that none of the newly emerging theoretical approaches
questioned the overall validity of the one-way, and usually top-down, flow of
information. However it is pointed out that the emphasis placed on tangible
communication products neglected the potential of communication as a dialogic (two-
way horizontal model), cross-cutting investigative tool. Thus, modernization model has
been party abandoned (one way model) and its weakness has resulted in the development
of new models.

THE OPPOSING PARADIGM: DEPENDENCY

In the 1960s strong opposition to the modernization paradigm led to the emergence of an
alternative theoretical model rooted in a political-economic perspective: the dependency
theory. The proponents of this school of thought criticized some of the core assumptions
of the modernization paradigm mostly because it implicitly put the responsibility, and the
blame, for the causes of underdevelopment exclusively upon the recipients, neglecting
external social, historical, and economic factors. They also accused the dominant
paradigm of being very Western-centric, refusing or neglecting any alternative route to
development. Dependency theory claims that the imbalances in the world‘s state of
affairs were mainly owing to the international division of labor and to the continuation of
past patterns of domination. The world was separated into two blocs: the core, composed
of a few rich countries, and the periphery, composed of many poor countries. According
to this perspective, core countries took advantage of their technological knowhow,

19
superior infrastructure, and economic power to strengthen their lead. The main role of the
peripheral countries was restricted to that of supplying raw materials and cheap labor to
the richer ones, making it impossible for them to ever catch up. To address this problem,
dependency advocates proposed a plan that works on two levels. Nationally, developing
countries on the periphery were to become economically self-reliant and less dependent
on foreign imports. This focus on the adoption of import-substitution policies.. This
strategy aimed to protect national industries from outside competition by subsidizing
them and putting high tariffs on imported products.

TOPIC 2: THE EMERGING PARADIGM:

PARTICIPATION

When the promises of the modernization paradigm failed to materialize, and its methods
came increasingly under fire, and the dependency theorists failed to provide a successful
alternative model, a different approach focusing on people‘s participation began to
emerge. In contrast to the proponents of modernization and dependency theories, most of
the advocates of the participatory theoretical perspective do not seem particularly
interested in defining a grand theory to provide a universal analysis and interpretation of
the world. They seem more interested in identifying and analyzing drawbacks and
limitations of current development practices, especially at project and community level,
and in attempting to identify normative approaches that could provide operational
guidelines in the field. Common features of this perspective are the emphasis on people,
the endogenous vision of development, and the attention to power and rights issues.
People‘s participation has been gaining increasing recognition and prestige in the
development discourse and its practices. The development focus has shifted from
economic growth to include other social dimensions needed to ensure meaningful results
in the long run. Participatory approaches require a shift in the way individuals are
considered, from passive recipients to active agents of development efforts. Sustainability
and people‘s participation became key elements of this new vision. Internationally,
emphasis is being placed on the challenge of sustainable development, and participation
is increasingly recognized as a necessary part of sustainable development strategies.
There are many reasons for the adoption of participation in development includes (1)
services can be provided at a lower cost; (2) participation has intrinsic values for
participants, alleviating feelings of alienation and powerlessness; (3) participation is a
catalyst for further development efforts; (4) participation leads to a sense of responsibility
for the project; and (5) participation ensures the use of indigenous knowledge and
expertise. It is believed that by engaging stakeholders who often have been excluded
from any form of decision making in their lives and allowing them to engage in the
decision-making process, development communication not only reduces poor people‘s
―capability deprivation‖ but also facilitates the process of empowerment, going well
beyond the specific initiative in question. Using dialog to engage stakeholders in probing
and assessing the situation can help break the broader vicious circle of poverty, where
income cannot be earned without a proper level of individual capabilities, and individual
capabilities cannot be improved while the individual remains in conditions of poverty. 38

The emphasis on participation in development also implies increased attention to

communication, because there can be no participation without communication, at least
without a certain type of communication. In other words, the added emphasis on
participation helps to mainstream communication in many initiatives, and at the same
time promotes a more dialogic and two-way conception of communication. The model is
significantly different from the traditional one, since it is characterized by dialog and by a
horizontal flow, enabling the balanced sharing of perceptions and knowledge. It is
underscored that communication acquires a more interactive connotation aimed at
facilitating participation and empowerment. In other wards meaningful participation
cannot occur without communication. Thus, even when using mass media, messages can
be expected to originate from people themselves rather than from ―outside experts‖

20
This model emphasizes the application of genuine two-way communication principles
and practices. The participatory communication model takes into account the issues of
power and empowerment. This meant that local people should have the power to take
part in the decision-making process, since power can be conceived as the ability to shape
social context. Communication is increasingly considered as essential in facilitating
stakeholders’ engagement in problem analysis and resolution. Similarly, there is an
increasing recognition that the old, vertical, top-down model is no longer applicable as a
one-size fits all formula. While acknowledging that the basic principles behind the
Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver model can still be useful in some cases, development
communication has increasingly moved toward a horizontal, ―two-way‖ model, which
favors people‘s active and direct interaction through consultation and dialog over the
traditional one-way information dissemination through mass media. The horizontal use of
communication, which opens up dialog, assesses risks, identifies solutions, and seeks
consensus for action, came to be seen as a key to the success and sustainability of
development efforts. The new paradigm is also changing the way communication is
conceived and applied. It opens up new spaces for dialog among stakeholders and
facilitates the exchange of knowledge, empowering people to participate actively in the
process affecting their own lives. It shifts the emphasis from information dissemination to
situation analysis, from persuasion to participation. Rather than substituting for the old
model, it is broadening its scope, maintaining the key functions of informing people and
promoting change, yet emphasizing the importance of using communication to involve
stakeholders in the development process.

