SEBI Grade A 2020: ECONOMICS: CLASSICAL & KEYNESIAN APPROACH TO NATIONAL INCOME

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Table of Content
Classical Approach ........................................................................................................ 3
Say’s Law .................................................................................................................... 3
Criticizm of Say’s Law .................................................................................................................. 4
Price-Wage Flexibility ..................................................................................................... 4
Keynes’ Criticism .......................................................................................................... 5
Keynesian Theory of Income Determination ....................................................................... 6
Circular Flow in a Simple Two-Sector Model.................................................................................... 6
The Aggregate Demand Function: Two Sector Model ....................................................................... 7
The Consumption Function ........................................................................................................... 7
Marginal Propensity to Consume ................................................................................................ 8
Average Propensity to Consume ................................................................................................ 8
The Saving Function .................................................................................................................... 9
The Marginal Propensity to Save ................................................................................................ 9
Average Propensity to Save ...................................................................................................... 9
The Two Sector Model of National Income Determination ................................................................. 9
The Investment Multiplier .......................................................................................................... 11
Determination of Equilibrium Income: Three Sector Model ............................................................. 12
Determination of Equilibrium Income: Four Sector Model ............................................................... 15

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Classical Approach
As per classical economists “given flexible wages and prices, a competitive market economy would
operate at full employment. That is, economic forces would always be generated to ensure that the
demand for labour would always equal its supply”. In this classical model, the equilibrium levels of income
and employment were supposed to be determined largely in the labour market. The demand curve for labour
shows the relationship between the real wage (equal to the value of the marginal product of labour in a
competitive economy) and the demand for labour by employers. Have a look at the upper graph in the figure
below which shows the labour market situation:

You will observe that the lower the

wage rate, the more the workers will
be employed and hence is why the
demand curve (D1DL) is downward
sloping. The supply curve of labour (SLSL)
is upward sloping because the higher
the wage rate, the greater the supply
of labour. The equilibrium wage rate
(W0) is determined by the demand for and
the supply of labour. The level of
employment is OL0. The lower graph
shows the relation between total output
and the quantity of the variable factor
(labour). The graph actually shows the
short-run production function which may
be expressed as:
Q =f (KL)
where
Q => output
K => fixed quantity of capital
L => variable factor labour.
Total output is OQ0 when OL0 units of
labour are employed.

According to classical economists, this

equilibrium level of employment is the ‘full employment’ level. So, the existence of unemployed
workers was a logical impossibility. Any unemployment which existed at the equilibrium wage rate (OW 0)
was attributable to frictions or restrictive practices in the economy or was voluntary. The classical
economists believed that if the wage rate was flexible a competitive economy would always be able to
maintain full employment. The classical economists also denied the possibility of under-spending or
overproduction. To understand classical economists, it’s important to understand Say’s law.

Say’s Law
Say’s law is the simple notion that the supply of goods and services creates its own demand, i.e., the
very act of producing goods and services generates an amount of income equal to the value of the goods
produced. That is, the production of any good would automatically provide the wherewithal to take the
output off the market. This can be better understood by a barter system approach. A farmer, for example,
produces or supplies wheat as a means of buying (or demanding) the shoes, shirts and other things produced
by shoe-makers and craftsmen. The farmer’s supply of wheat is equivalent to his demand for other goods.

Say’s Law is equally applicable in a modern economy which uses money as a medium of exchange and store
of value. Any excess supply of money possessed by an individual implies excess demand for goods
and vice versa. So, for the economy to be in equilibrium the sum of the excess supply functions must be
zero. If the composition of output is in accord with the tastes and preferences of consumers, all markets
would be cleared of their outputs. Thus all that businessmen need to do to sell a full-employment output is
to produce that output; “Say’s Law guarantees that there will be sufficient consumption spending
for its successful disposal”.

