Ratikanta Maiti

Aruna Kumari
Ashok Kumar Thakur
Narayan Chandra Sarkar Editors

Bioresource
and Stress
Management
Bioresource and Stress Management
Ratikanta Maiti • Aruna Kumari
Ashok Kumar Thakur
Narayan Chandra Sarkar
Editors

Bioresource and Stress

Management

123
Editors
Ratikanta Maiti Aruna Kumari
Facultad de Ciencias Forestales Department of Crop Physiology, Agricultural College
Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León Professor Jayashankar Telangana State
Linares, Mexico Agricultural University
Karimnagar, Telangana, India
Ashok Kumar Thakur
Department of Seed Science and Technology Narayan Chandra Sarkar
Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University Department of ASEPAN (Agronomy)
of Horticulture and Forestry Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Visva-Bharati
Solan, HP, India Sriniketan, West Bengal, India

ISBN 978-981-10-0994-5 ISBN 978-981-10-0995-2 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0995-2

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016945258

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016

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Preface

In the twenty-first century, new approaches of environmental and social advo-

cacies and bio-resource management have been formulated at the national and
international level for preserving the environment and management agendas.
It is well understood. One of the most significant needs of the day is to manage
the natural resources sustainably vis-a-vis disseminating the knowledge to
impart awareness. In this book, we have outlined the consolidated efforts and
findings of the researchers, scientists, academicians and scholars engaged in
addressing a series of questions and framework on resources management
and combating of biotic and abiotic factors for keeping our mother Earth safe
for all.
Here, an outline of series of questions, concepts and line-up plans pertain-
ing to the bio-resource and stress management has been drawn. These natural
bio-resources have an impact on economic, cultural, aesthetic, scientific and
educational segments of the society. Thus, the preservation of this prestigious
heritage by conserving or managing in sustainable manner is far more
important as these are at danger rather shrinking at a faster rate. The com-
bined and interacting influences of over-exploitation, pollution, modification,
destruction or degradation of the native habitats amplify the vulnerability of
bio-resource. All these factors are pushing the crease and forcing natural biota
to attain a smaller size with every passing day. Immediate attention is next to
the door; as the prerequisites are rarely met. The human use of the goods
and services provided by nature is necessary; however, continued attempts
are to be made to check the genetic erosion. Thus, these alarming notes
urge the necessity of adoption of a compromising agenda in management and
conservation of bio-resource. These may provide a viable long-term solution,
a new paradigm for conservation.
Promoting biodiversity-sensitive management is of equal priority. The land
use practices must be compatible with the maintenance of the bio-resource.
Nevertheless, the problem of soil fertility degradation may be relieved
by the proper use of organic and inorganic fertilizers or by adoption of
integrated nutrient management strategies. Some of the chapters enlighten the
research contributions encompassing the organic amendments in increasing
the nutrient uptakes, microbial activities, etc.
This book not only emphasizes on the general conceptual approaches
by different users but also methods on integrated conservation, utility and
importance of bio-resource. It has focused with the prime goal of contribution
towards the construction of a range of attributes, conservation or management

v
vi Preface

of resources and indicates, at the same time, the areas or topics where further
research will be useful under the present scenario of climate change. To
elucidate some of the effects and research highlights, an attempt has been
made to discuss the wide range of themes for framing out considerable
management aspects.
It is also interesting to overview the current perspective to assess the
level of depletion or exploitation on bio-resource over the years. The chap-
ters herein encompass the research contributions in the fields of genetics,
biotechnology, water conservation, abiotic and biotic stress, seed technology,
postharvest physiology, natural resource management, climate change, etc.
This has called for the expansion of research over vast corridors looking ahead
the necessity of enrichment of inter- and intra-disciplinary research.
Despite the astounding importance of various bio-resources and their
abundance on our planet, the degree of their degradation and extinction
is elevating owing to the ever-increasing pressure of population growth,
urbanization, industrialization, deforestation and other aspects enhancing the
level of greenhouse gases. The global impact of these gases is evidenced as
the global warming and greenhouse effects. Projections highlight the food
crisis to be seen in the forthcoming years with the burgeoning populace, de-
forestation and land degradation. The large-scale release of these greenhouse
gases or burning of fossil fuels, intensive agricultural systems and residual
effects of the indiscriminate pesticide use, microbial degradations, industrial
effluents and gases into the atmosphere and hydrosphere are exuberating
their impact to a much larger extent. Though significant achievement has
been obtained in crop improvement, molecular biology and other disciplines,
very little progress has been made in increasing crop productivity under
sustainable agriculture in the farmers’ fields.
This scope of diversity of research activities that prevailed provides
an advantage rather than challenges in compiling and editing this book,
moreover to indicate a wide range of affordable perspectives. Such typical
fields of scientific research endeavour the development of suitable strategies
for efficient and reliable management of bio-resource.
The chapters are well organized by broad topics describing the research
highlights, with an overall context and concluding summary enlightening
the future areas of research. Most of these synthetic chapters are drafted
by contributing authors. The editors have stimulated these highly productive
research highlights mostly from the 2nd International Conference on Bio-
Resource and Stress Management held during 7–10 January 2015 at PJTSAU
and ANGRAU, Hyderabad, India. These studies cover a wide scope of
disciplinary perspectives, from agronomical to physiological and biochemical
right down to the molecular level. Each equipped with their particular set
of experimental tools has successfully approached their object of study to
provide us with fresh information that will prove useful, in at least two
ways. For one thing, those whose interest lies in designing their own research
will find in this chapter inspiring ideas on questions of utmost urgency.
On the other hand, those who are interested in the general area of stress
in plant systems from an ecological point of view – as it may concern
global climate change in particular ways in which it threatens ecosystem
Preface vii

stability, for example – will find the material most valuable to build on
current working models explaining interactions between living organisms and
a rapidly changing physical environment and the prospects of evolution of the
ecosystems thereupon.

Linares, Mexico Ratikanta Maiti

Jagtial, Karimnagar, Telangana, India Aruna Kumari
Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India Ashok Kumar Thakur
Sriniketan, West Bengal, India Narayan Chandra Sarkar
Acknowledgements

Many individual researchers and scientists have contributed to the production

of this book. We are grateful to all those contributing authors and researchers,
especially those who have participated in the 2nd International Conference
on Bio-Resource and Stress Management held during 7–10 January 2015 at
PJTSAU and ANGRAU, Hyderabad, India, without which this would have
been impossible.
We also thank Prof. T.V.K. Singh for sparing his time, in spite of his
hectic schedule, to contribute to this symposia and PJTSAU and ANGRAU
for offering all facilities to organize this conference to a great success.
We are grateful, in particular, to dozens of scientists, researchers and
academicians who kindly acted as referees (anonymously) to several of
these chapters. Their critical suggestions, insights and thinking for the
improvement of this manuscript are duly acknowledged.

ix
Contents

1 Social Necessity of an Efficient Management

and Conservation of Bio-resource and Stress Management . . . 1
Ratikanta Maiti and Aruna Kumari
2 Socioeconomy of Bio-resource and Stress Management . . . . . . 7
Samares Kumar Das and Ratikanta Maiti
3 Climate Change: Its Impact on Bio-resource and Sustainable
Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Aruna Kumari and Ratikanta Maiti
4 Natural Resource Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Ratikanta Maiti and Aruna Kumari
5 Agrotechnology and Crop Diversification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
A.V. Ramanjaneyulu, Narayan Chandra Sarkar,
R.V.T. Balazzii Naaiik, and Ratikanta Maiti
6 Physiological Basis of Crop Productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Ratikanta Maiti and Aruna Kumari
7 Biotic Stress: Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Susanta Banik and Ratikanta Maiti
8 Biotic Stress: Insect Pests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Ratikanta Maiti and Aruna Kumari
9 Research Trends in Abiotic Stress Resistance of Crops . . . . . . . 131
Jorge Isaac Sarquís Ramírez and Ratikanta Maiti
10 Essence of Plants or Crops for Adaptation: Learning Lessons
for Sustainable Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Ratikanta Maiti
11 Breeding, Genetics and Biotechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Aruna Kumari and Ratikanta Maiti
12 Post-harvest Technology for Reducing Stress on Bioresource:
Recent Advances and Future Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Somesh Sharma, Ashok Kumar Thakur, and Ratikanta Maiti
13 Recent Trends in Seed Science and Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Ashok Kumar Thakur and Ratikanta Maiti

xi
Contributors

R. V. T. Balazzii Naaiik Electronic Media Wing, ARI, PJTSAU,

Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
Susanta Banik Department of Plant Pathology, School of Agricultural
Sciences and Rural Development, Nagaland University, Medziphema,
Nagaland, India
Samares Kumar Das Department of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry
Extension, Central Agricultural University, Aizawl, Mizoram, India
Aruna Kumari Department of Crop Physiology, Agricultural College,
Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University, Karimnagar,
Telangana, India
Ratikanta Maiti Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Autónoma de
Nuevo León, Linares, Mexico
A. V. Ramajaneyulu Regional Agricultural Research Station, Professor
Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University, Palem, Mahabubnagar
District, Telangana, India
Jorge Sarquis Ramirez Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa de Enríquez,
Estado de Veracruz-Llave, Xalapa, Mexico
Narayan Chandra Sarkar Department of ASEPAN (Agronomy), Institute
of Agricultural Sciences, Visva-Bharati, Sriniketan, West Bengal, India
Somesh Sharma School of Bioengineering and Food Technology, Shoolini
University of Biotechnology and Management Sciences, Solan, HP, India
Ashok Kumar Thakur Department of Seed Science and Technology,
Dr Y S Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, HP, India

xiii
About the Editors

Ratikanta Maiti, Ph.D., D.Sc., is a renowned Botanist of international repute

with specialization in crop Physiology and Botany. He worked for 9 years
as a senior botanist in Jute Agricultural Research Institute, Barrackpore
(I.C.A.R.), Kolkata, West Bengal, and for 10 years as a senior Plant Phys-
iologist in ICRISAT, Patancheru, A.P., India. Then, he worked as Senior
Professor and Senior Research Scientist (CONACYT, Mexico, for 18 years)
in two Universities in Mexico for 20 years. During his scientific career, he
has developed innovative techniques for the screening of salinity and drought
of several crops. As author of more than 30 books, he has won several
international awards such as international Scientist award offered by IBC,
Cambridge and Ehanobotanist Award-2003 sponsored by Friends University,
U.S.A. and U.N.D.P. and gold medal for India 2008 offered ABI.
Dr. Ch. Aruna Kumari is working as Assistant Professor, Department of
Crop Physiology, at Agricultural College, Jagtial, Professor Jaya Shankar
Telangana State Agricultural University. She has 7 years of Research Experi-
ence in varied ICAR Institutes and in seed industry (Vibha Seeds). She is the
Recipient of CSIR Fellowship, Govt. of India during her doctoral studies. She
has been an Author in 2 books viz., Glossary in Plant Physiology, Advances
in Cotton, Chilli. Her field of specialization is Seed Dormancy.
Narayan Chandra Sarkar is a faculty member at Visva-Bharati, Department
of ASEPAN, Palli Siksha Bhavana (Institute of Agricultural Sciences),
Sriniketan, West Bengal, India. He has worked in Vibha Seeds, Syngenta
India Ltd and Nagaland University. He has received his PhD in Agronomy
from Indian Agricultural Research Institute in 2005. His current research area
is soil fertility in rice.
Ashok Kumar Thakur is a faculty member at the Dr. Yashwant Singh
Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Department of Seed Science
and Technology, in district Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India. He has obtained
Ph.D. in 2002 in Horticulture with specialization in Vegetable Breeding from
same working University. He has 25 research publications, 04 manuals/books,
06 book chapters and 07 extension publications in the form of popular
articles, folders etc. He has experience in working with Vibha Seeds, Bharti
Delmonte India Pvt Ltd, ACME Cold Chain Solutions Pvt Ltd. His current
area of research is vegetable seed technology.

xv
 Social Necessity of an Efficient
Management and Conservation 1
of Bio-resource and Stress
Management

Ratikanta Maiti and Aruna Kumari

Abstract
The growth and economy of a society is highly dependent on profitable
utilization of bio-resource, plants and animals for livelihood and survival.
This chapter discusses the efficient utilization of native plants, trees and
other bio-resources as well as various abiotic stress factors affecting crop
productivity under sustainable agriculture. Various innovative techniques,
agrotechnology and organic fertilizers need to evolve for increasing pro-
ductivity under sustainable agriculture. The reserve of organic carbon fixed
in the soil by soil microorganisms is the long-term carbon that is released
into the environment by increased burning of fossil fuels. It helps to limit
the global changes that are continuously increasing due to rapid changes
in the amounts of greenhouse gases. Certain tree species have the capacity
to capture about 50 % of carbon, viz. Leucophyllum frutescens, Forestiera
angustifolia, Bumelia celastrina and Acacia berlandieri which may be rec-
ommended for planting in highly contaminated areas to reduce pollution
and carbon dioxide load in the atmosphere. This chapter urges the neces-
sity for judicious utilization and conservation of native species and also the
ethnic knowledge on plant uses inherited from generation to generation.