TOPIC 3: SOCIAL MARKETING PARADIGM

Social marketing has been one of the approaches that have carried forward the premises
of diffusion of innovation and behavior change models. Since the 1970s, social marketing
has been one of the most influential strategies in the field of development
communication. It applies commercial marketing techniques to solve social problems. It
putts into practice standard techniques in commercial marketing to promote pro-social
behavior. It is also a multi-disciplinary approach because it concerns education,
community development, psychology and communication. It is believed that what made
McDonald‘s and Coca-Cola a world class can also have dramatic impact on social
problems such as HIV/ AIDS, and child mortality in developing nations. One of its goals
could be s to position a product such as condoms by giving information that could help
fulfill, rather than create, uncovered demand. The process involves the planning,
implementation and monitoring of programs to persuade the acceptance of social ideas. It
applies the basic elements of the process lie on product, price, place, and promotion.
Unlike commercial marketers, social marketers commit themselves to people‘s health and
well-being; are not profit-oriented and are seeking a larger market share. Social
marketing‘s focus on behavior change, understanding of communication as persuasion
(―transmission of information‖), and top-down approach to instrument change suggested
an affinity with modernization and diffusion of innovation theories. Similar to diffusion
theory, it conceptually subscribed to a sequential model of behavior change in which
individuals cognitively move from acquisition of knowledge to adjustment of attitudes
toward behavior change. Social marketing has greatly influenced the way communication
and information is incorporated in development programs. Principally, it involves a
multi-disciplinary approach. It increases our sensitivity to the needs for research prior to
developing and sending messages and it has shifted emphasis from the needs of the social
change agent to the needs and perspectives of the beneficiary groups. One may use for
example, carefully radio and pictorial print media, interpersonal communication in the
form of community volunteers, traditional birth attendants, community health workers,
and midwives to reach illiterate target groups. Despite this fact, unfortunately, social
marketing has many attackers who equate social marketing with commercial marketing
and especially with its excesses. However, when one gets away from the marketing label
the value of the approach stands out.

21
 TOPIC 4: MEDIA ADVOCACY

Advocacy for development refers to a combination of social actions designed to gain

political commitment, policy support, social acceptance and systems support for a
particular goal or program. It involves collecting and structuring information into a
persuasive case; communicating the case to decision-makers and other potential
supporters, including the public, through various interpersonal and media channels; and
stimulating actions by social institutions, stakeholders and policy-makers in support of
the goal or program. Advocacy communication is primarily targeted at policy-makers or
decision-makers at national and international levels. The emphasis is on seeking the
support of decision makers in the hope that if they are properly .Media advocacy is the
strategic use of mass media to advance social or public policy initiatives. Advocacy
requires the mobilization of resources and groups in support of certain issues and policies
to change public opinion and decisions. It consists of the organization of information for
dissemination through various interpersonal and media channels towards gaining political
and social acceptance of certain issues. Media advocacy criticizes social marketing for
having an individualistic, behaviorist approach to health and social problems that narrows
interventions to public information campaigns. Media advocacy espouses a community-
level model of intervention in health issues. According to media advocacy theory,
campaigns are not the panacea not only because their effectiveness is questionable but
also because they ignore the social causes of unhealthy behavior. Media advocacy adopts
a participatory approach that emphasizes the need of communities to gain control and
power to transform their environments. It assigns the media a pivotal role in raising
issues that need to be discussed and putting pressure on decision-makers. However,
advocacy is not solely concerned with media actions. The theory assumes that the media
largely shape public debate and, consequently, political and social interventions. To be
effective in development campaign, then, influencing news agendas is mandatory.

22
 ASSESSMENT

Name: ________________________________________ Date: _________________

Course, Year & Section: ________________________ Rating: _______________
INSTRUCTIONS: Answer the following questions below. You may use extra sheets of
paper for your answers.
1. Discuss the relevance of development communication paradigms for today‘s NGOs.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

2. Which type of development communication paradigm is commonly used by NGOs

today and why?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

3. Conduct a research on any NGO in your surrounding and evaluate development

communication practices of the selected NGO (please use at least two data gathering
tools). You can evaluate development communication practices of the NGO you’ve
selected.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

23
 LESSON 3
PROCESS AND ELEMENTS OF
COMMUNICATION

TOPICS:
1. Elements of Communication
2. The Communication Process

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
1. understand communication process and elements of communication; and
2. evaluate communication process.

The basic elements of communication are; the sender, the receiver, the message, the
channel and feedback. The sender codes the information or message, chooses an
appropriate channel to convey the message, and then on receiving the information, the
recipient decodes it and gives feedback to the sender. Effective communication
necessitates understanding between the sender and receiver. This chapter briefly
discusses elements of communication and process involved in communication.

TOPIC 1: ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication has eight basic elements. These are:

1. Sender – Communication begins with the sender who has an idea and who wants to
communicate his idea. Sender sometimes called the communicator or the source. The
originator (initiator) of communication is an organizational framework. The sender is an
employee with ideas, intentions, information, and a purpose for communication.
Communicator in an organization can be managers, non-managers, departments or the
organization itself. Each of these communicators has a message, an idea, or information
to transmit to someone or some group.
2. Encoding -The process that translates the communicator's ideas in to a language
expressing the purpose.
3. Message - The result of the encoding process. The function of the encoding process is
to provide a form in which ideas and purposes can be expressed as a message – either
verbal or nonverbal.
4. Medium - The medium is the carrier of the message. Organizations provide
information to members in a variety of ways, including face to-face communications,
telephone, group meetings, memos, policy statements, production schedules, and
forecasts.
5. Receiver - The person to whom the message is sent. Or it is the person whose senses
perceive the sender's message.
6. Decoding - The process of interpreting the sender's message into a meaningful
information by the receiver.
7. Feedback -A channel for receiver's response that enables the sender to determine
whether the message has been received and has produced the internal response.
8. Noise - A noise is anything that reduces the accuracy of communication. It may be any
factor that confuses, disturbs, distorts or diminish or serves as a barrier to the successful
communication and sharing information. Anything (whether in the sender, the
transmission, or the receiver) that hinders communication is noise. Examples of noise are
as follows: A noise or a confined environment may hinder the development of a clear
thought. Encoding may be faulty because of the use of ambiguous symbols.

24
Transmission may be interrupted by static in the channel (e.g. poor telephone
connection). Inaccurate reception may be caused by attention.
Recording may be faulty – when wrong meaning may be attached to words the other
symbols. Understanding can be obstructed by prejudice desired changes may not occur
because of the fear of possible consequences of the change.

TOPIC 2: THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Communication is said to be effective or successful only when mutual understanding

occurs, that is, when one not only transmits information, but also makes oneself
understood by others. In most organization, communication is a dynamic and vital
process for ease of discussion; the communication process can be divided into seven
steps. Each of the steps in the communication process is briefly discussed below.