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Criticizm of Say’s Law
However, there is a flaw in Say’s law. If the recipients of income in this simple model save a portion
of their income, consumption expenditure will fall short of total output and supply would no
longer create its own demand. Consequently, there would be unsold goods, falling prices, cutbacks in
production, unemployment and falling incomes. Classical economists countered this by suggesting that
saving would not really result in a deficiency of total demand, because each and every rupee
saved would be automatically invested by business firms. That is, investment would occur to fill any
consumption ‘gap’ caused by saving leakage.

In fact, businessmen produce not only consumption goods for sale to households but investment (capital)
goods for sale to other firms (or to one another). The latter constitute a considerable portion of
society’s total output. In other words, investment spending by businesses will add to the income-expenditure
stream. This may fill any consumption gap arising from saving. Thus, if private business firms as a group
intend to invest as much as households want to save, Say’s Law will hold and the levels of national income
and employment will remain constant.
Say’s law is illustrated in the below figure showing a simplified version of the circular flow of income diagram.
There are only two sectors: households and private business firms. House-holds receive income exactly
equal to the value of goods and services produced.

Part of this income is spent on consumption goods and the balance is saved. Thus consumption demand
falls short of the total value of production (GNP) by the amount of saving, which is made up by demand for
capital goods (i.e., investment demand). Thus as long as investment and saving are equal, aggregate
demand (i.e., consumption demand plus investment demand) will always be equal to the total value of
production. Thus, “whether or not the economy could achieve and sustain a level of spending
sufficient to provide a full-employment level of output and income, would depend upon whether
businesses were willing to invest enough to offset the amount households want to save”.

Price-Wage Flexibility
The classical economists also argued that the level of output which producers can sell depends not only
upon the level of aggregate demand but also upon the levels of product prices. Thus even if the interest
rate fails to equate the desired savings of the household sector with the desired investment of
private business firms, any resulting decline in total spending would be neutralized by the
proportionate decline in the price level. For example, if a person buys 2 shirts in Rs. 100, but if the
shirt’s price falls to Rs 25, he can buy the same number of shirts in only Rs 50. Therefore, if households
somehow succeeded in saving more than what business firms were willing to invest, the resulting
fall in total spending would not result in a decline in real output, real income and the level of
employment, provided product prices also declined in the same proportion as the aggregate
expenditure.

As per classical economists, competition among sellers would ensure price flexibility. A general decline in
demand in the product market will force competing producers to lower their prices to clear their accumulated
surpluses. Thus the result of excess saving would be to lower prices. This will raise the value of money and

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permit non-savers to acquire more goods and services with a fixed money income. Saving would,
therefore, lower prices but not output and employment.

Keynes’ Criticism
Keynes criticised the classical theory on three main grounds:
1. Saving depends on national income and is not affected by changes in interest rates. Investment may, of
course, be influenced by it, although it depends on future profit expectations. Thus Savings-Investments
equality through adjust-ment in interest rate is ruled out. So, Say’s Law will no longer hold.
2. The labour market is far from perfect because of the existence of trade unions and government
intervention in the form of imposition of minimum wage laws. Thus, wages are unlikely to be flexible.
Also the fact that trade unions may succeed in raising wages even when there is no excess demand for
labour, rather there is excess supply.
3. Keynes also argued that’ even if wages and prices were flexible, a free enterprise economy would not
always be able to achieve automatic full employment. In a scenario of depression, the economy’s
monetary policy would lose its effectiveness and would be unable to influence the rate of interest and
consequently the volume of investment and the level of income. The interest inelasticity of investment
has been a subject matter of much debate and controversy.

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Keynesian Theory of Income Determination

Keynsian Approach to National Income
The Keynesian theory of income determination is presented in three models:
1. The two-sector model consisting of the household and the business sectors,
2. The three-sector model consisting of household, business and government sectors, and
3. The four-sector model consisting of household, business, government and foreign sectors

Let’s understand the concept of circular flow in an economy which explains the functioning of an economy.