Nature provides us a variety of goods and encircling the earth enables us to breathe; the
services, and for every moment of our life, we plants grown in the soil provide the food to eat,
use the resources that it has provided. The air shelter to animals, vegetation and pastures. The
energy provided by the sun, coal or fossil fuels
R.K. Maiti () are used for several purposes. In a similar manner,
Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Autónoma the water that falls to the ground in the form of
de Nuevo León, Carr. No 85, km 145, NL 67700 Linares,
Mexico rain is used for irrigation and to meet the various
e-mail: [email protected] day-to-day needs. It is thus evident that we are
A. Kumari dependent on nature to a large extent to meet
Department of Crop Physiology, Agricultural College, all of our basic needs – air, food, water, shelter,
Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural energy, etc.
University, Polasa, Jagtial, Karimnagar 505 529, The growth and economy of a society is
Telangana, India
e-mail: [email protected] highly dependent on profitable utilization of

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 1

R.K. Maiti et al. (eds.), Bioresource and Stress Management, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0995-2_1
2 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

bio-resource, plants and animals for livelihood There is a great necessity of interdisciplinary
and survival. Native plants or trees and crops research on medicinal plants as ethnomedicine.
supply food, medicines, timber for furniture, In order to have a truly sustainable society, there
firewood and various domestic necessities. is a need to understand the impacts of anthropic
Besides, we are highly dependent on honeybees factors on the nature and the resources that are
for honey, fish and animals for meat, leather, provided. Decisions are to be made in such a
wool, etc. There is a great necessity for efficient way that the impacts on these bio-resources are
utilization of bio-resource and its genetic minimized, and these which are forming a part
improvement. Efficient management of bio- of our natural systems are continued to meet the
resource contributes to improve the economy of requirements of the future generations too. Scien-
mankind worldwide. Therefore, the conservation tists, academicians, environmentalists, ecologists
and efficient utilization of bio-resource is a great and biologists all over the globe are working
necessity for the economy of our society. together in finding better ways of management of
With respect to native plant species, there is the bio-resource as soil, water, vegetation as well
a great necessity to develop efficient techniques as biodiversity.
for breaking seed dormancy and propagation of Soil forms the basis of life and survival of
plants and trees. No efficient techniques are avail- plants. Millions of insects, bacteria, fungi, acti-
able except traditional methods. In this regard, nomycetes and algae reside in the soil. Certain
in Northeastern Mexico, few native species such fungi as mycorrhiza help plants to retrieve phos-
as Agave lechuguilla, Yucca spp., Euphorbia an- phorous from the soil. Certain nitrogen-fixing
tisyphilitica and wild chilli (Capsicum annuum) bacteria such as Rhizobium, Azospirillum and
are overexploited by the semiarid farmers for Azotobacter enrich the soil nitrogen content. Cer-
their economic importance, which may lead to tain phosphorous-solubilizing bacteria such as
the extinction of these species in the long run. Pseudomonas and Bacillus and fungi Aspergillus
Many cactus species are endangered and becom- and Penicillium enrich the soil phosphorus con-
ing extinct. Though simple techniques are avail- tents. Certain bacterial species such as Pseu-
able, no attempts are being made by scientists. domonas are useful in phytoremediation in re-
It urges the necessity for judicious utilization moving the oil spills and other metal contami-
and conservation of native species and also the nants from the soil and water surfaces. Likewise,
ethnic knowledge on plant uses inherited from some bacterial and fungal species like Bacillus
generation to generation. and Trichoderma are effective biocontrol agents
Since ancient times, many medicinal plants are against a number of harmful pests. Certain nema-
being used to alleviate various diseases in rural todes and mites also reduce the pest species by
villages as well as in urban areas. This knowledge feeding on them.
on the use of medicinal plants is inherited from Developed and developing worlds are facing
generation to generation. Many medicinal plants ever-increasing problems. Overcropping or abuse
are used to cure a large number of diseases. of mineral fertilization and pesticides is leading
Systematic studies on the macro- and micronu- to the destruction of our soils, a valuable resource
trient contents of these medicinal plant species which is scarce. Nevertheless, this problem of
are limited. Our research is thus being confined to soil fertility degradation may be relieved by the
the selection and identification of the native tree proper use of organic and inorganic fertilizers or
species having a high efficacy of accumulation by adoption of integrated nutrient management
of macro- and micronutrients into their biomass. strategies. The organic residues not only enrich
These medicinal plants have high nutraceutical the soil microbial population but also influence
values as sources of supplementing the macro- the soil structure and the nutrient turnover, in-
and micronutrients in medicines to the desired in crease biodiversity and influence many physical,
curing a particular disease. chemical and biological parameters. Nowadays,
1 Social Necessity of an Efficient Management and Conservation of Bio-resource and Stress. . . 3

a very interesting subject of investigation is the Climate change is occurring due to increase
use of organic amendments so that the biological of CO2 and other greenhouse gases, which have
properties of the soil are properly maintained in a direct impact on the growth, development and
enabling in the maintenance of soil functioning survival of tree species of a forest. The climatic
and structure. Indiscriminate use of fertilizers factors prevailing in different semiarid, tropical
and pesticides are degrading the soil environment and temperate regions affect the growth of trees.
leading to its pollution. The soil biological ac- The change in climatic factors related to atmo-
tivity is being lost due to significant amounts of spheric condition are the solar radiation, light,
contaminants that are accumulated in the soils. wind, temperature, precipitation, relative humid-
Organic manures or organic amendments can ity and intensity of light. Climate determines the
enrich the soil microflora and lead to a build- distribution of vegetation in a forest ecosystem.
up of microbial biomass and increased microbial There exists a good relation of the climate with
activity. The soil enzymes are very important and the conservation and development of forest. It
several researches have highlighted the increase is essential for the foresters to have good un-
in the soil enzymatic activities with the addi- derstanding of the climate changes and its im-
tion of organic amendments. In dry areas, the pact on forest productivity and to take necessary
presence of soil fauna, litter decomposition and measures to protect it. It is difficult to determine
soil chemical and biochemical properties are very the changes of climate on plant growth and hu-
important in the organic resource management. man activity and to adopt effective measures to
Under the present conditions, there is a need mitigate climate changes. Global warming leads
for a transition towards durable and sustainable to melting of glaciers and swelling of sea levels
relations between humans and nature. An ad- thereby causing climatic disasters.
vance in scientific knowledge has given a plat- The earth receives radiant energy from so-
form for the efficient management of our natural lar radiation for its utilization by the plants for
bio-resource such as soil, water and biodiver- photosynthesis and other human activities. Short
sity. An important agricultural and environmental wave solar energy (visible) received from the sun
component of soil is soil organic matter. It helps passes through the atmosphere, thereby warming
in the maintenance of plant nutrition, protects the earth’s surface. Long wave thermal radiation
the soil quality and also controls the fate of is absorbed by a number of greenhouse gases
contaminants in the soil. It is the only reservoir (GHGs). These greenhouse gases accumulate in
of organic carbon. The largest amounts of organic small amounts in the atmosphere and reflect long
carbon on the earth’s surface are reserved in the wave thermal radiation in all directions. The
soil. Thus, this reserve of organic carbon in the greenhouse gases cause the retention of heat to
soil is potentially capable of fixing the long- the lower atmosphere due to absorption and rera-
term carbon that is released into the environment diation by clouds and other gases. Some of the
by increased burning of fossil fuels. It helps to radiation is directed towards the earth’s surface.
limit the global changes that are continuously The amount of GHG in the atmosphere influ-
increasing due to rapid changes in the amounts ence global temperature. The greenhouse gases
of greenhouse gases. Thus, the science of sus- affecting climate change in the earth surface are
tainable management of bio-resource offers enor- water vapour (H2 O), carbon dioxide (CO2 ), ni-
mous opportunities for scientific development for trous oxide (NO2 ), ozone (O3 ), carbon monoxide
the base interventions or formulation of policies (CO) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). With an
for the conservation of these valuable resources increase of agriculture, animal husbandry, over-
or the adoption of a green technology, and sus- grazing and an increase in human population
tainability of agro-environment is the need of the indirectly the levels of these greenhouse gases
present day apart from meeting the demands of are increasing. Increased global warming is en-
the increased population. dangering the security of persistence of life of
4 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

humans, plants, animals and so on. Over and Forest tree species have the capacity to fix CO2
above, an incessant logging of trees for timber has load from the atmosphere, thereby reducing the
direct impact in the increase of greenhouse gases. exposure to noxious CO2 gas by humans protect-
An increase in the accumulation of GHG has ing our health and saving our lives. This in turn
direct effect on forest growth and productivity. leads to the accumulation of carbon, the source
In this context, increasing global warming ow- of energy for fuel after combustion. This is im-
ing to an increase of greenhouse gases associated portant for wood industry of high commercial im-
with drought and other abiotic stresses are caus- portance. The tree species having high capacity of
ing great concern in endangering plants, animals carbon sequestration (carbon fixation) could have
and other beneficial native microorganisms. This high potential for reducing the carbon dioxide
in turn is affecting crop productivity under sus- load through the process of photosynthesis.
taining agriculture affected with drought, salin- A large variability in macro- and micronutrient
ity and other abiotic stresses. This is associated contents in leaves of several native woody tree
with tremendous increase of human population species of semiarid Mexico has been observed.
leading to increased hunger and poverty. Under These species had the ability to capture high
this situation, there is a great necessity of re- carbon of about 50 % and were found to be
search on the conservation of native animal and efficient carbon sequestrants (carbon fixers). The
plant species or trees with special reference to species capturing high carbon about 50 % were
trees and economic plants, on the one hand, and Leucophyllum frutescens, Forestiera angustifo-
adopting suitable technologies to increase crop lia, Bumelia celastrina and Acacia berlandieri.
productivity in stress-prone areas under sustain- These species may be recommended for planting
able agriculture, on the other hand. Increasing in highly contaminated areas to reduce pollu-
global warming has direct impact on wild animals tion. Plant species with high carbon sequestration
endangering their survival. High temperature has could be planted during town planning to reduce
detrimental effects on the growth of plants, an- carbon dioxide load in the atmosphere. In de-
imals and their survival. Efficient utilization of veloped countries, this excessive carbon dioxide
animal or plant resources is essential for strength- load build-up in the atmosphere, owing to con-
ening rural economy. This urges the necessity of tinuous emission from burning of fossil fuels, is
protection, conservation and judicious utilization captured and then injected in the much deeper soil
of plant and animal resources. impervious layer, thereby reducing the carbon
Trees in the forests are saviours of our lives. dioxide load from the atmosphere.
These give us food, shelter and daily necessities We have hypothesized that trees with open
and supply oxygen for our respiration. Protecting canopy are expected to be more efficient in photo-
forests is a great necessity for our existence. We synthesis for their capacity in the capture of solar
are very much concerned about how the human radiation and greater carbon fixation. We have
activities such as the burning of fossil fuels, selected few tree species with open canopy with
conversion of forests to agricultural lands and about 50 % carbon sequestration. Thus, these
other illegal activities cause significant increase tree species with high carbon fixation capacity
of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in could be effectively used in planting in highly
the atmosphere. On the other hand, deforestation contaminated areas, factory sites and cities with
and the increased use of forest products and high carbon load in the atmosphere.
burning of fossil fuels are contributing to the In view of the above discussion, the following
gradual increase of greenhouse gases in the atmo- options may be effective for reducing the carbon
sphere. Fortunately, the trees and forest with their load from the atmosphere: (1) the selection of
ability to fix CO2 and carbon into their biomass native tree species with high capacity of carbon
provide an opportunity to mitigate climate change sequestration and the promotion of their planta-
through carbon sequestration. tion in polluted areas, in development planning
1 Social Necessity of an Efficient Management and Conservation of Bio-resource and Stress. . . 5

of townships; (2) selection of legumes, Acacia, to salinity, drought and heat stress have great
and C4 plants; and (3) preferably the selection of potential to increase productivity under these
fast-growing species in particular for heartwood stress-prone areas. In this aspect, we adopted
species. We feel that these potential lines of a novel strategy to screen high-yielding crop
research to reduce carbon dioxide load from the cultivars which were tested over multilocation
atmosphere and concerted research inputs need to trials for their adaptation and good yield by the
be directed in this direction. At the same time, seed companies and research institutes and then
incessant logging and other human activities and select crop cultivars for tolerance to salinity and
expansion of agriculture in logged areas need drought with good success. Various resources
to be rigorously controlled by forest authorities. management as land water, plants are particularly
Rigorous training needs to be given to the forest focused on strategies of management in such
rangers to control this menace. Conservation of a way that the quality of life of the present
forest health and its growth can save our lives and the future generations is not affected. The
from the menace of contamination in the atmo- long-term implications of actions should take
sphere. There is necessity to develop efficient into account the future prospects while making
techniques to propagate native plant species and any decisions about the land or agriculture
trees through seed germination. or bio-resource that are being managed. The
With respect to crop productivity, thanks to main ultimate goal of bio-resource management
the efforts of plant breeders, plant protection sci- is to have sustainability – balancing social,
entists and biotechnologists for developing high- economic and environmental factors in making
yielding crop cultivars with increased substan- sure that our future generations can equally be
tial yield under high-input situations, but little benefited from the goods and services of the
progress has been achieved with respect to in- various bio-resources. Our economical, social
creased yield under sustainable agriculture where and environmental well-being is dependent on
several abiotic stresses affect the crop productiv- the sustainable management of these resources.
ity drastically. High-input cultivars cannot adapt In this respect, crop physiologists may con-
under this condition. It may be mentioned here tribute to develop low-cost technology to screen
that biotechnologists contribute a lot in the de- high-yielding pipeline crop cultivars and select
velopment of crop cultivars resistant to insects crop cultivars tolerant to these stresses. Simple
such as Bt cotton and other crop species, but low-cost technologies have been developed by
they failed to increase productivity under sus- us to screen and select crop cultivars tolerant to
tainable agriculture especially in poor farmers’ drought, salinity and other abiotic stresses. We
field in rural areas where high-input crops fail to developed these technologies and were successful
adapt. There is a great necessity in the transfer in several field crops such as cotton, sunflower,
of technology from the lab to the farmers’ field maize, pearl millet, rice, castor and few vegetable
and to convince farmers with the benefit of the crops. We feel that using these low-cost tech-
technology better than their traditional methods. nologies is possible to increase crop productiv-
We cannot impose our technology, rather con- ity under sustainable agriculture in collaboration
vince them with the results and try to modify their with agronomists, soil scientists, breeders, etc.
traditional procedures. who can contribute their innovative technologies
In this venture, there is a necessity of in this venture.
concerted research activities in multidisciplinary We also developed simple priming technique
team including breeders, physiologists, plant in India for enhancing flowering and increasing
protection specialists, soil scientists, agronomists the productivity of several vegetable crops such
and biotechnologists to address this problem in as tomato, chilli, bottle gourd, watermelon, cu-
an attempt to increase crop productivity under cumber, bitter gourd and other cucurbits. This
these stress-prone areas. Crop cultivars tolerant needs to be confirmed in other countries.
6 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

In this juncture, we are aware that strenuous soil scientists to address the issue and develop a
efforts of the breeders, molecular biologists and strategy to increase crop production under sus-
other scientists have contributed to the signif- tainable agriculture in the farmers’ fields. There
icant achievements in attaining increased crop is a great necessity of breeding and selection of
productivity under high-input situations, but a crop cultivars tolerant to abiotic stresses such
little progress has been achieved in increasing as salinity, drought and heat stress, etc. which
productivity under sustainable agriculture in the have high potential in increasing crop productiv-
farmer’s fields. High-input, high-yielding crop ity under sustainable agriculture in the farmer’s
cultivars cannot thrive well under low-input sit- field.
uations. In this respect, we adopt a strategy to In the Second International Conference on
develop simple low-cost technology to screen a Bio-resource and Stress Management, ANGRAU
large number of pipeline varieties or hybrids of & PJTSAU held in Hyderabad, India, 7–10
few field and vegetable crops and finally select January, 2015, a large number of papers (980)
cultivars for tolerance to salinity and drought. are presented dealing with management of bio-
Later, these cultivars could be handed over to resource and stress management. Brief account
molecular biologists for its validity. There is a of the research highlights in the bio-resource and
great necessity of an interdisciplinary research stress management are presented herewith: Bio-
team consisting of breeders, physiologists and resource and Stress Management: A Perspective.
 Socioeconomy of Bio-resource
and Stress Management 2
Samares Kumar Das and Ratikanta Maiti

Abstract
The chapter discusses the role of plants and animals in the socioeconomic
condition of human beings. The economy of the society depends on proper
utilisation of bio-resources, such as food crops, medicinal plants, fibres for
clothes, firewood, etc. which are affected by abiotic and biotic stresses.
Emphasis has been made on the role of women in society. Technology
transfer for upliftment of socioeconomy and utilisation of various natural
resources by human beings and also suggests specific strategy for rural
development.