Step 1: the first step in the communication process is ideation (generation or origination
of idea). A sender has information, which may consist of ideas, facts, opinions, and so on.
Here the sender should reduce the idea into essentials with reference to the person(s) to
whom the idea is to be communicated. In this step, there involve stimulation – having
some idea in mind and motivation willingness to communicate the idea.

Step 2: This step is encoding where the sender translates the message to be conveyed into
a set of symbols which he/she believes that receiver will understand as intended. That is,
at this stage the sender translate communicable ideas into signal, gesture, facial
expression, sound, word etc.

Step 3: The third step is the actual transmission of the message as encoded. It involves
the process through which the encoded message is sent form the sender to receiver.
Transmission of the message could be conducted through a channel/ different forms. The
channel must be appropriate for the message. Mangers can choose among a variety of
channels for communicating with subordinates, managers and other members of the
organization. Memos, telephone calls and face-to-face communication conversations are
among the commonly available channels. The number of possible channels has expended
greatly in recent years and now includes video and audio-tapes, electronic bulletin
boards, fax machines, voice mail, computer conferencing and teleconferencing.

Step 4: Receiving of the message by a person to whom it is intended. In other words, the
intended receiver will perceive the message. It involves the readiness on the part of the

25
receiver and his/her attention to grasp the message. The decoding depends on these
factors.

Step 5: This step is decoding where in the receiver of a massage interprets it. The
receiver perceives the message and interprets them to have a particular meaning. This
involves the process the receiver goes through in trying to convert the message into
thoughts, so as to interpret the exact meaning of the message. In this process, the
background, ability and attitude of the receiver play important both the sender and the
receiver attach the same meanings to the symbols used in the message.

Step 6: Understanding is the sixth step in communication process. Communication is

effective only when mutual understanding results. This is the most critical stage (and
largely depends on all the former stages) without which the communication cannot be
justified.

Step 7: The final step in communication process is feedback. After understanding the
message, the receiver sends his response to the sender. Such response is known as
feedback. The effectiveness of communication is measured through feedback. The
receiver accepts the message and transmits either verbal or nonverbal feedback. Verbal
feedback refers to a written or a spoken response whereas the nonverbal feedback is a
body movement or actions. We can never be sure whether or not a message has been
effectively encoded, transmitted, decoded, and understood until it is confirmed.
Note: Noise can happen at any stage of communication and thus hinder the effectiveness
of communication at any stage.

26
 ACTIVITY 3

Name: ________________________________________ Date: _________________

Course, Year & Section: ________________________ Rating: _______________
INSTRUCTIONS: Answer the following questions:
1. Based on your own experience in an organization evaluate the effectiveness of
communication at each stage.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

2. Explain the benefit of understanding the elements and process of communication for
development actors (e.g. NGO staff).
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

27
 ASSESSMENT

Name: ________________________________________ Date: _________________

Course, Year & Section: _________________________Rating: _______________
INSTRUCTIONS: Draw a simple illustration of your answer on Activity 3, Item No. 1.

28
 LESSON 4
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

TOPICS:
1. Major Causes of Communication Breakdown
2. Techniques/Strategies for Improving Communication
3. Strategies for Improving Communication in Organization

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this lesson, students should be able:
1.understand the effective of communication breakdown and methods/strategies
of improving communication effectiveness; and
2.improve communication effectiveness while managing NGO activities.

Communication breakdown can occur because of the interference of several causes that
reduces mutual understanding at any point in the process. Several factors may disrupt the
communication process or serve as barriers to effective communication. A
communication breakdown or barrier may occur at any point in the communication cycle.
The cause may be ascribed to the speaker, the message, the channel, or the receiver.
Furthermore, a barrier may arise from the environment in which the communication
process takes place.

TOPIC 1: MAJOR CAUSES OF COMMUNICATION BREAKDOWN

Physical barriers, semantic barriers, organizational size, conflicting frames of reference,

interpersonal (psycho-social) barriers, language difference, lack of interest, information
overload, filtering, loss by transmission and poor retention are the major causes for
communication breakdown.

29
1. PHYSICAL BARRIERS: They are communication interference that occurs in the
environment in which the communication takes places. It includes noise distance and
time.
A. Noise: Distracting noise that temporarily drowns out a voiced message. (e.g. Poor
telephone connection, illegible written document)
B. Distance: Physical distance, especially when modern media of communication is
unavailable.
C. Time: Apparent (easily seen or understand; plain) in organizations. For example where
shift working hour is adopted.
2. SEMANTIC BARRIERS: Semantic refers to meaning of words/ phrases in a
language. Since communication involves the transmission of information and
understanding through the use of symbols (words), the meaning attached to words is very
important.
A. Words with several meaning (context): Words have several meanings according to the
context of their uses.
B. The use of technical jargon and by-passed instruction: Occupational, professional and
social groups often develop words and phrases that have restricted meaning. These
restricted/ specialized meanings which are called technical jargons may facilitate
communication within the group; however, they hamper communication with another
group.
3. ORGANIZATIONAL SIZE: the more hierarchical levels and separate units
involved, the more difficult it is to have effective communication. In large organizations,
there is a large volume of paper flow hence there is a chance that a message will get lost.
Satisfaction with communication is likely to decrease as number of organization
members increase and as the hierarchical levels increase.

4. CONFLICTING FRAMES OF REFERENCE: Frame of reference refers to one‘s

background which results from his experience knowledge, types of work and which
affects the extent of his/her familiarity with various signals used in the encoding and
decoding process. E.g. Difference in educational background, jobs and occupation,
difference in the level of management.

5. INTERPERSONAL (PSYCHO-SOCIAL) BARRIERS: Communication

breakdown may also occur due to psychological and sociological causes. They are as
follows:
A. Attitudes and opinions: The information we read or hear agrees with our views and
attitudes, we tend to accept it and react favorably towards it.
B. Emotions: Emotions also result in miscommunication when personal or business
upsets occur, people sometimes unjustly take out their problems on others. To be good
communicators, we must realize that people may react inconsistently when they are
influenced by their emotions. We should select a normal state of mind.
C. Status Consciousness/ power: This barrier is most evident in organizations, where
pyramid structure distinguishes differences in status and positions. Such explicit status
distinction restricts interactions by subordinates upward to their superiors - the effect
extending even to informal/ social interactions.
D. Source Credibility: This refers to the trust, confidence, and faith that the receiver has
in the words/ actions of the communicator. This level of credibility directly affects how
the receiver views and reacts to the words and actions of the communicator.
E. Poor Listening: Listening skill is the major factor for effective oral communication.
However one may have marginal attention in which case he/she cannot fully listen to
what is being transmitted.
6. LANGUAGE DIFFERENCE: Language difference is often closely related to
differences in individual perception. When the same symbolic meaning is not shared
between sender and receiver, there will be no effective communication.
7. LACK OF INTEREST: The recipients’ interest in the contents of the message will
depend on their prior attitude towards the sender, the content, and the implications of the
message.