Circular Flow in a Simple Two-Sector Model

The simple two sector economy model assumes that there are only two sectors in the economy viz.,
households and firms, with only consumption and investment outlays. Households own all factors of
production and they sell their factor services to earn factor incomes which are entirely spent to consume all
final goods and services produced by business firms. The business firms are assumed to hire factors of
production from the households; they produce and sell goods and services to the households and they do
not save. There are no corporations, corporate savings or retained earnings.

The total income produced, Y, accrues to the households and equals their disposable personal income Y d
i.e., Y = Yd.

All prices (including factor prices), supply of capital and technology remain constant. The government sector
does not exist and therefore, there are no taxes, government expenditure or transfer payments. The
economy is a closed economy, i.e., foreign trade does not exist; there are no exports and imports
and external inflows and outflows. All investment outlay is autonomous (not determined either by the
level of income or the rate of interest); all investment is net and, therefore, national income equals the net
national product.

● Circular Broken Lines with Arrows shows Factor and and product flows and present ‘real flows’.
● Continuous line with arrows show ‘money flows’ which are generated by real flows.
● These two: real flows and money flows are in opposite directions and their value is equal as the factor
payments are equal to household incomes.
● Since the whole of household income is spent on goods and services produced by firms, household
expenditures equal the total receipts of firms which equal value of output.

Factor Payments = Household Income= Household Expenditure = Total Receipts of Firms

= Value of Output.

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The Aggregate Demand Function: Two Sector Model

Let’s first understand the equilibrium output first. Equilibrium output occurs when the desired amount of
output demanded by all the agents in the economy exactly equals the amount produced in a given time
period. Logically, an economy can be said to be in equilibrium when the production plans of the firms and
the expenditure plans of the households match.

In a simple two-sector economy aggregate demand (AD) or aggregate expenditure consists of only two
components:
● aggregate demand for consumer goods (C)
● aggregate demand for investment goods (I)

AD = C + I

Of the two components, consumption expenditure accounts for the highest proportion of the GDP. In a
simple economy, the variable I is assumed to be determined exogenously and constant in the short run.
Therefore, the short-run aggregate demand function can be written as: AD = C + I̅

Where I̅ = constant investment.

Here we can infer that, in the short run, AD depends largely on the aggregate consumption expenditure.

The Consumption Function

Consumption function expresses the functional relationship between aggregate consumption expenditure
and aggregate disposable income, expressed as: C = f (Y)

The private demand for goods and services accounts for

the largest proportion of the aggregate demand in an
economy. According to Keynes, the total volume of private
expenditure in an economy depends on the total current
disposable income of the people and the proportion of
income which they decide to spend on consumer goods and
services.

The specific form of consumption–income relationship

termed the consumption function, proposed by Keynes is
as follows: C = a + bY

where C = aggregate consumption expenditure; Y = total

disposable income; a is a constant term which denotes the
(positive) value of consumption at zero level of disposable
income; and the parameter b, the slope of the function,
(∆C /∆Y) is the marginal propensity to consume (MPC) i.e
the increase in consumption per unit increase in disposable
income.

The consumption function shows the level of consumption (C) corresponding to each level of disposable
income (Y) and is expressed through a linear consumption function, as shown by the line marked C = f(Y)
in the above figure. When income is low, consumption expenditures of households will exceed their
disposable income and households either borrow money or draw from their past savings to purchase
consumption goods. The intercept for the consumption function, a, can be thought of as a measure of the
effect on consumption of variables other than income, variables not explicitly included in this simple model.

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The Keynesian assumption is that consumption increases with an increase in disposable income, but
that the increase in consumption will be less than the increase in disposable income (b < 1). i.e.
0 < b < 1.

Marginal Propensity to Consume

The consumption function is based on the assumption that there is a constant relationship between
consumption and income, as denoted by constant b which is marginal propensity to consume. The concept
of MPC describes the relationship between change in consumption (∆C) and the change in income
(∆Y).
MPC = (∆C)/(∆Y) = b

The value of the increment to consumer expenditure per unit of increment to income is termed the
Marginal Propensity to Consume (MPC).