Bio-resource and Stress Management, several pa-

2.1 Role of Bio-resource pers were presented. Here, we give a brief sum-
in Socioeconomy of Rural mary of these papers.
People Manipur harbours a rich diversity of different
plant species which also includes several dye-
Plants and animals play an important role in yielding species. The study was undertaken dur-
the socioeconomic condition of human beings. ing 2010–2012 in different parts of Manipur, and
The well-being of the society depends on proper 30 species were recorded for dye-yielding plants.
utilisation of bio-resources, such as food crops, Kikim et al. (2015) documented 30 species used
medicinal plants, fibres for clothes, firewood, for dye-yielding plants in Kangchup hills of
etc. In the Second International Conference on Senapati district in Manipur state (India). Meiteis
and Meitei Pangal (Muslim) communities have
been using species like Strobilanthes flaccid-
ifolius, Lithocarpus dealbata, Bixa orellana,
S.K. Das ()
Department of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry Tectona grandis, Parkia javanica, Osbeckia
Extension, Central Agricultural University, Aizawl, chinensis, etc. traditionally in combination with
Mizoram, India other plants for extraction and preparation of
e-mail: [email protected]
dye-utilising indigenous process.
R.K. Maiti We depend on various plant resources, food
Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Autónoma
crops and vegetables for our livelihood and econ-
de Nuevo León, Carr. No 85, km 145, NL 67700 Linares,
Mexico omy which are affected by abiotic and biotic
e-mail: [email protected] stresses. We are mentioning here a few of biotic

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 7

R.K. Maiti et al. (eds.), Bioresource and Stress Management, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0995-2_2
8 S.K. Das and R.K. Maiti

and abiotic stresses affecting crop productivity aimed to carry out the feeding aversion behaviour
and the economy of rural people. of rose-ringed parakeet (Psittacula krameri) ‘by
Nandeshwar et al. (2015) studied the eco- choice’ and ‘no-choice’ method to different con-
nomics of vegetable production and marketing in centrations of various plant products. Crude ex-
Akola district of Maharashtra (India). Channels tract of Annona squamosa showed promising
of vegetable marketing were (i) producer- results. Therefore, it may be used to reduce crop
wholesaler-retailer-consumer, (ii) producer- damage by rose-ringed parakeet in crops like
retailer-consumer and (iii) producer-consumer. sunflower, sorghum and other minor millets.
Producer’s share in consumer’s rupees was A study was undertaken by Meena (2015)
highest in channel (iii). However, channel (i) in Acacia for understanding germination, estab-
was found to be the most important channel of lishment and juvenile growth during the natural
distribution. regeneration of vegetation. It is concluded that
Chakma and Sharma (2015) conducted a seedling establishment of Acacia is technically
study for the assessment of production and feasible, and it provides a viable methodology
marketing of cabbage in the district of West useful for restoration of barren and degraded
Tripura (India). Sixty farmers were sampled lands.
following multistage-stratified random sampling. Chauhan et al. (2015) successfully reared
In the case of the selected farmers of Teliamura bumble bees (Bombus haemorrhoidalis Smith)
Block, farmers were found well familiar with without undergoing hibernation for more than
the cabbage production technology knowledge; 15 months in Himachal Pradesh (India).
however, they lacked the knowledge regarding
seed treatment methods, seed rate in nursery tech-
nology, biofertilisers in fertiliser technology, etc. 2.2 Role of Women in Society
Diseases reduce crop productivity owing to
climatic effects. Tomato is an important vegetable In rural society, women play an important role
whose productivity is affected by disease infec- both in the domestic and outside field and con-
tion. Bhat et al. (2015) observed prevalence of struction works. Women work hard in carrying
tomato diseases across semiarid regions of Kar- heavy load leading to skeletal disorder and other
nataka. High rainfall and humidity coupled with problems. The most common of these were a
moderate temperature triggered late blight. The lack of sleep, back problems, worrying about
amount of rainfall and number of rainy days also work, irritability and feeling down. This may be
affected the appearance and severity of bacterial either due to incorrect design of the equipments
spot, buckeye rot, powdery mildew and Septoria used or due to improper design of the work-
leaf spot. stations. Agriculture is the highest employer of
Abiotic stress such as salinity reduces crop women’s labour to the extent of 76 % in India.
productivity in rural villages, thereby affecting Work-related musculoskeletal disorders are the
rural economy. Bhagyashree et al. (2015) did a most prevalent illnesses among informal sector
comparative study of sugar beet and fodder beet workers in India. Based on the feedback received
in salinity stress tolerance. Salinity stresses were from the farm women through participatory rural
imposed in these two varieties after the attain- appraisal, Tiwari et al. (2015) carried out research
ment of two-leaf stage. They inferred that fodder to reduce the drudgery of farm women by intro-
beet variety CALIXTA is much more tolerant ducing women-friendly farm equipment.
to salinity stress than sugar beet variety SZ-35; Kale et al. (2015) studied constraints faced
hence, fodder beet can be grown much more by farm women in dairy farming and was
efficiently in saline track. undertaken in Kalmeshwar Tahsil of Nagpur
Insects attack food products, thereby reducing district in Vidarbha region of Maharashtra State
their quality; the study by Deepthi et al. (2015) with sample size of 100 dairy farm women from
2 Socioeconomy of Bio-resource and Stress Management 9

15 villages. In India, women’s involvement stored place’ (46.67 %), followed by ‘identifica-
in livestock management is a long-standing tion of stored grain pest and its nature of damage
tradition, and dairy farming has been an integral and control measures’ (40 %). Major constraints
part of homestead farming system. Constraints in food grain storage practices were high cost
are the circumstances or the causes which of improved storage structure (85 %), lack of
prohibit the dairy farmers from adoption of the knowledge in identification of stored grain pest
improved management practices. The constraints (69.16 %) and unavailability of different storage
faced by farm women while dairy farming were structures (56.66 %).
high cost of quality concentrate feeds (98.00 %) Kumari et al. (2015) interviewed randomly se-
and high cost needed for purchasing crossbred lected 23 women representatives from two blocks
animals and veterinary medicine (95.00 %), of Samastipur district in Bihar (India) to as-
followed by decline in performance of exotic sess the extent of empowerment and associated
animals due to the high temperature (94.00 %), problem of elected women members in Panchay-
low water profile, lack of irrigation facilities ati Raj institutions. The findings revealed that
(85.00 %), inadequacy of green fodder round the 21.73 % of respondents were with high empow-
year (82.00 %) and nonremunerative price for erment in respect of health welfare and develop-
milk (80.00 %). ment of public property. The association between
Thakur (2015) emphasised mainstreaming empowerment and age was negative but highly
of gender concerns in agriculture for inclusive significant at 1 % level of probability.
growth of the society at large. Women are the
backbone of agricultural-based economy owing
to the fact that men mostly migrate to the urban 2.3 Technology Transfer for
areas for search of better jobs. Worldwide, Upliftment of Socioeconomy
women play a vital role in food production in
the developing world. They contribute as much Kadam et al. (2015) suggested strategies for doc-
as 60 % of labour on family farms, but they often umentation and validation of indigenous techno-
have no control over farm income or agricultural logical knowledge (ITK) in bio-resource man-
resources such as seeds, fertiliser and land. agement. Four steps were identified by them for
Evidence shows that if women farmers across inclusion of ITK in technology generation, as-
the developing world had the same access as sessment and adaptation process. They are docu-
men do to resources such as land, improved seed mentation, validation, refinement and integration.
varieties, new technologies and better farming Story, survey, participatory rural appraisal (PRA)
practices, yields could increase by as much as or rapid rural appraisal (RRA), observation, doc-
30 % per household, and countries could see an umentary evidence, etc. were considered by them
increase of 2.5–4 % in agricultural output. In for documentation and validation of ITK.
order to ensure inclusive growth of the society Lotha and Sharma (2015) studied 60 house-
at large, mainstreaming of gender concerns in holds engaged in tea cultivation in six villages
agriculture should form the core area of the of Dimapur district in Nagaland (India). It was
developmental process so that the world could found that tea growers were well aware of the
be freed from the scourge of global hunger. importance of planting methods, improved va-
Chavan et al. (2015) assessed training needs of riety, land preparation, manures and fertilisers,
farm women in storage of food grains and their plant protection measures, plucking and process-
constraints selecting randomly 120 respondents ing. They adopted the recommended practices for
from Raigad district of Konkan region. More than tea plantation. Formation of cooperative societies
half of the respondents (55 %) expressed training may help tea growers obtain higher price of
need in the ‘use of fumigants at stored place’ produce and accelerate the adoption of recom-
followed by the ‘use of preventive measures at mended technology as well. Emphasis may be
10 S.K. Das and R.K. Maiti

given to reduce the gap between the farming sys- under Schedule I of Indian Wildlife Protection
tem and extension system in order to enhance the Act, 1972, and listed in endangered category in
dissemination of information on recommended IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The lake
technology and better farming practices. Depart- is rich in bio-resource which provide livelihood
ment of Horticulture and Agriculture may give to the local population. Dey and Laishram (2015)
high priority to provide the farmers of the study conducted a questionnaire survey to understand
area more technical guidance through conducting the participation of women living in and around
demonstrations, training, field days, seminars, the lake in sustainable livelihood and also the
workshops, etc. on plant protection measures level of conservation awareness among them.
and processing. The most prominent constraints In Cameroon, day by day the natural resources
perceived by the respondents were lack of proper which are highly essential in agriculture like
credit facilities, transportation and proper market- water, land, animal and vegetation are being
ing facilities. In order to overcome such prob- degraded, eroded and dwindling. Therefore,
lems, government and concerned sectors may the farmers should be trained to judicially
give emphasis on establishment of cooperative utilise these resources. Management of natural
societies and extension of credit. Formation of resources beyond watershed areas, particularly
cooperative societies in the study area may sup- in irrigated areas, is very important due to the
port the tea growers for obtaining higher price of nonavailability of a proper scale to measure
the produce; it may also accelerate the adoption watershed farmer’s attitude towards natural
of recommended technology as well. resource management; it was thought necessary
Reddy and Reddy (2015) studied the eco- to construct a scale for the purpose. Paul
nomics of direct-seeded rice (DSR) in Andhra and Marie (2015) described entrepreneurship
Pradesh (India). About 40 % labour saving was development programme followed in rural
observed at field in DSR compared to traditional Cameroon. The programme has two components:
transplantation method. Additional revenue due 12-module classroom course and follow-up work.
to adoption of DSR was much higher in un-
favourable season compared to normal season.
Ajrawat et al. (2015) identified potential of in-
formation technology (IT) in agriculture and rural 2.5 Strategy for Rural
sector. Most applications of ITs in agriculture Development
and rural sector were related to trade of inputs
and outputs through e-Choupal, extension and Well-defined strategy needs to be formulated for
training activities for rural people, advantages the development of agriculture and economy of
of agritourism, knowledge transfer from cities rural people. Sharma (2015) mentioned policy
to villages through e-kiosks and geographical for development of agriculture in Northeast In-
information system for management of natural dia. An analysis has been taken into consider-
resources. ation of the regulation of agricultural markets,
introduction of legislative measures, maintenance
of demand – supply balance, price support, and
2.4 Natural Resource as Source regulation of external trade. However, owing to
of Livelihood the skewed nature of agricultural development
underdeveloped regions such as the northeastern
Loktak Lake, the largest freshwater wetland and region remained neglected and became reliant
a Ramsar Site located in Manipur, is the source upon the developed regions for requisite supplies
of livelihood and the lifeline for more than 50 of the basic commodities. To provide a big push
villages located in and around the lake. The lake to agricultural development and hence upliftment
is the habitat of the endemic brow-antlered deer of the region, the role of the government and
or Sangai deer (Rucervus eldii eldii) protected the corporate sector has great significance, while
2 Socioeconomy of Bio-resource and Stress Management 11