30
8. INFORMATION OVERLOAD: The individual is leaded with more information; he
may face a problem of effectively processing each information.
9. FILTERING: The concept of communication filtering suggest that as information
flows downward or upward, the chain of command, content of critical nature reflecting
on the state of affairs in ―filtered out‖ at each level of the hierarchy.
10. LOSS BY TRANSMISSION: Loss by transmission results when information is
relayed from one person to another continuously. The information becomes less and less
accurate because it is filtered and finally loses its authenticity.
11. POOR RETENTION: It is naturally difficult to retain information without
repetition. Such failure to retain messages results in miscommunication and distortion,
often necessitation of the messages.

TOPIC 2: TECHNIQUES/STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING COMMUNICATION

GENERAL

IMPROVING COMMUNICATION EFFECTIVENESS

Manager striving to become better communicator has to separate task. First he/she must
improve his/ message the information he/she wish to transmit. Second, he/she must
improve his /her own understanding of what other people are trying to communicate to
him/her. He/she must become better encoder and decoder. He/she must strive not only to
be understood but also to understand.

A. Follow Up; it involves assuming that you may have been misunderstood and
whenever possible, attempting to determine whether you intended meaning was actually
received.
B. Regulating information Flow: it ensures an optimum flow of information to
managers, thereby elimination the barrier of communication overload. Both the quality
and quantity are controlled.
C. Feedback; it is an important element in effective two-way communication. it provides
a channel for receiver response, enabling the communicator to determine whether the
message has been received and has produced the intended response.
D. Empathy: it is the ability to put oneself in the other person‘s role and to assume the
viewpoints and emotions of that other person. This ability involves being receiver
oriented rather than communicator oriented.
E. Simplifying language: Complexity of language has been identified as a major barrier
to effective communication. The student often suffers when his instructor uses technical
jargon that transforms simple concepts into complex puzzle. The management focus
indicates that simplifying and using correct language is taken seriously by the
organization.
F. Effective listening: Just listening is not enough; one must listen with understanding.
Numerous pointers for effective listening are useful in organization settings
G. Utilizing the Grapevine: The grapevine is an important informal communication
channel that exists in all organizations. It basically serves as a by passing mechanism and
often is faster than the formal system it by passes.

TECHNIQUES FOR THE SENDER

The manager can resort to several techniques for improving communication. The sender
should bear in mind four elements that can improve communication effectiveness
feedback, awareness, credibility, and sensitivity.
1. Encourage two-way communication: Two-way communication allows the receiver to
ask questions, request clarification, and express opinions that let the sender know whether
he or she has been understood. In general the more complicated the message, the more
useful two-way communication is.
2. Beware of language and meaning; the sender should be aware of the meanings that
different receivers might attach to various words.
For example, when addressing stockholders, a manager might use the word profits often.
When addressing labour leaders, however, he may choose to use profits’ less often.

31
3. Maintain credibility: The sender should try to maintain credibility. This can be
accomplished by not pretending to be an expert when one is not, by ―doing one‘s
homework‖ and checking facts and by otherwise being as accurate and honest as possible.
4. Be sensitive to the receivers’ perspective; The sender should try to be sensitive to the
receiver‘s perspective. A manager who must tell a subordinate that she has not been
recommended for a promotion should recognize that the subordinate will be frustrated
and unhappy.

TECHNIQUES FOR THE RECEIVER

There are two especially good especially good techniques that manager can use to
develop his effectiveness as receiver–being a good listener and being sensitive to the
sender‘s perspective.
1. Develop listening skills: being a good listener requires that the individual be prepared
to listen, not interrupt the speaker, concentrate on both the words and the meaning being
conveyed, be patient, and ask question as appropriate. Delta IBM and Unisys organize
training for managers in better listeners.
2. Be sensitive to the receiver‘s perspective: Another technique for the receiver is to be
sensitive to the sender‘s point of view.

TECHNIQUES FOR BOTH SENDER AND RECEIVERS

Three useful ideas can enhance communication effectiveness for both the sender and the
receiver.
1. Follow up: it involves checking at a later time to be sure that a massage has been
received and understood. After a manager mails a report to a colleague, she might call a
few days later to make sure the report has arrived.
2. Regulate information flow; It means that the sender or receiver takes steps to ensure
that overload does not occur. For the sender, this could mean not passing too much
information through the system at one time. For the receiver, it might mean calling
attention to the fact that he is being asked to too many things at once. Manager trains a
secretary to screen phone calls and visitors.
3. Understand the richness of media; Both parties should also understand the richness
associated with different media. The message should be delivered in person, when a
manager is going to lay off a subordinate temporarily. A face-to-face channel of
communication gives the manager an opportunity to explain the situation and answer
questions. The written communication may be more objective and precise, when the
purpose of the massage is to grant a pay increase.