Although the MPC is not necessarily constant for all changes in income (in fact, the MPC tends to decline at
higher income levels), most analysis of consumption generally works with a constant MPC.

Average Propensity to Consume

The average propensity to consume is a ratio of consumption defining income consumption
relationship. The ratio of total consumption to total income is known as the average propensity to
consume (APC). APC = (Total Consumption)/(Total Income) = C/Y
APC
is

calculated at various income levels. It is obvious that the proportion of income spent on consumption
decreases as income increases. And the remaining income (not spent on consumption) is either saved or
spent. So, just as consumption, saving is a function of income. S = f(Y)

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The Saving Function
In the below figure, the consumption and saving
functions are graphed. The saving function shows
the level of saving (S) at each level of disposable
income (Y). The intercept for the saving function,
(—a) is the (negative) level of saving at zero level
of disposable income at consumption equal to ‘a’
. By definition, national income Y = C + S which
shows that disposable income is, by definition,
consumption plus saving. Therefore, S = Y – C.
Thus, when we represent the theory of the
consumption-income relationship, it also
implicitly establishes the saving-income
relationship.

The Marginal Propensity to Save

The slope of the saving function is the
marginal propensity to save. If a one-unit
increase in disposable income leads to an increase
of b units in consumption, the remainder (1 - b)
is the increase in saving. This increment to
saving per unit increase in disposable
income (1 - b) is called the marginal propensity
to save (MPS). In other words, the marginal
propensity to save is the increase in saving per
unit increase in disposable income.
Marginal Propensity to Consume (MPC) is always
less than unity, but greater than zero, i.e., 0 < b
< 1 Also, MPC + MPS = 1; we have MPS 0 < b <
1. Thus, saving is an increasing function of the
level of income because the marginal propensity
to save (MPS) = 1- b is positive, i.e. saving
increase as income increases.
MPS = (∆S)/(∆Y) = 1-b

Average Propensity to Save

The ratio of total saving to total income is called average propensity to save (APS). Alternatively, it is
that part of total income which is saved.
In the above figure (Consumption and saving function), the 45° line is drawn
to split the positive quadrant of the graph and shows the income-consumption relation with Y = C (AD = Y)
at all levels of income. All points on the 45° line indicate that aggregate expenditure equal aggregate output;
i.e. the value of the variables measured on the vertical axis (C+I) is equal to the value of the variable
measured on the horizontal axis ( i.e. Y). Because aggregate expenditures equal total output for all points
along the 45-degree line, the line maps out all possible equilibrium income levels. As long as the economy
is operating at less than its full-employment capacity, producers will produce any output along the 45-
degree line that they believe purchasers will buy.
APS = (Total Saving)/(Total Income) = S/Y

The Two Sector Model of National Income Determination

According to Keynesian theory of income determination, the equilibrium level of national income is a
situation in which aggregate demand (C+ I) is equal to aggregate supply (C + S) i.e. In a two-sector
economy, the aggregate demand (C+ I) refers to the total spending in the economy i.e. it is the sum of
demand for the consumer goods (C) and investment goods (I) by households and firms respectively. In the
below figure, the aggregate demand curve is linear and positively sloped indicating that as the level of

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national income rises, the aggregate demand (or
aggregate spending) in the economy also rises. The
aggregate expenditure line is flatter than the 45-degree
line because, as income rises, consumption also increases,
but by less than the increase in income.

According to Keynes, aggregate demand will not always be

equal to aggregate supply. Aggregate demand depends on
households plan to consume and to save. Aggregate supply
depends on the producers’ plan to produce goods and
services. For the aggregate demand and the aggregate
supply to be equal so that equilibrium is established, the
households’ plan must coincide with producers’ plan. The
expectations of businessmen are realized only when
aggregate expenditure equals aggregate income. In other
words, aggregate supply represents aggregate value
expected by business firms and aggregate demand
represents their realized value. At equilibrium,
expected value equals realized value.
However, Keynes held the view that there is no reason to
believe that:
● consumers’ consumption plan always coincides with
producers’ production plan
● producers’ plan to invest matches always with
households plan to save.