the nongovernment organisations (NGOs) volun- system. In: Compendium of abstracts of the 2nd in-
tarily can come forward to fabricate its social ternational conference on bio-resource and stress man-
agement, ANGRAU & PJTSAU, Hyderabad, India, 7–
network owing to cultural diversity and inherited 10 January 2015
backwardness that pose big barriers on the indi- Bhat NM, Vennila S, Sardana HR et al (2015) Scenario of
viduals’ mindsets. tomato diseases in the semi-arid region of Karnataka
Shuya et al. (2015) conducted a survey on as influenced by rainfall. In: Compendium of abstracts
of the 2nd international conference on bio-resource
50 piggery farmers in Nagaland who availed and stress management, ANGRAU & PJTSAU, Hy-
loan from the commercial banks. Major problems derabad, India, 7–10 January 2015
faced by the bankers were nonrepayment, super- Chakma A, Sharma A (2015) Production and marketing
vision, uneven distribution of the borrowers and of cabbage cultivation in West district of Tripura state.
In: Compendium of abstracts of the 2nd international
misutilisation of funds. While major problems conference on bio-resource and stress management,
faced by the borrowers were cost and availability ANGRAU & PJTSAU, Hyderabad, India, 7–10 Jan-
of piglet, feed, interest rate, lack of scientific uary 2015
knowledge, disbursement of loan, supervision, Chauhan A, Rana BS, Katna S (2015) Successful rearing
of bumblebee, Bombus haemorrhoidalis Smith, year
certificates and guarantor, lengthy and slow bank round in Himachal Pradesh, India. In: Compendium
procedures, marketing, disease and loan amount. of abstracts of the 2nd international conference on
Sangeetha et al. (2015) studied productivity bio-resource and stress management, ANGRAU &
and economics of rice (Oryza sativa L.) and black PJTSAU, Hyderabad, India, 7–10 January 2015
Chavan KM, Mehta PG, Kale RA (2015) Training needs
gram (Vigna mungo L.) in rice-black gram crop- of the farm women in storage of food grains and their
ping sequence as influenced by organic manures constraints. In: Compendium of abstracts of the 2nd
conducted at Tamil Nadu Agricultural Univer- international conference on bio-resource and stress
sity, Coimbatore, during rabi and summer sea- management, ANGRAU & PJTSAU, Hyderabad, In-
dia, 7–10 January 2015
sons of 2007 and 2008. They studied the effect Deepthi KC, Rao VV, Reddy VR (2015) Effectiveness of
of organic sources of nutrients (enriched FYM plant products in feeding aversion of birds under cap-
compost, vermicompost, FYM C neem cake, en- tive studies. In: Compendium of abstracts of the 2nd
riched FYM compost C vermicompost C FYM, international conference on bio-resource and stress
management, ANGRAU & PJTSAU, Hyderabad, In-
composted poultry manure and enriched poultry dia, 7–10 January 2015
manure compost) and recommended NPK fer- Dey M, Laishram J (2015) Women’s participation in
tilisers on productivity and economics of rice sustainable livelihood: a study on selected villages in
and black gram in rice-black gram cropping se- and around Loktak Lake of Manipur, Northeast India.
In: Compendium of abstracts of the 2nd international
quence. The results revealed that the application conference on bio-resource and stress management,
of enriched poultry manure compost on equal N ANGRAU & PJTSAU, Hyderabad, India, 7–10 Jan-
basis (2.3 t ha1 ) recorded higher yield attributes uary 2015
and grain yield of rice (4,675 kg ha1 in 2007 Kadam RP, Ahire RD, Pawar GS (2015) Strategy
for documentation and validation of indigenous
and 4,953 kg ha1 in 2008), which was however technological knowledge in bio-resource. In: Com-
comparable with composted poultry manure. pendium of abstracts of the 2nd international con-
ference on bio-resource and stress management, AN-
GRAU & PJTSAU, Hyderabad, India, 7–10 January
2015
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salinity stress with special reference to antioxidant SAU, Hyderabad, India, 7–10 January 2015
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 Climate Change: Its Impact
on Bio-resource and Sustainable 3
Agriculture

Aruna Kumari and Ratikanta Maiti

Abstract
Climate change is a complex alteration of climate, which is subtle and
continuous, yet extremely important through its consequences for vegeta-
tion of various types that thrived under constant or relatively unchanged
climates. Potential adaptation strategies for management of the impact
of climate change—viz developing cultivars tolerant to heat and salinity
stress and resistant to flood and drought, modifying crop management
practices, improving water management, adopting new farming techniques
such as resource-conserving technologies, crop diversification, improving
pest management, better weather forecasting and crop insurance, and
harnessing the indigenous technical knowledge of farmers—are briefly
discussed. The chapter makes a brief assessment of research undertaken
on the effects of global warming and climate change on various aspects—
(1) impact of climate on agricultural production and forestry; (2) crop
production; (3) impact of an increasing level of carbon dioxide on security
of life; (4) impact of climate change on food inflation; (5) suggestion of
various mitigation strategies for climate change; (6) carbon sequestration
technology to reduce carbon pollution; (7) climate-smart agriculture;
(8) conservation practices under rain-fed agriculture; (9) intercropping;
(10) genotype  environment; and (11) impact of climate on livestock
production—and discusses technologies that need to be adopted to combat
climate change.

3.1 Introduction
A. Kumari ()
Department of Crop Physiology, Agricultural College, Global warming, or climate change, has been
Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural
University, Polasa, Jagtial, Karimnagar 505 529, strongly attributed to greenhouse gases (GHGs)
Telangana, India in the Earth’s atmosphere, like carbon dioxide
e-mail: [email protected] (CO2 ), methane (CH4 ), nitrous oxide (NO2 )
R.K. Maiti and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). These GHGs
Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Autónoma absorb the thermal radiation emitted by the
de Nuevo León, Carr. No 85, km 145, NL 67700 Linares, Earth’s surface. Thus, the rising concentrations of
Mexico
e-mail: [email protected] GHGs in the atmosphere could lead to a change

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 13

R.K. Maiti et al. (eds.), Bioresource and Stress Management, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0995-2_3
14 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

in energy balance and eventually the world’s responsible for 14 % of total greenhouse gas
climate. CO2 is by far the largest contributor emissions. Broader rural land use decisions have
to the man-made enhanced greenhouse effect an even larger impact. Deforestation currently
(IPCC 2007) cited in Crutzen and Wacławek accounts for an additional 18 % of emissions. In
(2015). the long run, climatic change could affect agri-
Increasing global warming is associated with culture in several ways such as the quantity and
an increase in abiotic and biotic stresses, which quality of crops in terms of productivity, growth
have direct negative impacts on plants, animals, rates, photosynthesis and transpiration rates, and
soils and crop productivity. moisture availability. Climate change is likely to
According to Crutzen and Wacławek (2015), have a direct impact on food production across
anthropogenic actions have increasing effects on the globe. Drivers of climate change through
the environment on all scales, in a lot of ways alterations in atmospheric composition can also
overcoming natural processes. During the last influence food production directly by their im-
100 years the human population went up from pacts on plant physiology.
little more than one billion to six billion and Coping with the impact of climate change on
economic activity increased nearly ten times be- agriculture will require careful management of
tween 1950 and the present time. In the last few resources like soil, water and biodiversity, while
decades of the twentieth century, anthropogenic the extension strategies to combat the impact
chlorofluorocarbon release caused a dramatic de- of climate change on agricultural production
crease in levels of stratospheric ozone, creating and agroforestry (Srilathavani and Preethi 2015)
an ozone hole over Antarctica. Thus as a result have emphasized that to cope with the impact
UV-B radiation from the sun increased, caus- of climate change on agriculture and food
ing an enhanced risk of skin cancer. Release production, India will need to act at the global,
of more greenhouse gases by mankind (such as regional, national and local levels. Extension
CO2 , CH4 and NO2 ) to the atmosphere increases can help farmers prepare for greater climate
the greenhouse effect. Atmospheric greenhouse variability and uncertainty, create contingency
gas concentrations would continue to rise and measures to deal with exponentially increasing
remain high for hundreds of years, thus warming risks and alleviate the consequences of climate
Earth’s climate. Warming temperatures raise the change by providing advice on how to deal with
sea level by melting mountain glaciers and ice droughts, floods and so forth. Further, extension
caps, due to which portions of the Greenland and can also help with mitigation of climate change.
Antarctic ice sheets melt or flow into the ocean. This assistance may include providing links to
Ice loss from the Greenland and Antarctic ice new markets (especially carbon), information
sheets could contribute an additional 19–58 cm about new regulatory structures and new
of sea level rise, hinging on how the ice sheets government priorities and policies. Innovating
react. and reinstating effective extension services will
become more important than ever in a changing
climate.
3.2 Impact of Climate Change Rani et al. (2015) discussed the impact of
on Agricultural Production changing climate on agriculture. According to
and Agroforestry them, climatic change and increasing climatic
variability are likely to aggravate the problems
Global climate change leads to changes in the of future food security by exerting pressure on
long-term weather patterns that characterize the agriculture. However, there are a lot of uncer-
regions of the world. Modern agriculture, food tainties about the assessment of the impact of
production and distribution are the major contrib- climate change on agriculture. Global climatic
utors of greenhouse gases. Agriculture is directly changes affect agriculture through their direct
3 Climate Change: Its Impact on Bio-resource and Sustainable Agriculture 15

and indirect effects on crops, soils, livestock and tent possible. There have been various attempts
pests. The increase in temperature, depending and viable measures in the past to bring down
upon the current ambient temperature, can reduce atmospheric GHGs to slow down climate change.
crop duration, increase crop respiration rates, The early impacts of climate change already are
change photosynthate partitioning to economic being felt worldwide. Future impacts will affect a
products, affect the survival and distribution of broad array of human and natural systems, with
pest populations and hasten nutrient mineraliza- consequences for human health, food and fibre
tion in soils, decrease fertilizer-use efficiencies production, water supplies, and many other areas
and increase evapo-transpiration rates. Indirectly, vital to economic and social wellbeing.
this may lead to considerable effects on land use Moderation of greenhouse gas emission is
due to snow melt, availability of irrigation water, required to combat the effect of climate change.
frequency and intensity of droughts and floods, Rice–wheat cropping system agricultural inter-
soil organic matter transformations, soil erosion ventions contribute towards the greenhouse gas
and changes in pest profiles, thereby reducing (GHG) emissions responsible for global warming
arable areas due to submergence of coastal lands that have put forward changes in climatic
and availability of energy. variables. Efforts should be made to reduce GHG
In order to manage the impact of climate emissions for restraining global warming. The
change, the potential adaptation strategies are feasibility of different management practices for
developing cultivars tolerant to heat and salinity mitigating the greenhouse gas emissions from
stress and resistant to flood and drought, modify- rice–wheat cropping sequences evaluated by
ing crop management practices, improving water Choudhury et al. (2015) revealed that out of
management, adopting new farming techniques the three different crop establishment methods
such as resource-conserving technologies, crop as the main plot treatments, M1 (rice: SRI,
diversification, improving pest management, bet- wheat: conventional tillage), M2 (rice: puddled
ter weather forecasting and crop insurance, and transplanted rice, wheat: conventional tillage
harnessing the indigenous technical knowledge C 30 % residue incorporation), M3 (rice: DSR,
of farmers. wheat: zero tillage C 30 % residue retention) and
Climate change (and agricultural climate four nutrient management sub-plot treatments—
change) is a complex alteration of climate, which viz S1 (100 % of recommended dose of fertilizer
is subtle and continuous, yet extremely important (RDF) through inorganic sources), S2 (75 % of
through its consequences for vegetation of RDF through inorganic sources C 25 % N of
various types that thrived under constant or RDF through organic sources), S3 (50 % of RDF
relatively unchanged climates. Some of the through inorganic sources C 50 % N of RDF
main effects of climate change with specific through organic sources) and S4 (S1 C Moong
reference to agriculture and food production bean as green-manure) DSR—emitted lower CH4
especially during the last decade are attributed (1.39 mg m2 h1 ), CO2 (0.57 mg m2 h1 ) and
to increased occurrence of storms and floods, N2 O (0.36 mg m2 h1 ) at the maximum tillering
increased incidence and severity of droughts stage of rice. The same trend was followed under
and forest fires, steady spreading out of frost- zero tillage in wheat with lower emission ranges
free intervals and potential growing seasons, of all three gases, i.e. 0.95, 1.29 and 0.58 mg
increased frequency of diseases and insect pest m2 h1 , respectively. The lowest emissions of
attacks, and vanishing habitats of plants. CH4 and CO2 , with values of 1.87 and 1.24 mg
In the face of growing climatic variability im- m2 h1 , respectively, from rice and 1.57 and
pacting the existing ecosystem, it is important for 3.23 mg m2 h1 , respectively, from wheat, were
the international scientific community (Kumawat observed under 100 % RDF through inorganic
et al. 2015) to use all accessible knowledge to fertilization, whereas N2 O emissions were in
stop or reverse this trend to the maximum ex- reverse to the emissions of CH4 and CO2 . Crop
16 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