STRATEGIES OF IMPROVING COMMUNICATION IN ORGANIZATION

The organization must create the proper interaction Climate, to achieve productive and
positive communication with employee, customer and other there are two methods:
A. Structural Approaches; Structural approaches attempt to change the organization‘s
structure in order to improve communication by changing job content, creating new or
different jobs, changing the way jobs are grouped or altering the distribution of authority
within organization. Improved communication systems usually call for increased
delegation of authority, equalization of power and participation by subordinated in
decision making processes, the following are approaches;
1. Employee assistance program action line, and counseling; some firms call them
employee action lines; other call them counseling program. They are programs designed
to help employees solve personal problems. Many firms employ full or part-time
psychologists to counsel employees.
2. Grievance Procedures: These are formalized ways for employees to present
grievances against the organization and its managers. If these procedures are not
effective, employees are likely to decrease their productivity through absenteeism,

32
shoddy work, tardiness, balking at orders and the like from the viewpoint of the
organization, therefore, effective grievance procedures are vital.
3. Attitude surveys; it is to organize the employees’ attitude survey questionnaire and
interview. This system would enable management to remain aware of employees’
perception of major factor within the organization.
4. Ombudsman; A position or department created to handle employee questions,
complaints and problems. Usually the person in this position often filled ombudsman,
reports directly to the head of the organization, keeping communication with employees
confidential.
5. Open door policy: Managers, who keep ―open doors‖ indicates to his subordinate
that he/she is available to listen to problems and complaints at any time. It indicates a
climate of trust and willingness to communicate.
6. Suggestion program; it can make significant contributions to an organization. They
provide a channel through which employees can contribute their ideas.
B. Informal Approach; Informal approach attempts to improve organizational
Communication primarily dissemination information. Occasionally new job is created in
this process, but usually established position simply expands his information function.
This approach includes as follows:
1. Periodic meeting with employee: periodic meeting with employee, whether held
daily, weekly, or at longer interval is extremely important. Such meeting gives employee
a chance to learn what the organization is all about, what it is accomplishing, and what it
hopes to accomplish.
2. Television broadcast. Information broadcast through television can also be used to
reduce the costs and fatigue of travel. It depends upon the size of organization.
3. Publication and bulletin board: Management can make employees feel that they are
important simply by printing their names in company newsletters and newspapers. Video
bulletin boards using television monitors are becoming popular as means of
communicating such information.
4. Athletic program: Company athletic program communicates positive message to
employee. Such program shows, ‗We are a team. We need to stick together. The
organization cares about your health and your friendships. The company that plays
together and stays together.‖
5. Memo and handbook. The organization uses memo and handbook to communicate its
employee. The firm uses handbook to tell employee what the company is all about;
discusses history philosophy and purpose.

33
 ACTIVITY 4

Name: ________________________________________ Date: _________________

Course, Year & Section: _________________________Rating: _______________
INSTRUCTIONS: Think of the experiences that you have encountered within an
organization or within your circle of friends, and simply enumerate the situations below.

34
 ASSESSMENT

Name: ________________________________________ Date: _________________

Course, Year & Section: _________________________Rating: _______________
INSTRUCTIONS: Choose one among the situations you enumerated on Activity 4, and
narrate the said encounter. On the last part, include the lessons learned specifically on the
importance of communication.

35
 LESSON 5
MEDIA, COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES
AND DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION

TOPICS:
1. Use of Media and Technology in Development Communication
2. Advocacy and Public and Media Relations
3. Development Communication Models
________________________________________________________________
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
1. understand the role of ICT in development communication;
2. understand development communication modes and value addition of
development communication in programs and projects;
3. identify the rationale of community participation in development programs,
and types of community participation there implications in development
communication; and
4. use ICT, development communication modes and community participation
concepts in the management of development endeavors.

This lesson focuses on the role of information communication technologies in

development communication, advocacy communication, public and media relations,
development communication models/types/modes, community participation in
development initiative and major types of communicate participation, value addition of
development communication in programs and projects.

TOPIC 1: USE OF MEDIA AND TECHNOLOGY IN DEVELOPMENT

COMMUNICATION

All of us would agree that living in a modern society without ICT is unimaginable. Think
about how many times and how often we are using the internet, mobile phones, and
computers. The technologies that enable this have been integrated in every aspect of our
business activities and daily lives. ICT accessibility and affordability has increased
exponentially. As a result, opportunities for utilizing ICT solutions for e-services and for
reaching all groups of society, including the poor, users in remote areas, and other
disadvantaged groups, have transformed the landscape for development. There are many
publications dealing extensively with media and information and communication
technologies (ICTs; the Internet, satellites, mobile phones, wireless computers, and so
forth). Information communication technologies often play a major role in development
communication initiatives.

In development the utilization of media may be treated at two levels: mass media, often
using television, radio, and print media in campaigns aimed at inducing the adoption of
innovations or other changes in behaviors; and community media, mainly using radio and
other folk expressions such as theater, concerned with giving voice and representation to
the various segments of local communities.

In the past, media systems were considered key elements in supporting the national
development of poorer countries. During the 1980s the role of communication and,
especially, media was at the center of a heated debate that reached its highest level of
visibility and controversy at UNESCO. The impact of this debate, while having a number

36
of implications for media policies and international relations, affected the field of
development communication and its on-site applications only in a limited way.

There can be little doubt that media are instrumental in increasing knowledge and
influencing attitudes and behaviors, but this influence is not as strong as originally
believed, especially if it does not take the local context into account. For instance, the
vibrant world of community radio that has emerged in recent years is often more
empowering and influential than the more celebrated medium of television, at least at the
local level. The blind faith placed on media in the past as a means to push or even
leapfrog development in poorer countries resembles the current hype for ICTs. The rise
of more sophisticated communication and information technologies, such as satellites or
the Internet, has opened new horizons and opportunities. The potential of the new
technologies has not only increased the penetration of mass media, for instance, through
satellites, but it has also created new opportunities to enhance communication at the local
level utilizing technologies such as the Internet or mobile telephones. The establishment
of ―telecenters in rural areas is spreading in many countries as a way to support local
development in the social and economic dimension.

The same potential has been demonstrated by other less technologically sophisticated
media, such as community radio and even participatory video, in promoting people‘s
participation and empowerment. The challenge in these instances is to effectively
promote and use communication technologies to facilitate local stakeholders’
participation within the broader process of development. With their quantifiable and fast
exchange transmission flows of information and their capacity for overcoming time and
space, there is no doubt that ICTs and media can have a stronger appeal than participatory
processes, which appear more complex to manage and require longer and closer
interactions. Yet, the lessons of the past teach that communication technologies are more
effective when used within proper cultural frameworks and in processes that engage
stakeholders in the selection of the objectives, key issues, and appropriate channels. ICTs
and media can certainly play a key role in development communication, but they are not
a panacea capable of solving all problems and of filling all gaps related to knowledge and
perceptions.