Putting it differently, there is no reason for C + I and C + S to be always equal.

The above figure depicts the determination of equilibrium income. Income is measured along the horizontal
axis and the components of aggregate demand, C and I, are measured along the vertical axis. The
investment function (I) is shown in panel B of the figure, the (C+ I) or aggregate expenditure schedule
which is obtained by adding the autonomous expenditure component namely investment to consumption
spending at each level of income. Since the autonomous expenditure component (I) does not depend directly
on income, the (C+I) schedule lies above the consumption function by a constant amount. Equilibrium level
of income is such that aggregate demand equals output (which in turn equals income). Only at point E and
at the corresponding equilibrium levels of income and output (Y 0), does aggregate demand exactly equal
output. At that level of output and income, planned spending precisely matches production. Once national
income is determined, it will remain stable in the short run.

Our understanding of the equilibrium level of income would be better if we find out why the other points on
the graph are not points of equilibrium. For example, consider a level of income below Y 0, for example Y1,
generates consumption as shown along the consumption function. When this level of consumption is added
to the autonomous investment expenditure (I), the aggregate demand exceeds income; i.e the (C +1)
schedule is above the 45° line. Equivalently, at all those levels I is greater than S, as can be seen in panel
(B) of the above figure. The aggregate expenditures exceed aggregate output. Excess demand makes
businesses to sell more than what they currently produce. The unexpected sales would draw down
inventories and result in less inventory investment than business firms planned. They will react by hiring
more workers and expanding production. This will increase the nation’s aggregate income. It also follows
that with demand outstripping production, desired investment will exceed actual investment.

Conversely, at levels of income above Y 0, for example at Y2, output exceed demand (the 45° line is above
the C +I schedule). The planned expenditures on goods and services are less than what business firms
thought they would be; business firms would be unable to sell as much of their current output as they had
expected.

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In fact, they have unintentionally made larger inventory investments than they planned and their actual
inventories would increase. Therefore, there will be a tendency for output to fall. This process continues till
output reaches Y0, at which current production exactly matches planned aggregate spending and unintended
inventory shortfall or accumulation are therefore equal to zero. At this point, consumers’ plan matches with
producers’ plan and savers’ plan matches with investors’ plan. Consequently, there is no tendency for output
to change.

Since C + S = Y, the national income equilibrium can be written as Y = C + I

The saving schedule S slopes upward because saving varies positively with income.

In equilibrium, planned investment equals saving. Therefore, corresponding to this income, the saving
schedule (S) intersects the horizontal investment schedule (I). This intersection is shown in panel (B) of the
above figure.

This condition applies only to an economy in which there is no government and no foreign trade. To
understand this relationship, refer to panel (B) of the above figure. Without government and foreign trade,
the vertical distance between the aggregate demand (C+I) and consumption line (C) in the figure is equal
to planned investment spending, I. You may also find that the vertical distance between the consumption
schedule and the 45° line also measures saving (S = Y- C) at each level of income. At the equilibrium level
of income (at point E in panel B), and only at that level, the two vertical distances are equal. Thus, at the
equilibrium level of income, saving equals (planned) investment. By contrast, above the equilibrium level of
income, Y0 , saving (the distance between 45° line and the consumption schedule) exceeds planned
investment, while below Y0 level of income, planned investment exceeds saving.

The equality between saving and investment can be seen directly from the identities in national income
accounting. Since income is either spent or saved, Y = C + S. Without government and foreign trade,
aggregate demand equals consumption plus investment, Y = C + I. Putting the two together, we have C +
S = C + I, or S = I.