establishment is good through minimum soil growth and development in the North Eastern
disturbance along with 50 % supplementation of dry zone of Karnataka. The North Eastern
inorganic fertilizers; organics could be an option dry zone of Karnataka belongs to the semi-
to lower GHG emissions. arid tropic zone and in a normal year receives
around 650–750 mm of rainfall. The 25-year
rainfall data showed that for 10 years there
3.3 Impact of Climate Change were no meteorological droughts, for 12 years
on Productivity of Crops mild droughts occurred and in the remaining
3 years moderate droughts occurred, whereas
Climate change is a burning issue and one of the with respect to agriculture drought, this occurred
major problems at the present time in the agri- for a period of 2 weeks during the rainy seasons
culture field. Climate change is both harmful and in 1986, 1993, 1994, 2006 and 2008 and for a
beneficial for some plants. An increased level of period of 1 week in 1999, 2001–2005 and 2009
CO2 is beneficial for CAM and C4 plants where (Shanwad et al. 2015).
the higher CO2 levels are used for increased pho- The 25-year data indicated that the highest
tosynthesis and growth rates but in cereals and rainfall of 1054.2 mm was recorded during 1998
other crops this climate directly affects growth, and the lowest rainfall of 435 mm was observed
reducing growth and production. Increased CO2 during 2003. The highest rainfall (249.6 mm) on
in soil affects the growth of soil micro-organisms a single day, which was recorded on 2 October
and root growth. Increases in temperature re- 2009, caused heavy damage to human life and
sult in increasing evapo-transpiration rates, less agricultural crops in the North Eastern parts of
water availability and high demands for water Karnataka and the Telangana regions of Andhra
for growth. Flowering and fruiting rates are ad- Pradesh. An annual maximum temperature of
versely affected and plants are unable to survive 35 ı C was recorded during 2002 and 2007 and an
in high temperatures. If the temperature rises annual minimum of 18.9 ı C was recorded during
10 ı C, the yield of cereal crops decreases by 4–5 2010 (Shanwad et al. 2015) in studies of climate
million tonnes per year. Increasing temperatures change trends and their effects on agriculture
cause reductions in the abundance of soil micro- crops in the North Eastern dry zone of Karnataka,
organisms, which are beneficial for nutrient mo- which also indicated that in the past 75 years
bilization and fixation. They also adversely af- the lowest temperature (7.3 ı C) was recorded
fect nitrogen availability. Climate change also on 19 December 2010 and on 22 December
accelerates the emergence of insect pest pop- 2010. These variations in weather parameters
ulations, raising the chance of crop infestation will definitely affect crop growth and develop-
and resulting in immortality. There is a need for ment. The crop losses due to climate variability
some effective policy and application of better will vary from region to region depending on
scientific management for regulation of climate in regional climate, crops and cropping systems,
a sustainable way with betterment of biodiversity soils and management practices. Further, stud-
and crop production which helps in reduction of ies using advanced ‘temperature gradient tun-
poverty and maintenance of the national economy nels’ (Shanwad et al. 2015) with different dates
(Panigrahi and Das 2015). of sowing revealed that a temperature increase
Climate change will be an additional challenge of 1–2 ı C reduced the yield of cotton from
to produce enough food grain for the ever- 48 to 14 q ha1 , pigeon pea from 15 to 7 q
growing population. In this direction, annual, ha1 and quality protein maize from 18.5 to
monthly and season-wise weather data for 8.5 q ha1 . However, increases in yields of all
25 years (1986–2010) have been analysed using crops were noticed with a CO2 increase from
the Weather Cock Analysis tool developed by 390 to 550 ppm (Shanwad et al. 2015). But
CRIDA, Hyderabad, for establishing the effect the interaction of temperature and CO2 showed
of climate change trends and their effect on crop mixed results.
3 Climate Change: Its Impact on Bio-resource and Sustainable Agriculture 17

Climate change is associated with slight shifts were observed during the second year of investi-
in seasons and the occurrence of erratic and un- gation and in the pooled mean, where CSH 15 R
timely rains in most parts of the country. Berseem was found to be significantly superior, and it was
(Trifolium alexandrium L.) is an important winter on a par with Phule Revati and CSV 22R over the
forage crop in Northern India, occupying the rest of the genotypes in respect of grain yield. The
second largest area under fodder crop cultivation. Stover yield was significantly higher under CSV
The merit of this annual legume crop lies in its 22R, which was comparable with Phule Revati
multi-cut nature (five to seven cuts), a long period (Alse et al. 2015).
of fodder availability (from November to April) Heavy rain impact on vertisols during the
and high green fodder yield (80–120 t ha1 ). maturity period of certain spices, viz coriander,
The influence of weather on its seed yield (Vijay fenugreek and ajwain grown in Andhra Pradesh,
et al. 2015) indicated that there was induction were assessed by Kalidasu et al. (2015). Co-
in the number of flowers (21–25 %) followed by riander, fenugreek and ajwain are the important
reduced seed set (20–50 %) during 2013–2014 seed spices grown in Andhra Pradesh. The crop
compared to 2012–2013. This reduction trans- growth period of these spices mostly spans the
formed into a severe yield loss (47–78 %) dur- entire rabi period starting from October. The
ing 2013–2014. The analysis of weather param- harvesting window of short-duration seed spices
eters pinpointed the occurrence of winter rains (less than 100–120 days) falls between January
and increased RH during the pre-flowering and and March in South India and between February
flowering periods during 2013–2014. Thus, these and March in North India. The long-duration seed
findings showed that weather conditions, partic- spices (more than 150 days) come to harvesting
ularly rainfall during the flowering season, play during February to March, if they are rabi sown.
a pivotal role in seed yield in insect-pollinated The harvesting window occasionally meets with
crops like Berseem and necessitates more study unforeseen rain in many places and, depending on
on it in the era of climate change. the intensity of rainfall, these crops get affected.
Post-rainy season rabi sorghum genotypes in The effect of such undesirable rainfall is less
response to changing climate (Alse et al. 2015) documented and information is scanty. Heavy
indicated that sowing of rabi sorghum in the rainfall during vegetative stages led to tempo-
first week of October produced higher grain rary wilting to premature death of coriander and
yields (3552 kg ha1 in 2012–13, 2473 kg ha1 ajwain plants. Incessant rains during the maturity
in 2013–14, pooled mean 3013 kg ha1 ) and period not only affect grain quality through dis-
Stover yields (10,408 kg ha1 , 6718 kg ha1 , colouration but also lead to grain shattering and
8563 kg ha1 , respectively) than sowing in the vivipary in coriander and fenugreek. Varied re-
first or third week of September, the third week sponses were also observed in moisture retention
of October or the first week of November. The and vivipary in coriander genotypes. As climate
grain and Stover yields were higher due to ideal change is inevitable, data collection regarding
atmospheric conditions for crop growth in the damage due to unforeseen climatic conditions is
first week of October. Early sowing dates were vital for better management of seed spice crops in
found to invite pests (shoot fly and stem borer), future.
disease (rust) and birds. Late sowing suffered In coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.), sev-
from moisture stress during the flowering and eral issues like lack of a unified protocol, de-
grain-filling stages and led to lower grain and lineation of suitable test environments and dif-
Stover yields. ficulties in selection of a genotype over a wide
During the first year of experimentation, the range of environments are becoming difficult
sorghum genotype Phule Revati produced signif- in selection of cultivars. A study undertaken in
icantly higher grain (3131 kg ha1 ) and Stover 13 coriander genotypes to assess their perfor-
yields (9091 kg ha1 ) than CSH 15R, CSV 22R mance in multi-environments (Giridhari et al.
and Phule Anuradha; however, contrasting results 2015) by GGE biplot analysis revealed that in
18 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

the mega-environment analysis (Genotype by En- highest significant negative correlation was
vironment Data analysis) the genotype DH-220 between maximum temperature and afternoon
was the highest yielder in the test locations of relative humidity (0.55). Regression estimates
Jabalpur, Jobner, Hisar, Raigarh and Pantnagar, indicate that a unit increase in rainfall results
and RKD-18 in the test environments of Kota, in a 0.01-unit increase in yield, whereas a unit
Jagudan, Ajmer, Navsari and Lam. The AEC increase in evaporation decreases the yield by
view (Average Environment View) of the indi- 0.41 units.
vidual GGE biplot of the two mega-environments In sweet corn hybrid Sugar 75, weather pa-
helped to rank genotypes within those environ- rameters during kharif, rabi and summer had
ments, respectively. LCC-236 and DH-220 were a significant influence on its growth (Lakshmi
found to be promising in the respective mega- et al. 2015a) and yield. Results in individual
environments. The evaluation of test environ- seasons and pooled over the seasons, i.e. kharif,
ments revealed mega-environments as ideal test rabi and summer, showed positive and significant
environments among the environments that were phenotypic and genotypic correlations among all
evaluated. the traits during the kharif season of 2009, except
Micro-analysis of all the environments for plant height. Plant height showed a significant
revealed two diverse mega-environments, i.e. correlation with dry matter content but showed
niche 1: Lam, Ajmer, Navsari, Jagudan and a non-significant correlation with the remaining
Kota; niche 2: Pantnagar, Raigarh, Dholi, traits in 2009. Environmental correlations were
Hisar, Jobner and Jabalpur. Among the 11 non-significant for the majority of the traits in
test environments, Dholi, Pantnagar, Kota and all the seasons and pooled over the seasons.
Jagudan were the most discriminative of the Pooled data on correlation of weather param-
tested genotypes. A simplistic environment eters with yield and yield-contributing charac-
model from a study by Giridhari et al. (2015) ters showed that in kharif (the rainy season)
indicated that for reasonable discrimination of a maximum temperatures had positive significant
large number of genotypes, only three ideal test correlations with all of the traits except plant
environments (Pantnagar, Dholi and Jagudan) can height, 100 seed weight and seed weight per
be deployed, thus saving resources and energy. cob. Rainfall, rainy days, RH 1 and RH 11 had
For further discrimination among elite ones, full negative significant correlations with all the traits.
set environments may be utilized. Similarly, In rabi, relative humidity had positive and sig-
robust and effortless screening of a few elite nificant correlations with dry matter, cob length,
genotypes can be made in the aforementioned cob girth and kernels per row, cob weight with
three environments. However, these propositions husk, green cob and fodder yields. Further, in
need further validation with existing and new the summer season, minimum temperature had
multi-environment data (MET) to draw more positive and significant correlations with plant
accurate and robust conclusions. height, dry matter, cob length, cob girth, kernel
The Karl Pearson’s correlation and multiple rows, kernels per row, fodder yield and LAI.
linear regression correlation analysis carried out Weather parameters like maximum temperature
in a study on the impact of change in weather in kharif, relative humidity in rabi and minimum
on productivity of paddy (Rao et al. 2015) temperature in the summer seasons had profound
revealed that productivity of paddy is positively effects on yields of sweet corn.
correlated with rainfall (0.44), followed by Cotton production in Andhra Pradesh is
maximum temperature (0.07), but negatively mostly rain fed and predictions show that the
correlated with minimum temperature (0.42), precipitation in the region due to climate change
followed by evaporation (0.36), etc. Among may benefit cotton farmers if the monsoon comes
the weather parameters, the significantly highest at a proper time. Six cotton entries (DHH 543,
positive correlation was found between minimum G Cot H 8 BGII, G Cot H12 BGII, Ankur 3028
temperature and evaporation (0.75) while the BGII and LH 144/12) in black cotton soils under
3 Climate Change: Its Impact on Bio-resource and Sustainable Agriculture 19

rain-fed conditions were studied for the impact kharif seasons. For those years when the average
of weather on plant growth, disease incidence yield was higher (Group A), the mean maximum,
and seed cotton yield (Kumari et al. 2015). Of minimum and mean temperatures and sunshine
the entries tested, the entries NCS 145 BGII, hours for August to September were higher, and
Ankur 3028, BGII and LHH 144/12 recorded rainfall, as well as the numbers of rainy days, for
significantly superior seed cotton yield under August and September were lower in comparison
both normal and delayed sowing conditions, to the years where the yield was lower than the
whereas under delayed sowing conditions, mean yield (Group B).
the entries NCS 145 BGII and Ankur BGII It was observed that rainfall during June–
gave significantly higher seed cotton yields. A July enhanced and high rainfall during August–
significant variation was also noticed in the boll September reduced the yield level of finger millet
number due to dates of sowing. Under normal crop in the hills. This was found to be true for all
sowing, LH 144/12 produced higher numbers the three varieties but the long-duration variety
of bolls per plants, whereas under delayed PR 202 failed to produce a higher yield due
sowing conditions, the highest number of bolls to low temperatures in October, affecting grain
was recorded by NCS 145 BGII. The highest filling. It indicated clearly that early and medium-
seed cotton yield under late-sown conditions duration varieties of finger millet are suitable
with NCS 145 BGII and Ankur 3028 BGII was in hill ecosystems and are resilient to changing
associated with higher flower numbers, % fruit environmental conditions in the hills.
set and boll numbers of plants. Regarding disease
incidence, the entries Ankur 3028 BGII, NCS 145
BGII and LH 144/12 recorded lower incidence 3.4 The Impact of Increasing
rates of leaf spot diseases, especially NCS 145 Carbon Dioxide and Its
BGII with regard to Alternaria leaf spot and the Future
other two entries with regard to Cercospora leaf
spot, Myrothecium leaf spot and grey mildew. An increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels
The sub-mountainous Himalayan region of will improve the fertilization effect on crops
Uttarakhand is characterized by events like pro- with the C3 photosynthetic pathway and thus
longed droughts and flash floods in the hills. will promote their growth and productivity.
Most of the farms in this region are small and Atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide
marginal, therefore they suffer the most. Finger have been steadily rising, from approximately
millet, along with other millets, has been termed 315 ppm in 1959 to a current atmospheric
as climate resilient and one of the hardy crops that average of approximately 385 ppm. The
can withstand changing climatic conditions more knowledge of plant responses to future CO2
efficiently. There is a necessity to understand concentrations rests on the results of experiments
the relationship of climatic factors to different on free-air carbon dioxide enrichment (FACE).
crop stages over the years. Sood et al. (2015) FACE experiments by Aatla (2015) have been
studied the effect of changing climatic conditions developed to understand the effects of elevated
on grain yield of finger millet. The years were levels of CO2 . Natural or agricultural ecosystems
grouped into two categories, namely group A and were allowed to be fumigated with elevated
group B, for each variety. Group A had all the concentrations of CO2 in the field without use
years where grain yield was above the average of chambers.
and group B had all the years where grain yield Across a range of FACE experiments, with
was below the average of 11 years. The different a variety of plant species, growth of plants at
meteorological parameters of group A and group elevated CO2 concentrations of 475–600 ppm
B were averaged separately for valid interpreta- increased the leaf photosynthetic rates. Carbon
tions. There was a decreasing trend in minimum dioxide concentrations were also found to be
and maximum temperatures and rainfall in the important in regulating the openness of stomata,
20 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