TOPIC 2: ADVOCACY COMMUNICATION AND PUBLIC AND MEDIA

RELATIONS

Advocacy communication may be defined as the continuous and adaptive process of

gathering, organizing and formulating information and data into argument, which is then
communicated to policy-makers through various interpersonal and mass media
communication channels. Through advocacy, NGOs/ international organizations seeks to
influence policy-makers, political and social leaders, to create an enabling policy and
legislative environment and allocate resources equitably in order to create and sustain
social transformation. Public advocacy enable to communicate programs, policies or
perspectives to target audiences to win their support. The most common public advocacy
objectives are to: inform people about an issue, policy or program, influence their
opinions or attitudes about an issue, policy or program, and influence their behavior in
relation to an issue, policy or program. Influencing attitudes requires a more sustained
effort; because it requires reinforcement, strengthen or change an opinion, which
someone may have held for a considerable period of time.

Public relation (PR) is the practice of managing the spread of information between an
individual or an organization and the public. Public relations may include an organization
or individual gaining exposure to their audiences using topics of public interest and news
items that do not require direct payment. In other words, Public relation (PR) is a planned
and sustained effort to establish and maintain goodwill and mutual understanding
between an organization and its publics. PR has many elements, publicity being one of
the most important.

37
Tools used in media Relations
There are many tools used in media relations. The major tools include the followings.

1. Press (News) Releases

Press releases are the most usual way of issuing or writing newsworthy information to the
media. The news agencies will edit the press release when writing news on the story it
tells. It can take place when either an organization wants to supply media with certain
information by itself or when an organization is requested to provide information on a
certain issue by media. The foundational component of the press (news) release is the
news aspect. A good story must be newsworthy for it to be considered. While there are
thousands of ways to present a news release, there is no one ―correct‖ way of doing it.
There are as many different ways to present a news release as there are publications out
there.
2. Press Conference
Journalists and media representatives generally attend organizational events and meetings
when called upon to do so by organizations. These could be occasions like launching of a
new service and product, or laying of a foundation stone or simply giving out some
special news. The holding of a press conference has become an accepted means of
issuing information to the press and it is very effective if used with discretion.
3. Photography
The use of photography as a tool in public relations needs special attention, as many
people do not know the full potentials of photography. Photographs always lend
authenticity. Everyone knows that can be misleading as statistics, but nevertheless they
are generally accepted as authentic proof of facts or events. The PR department needs to
keep record of good photographs that can be used for different purposes.
4. Exhibitions
Exhibitions are one modern accepted tool of public relations. They may range from small
educational displays to prestige international show. Seeing is believing and a picture is
worth a thousand words. An exhibition is a public show of works of an organization,
artists, and manufacturer or of an idea. Its main function is to present the advancement
achieved in various spheres of the organization and to attract people so that they can see
for themselves the exhibits displayed and judge the merits.
5. Film
The film is a powerful tool of public relations, and its use dates back to the increasing
popularity of the documentary film. There is a very important place for film in public
relations as a tool of communication, instruction, marketing, research, etc. It is important
for PR personnel to be trained film makers, and to have an adequate appreciation of film
techniques in order to be able to advise on the use of film in an organization and to act as
a liaison with film production companies when a film is being made.
6. Advertising
Under modern conditions, it is not enough to make a good product or service, to market
it, and promote and sell it efficiently. Even a good product or service may not succeed if
the policies of the manufacturer are weak or misunderstood by the public. It is necessary
for a company to be a good member of society, and to let it be demonstrated to the public
at large that it is playing a useful part in society. This is the reason behind the so-called
prestige or institutional type of advertising. Advertisement in PR means the dissemination
of information concerning an idea, service or product for the accomplishment of a
definite purpose with the ultimate objective to create a favorable image of an
organization. The objectives of advertisements are varied from just an announcement, to
imparting specific information, to communicating the organization‘s stand on an issue.
The objectives can also include launching a new service, product or project or plant,
installing confidence, and building image of corporation among its target group.

In using the above tools mass media people and development communication experts
should uphold the following ethical principles:

38
 Truth-telling: The ordinary meaning of truth is the absence of falsehood or lies.
A lie on its part is the deliberate misrepresentation of reality in order to deceive.
Truth abhors misrepresentations. A half-truth is a lie, for all practical purposes.
They need to seek truth and report it as fully as possible by Informing themselves
continuously so that they can inform , engage, and educate the public in clear and
compelling ways on significant issues, being honest, fair and courageous in
gathering, reporting and interpreting accurate information, giving voice to the
voiceless, and holding the powerful accountable.
 Objectivity: One meaning of objectivity is avoidance of bias. Objectivity requires
avoiding one‘s own opinions in communication that might make it appear biased,
one-sided, or unbalanced. Objectivity also has an element of ―impartiality‖ in a
sense that the content of development communization message should show no
partiality toward any political party. Objectivity has come to be defined as
thorough and accurate reporting of verifiable facts with fairness and balance,
without prejudice, and without personal involvement in what is reported.
Impartiality and objectivity are often taken to be much the same thing and used
interchangeably. Although there is some relationship, they rest on rather different
world views. Whereas impartiality is taken to include notions of fairness, even-
handedness, and accuracy, objectivity is philosophically a tougher issue. It‘s
predicated on the notion that there are observable things external to the mind; that
there are independently verifiable facts that can be separated from subjective
value.
 Independence: Independence in development communication means freedom
from all obligations that might interfere with the loyalty to the public interest. An
honest development communication expert must not promote any private interest
contrary to the general welfare. Partisanship in editorial comment which
knowingly departs from the truth is also not the spirit of good development
communication expert.
 Minimizing harm: The most obvious justification for prohibiting speech arises
when the speech causes significant harm. Speech may directly harm particular,
specifiable people; that are the case with speech that libels individuals. It may, on
the other hand, harm general social interests without harming any specifiable
individuals; that will often be the case with speech that harms national security.
Both are harms that the government has a legitimate interest in preventing, and so
both can, in principle, generate legitimate restrictions on speech. The latter, for
obvious reasons, are likely to be more problematic than the former. In principle, it
is permissible for the government to restrict speech in order to protect any of the
following: national security, territorial integrity, public safety, public order, public
health, the reputation or rights of others, private information received in
confidence, the impartiality of legal proceedings and the protection of the public
from crime.
 Accountability: Although media should be free, they also need to be responsible.
In a democracy, media organizations are accountable to their audience and to the
wider society. The failure of monitoring institutions to perform according to
democratic norms and in the true interest of society would erode their credibility
and, therefore, damage their ability to serve as legitimate watchdogs over state
activity. Thus, the mass media, while serving as autonomous agents of
accountability, are themselves, not immune from operating within the parameters
of its principles. It is important that the media be held answerable to the various
publics that they serve and be subject to necessary sanctions if they stay in the
discharge of their responsibilities. There is a notion called ―the public interest‖
and that the media are one of the institutions entrusted with the responsibility of
protecting that interest and upholding the values on which the society is built.
This assignment of responsibility comes with expectations that the media will go
about performing their functions in a manner that is consistent with the ideals and
values of the societies in which they operate.These expectations provide the