An important point to remember is that Keynesian

equilibrium with equality of planned aggregate
expenditures and output need not take place at full
employment. It is possible that the rate of
unemployment is high. In the Keynesian model,
neither wages nor interest rates will decline in the
face of abnormally high unemployment and excess
capacity. Therefore, output will remain at less than
the full employment rate as long as there is
insufficient spending in the economy. Keynes
argued that this was precisely what was happening
during the Great Depression.

The Investment Multiplier

Let’s now examine the effect of an increase in
investment (upward shift in the investment
schedule) causing an upward shift in the aggregate
demand function.

In the above figure, an increase in autonomous

investment by ∆ I shifts the aggregate demand
schedule from C+I to C+I+ ∆I. Correspondingly, the
equilibrium shifts from E to E 1 and the equilibrium
income increases more than proportionately from Yo
to Y1. Why and how does this happen? This occurs
due to the operation of the investment multiplier.

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The multiplier refers to the phenomenon whereby a change in an injection of expenditure will lead to a
proportionately larger change (or multiple change) in the level of national income. Multiplier explains how
many times the aggregate income increases as a result of an increase in investment. When the level of
investment increases by an amount say ∆I, the equilibrium level of income will increase by some multiple
amounts, ∆ Y. The ratio of ∆Y to ∆I is called the investment multiplier, k.

The size of the multiplier effect is given by ∆ Y = k ∆I.

K = (∆Y)/(∆I)

So, the increase in income per rupee increase in investment is:

(∆Y)/(∆I) = 1/(1 - MPC) = 1/(1 - MPS)

Therefore, the marginal propensity to consume (MPC) is the determinant of the value of the multiplier and
that there exists a direct relationship between MPC and the value of multiplier. Higher the MPC, more will
be the value of the multiplier, and vice-versa. On the contrary, higher the MPS, lower will be the value of
multiplier and vice-versa. The maximum value of multiplier is infinity when the value of MPC is 1 i.e the
economy decides to consume the whole of its additional income. We conclude that the value of the
multiplier is the reciprocal of MPS.

The multiplier concept is central to Keynes's theory because it explains how shifts in investment caused by
changes in business expectations set off a process that causes not only investment but also consumption to
vary. The multiplier shows how shocks to one sector are transmitted throughout the economy.

Increase in income due to increase in initial investment, does not go on endlessly. The process of income
propagation slows down and ultimately comes to a halt. Causes responsible for the decline in income
are called leakages. Income that is not spent on currently produced consumption goods and services may
be regarded as having leaked out of income stream. If the increased income goes out of the cycle of
consumption expenditure, there is a leakage from income stream which reduces the effect of multiplier. The
more powerful these leakages are the smaller will be the value of multiplier. The leakages are caused due
to:
1. progressive rates of taxation which result in no appreciable increase in consumption despite increase in
income
2. high liquidity preference and idle saving or holding of cash balances and an equivalent fall in marginal
propensity to consume
3. increased demand for consumer goods being met out of the existing stocks or through imports
4. additional income spent on purchasing existing wealth or purchase of government securities and shares
from shareholders or bondholders
5. undistributed profits of corporations
6. part of increment in income used for payment of debts
7. case of full employment additional investment will only lead to inflation, and
8. scarcity of goods and services despite having high MPC

The MPC on which the multiplier effect of increase in income depends, is high in underdeveloped countries;
ironically the value of multiplier is low. Due to structural inadequacies, increase in consumption expenditure
is not generally accompanied by increase in production. E.g. increased demand for industrial goods
consequent on increased income does not lead to increase in their real output; rather prices tend to rise.
An important element of Keynesian models is that they relate to short-period equilibrium and contain no
dynamic elements. There is nothing like Keynesian macro-economic dynamics. When a shock occurs, for
example when there is a change in autonomous investment due to change in some variable, one equilibrium
position can be compared with another as a matter of comparative statics. There is no link between one
period and the next and no provision is made for an analysis of processes through time.