allowing CO2 to diffuse into leaves for photo- scientists of CRRI, followed by agriculture and
synthesis, but also providing a pathway for water the allied sector, coastal zone, hydrology, water
to diffuse out of leaves. As CO2 concentrations resources, forest and wild life.
increase, plants can maintain high photosynthetic
rates with relatively low stomatal conductance. In
FACE experiments, growth under elevated CO2 3.6 Impact of Climate Change
decreased stomatal conductance of water, result- on Food Inflation in India
ing in a decrease of overall plant water use.
A secondary effect of elevated CO2 is in- Food inflation affects everyone, as food is a
creased dry matter production. Elevated CO2 also basic necessity for health. The poor people in a
leads to changes in the chemical composition society spend a large part of their income on food,
of plant tissues. Leaf nitrogen concentrations in thereby exhibiting the greater impact of food in-
plant tissues typically decreased in FACE under flation on them. Food production in India depends
elevated CO2 , with decreased nitrogen per unit mainly on the weather and the amount and pattern
of leaf mass. Further, there was a decrease in of rainfall received. With the changing climate,
protein concentrations in grains under elevated temperate and rainfall are changing. This will
CO2 . Crop concentrations of nutritionally impor- impact agriculture, leading to uncertainty in pro-
tant minerals including calcium, magnesium and duction; any changes in production will translate
phosphorus also decreased under elevated CO2 . into price changes affecting every consumer.
These studies indicated that single-cell photosyn- Bhat and Swamy (2015) discussed the impact
thesis with a substantial increase in the concentra- of climate change on food inflation in India and
tion of CO2 around the carboxylating system(s), possible measures for adaptation. It is important
by engineering C4 genes into C3 plants, could to analyse food inflation in India in the context
lead to producing a C4 -like environment in the of climate change. An attempt has been made
plants. to understand the issues related to food inflation
in India and the methodologies followed in In-
dia to measure inflation and differences between
3.5 Intricacies of Climate Change wholesale and consumer price indexes. The share
of food was higher in rural areas and also with
Climate change threatens to increase soil erosion, the rise in income, the share of food expenditure
reduce soil quality, lower agricultural produc- was reducing in both urban and rural areas. This
tivity, and negatively impact food security and exhibits the significance of food for lower-income
global sustainability, making it one of the most groups and also for the people living in rural
severe challenges that are to be faced in the areas. Inflation in different food commodities and
twenty-first century. components has been compared with non-food
Mondal and Thokchom (2015) conducted a inflation.
study to assess the perception of climate change Trends in food inflation in India have been
and its effect on the environment as perceived by compared with other developing nations and with
the scientists of the Central Rice Research Insti- developed nations. To control food inflation, sev-
tute, Cuttack. Data were collected from 40 scien- eral initiatives have been undertaken in India. The
tists by a questionnaire method in the months of Central Government has advised State Govern-
October–December 2011. For this purpose, five ments to delist fruits and vegetables from the
important sectors (viz the environment, agricul- Agriculture Produce Marketing Committee Act.
ture and allied, coastal zone, forest and wild life, This can help to reduce the confusion among
hydrology and water resources) were identified traders, creating competition among them. This
and presented to the scientists in ten pairs. It was will also lead to a unified national market allow-
found that due to climate change the environment ing free movement of fruits and vegetables across
will be severely damaged as perceived by the the country.
3 Climate Change: Its Impact on Bio-resource and Sustainable Agriculture 21

The Essential Commodities Act 1955 and the cisions that increase soil and water conservation,
Prevention of Black-Marketing and Maintenance food security for the world’s growing population
of Supplies of Essential Commodities Act 1980 will be harder to achieve.
help the Government to take action against
unlawful hoarding and black marketing. In
India, the period from September to January 3.8 Carbon Sequestration
coincides with the festival season and the lean
period in terms of arrivals of vegetables. Traders Various mitigation practices are being adopted
and middlemen take advantage of this situation to reduce the negative effect of climate change
by hoarding produce. Under the circumstances on plants and crops. Carbon dioxide sequestra-
of changing climate, suitable measures for tion is an effective strategy to reduce carbon
adaptation have been suggested for controlling load from the atmosphere. Carbon sequestration
food inflation in India. means removal of CO2 from the atmosphere by
plants, to be converted into organic matter by
microbes and stored in the soil. Coconut planta-
3.7 Mitigation Strategies for tions or farm ecosystems could be used (Swetha
Climate Change and Manthri 2015) in many ways to reduce CO2
emissions via carbon capture or sequestration in
Management of climate change mitigation and the crop-soil system: (1) substitution of fossil
adaptation is key for environmental conservation, fuel with biodiesel or biomass from coconut oil;
sustainability of cropping systems, soil and water (2) sequestration of C in coconut plantations, as
quality, and food security. Certain management a mono-crop or with intercrops; (3) enhancing
decisions regarding conservation practices, such C sequestration through coconut plantation man-
as no-till, conservation of agriculture and return- agement; and (4) conserving C sinks in coconut
ing crop residue to the field to increase nutrient farms. The coconut tree, a woody perennial with
cycling, can contribute to carbon sequestration a single main stem, meets the FAO criteria for
and help us mitigate and adapt to climate change. a “forest”. The Philippine Department of En-
Additionally, management of grasslands, vironment and Natural Resources has included
restoration of degraded or desertified lands, coconut as a reforestation crop. Coconut and
nitrogen management to reduce greenhouse gas other plantation crops contribute significantly to
emissions, precision conservation management the ecosystem by sequestering CO2 .
at a field and/or watershed level, and other Carbon sequestration in rice soils under long-
management alternatives can also help us term integrated nutrients on inceptisols has been
mitigate and/or adapt to climate change. studied to assess the long-term effects of chem-
Different aspects of carbon management, ni- ical fertilizers alone and in combination with
trogen management, manure management, man- organic sources on sustainability and soil fertility
agement in low-input systems (sustainable agri- under a rice–rice cropping system (Sridevi et al.
culture) and grazing land management were dis- 2015) with 12 treatments comprising chemical
cussed in Climate Change Mitigation, Adaptation fertilizers alone and in conjunction with FYM,
And Sustainability In Agriculture: Issues And paddy straw and Gliricidia at 50 % and 25 % sub-
Intricacies (Verma et al. 2015), and indicated that stitution levels of nitrogen during kharif and with
certain management decisions that reduce soil 75 % and 100 % RDF in rabi. Carbon sequestra-
erosion, increase carbon sequestration to improve tion was studied as changes in fractions of oxidiz-
soil function, soil quality and soil health, and able soil organic carbon (SOC) and profile carbon
contribute to the resilience of soils and cropping stocks at the end of the 24th crop cycle (2011–
systems will be needed to respond to climate 2012), by collecting depth-wise soil samples at
change and related challenges such as food secu- 15 cm intervals from 0 to 60 cm. There was
rity. They suggest that without management de- significant variation in the labile and non-labile
22 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

fractions of SOC in the top layer (0–15 cm) while (0–15 cm) were analysed. The easily available
at lower depths (15–60 cm) such a variation due SOC fraction was about 10 % of the SOC, the
to the nutrient supply system was not significant slowly available SOC fraction was about 50 % of
at the end of 24 years. The amount of total SOC the SOC and the durable SOC fraction was the
sequestered over 24 years at the 0–60 cm depth rest. Among all the interventions, the improved
was lowest with control and was highest with genotypes produced higher SOC than their local
50 % RDF C 50 % N substitution through FYM. genotypes with hybrid maize P-30R77 being
The total amount of carbon sequestered at the 0– the highest (1.5925 %) followed by groundnut
60 cm depth was increased by 18–26 % with ni- variety Debi (1.12 %) recorded at Jharsuguda. A
trogen substitution through glyricidia, 31 % with maize crop had the highest durable SOC fraction.
recommended doses of fertilizers, 35–38 % with Among legumes, ground nut followed by cowpea
nitrogen substitution through paddy straw and produced higher DC, and green gram was higher
44–48 % with nitrogen substitution through FYM than black gram in terms of the durable SOC
over control. But when the treatments were as- fraction.
sessed with reference to 100 % NPK for their Carbon sequestration studied through
carbon sequestration potential, paddy straw sub- coconut-based cropping systems (Swetha and
stitution contributed to an extent of 24–31 % Manthri 2015) revealed that coconut-based
additional total SOC and FYM substitution re- cropping systems can be a mitigation strategy for
sulted in 56–58 % higher total SOC sequestra- reducing carbon dioxide load in the atmosphere,
tion over chemical fertilization, while Gliricidia which is claimed to result in global warming,
green leaf manuring did not contribute to carbon unpredictable rainfall patterns, floods and
sequestration. Passive SOC, a stable form, was droughts. It has a serious impact on food security
highest with 50 % RDF C 50 % N substitution and agricultural productivity as climate affects
through FYM, followed by 75 % RDF C 25 % N the capacity of a country to feed its people and
substitution through FYM, contributing to 41.4 generate an adequate quantity and acceptable
and 35.8 % increases over control and 15.7 and quality of crops in a sustained way. In response to
11.0 % increases over 100 % NPK at the 0–60 cm the global warming crisis, the Kyoto Protocol has
depth. introduced ground-breaking concepts on carbon
An assessment of soil C was made by credits, carbon footprint and emissions trading.
assessing the soil carbon pools by various One carbon credit permits 1 tonne of carbon
crop genotypes adopted to mitigate climate dioxide or a corresponding amount of other
change (Sarangi et al. 2015) in two drought- greenhouse gases to be discharged in the air.
prone districts, Sonepur (Badma) and Jharsuguda Thus, a new commodity was created in the form
(Bhoimunda). Green gram variety Durga, black of emission reductions or removals. Since carbon
gram variety Prasad, cowpea variety Utkal dioxide is the principal greenhouse gas, people
Manic, groundnut variety Smruti and maize speak simply of trading in carbon. Carbon is now
hybrid MH-9468 at Sonepur, and green gram tracked and traded like any other commodity.
variety TARM-1, black gram variety PU-31, This is known as the “carbon market”. India and
cowpea variety YB-7, groundnut variety Devi and China are likely to emerge as the biggest sellers
maize hybrid P-30R77 at Jharsuguda were taken of carbon credits through carbon sequestration.
up as interventions. Technological interventions Though preliminary studies have been done on
through respective Krishi Vigyan Kendra’s were carbon sequestration of coconut in some coun-
practised in farmers’ fields. The soil organic tries, more detailed studies on C sequestration
carbon (SOC) and its pools easily available SOC with reference to different agro-climatic regions
fraction (EAC), slowly available SOC fraction of coconut are yet to be carried out. Efforts are
(SAC) and durable SOC fraction (DC) were to be made to include coconut and other plan-
determined after the second year from 420 post tation crops in carbon trading or clean develop-
harvest surface soil samples from a depth of ment mechanisms (CDMs) at the highest policy-
3 Climate Change: Its Impact on Bio-resource and Sustainable Agriculture 23

making level. Carbon sequestration below ground 3.10 Sustainable Agriculture

in the form of organic carbon and microbial
dynamics in coconut and coconut-based cropping With the development of human civilization on
or farming systems should be studied in detail. the planet Earth, agriculture has been an integral
part of human needs and has subsequently
developed as a basic human right. This led
3.9 Climate-Resilient to the enactment of a Food Security Bill in
Technologies India in the year 2013. Nowadays, boosted by
new studies indicating that agriculture can be a
The impact of climatic factors is more pro- cost-effective emissions reduction strategy and
nounced in the case of rain-fed ecosystems. Rain- identifying many synergies between adaptation
fed ecologies are characterized by their proneness and mitigation, climate-smart agriculture is
to various production constraints provoked by the becoming the new paradigm. FAO (2010 cited
prevailing environmental conditions. In rain-fed in Meena et al. 2015b) has defined agriculture as
areas, mainly the problems of land degradation, “Agriculture that sustainably increases produc-
soil erosion and moisture stress lead to low- tivity, resilience (adaptation): reduces or removes
input responses in agriculture and thus low GHG (mitigation) and enhances achievement
productivity. Singh et al. (2015) discussed the of national food security and development
potentials of climate-resilient technologies to goals”. It is composed of three main pillars:
revamp agriculture in fragile rain-fed ecosystems sustainably increasing agricultural productivity
in a study conducted, under the National Initiative and incomes; adapting and building resilience to
on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA), climate change; and reducing and/or removing
in Said-Sohal village in the Kathua district greenhouse gas emissions, wherever possible
of Jammu and Kashmir state. The potentials (Meena et al. 2015b). These are the needs of the
of various climate-resilient technologies to day and future climate-smart agriculture.
insulate agriculture against weather abrasions Organic farming helps to improve soil pro-
were assessed by performing activities towards ductivity and attain sustainable yield in various
natural resource management, crop production, crops. Chandrappa et al. (2015) discussed the
livestock, institutional arrangements, capacity development of organic farming practices for
building and other extension activities. All the system-based high-value crops by inclusion of
activities in integration had a positive effect in eight treatments: combination of recommended
providing climate proofing for agriculture and NPK C 50 % N as FYM, 10 kg ZnSO4 ha1
indicated that these activities could successfully based on soil tests of recommended NPK C
address the problem of land degradation and 50 % N as FYM, 10 kg ZnSO4 ha1 based

soil erosion, enhancing the access to life- on soil tests, organic sources of N1 3 on an
saving irrigation and green fodder availability equivalent basis either through FYM C vermi-
to a certain extent. Further, these integrated compost C non-edible oil cake intercropping or
activities led to enhanced productivity of crops addition of trap crops (location-specific in each
and livestock, and made the village self-reliant in season); weed and pest control as per recommen-
oilseed and pulses. Besides this, the institutional dations (no inclusion of chemicals, pesticides or
arrangements, capacity-building programmes and herbicides); rock phosphate to substitute the P
extension activities had positive commutative requirement of crops C phosphate-solubilizing
effects in ushering the capacity, as well as bacterial culture (PSB); biofertilizer containing N
the access, of the farmers to technological and P carriers; and 100 % NPK with secondary
provisions leading to better agriculture under and micronutrients C 10 kg ZnSO4 ha1. The
environmentally fragile conditions. maximum grain yield of maize (6022.6 kg ha1)
24 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