39
 standards on the basis of which the media are evaluated and required to answer
for their activities. The process of compelling the media to conform to the
standards of society and holding them answerable to those standards is what
media accountability.
 Confidentiality: Of all the valuable commodities cherished by the media, a long
contact list of reliable sources is one of the most important. The system by which
sources of information and contacts are built up is based on mutual trust and
cooperation. In circumstances where a person provides accurate information on
the understanding that he/she will not be compromised or named, it is a
fundamental rule of development communication expert / journalist that his/her
identity remains confidential.
 Obscenity: Obscenity is any act, writing, depiction, or representation, which is
deemed to be deeply offensive and violate community standards of morality and
decency. It is generally a sexually offensive picture, language or behavior.
Materials are usually considered obscene if they appeal predominantly to a
prurient interest in sexual conduct, depict or describe sexual conduct in a patently
offensive way, and lack serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value. Such
material is not protected by the free speech guarantee of most constitutions.

An entire publication could be considered obscene if any portion, no matter how small,
could ―deprave and corrupt‖; and the work was obscene if it would deprave and corrupt
the minds of even the most sensitive and easily influenced individuals, including
children. Obscenity is not limited to sexual matters. Depictions of brutality and violence
aimed at young people and drug abuse have been held to be capable of depraving and
corrupting‘. However, if material is so unpleasant or disgusting that it would actually
discourage a person from indulging in the material activity, it will not deprave and
corrupt and cannot be considered obscene.

TOPIC 3: DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION MODELS

There are two basic modes, or families of approaches development communication: the
―monological mode, based on the classical one-way communication model associated
with diffusion, and the ―dialogical mode, based on the interactive two-way model,
associated with participatory approaches. Being familiar with these two modes helps one
to better understand which to apply under what circumstances. They serve different
purposes, but they are not mutually exclusive and can often be used in a complementary
way. These models are discussed briefly hereunder.

COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN DEVELOPMENT INITIATIVE

Active community participation is key to building an empowered community. Not only is
participation a requirement for empowerment programs, but it is also critical to
community success. A major obstacle to effective performance of development activities
in most developing countries is the excessive centralization of decision making within
central decision-making body. Central decision-making bodies commonly perceived to be
geographically and socially remote from the people and often take decisions without full
knowledge or concern about actual problems and preferences at the grass root level.
Community participation a term conceptualized today as the rock up on which
development activities either founded or find fundamental support is the popular remedy
for such problem. Community sociologically, defined as a group of people living in the
same defined area sharing the same basic values or basic interest and who have a sense of
identity or a feeling of belonging. It is also defined as spatial or territorial unit of social
mobilization in which people have a sense of identity and a feeling of belonging.
A community is characterized by:
(1) Membership-a sense is identify and belonging,
(2) Common symbol systems- Similar language, rituals and ceremonies,
(3) shared values and norms,

40
(4) Mutual influence- community members have influence and are influenced by each
other,
(5) Shared needs and commitment to meeting them; and
(6) Shared emotional connection- members share common history, experiences, and
mutual support.
The word participation in development has various interpretations and there could
various definitions of participation. For example, participation in rural development
means, involvement of all rural people in the process of rural transformation and
development. It involves people‘s involvement in decision-making process in
implementing and sharing the benefits of rural development programs. Participation in
politics and economic terms can be seen as a process of empowerment of the deprived
and the excluded. In this sense participation necessitates the creation of organizations of
the poor, which are democratic, independent and self-reliant.
From rural development perspective, community participation could be defined as a
dynamic process where by a group of rural people living in the same defined area sharing
the same basic value or interests and the active involvement of these people in the
process of rural transformation and development. Community participation could be
broadly defined as dynamic social process where by a group of people living in the same
defined area sharing the same basic value and interests and the active involvement of
these people in all matters that affect their livelihood. Many reasons why community
participation is deemed desirable in development activities in way or another: fall either
in economic, administrative or political objectives.

To mention some of the reasons:

- Community participation is important for effective and appropriate development
planning and increased monitoring support by beneficiaries in planning and decision
making (Administrative aspect)
- Community participation is more conducive to both the formulation and the
implementation of development plans (economic aspect)
- Community contribution (financial, labor, material etc) in support of development
activities will be high when development activities are identified and implemented at the
grass root level.
- Community participation enhances effective mobilization of resources and ensures
efficient delivery of services.
- Community participation enables timely reaction to unanticipated problems
- Community participation increases citizen‘s sense of belonging to state. This is because;
in politics it is believed that, people have that people have a right to participate in
decision- making which directly affects their living conditions.
- Community participation enables to overcome alienation and lack of a sense of
ownership from the part of community due to centralization of decision-making
authority.
- Community participation enhances the speed of change in transforming negative
cultural and social Values, attitudes and practice in the society. In other words
community participation enhances the speed of social-development.
- Community participation also helps to reduce workload.

VALUE ADDITION OF DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION IN PROGRAMS

AND PROJECTS
The history of development has included failures and disappointments, many of which
have been ascribed to two major intertwined factors: lack of participation and failure to
use effective communication. It is noted that the success or failure of any development
project is often determined communication and people‘s involvement. It is always
valuable, and often essential, to establish dialog among relevant stakeholders. Dialog is
the necessary ingredient in building trust, sharing knowledge and ensuring mutual
understanding even for a project that apparently enjoys a wide consensus. This is because
a top-down management approach to development is less effective than a participatory
one. Development communication supports the shift toward a more participatory

41
approach, and its inclusion in development work often results in the reduction of political
risks, the improvement of project design and performance, increased transparency of
activities, and the enhancement of people‘s voices and participation.
Adopting two-way communication from day one is essential. When not involved from
the beginning, stakeholders tend to be more suspicious of project activities and less prone
to support them. Conversely, when communication is used to involve them in the
definition of an initiative, their motivation and commitment grow stronger. The
involvement of stakeholders in defining development priorities has advantages other than
just gaining their support. It gives outside experts and managers valuable insights into
local reality and knowledge that ultimately lead to more relevant, effective, and
sustainable project design.