Determination of Equilibrium Income: Three Sector Model

Aggregate demand in the three sector model of closed economy (neglecting foreign trade) consists of three
components namely,
● household consumption(C)
● desired business investment demand(I)
● government sector’s demand for goods and services(G)

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Thus in equilibrium, we have: Y = C + I + G

Since there is no foreign sector, GDP and national income are equal. As prices are assumed to be fixed, all
variables are real variables and all changes are in real terms. Let’s have a look at the flowchart below for a
better understanding.

The three-sector, three-market circular flow model which accounts for government intervention highlights
the role played by the government sector. From the above flow chart, we can find that the government
sector adds the following key flows to the model:
1. Taxes on households and business sector to fund government purchases
2. Transfer payments to household sector and subsidy payments to the business sector
3. Government purchases goods and services from business sector and factors of production from
household sector, and

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4. Government borrowing in financial markets to finance the deficits occurring when taxes fall short of
government purchases

However, unlike in the two-sector model, the whole of national income does not return directly to the firms
as demand for output. There are two flows out of the household sector in addition to consumption
expenditure namely, saving flow and the flow of tax payments to the government. These are actually
leakages. The saving leakage flows into financial markets, which means that the part of that is saved is held
in the form of some financial asset (currency, bank deposits, bonds, equities, etc.). The tax flow goes to to
the government sector. The leakages which occur in household sector do not necessarily mean that the total
demand must fall short of output. There are additional demands for output on the part of the business sector
itself for investment and from the government sector. In terms of the circular flow, these are injections. The
investment injection is shown as a flow from financial markets to the business sector. The purchasers of the
investment goods, typically financed by borrowing, are actually the firms in the business sector themselves.
Thus, the amount of investment in terms of money represents an equivalent flow of funds lent to the
business sector.

The three-sector Keynesian model is commonly

constructed assuming that government
purchases are autonomous. This is not a
realistic assumption, but it will simplify our
analysis. Determination of income can be
explained with the help of the figure.

The variables measured on the vertical axis are

C, I and G. The autonomous expenditure
components namely, investment and
government spending do not directly depend on
income and are exogenous variables
determined by factors outside the model. You
may observe that in panel B of the above
figure, the lines that plot these autonomous
expenditure components are horizontal as their
level does not depend on Y. Therefore, C + I +
G schedule lies above the consumption function
by a constant amount. The line S + T in the
graph plots the value of savings plus taxes. This
schedule slopes upwards because saving varies
positively with income. Just as government
spending, level of tax receipts (T) is decided by
policymakers.
The equilibrium level of income is shown at the
point E1 where the (C + l + G) schedule crosses
the 45° line, and aggregate demand is
therefore equal to income (Y). In equilibrium, it
is also true that the (S + T) schedule intersects
the (I + G) horizontal schedule.

We shall now see why other points on the graph are not points of equilibrium. Consider a level of income
below Y. We find that it generates consumption as shown along the consumption function. When this level
of consumption is added to the autonomous expenditures (I + G), aggregate demand exceeds income; the
(C + I + G) schedule is above the 45° line. Equivalently at this point I + G is greater than S + T, as can be
seen in panel B of the above figure. With demand outstripping production, desired investments will exceed
actual investment and there will be an unintended inventory shortfall and therefore a tendency for output
to rise. Conversely, at levels of income above Y 1, output will exceed demand; people are not willing to buy
all that is produced. Excess inventories will accumulate, leading businesses to reduce their future production.
Employment will subsequently decline. Output will fall back to the equilibrium level. It is only at Y that
output is equal to aggregate demand; there is no unintended inventory shortfall or accumulation and,
consequently, no tendency for output to change. An important thing to note is that the change in total

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spending, followed by changes in output and employment, is what will restore equilibrium in the Keynesian
model, not changes in prices.

Determination of Equilibrium Income: Four Sector Model

The four sector model includes all four macroeconomic sectors, the household sector, the business sector,
the government sector, and the foreign sector. The foreign sector includes households, businesses, and
governments that reside in other countries. The below flowchart shows the circular flow in a four sector
economy.