was obtained in kharif through application of at the flowering and pod-filling stages are the
50 % recommended NPK C 50 % N as FYM reasons for fallowing after rice.
C inorganic sources of micronutrients C 10 kg During the post-rainy season (winter season),
ZnSO4 ha1. Similarly, the highest pod yield due to lack of irrigation facilities, second win-
(2096.10 kg ha1) was registered in a groundnut ter crops depend on the effective utilization of
crop with application of 100 % NPK C secondary carry-over residual soil moisture. The inherited
and micronutrients based on soil tests. These soil physical and biological constraints of rice
studies concluded that both organic and inorganic fallow affect seed germination, seedling emer-
sources of nutrients provide better nutrient supply gence and crop establishment due to disruption
for obtaining sustainable yields. of soil structure, poor aeration and mechanical
impedance of the seed zone. Short-duration low-
water-requiring pulses combined with suitable
3.11 Intercropping crop management techniques for utilization of
residual soil moisture offer an excellent oppor-
Investigations carried out in two agroforestry tunity for utilization of carry-over residual soil
models, viz Aswagandha and Andrographis moisture in rice fallows (Sireesha et al. 2015).
intercropped agri-horticultural systems in 4- Rice crop residue mulch can be an effective
year-old Amla and Terminalia plantations with measure for reducing soil evaporation, increasing
nutrient management practices, indicated that water storage and minimizing weed infestation.
among the different cropping situations studied Thus, it facilitates more retention of soil mois-
(Loria et al. 2015), growth parameters like plant ture, helps in control of temperature fluctuations
height, dry matter production and leaf area per and improves physical, chemical and biological
plant were markedly higher under a sole cropping properties of soil, as it adds nutrients to the soil
situation when compared to an intercropping and ultimately enhances the growth and yield of
situation both in anola and Terminalia. The crops. Further, it boosts the yield by 50–60 %
profit per rupee investment also showed the same over no-mulching under rain-fed situations.
trend under the three cropping situations with
the adoption of integrated nutrient management
practices in both the agroforestry models. Land 3.13 Bio-resource Conservation
equivalent ratio (LER) or income equivalent
ratio (IER) values were also maximum under Bio-resource conservation is important under cli-
the intercropping situation in Terminalia as mate change conditions. Several beverage crops
compared to anola intercropping. such as coffee, cocoa and tea form important bio-
resources for conservation under climate change
(Vinutha and Swamy 2015). Coffee, cocoa and
3.12 Conservation Practices tea are major agricultural commodities in the
Under Rain-Fed Rice Fallows world. The waste produced from these industries
disposed to the environment and to near water
Chickpea productivity was enhanced through the bodies causes severe health hazards such as gid-
adoption of a strategy of conservation practices diness, skin irritation, stomach pain, nausea and
under rain-fed rice-fallow regions (Kumar et al. breathing problems.
2015). A considerable area of rice (11.7 m ha out Coffee pulp has caffeine and polyphenols,
of 42.56 m ha) remains fallow after a rice harvest. which are anti-physiological factors for animals.
The major parts lie in Eastern and Central India. Coffee pulp disposed to nature without any treat-
Soil- and water-related factors like low moisture ment causes putrefaction of organic matter in soil.
content in the soil after a rice harvest followed by Hence, it is essential to manage this preferably
a fast decline in the water table with advancement by organic means. Coffee pulp is rich in organic
of crop seasons and mid- and terminal droughts matter. It is an ideal substrate for microbial pro-
3 Climate Change: Its Impact on Bio-resource and Sustainable Agriculture 25

cesses. On the other hand, coffee, cocoa and tea to the field as fertilizer or sold at a very low
waste has many health benefits, such as soluble price and is used to produce caffeine, polyphe-
dietary fibre, and coffee pectin boosts the lev- nol pigments (edible colours), polymers, animal
els of high-density lipids and helps in locking feed, foaming agents, vinegar, and tea seed oil
bile lipids. Mucilage of coffee and cocoa con- as an alternative to groundnut and olive oils for
tain anthocyanin, paranthocyanin, bioflavonoids cooking, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. Refuse
and antioxidants. The by-products produced will tea is a by-product of the tea industry removed
provide additional income for the farmers and during tea processing. It comprises mainly fibre
improve the economic status of the farming com- and stalks removed from winnowers, dryers and
munity. Coffee pulp is a waste material from colour separators in the factory (Vinutha and
the coffee industry. It can replace up to 20 % of Swamy 2015).
commercial concentrates in dairy cattle feeding,
with no adverse effects and a 30 % cost saving.
The water drained from coffee cherry extract is 3.14 Precision Sprayers for
another potential source of biogas production. Sustainable Agriculture
Coffee pulp is turned over every few days in a
heap preserved for a few years as in conventional Precision canopy sprayers can effectively be used
compost making. However, it is a good source to protect the environment for sustainable agri-
of humus and organic soil carbon. One kilogram culture (Chowda and Swamy 2015). It has been
of coffee bean product produces 1 kg of coffee emphasized that pesticide spraying generally pro-
husk in the wet process, while the dry process vides effective crop protection, but this is very
produces 0.18 kg of coffee husks (Vinutha and much dependent on the correct type of equipment
Swamy 2015). and its usage, though some wastage of pesticide
Pelletized dried cocoa pod husks can be used to the surroundings either by missing or over-
as animal feed. Cocoa pod husk ash is used dosing is inevitable. The use of chemicals has
mainly for soft soap manufacture. Pelletized contributed to weed control and prevention of
dried cocoa pod husks can be used as animal biotic stresses such as diseases and insect infes-
feed. Cocoa pod gum is extracted from cocoa tation. An estimate of crop and crop produce loss
pod husks by alcohol precipitation. Cocoa pod shows that annually about one third of total food
gum can be used as a binder in the food and production is being destroyed by pests. Spraying
pharmaceutical industries for binding pet foods, machines applying pesticides have also given rise
emulsifiers, pharmaceutical pills, etc. Cocoa pod to concern as they frequently create drift, which
husks could also be used as fertilizer for food reduces efficiency, affects off-target crops and
crop production. Cocoa bean shells can be used creates environmental pollution and operator con-
as organic mulch and soil conditioner. Products tamination. A sprayer is a machine to apply the
from cocoa pulp are soft drinks; fresh cocoa fluids in the form of droplets. Precision spraying
pulp juice is collected, sterilized and bottled. For of the canopy allows applying pesticides only to
the production of alcohol or alcoholic drinks, the target areas, in correct quantities according
the fresh juice is boiled, cooled and fermented to the canopy size, growth stage and season.
with yeast. Pectin for jam, jelly and marmalade It helps to apply products in an economic and
is extracted from the sweatings by precipitation environmentally sound manner. Weed control,
with alcohol (Vinutha and Swamy 2015). disease infection, environmental pollution and in-
The waste from tea factories amounts to about sect damage are significant issues in agricultural
2 % of total production. Tea factory waste (TFW) crop production. Weeds compete with crop plants
has been successfully used for the removal of for moisture, nutrients and sunlight. Some insects
various toxic metals (Zn, Cr, Ni, Cu, Cd and that attack crops, including aphids, spider mites
Pb). TFW characterization shows a high surface and whiteflies, feed on the underside of leaves
area for adsorption. Currently it is either returned or beneath the plant canopy. Disease infection
26 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

and insect damage have detrimental effects on N g soil 24 h) was recorded in moisture at field
crop yield and quality. Nearly 60 % of the total capacity with vermicompost on the 30th day of
losses in grape production worldwide are due to incubation.
virus diseases. The use of canopy sprayers and
chemicals has contributed to weed control and
prevention of biotic stresses, such as diseases 3.17 Ion Balance with Reference
and insect infestation, and to protecting the to Organic Acids
environment.
Salinity stress has negative impacts on agricul-
tural yield throughout the world, affecting pro-
3.15 Climate-Smart Agriculture duction whether it is for subsistence or eco-
nomic gain. Soil salinization and alkalization is
Climate change has direct impacts on agricul- rapidly increasing on a global scale. Beetroot
ture. Under these circumstances it is essential variety PAC60008 (Nilima et al. 2015) subjected
to adopt climate-smart agriculture. In the face to salinity stress of 0.2, 4, 6, 8 EC after the
of the depletion of fossil fuel resources on a growth of the two-leaf stage to the first physio-
worldwide basis there is an urgent search for logical growth stage indicated that under salinity
alternative energy sources to meet the present day conditions, oxalic acid and succinic acid were
demands. Solar energy is a clean, inexhaustible dominant compounds. Further, as the salt stress
and environmentally friendly potential resource increased, the concentration of oxalic acid also
among the renewable energy options. Sinha et al. increased in the shoots. Though succinic acid
(2015) undertook a study of solar energy for was initially higher, it showed a gradual decrease
parameterization of a 100 kWp solar power plant in its concentration. At higher salinity of 8 ds
for electricity generation. Energy generation by per m, succinic acid levels were not detected,
a proposed grid-connected SPV power plant was but higher levels of increased malionaldehyde
calculated. They estimated the potential of grid- contents were detected. Lipid peroxidation at
quality solar photovoltaic power on a college high salinity levels led to the accumulation of
campus. They also developed a system based on malionaldehyde. Increased highest total antioxi-
the potential estimations made for a chosen area dant activity was seen at salinity levels of 2 EC
of 29  65 m2 . only. There was also synthesis of proteins of
small molecular weight with the increase in the
intensity of salinity stress. This indicates that in
3.16 Effects of Soil Moisture higher salinity stress where there is more accu-
Regimes and Organic mulation of positive ions in the plant body, the
Manures on Dehydrogenase positive ions are balanced by the negative ions
Activity of organic acids. These results showed that there
are different adaptive strategies for Beta vulgaris
In inceptisols soils, the soil moisture regimes and seedlings in organic acid metabolism under salt
organic manures had a substantial influence on and alkali stress.
soil enzymatic activities. The soil dehydrogenase
enzyme activity was found to increase with in-
creasing moisture levels up to field capacity (Ha- 3.18 Climate Change Affects
gavane et al. 2015). Moisture levels above or be- Livestock Production
low the field capacity led to a reduction in the ac-
tivity of soil dehydrogenase. Among the sources Climate change affects the productivity of ani-
of organic manures, vermicompost increased the mals and their behaviour. Methane has a negative
activity of dehydrogenase enzymes in soil. The impact on shrimp culture. Methane, a green-
highest dehydrogenase activity (0.134 mg NH4 – house gas emitted from aquatic sediments, is
3 Climate Change: Its Impact on Bio-resource and Sustainable Agriculture 27

mediated by methanogens, a diverse group of lion poor small-holder farmers in the developing
micro-organisms dominantly present in anaerobic world. Livestock provides a more reliable source
sediments. High numbers of methanogens are of income to the farmers throughout the year.
detrimental as methane gas is a potential con- In the changing climate scenario, livestock are
tributor to global warming. Shrimp cultured pond exposed to different types of stresses such as heat,
sediments are also anaerobic and the presence of nutritional and walking stresses. The cumulative
methanogens result in the production of methane. effect of these multiple environmental stresses
The present study has given us a clear insight impacting livestock production and reproduction
into the diversity of methanogens in shrimp pond may be more detrimental than the stresses that
sediment. Further, studying the activity of indi- would occur in isolation. Studies should focus on
vidual bacteria will provide valuable informa- the impact on growth, production, reproduction
tion for taking mitigation measures to decrease and immunity against diseases (Nair et al. 2015).
the emission of greenhouse gases (Thulasi et al.
2015).
Global warming is increasingly associated 3.19 Climate Change Impacts
with an increase in sea levels. Sea surface across the Livestock Sector
the Indian Ocean may have a significant influence
on the summer monsoon over India. For example, Considerable mortality is likely to occur during
the onset of the monsoon was on 6 June in the occurrence of cyclones, floods and droughts.
2014 and the monsoon rainfall was unusually Lack of fodder and drinking water are the
in deficit (more than 30–50 % in some districts constraints in feeding animals during prolonged
across the Peninsular India) till the first week of drought periods and thereby mortality is noticed.
July and picked up later, finally ending with a Cold and heat waves are not uncommon in
deficit of 12 % across the country while several India and they adversely affect poultry and dairy
regions in the south experienced unusual deficits production to a considerable extent. The classic
in monsoon rainfall. In contrast, heavy floods examples were the cold waves in 2002–2003
were noticed in Orissa, Jammu and Kashmir, and and 2005–2006 and the heat wave in 2003–
several other meteorological subdivisions across 2004. Poultry farming was adversely affected
the country in 2014. The unprecedented cyclone due to the heat wave in May 2003 across
‘Hudhud’ in the second week of October 2014 the State of Andhra Pradesh (Rao and Sejian
devastated the three northern districts of Andhra 2015). Therefore, suitable housing and other
Pradesh. Such monsoon aberrations and intensity management techniques are essential to minimize
of cyclones are expected to frequently be due the adverse impact of heat and cold waves in
to global warming and climate change. Another poultry and dairy farming. The year 2010 was
important aspect of the monsoon in India is that the warmest year in India, followed by 2009, and
whether the monsoon is normal, excessive or the very first decade of this century was recorded
in deficit, as was noticed in 2012, 2013 and as the warmest, since 8 out of the 10 years were
2014, one region or another experiences floods identified as warm years. The increase in the
or droughts and the agriculture sector, including mean annual surface air temperature across India
animal agriculture, is adversely affected (Rao and was 0.54 ı C during the last 110 years, while the
Sejian 2015). rate of increase was high in post-monsoon and
Climate change and global warming are a winter seasons.
burning global issue affecting various sectors of The rate of increase in temperature was high
livelihood, mainly agriculture including livestock across the West Coast, North East and the West-
production and reproduction. The livestock sector ern Himalayas of India when compared to that of
is increasingly organized in long market chains, other zones within the country. Reports on global
which employ at least 1.3 billion people globally warming projections indicate that increases in
and directly support the livelihoods of 600 mil- temperature will be restricted to around 2–3 ı C
28 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