MONOLOGIC MODEL: ONE-WAY COMMUNICATION

The monologic mode is linked to the development communication perspective known as
―diffusion.‖ It is broadly equivalent to the diffusion perspective and is based on the
transmission model. It adopts one-way communication to send messages, disseminate
information, or impart knowledge aimed at increasing awareness of knowledge or
changing attitudes and behaviors. In the monologic mode, the scope of the
communication program is set from the beginning of the process; it is expected to inform
and persuade people to adopt innovations or change behaviors.
That is its main intentions can be divided into two different types of applications: (1)
communication to inform; and (2) communication to persuade. ―Communication to
inform‖ typically involves a linear transmission of information, usually from a sender to
many receivers. It is used when raising awareness or providing knowledge on certain
issues is considered enough to achieve the intended goal (for example, informing a
community about the activities of a project or informing the public about a reform
coming into effect). In other instances, the dissemination of information is only a
temporary stage to be reached in a longer process aimed at achieving behavior changes.
This modality can be labeled ―communication to persuade.‖ Approaches in
communication for behavior change use methods and media to persuade individuals to
adopt specific practices or behaviors.
These approaches are frequently used in health initiatives. The aim is to foster positive
behavior; promote and sustain individual, community, and societal behavior change; and
maintain appropriate behavior. Its underlying assumption is that individual attitudes and
behaviors can be changed voluntarily through communication and persuasion12
techniques and the related use of effective messages. Since the approaches, methods, and
media used for this modality rely mostly on the one-way model, the mode of reference is
monologic communication. In many cases, approaches to persuade still rely on the classic
notion of one-way communication. The primary objective is for the sender to be able to
persuade the receivers about the intended change. In this model the feedback is a sort of
tune-up, allowing the sender to refine its persuasive message. A common approach
closely associated with this communication mode is strategic communication, which is
often used in development initiatives to support management objectives.

DIALOGIC MODEL: TWO-WAY COMMUNICATION

The dialogic mode is associated with the emerging participatory paradigm. It is based on
the horizontal, two-way model of communication, creating a constructive environment
where stakeholders can participate in the definition of problems and solutions. The main
purposes of this model can be divided into two broad types of applications:
(1) Communication to assess; and (2) communication to empower. This categorization
helps one to understand the way in which the ultimate scope of the communication
interventions shapes the choice of communication approaches, methods, and models of
reference. Both of these types of applications take a radical turn away from the common
conception of communication, since they do not involve any dissemination of
information or messages. Even if these two types of communication cannot be easily
positioned in a sequence because their scope is often closely intertwined, the use of

42
dialogic communication to ensure mutual understanding and explore a situation often
becomes the best tool to facilitate empowerment.
―Communication to assess‖ is used as a research and analytical tool and because of its
interdisciplinary and cross-cutting nature; it can be used effectively to investigate any
issue, well beyond those strictly related to the communication dimension.

The power of dialogic communication is applied to engage stakeholders in exploring,

uncovering, and assessing key issues, opportunities, and risks of both a technical and
political nature. The use of two-way communication engages experts and local
stakeholders in the problem-analysis and problem-solving process leading to change.
Dialogic communication is not only effective as a problem-solving tool, but it also builds
confidence, prevent conflicts, and addresses the issue of poverty by engaging the poorest
and most marginal sectors in the process concerning issues of relevance to them. By
involving the poor in the assessment of problems and solutions, by engaging them, and
not just the experts, in the decision-making process, and by making the voices of the poor
heard, the dialogic mode can address and reduce one key dimension of poverty: social
exclusion.

The overall goal of the dialogic mode is to ensure mutual understanding and to make the
best use of all possible knowledge in assessing the situation, building consensus, and
looking for appropriate solutions. By facilitating dialog with key stakeholders, this type
of communication enhances the analysis and minimizes risks. On the other hand, the
primary scope of the monologic mode emerges especially when information needs to be
packaged and disseminated to address specific needs and gaps.
The difference between these two modes is reflected in how each perspective defines or
conceives a communication objective and the relative implications for evaluating the
impact of the intervention. In monologic or diffusion approaches, the communication
objective is something that requires changes at the level of awareness, knowledge,
attitude, and, ultimately, behaviors or practices of specific groups of people. The impact
of the communication intervention can be assessed by carrying out a baseline study
before the intervention, and then a similar survey after the intervention.
The difference between the pre- and post-survey should provide the measurement of the
impact, or change that is due to the communication intervention. In dialogic, participatory
approaches, the main scope relates to the engagement of stakeholders in assessing risks,
identifying opportunities, preventing problems, and identifying or confirming the needed
change. In other words, in most cases the objectives cannot be specifically defined
beforehand because they are the results of a heuristic process that provides new
knowledge and valuable inputs for better strategy design. The following table provides a
further clarification of the two approaches (monologic and Dialogic) by contrasting their
scope, basic functions, and main differences.

43
 ASSESSMENT

Name: ________________________________________ Date: _________________

Course, Year & Section: _________________________Rating: _______________
\
INSTRUCTIONS: Answer the questions below:
1. Discuss the role and potential limitations of media and ICTs in development
communication. Based on your analysis what recommendations do make for NGOs in
using media and ICTs and why? Support your discussion and analysis with argument and
examples.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Evaluate public and media relations practice of any NGO in your surroundings. Use at
least two data gathering tools and support your analysis with argument and examples.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Discuss the relevance and implications of the monologic mode, and ―dialogic mode
of development communication for today‘s NGOs.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. Critically explain conditions under which each forms community participations can be
used by NGOs and elaborate why development communication experts emphasize self-
mobilization form of community participation. Discuss also why self-mobilization
community participation is difficult in practice particularly in Africa / Ethiopia and give
potential recommendation to overcome the challenges.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

44
REFERENCES:

Andrews, K. (1989). Ethics in practice. Harvard Business Review (Sept- Oct): 99-104.

Lau, C. (2010). A step forward: Ethics education matters! Journal of Business Ethics,
92(4),

45