In the four sector model, there are three additional flows namely: exports, imports and net capital inflow
which is the difference between capital outflow and capital inflow. The C+I+G+(X-M) line indicates the total
planned expenditures of consumers, investors, governments, and foreigners (net exports) at each income
level.

In equilibrium, we have
Y = C + I + G + (X-M)

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The domestic economy trades goods with the foreign sector through exports and imports. Exports are the
injections in the national income, while imports act as leakages or outflows of national income. Exports
represent foreign demand for domestic output and therefore, are part of aggregate demand. Since imports
are not demands for domestic goods, we must subtract them from aggregate demand.

The demand for imports has an autonomous component

and is assumed to depend on income. Imports depend upon
marginal propensity to import which is the increase in
import demand per unit increase in GDP. The demand for
exports depends on foreign income and is therefore
exogenously determined. Imports are subtracted from
exports to derive net exports, which is the foreign sector's
contribution to aggregate expenditures. With the help of
the below figure, we shall explain income determination in
the four sector model.

Equilibrium is identified as the intersection between the C

+ I + G + (X - M) line and the 45-degree line. The
equilibrium income is Y. From panel B, we find that the
leakages(S+T+M) are equal to injections (I+G+X) only at
equilibrium level of income.

We have seen above that only net exports(X-M) are

incorporated into the four sector model of income
determination. We know that injections increase the level
of income and leakages decrease it. Therefore, if net
exports are positive (X > M), there is net injection and national income increases. Conversely, if X<M, there
is net withdrawal and national income decreases. The below figure depicts a case of X<M.

We find that when the foreign sector is included in the model (assuming M > X), the aggregate demand
schedule C+I+G shifts downward with equilibrium point shifting from F to E. The inclusion of foreign sector
(with M > X) causes a reduction in national income from Y 0 to Y1. Nevertheless, when X > M, the aggregate
demand schedule C+I+G shifts upward causing an increase in national income. Learners may infer
diagrammatic expressions for possible changes in equilibrium income for X>M and X = M.

We have seen in the explanation of the investment

multiplier that equilibrium income is expressed as a
product of two terms: ∆ Y = k ∆I; i.e the level of
autonomous investment expenditure and the
investment multiplier. The autonomous expenditure
multiplier in a four sector model includes the effects
of foreign transactions and is stated as 1/(1−𝑏𝑏+𝑣𝑣)
where v is the propensity to import which is greater
than zero. You may recall that the multiplier in a
closed economy is 1/(1−𝑏𝑏)

The greater the value of v, the lower will be the

autonomous expenditure multiplier. The more open
an economy is to foreign trade, (the higher v is) the
smaller will be the response of income to aggregate
demand shocks, such as changes in government
spending or autonomous changes in investment
demand.

A change in autonomous expenditures— for example, a change in investment spending,—will have a direct
effect on income and an induced effect on consumption with a further effect on income. The higher the value
of v, larger the proportion of this induced effect on demand for foreign, not domestic, consumer goods.

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Consequently, the induced effect on demand for domestic goods and, hence on domestic income will be
smaller. The increase in imports per unit of income constitutes an additional leakage from the circular flow
of (domestic) income at each round of the multiplier process and reduces the value of the autonomous
expenditure multiplier.
An increase in demand for exports of a country is an increase in aggregate demand for domestically produced
output and will increase equilibrium income just as an increase in government spending or an autonomous
increase in investment. In summary, an increase in the demand for a country’s exports has an expansionary
effect on equilibrium income, whereas an autonomous increase in imports has a contractionary effect on
equilibrium income. However, this should not be interpreted to mean that exports are good and imports
harmful in their economic effects. Countries import goods that can be more efficiently produced abroad, and
trade increases the overall efficiency of the worldwide allocation of resources. This forms the rationale for
attempts to stimulate the domestic economy by promoting exports and restricting imports.

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