by the year 2080 (Rao and Sejian 2015) through In 2011–2012, during the month of January,
concerted efforts globally. A decline in rainfall the whitefly population washed out because of
was also noticed during the monsoon season rainfall (141.9 mm) and there was no disease
in many parts of the country over the last 50– spread for 1 month. The coefficient of multiple
60 years. Availability of water will be a constraint determination (R2 ) values were also significant
in the coming decades under the projected cli- (2011: 0.782; 2012: 0.862; 2013: 0.635) and
mate change scenario. To meet the requirement implied that 0.7597 (the mean R2 value for the
of egg, milk, meat, fish and food grain production 3 years) of the variation in the development of
by 2020 in tune with the growing population in the chilli leaf curl virus was explained by five
warming India, there is an urgent need for climate independent variables (minimum and maximum
change adaptation and mitigation strategies in temperatures, morning and afternoon relative hu-
animal agriculture for sustenance of rural liveli- midity levels, and rainfall) and one dependent
hoods. variable (whitefly population) (Lakshmi et al.
2015b). Therefore, it indicated that the incidence
of chilli leaf curl virus and the whitefly popula-
3.20 Impact of Climate Change tion were highly influenced by climate change.
on Pests and Diseases Variability in climate influences the incidence
of insects affecting crop production. The mango
Chilli is an important vegetable, as well as a spice defoliator Cricula trifenestrata Helfer completes
crop, in India and occupies an area of 7.92 lakh four generations in a year. It is therefore cru-
ha with a production of 13.76 lakh tones (Indian cial to identify the critical stage of development
Horticulture Database 2013 cited in Lakshmi for management intervention. The bio-ecology
et al. 2015b). Though chilli crops are attacked by of mango defoliator in the Terai region of West
a large number of pathogens, heavy crop losses Bengal (Bera et al. 2015) indicated that all the
are attributed to viruses. Among these viruses, developmental stages varied over seasons. The
chilli leaf curl virus, causing leaf curl disease, gradient of temperature and RH also played a
is a prime limiting factor in chilli production in significant role in the different life stages. The
Andhra Pradesh, causing crop losses of up to larval duration was found to be longest dur-
100 %. Chilli leaf curl virus belongs to a single- ing January–April (45.30 days) and shortest in
stranded DNA group in the family Geminiviridae March–May (36.40 days). A wide variation in
and genus Begamovirus, and is transmitted by the pupal period was also recorded in different
whitefly (Bemisia tabaci). seasons (24.40–89.40 days for males and 25.74–
Lakshmi et al. (2015b) investigated the impact 93.20 days for females). The life cycle depended
of climate change on the incidence of chilli mainly on the pupal stage and was completed
leaf curl virus. According to them, in chilli in 77.00–146.00 days. Therefore, management of
variety CA960 (Sindhur) the correlation and this pest should be directed towards killing of
regression of 3-year data results revealed that summer-diapausing and early winter-hibernating
there was a significant negative correlation pupae resting on damaged twigs.
with minimum temperature (2011: r  0.32; The variation in the seasonal incidence
2012: r  0.57; 2013: r  0.26) and afternoon of fruit flies (Bactrocera cucurbitae Coq.)
relative humidity (2011: r  0.51; 2012: r  0.55; on cucumber was studied from 2008 to
2013: r  0.50) in all the years. The maximum 2010 (Kukanur et al. 2015). Peak fruit fly
temperature, morning relative humidity and populations were noticed during the 48th
whitefly population showed a positive correlation standard week in 2008 and the 49th week in
with the disease incidence, and rainfall was 2009. However, a gradual increase was observed
negatively correlated. from September to December and thereafter
3 Climate Change: Its Impact on Bio-resource and Sustainable Agriculture 29

decreased during both the years. Though the 3.21 Genotype  Environment
fly population was positively correlated with the Interaction
maximum temperature, minimum temperature,
rainfall and evening relative humidity, it had Genotype  environment interaction is one of the
a negative relationship with morning relative most important steps to encourage utilization of
humidity. the most stable genotypes by growers. Numerical
Global climate change is the current burning classificatory or pattern analysis methods have
issue around the world. A study of the impact of been applied more widely in comparing the re-
climate change on the biology of two BPH (Nila- sponses of cultivars and/or breeding lines across
parvata lugens) populations from West Godavari, environments. Eswarareddy and Nandan (2015)
Andhra Pradesh and Punjab, studied under three made an analysis of the genotype  environment
different graded levels or treatments of CO2 (ele- interaction of winged bean yield (Psophocarpus
vated CO2 at 550 ppm with temperature control, tetragonolobus L.) DC in the North East Plain
elevated CO2 at 550 ppm without temperature zone. The present research provided additional
control and ambient CO2 and temperature) in information concerning the behaviour of a set
the susceptible variety TN1 (Sunil et al. 2015) of 15 selected winged bean lines over different
revealed that there was a significant difference years grown in the North East Plain zone. These
between the three treatments and populations winged bean lines were evaluated for the stability
of first-, second- and third-instar nymphs. The of seed yield, 100-seed weight, flowering time,
nymphal duration was prolonged in the Pun- plant height and biomass. Significant differences
jab population (15.9 ˙ 0.4*) at elevated CO2 at existed between years, lines and lines  year
550 ppm without temperature control, while it interactions for all traits except for 100-seed
was shortest in the West Godavari population weight.
at elevated CO2 at 550 ppm with temperature Two methods of multivariate analysis cluster
control (12.5 ˙ 0.2*). A higher percentage of and principal components were utilized firstly to
females emerged at elevated CO2 at 550 ppm determine whether a pattern existed among lines
without temperature control (76.2 ˙ 0.1) in the in their response across years, and secondly to
West Godavari population than in the Punjab pop- examine the relationships among them. In both
ulation (38.1 ˙ 0.1). Adult longevity was greater analyses, each line was presented as a vector
in the West Godavari population (12.2 ˙ 0.3) than whose elements were given by the performance
in Punjab (10.5 ˙ 0.5). The total life span ranged of lines in each year. The analyses that were used
from 21 to 25 days. A shorter life span was arranged the lines into groups that were differ-
observed in the West Godavari population (22.8) entiable in terms of performance and stability.
than in the Punjab population (24.3). Higher fe- These results (Eswarareddy and Nandan 2015)
cundity was observed in elevated CO2 at 550 ppm provided useful information to aid the choice of
with temperature control (277 eggs per female). winged bean lines in the North East Plain zone. In
Honeydew excretion did not differ significantly fact, the effect of the year was much more impor-
in adults (range 184–264 mm2 ) but was signifi- tant than the other effects at least for the flowering
cant in third-instar nymphs with higher excretion time, seed yield and biomass. Clear differences
observed in the Punjab population (39.5 mm2 ). A for these traits between the winged bean lines
higher survival rate was observed in elevated CO2 across growing seasons were evident. Conversely,
at 550 ppm without temperature control on the the effect of the line on the 100-seed weight was
sixth and ninth days (69.0 and 47.0). Emergence clearly most important, while the year and year 
of macropterous adult males was higher in the line interaction effects were of little importance.
West Godavari population (36.4*) than in Punjab This suggested that seed size is a stable trait in
(27.5). the tested grass pea lines, which have shown good
30 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

potential to respond better in most favourable Bera C, Chaudhuri N, Ghosh J et al (2015) Bio-ecology
growing conditions. Utilizing principle compo- of mango defoliator Criculatrifenestrata Helfer (Lep-
idoptera: Saturnidae) in terai region of West Ben-
nent and cluster analyses to examine genotype gal, India. In: Compendium of abstracts of the 2nd
performance, the advanced winged bean lines international conference on bio-resource and stress
that had a significant stability over different years management. ANGRAU & PJTSAU, Hyderabad, 7–
were identified (Mysore Local, TMV Local and 10 Jan 2015
Bhat S, Swamy BKN (2015) Impact of climate change
IC95227). These lines were relatively indifferent on food inflation in India: issues and measures for
to environmental variation and always had good adaptation. In: Compendium of abstracts of the 2nd
performance. international conference on bio-resource and stress
management. ANGRAU & PJTSAU, Hyderabad, 7–
10 Jan 2015
Chandrappa H, Chandravamsi P, Kumara O et al (2015)
3.22 Improvement in Fruit Quality Development of organic farming practices for system
based high value crops. In: Compendium of abstracts
by Bagging of the 2nd international conference on bio-resource
and stress management. ANGRAU & PJTSAU, Hy-
In central Uttar Pradesh, India, various polyethy- derabad, 7–10 Jan 2015
Choudhury SR, Das A, Sharma RP et al (2015) Modera-
lene covers of different colours (silver, white,
tion of greenhouse gas emission to combat the effect
yellow, green, black and pink) were used to study of climate change in rice-wheat cropping system. In:
the bagging effect on fruit quality of guava cv. Compendium of abstracts of the 2nd international
Lalit (Meena et al. 2015a). The fruit bagging conference on bio-resource and stress management.
ANGRAU & PJTSAU, Hyderabad, 7–10 Jan 2015
improved the growth and quality of guava fruits.
Chowda RM, Swamy BKN (2015) Precision canopy
The fruit size, weight and pulp content increased sprayer to protect environment for sustainable agricul-
due to fruit covering, and bagging with yellow ture. In: Compendium of abstracts of the 2nd inter-
polythene gave the best result. Fruit bagging also national conference on bio-resource and stress man-
agement. ANGRAU & PJTSAU, Hyderabad, 7–10 Jan
improved the fruit quality in terms of TSS, total
2015
sugars and the TSS-to-acid ratio and maximum Crutzen PJ, Wacławek S (2015) Atmospheric chemistry
values (14.25 ı B, 11.14 % and 30.07, respec- and climate in the anthropocene/chemia atmosfer-
tively) were found under yellow polythene bag- yczna i klimat w antropocenie. Chem Didactics Ecol
Metrol. doi:10.1515/cdem-2014-0001
ging. Vitamin C content (171.14 mg 100 g1 ) was
Eswarareddy G, Nandan R (2015) Analysis of the geno-
found to be maximum in white polythene bag- type  environment interaction of winged bean yield
ging. Thus, among the various fruit-covering ma- (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L.) DC) in North East
terials, bagging with yellow coloured polythene Plain Zone. In: Compendium of abstracts of the 2nd
international conference on bio-resource and stress
was found to be the best for overall improvement management. ANGRAU & PJTSAU, Hyderabad, 7–
of the physicochemical quality of winter season 10 Jan 2015
guava cv. Lalit under central Uttar Pradesh (i.e. Giridhari K, Surya Kumari S, Nirmal Babu K et al (2015)
Lucknow) conditions. Biplotevaluation of test environments and cultivar se-
lection of coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) in India.
In: Compendium of abstracts of the 2nd international
conference on bio-resource and stress management.
ANGRAU & PJTSAU, Hyderabad, 7–10 Jan 2015
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 Natural Resource Management
4
Ratikanta Maiti and Aruna Kumari

Abstract
Natural resources play an important role in the livelihood of human beings
and animal kingdom. The chapter makes a brief review of researches
underway on various aspects of natural resource management. This in-
cludes heritage of Deccan region, use of medicinal and aromatic plants,
geranium as source of oil, contract farming for sustainable agriculture,
water resource management and water quality, and research measures
for maintaining water quality, conservation of fossil fuels, soil resource
management, integrated nutrient management, and organic agriculture and
soil amendments. Besides various other technologies in the management
of natural resources such as bioresource management in a society, resource
use efficiency in fish production is discussed. Research on the use of
sorghum and other crops as biofuels for sustainable agriculture and
conservation of natural resources is mentioned.

our daily needs. We need to conserve and exploit

4.1 Biodiversity them judiciously in order to conserve these trea-
sures for the future generations. Natural resources
Natural resources are the gifts of God. Nature or their products are managed in different man-
nourishes us with sources of food, shelter, fiber, ners. A few aspects pertaining to the management
energy, coal, timber, and domestic necessities of and utilization of the existing natural resources
are mentioned herewith.
Nature provides us a repository of resources
R.K. Maiti () for various activities. These are in the form of
Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Autónoma
de Nuevo León, Carr. No 85, km 145, NL 67700 Linares,
crop plants, medicinal plants, trees, forests, water,
Mexico air, minerals, etc. There is an urgent need to
e-mail: [email protected] utilize each of these resources sustainably and
A. Kumari preserve them for the benefit of humankind.
Department of Crop Physiology, Agricultural College,
Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural
University, Polasa, Jagtial, Karimnagar 505 529,
Telangana, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 33

R.K. Maiti et al. (eds.), Bioresource and Stress Management, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0995-2_4
34 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

4.2 Repository and Heritage Telangana State, India, has shown that a total of
of Deccan Region 18 species of plants were identified as potential
roosting sites for all the five species of bats.
The University campus of Professor Jayashankar Most of the roosts were predominantly located
Telangana State Agricultural University is spread within the towns in the vicinity of old buildings
over 7890 ha. It consisted of varied habitat near water areas and other plantations. Among
types of open scrub, rocky out crops, mixed the species, Indian flying fox highly preferred
forests, wetlands, and agricultural landscapes. large canopy trees and the other species showed
This area has rich diversity of native flora variations in selection of trees. Different sites
and fauna. The floral diversity included 424 were marked and developed spatial distribution
species belonging to 252 genera and 64 families. maps in relation to habitat features and the
The faunal diversity recorded in this region feeding patterns. The preference for fruits by
includes a total of 412 species belonging to 43 pteropodids varied according to the development
orders and 151 families. Out of 412 species, 19 stages of fruits namely, immature, unripe and
species of mammals, 172 species of birds, 57 ripe. There was a relationship between the
species of herpetic fauna, and 164 species of foraging activities of bats and the moon phase.
invertebrates inhabit in different habitats of the Bats exhibited a varied foraging pattern and flight
area. Among the total birds, three species are height.
near threatened category namely: Black headed Lake Kolleru is the largest fresh water wetland
ibis (Threskiornis melanocephalus), Painted ecosystem in South India. This lake is the home
stork (Mycteria leucocephala), and Oriental for 189 species of birds, including the rare and
darter (Anhinga melanogaster) are found to be endangered Grey Pelican. Lake Kolleru has been
habituating in this geographical area. Out of designated as a RAMSAR site.
the 57 species, two species were considered as
near threatened category namely: Red sand boa
(Erix johinii) and Indian black turtle (Melanoche 4.4 Medicinal and Aromatic
lystrijuga); and three RARE species which Plants
includes Indian chameleon, Green keel back
(Macropisthodonplum bicolour), and Indian flap Nature provides us different groups of plants.
shell turtle (Lissemys punctata) are also finding Medicinal plants are valuable resources of a wide
their habitat in this location. Several conservation array of chemicals. These chemicals are used in
measures were undertaken to maintain this the preparation of medicines to cure several dis-
unique habitat features for sustainability of eases. The importance of medicinal plants dates
the biodiversity. Swamy et al. (2015) discussed back to our civilization. Many of the tropical
about the highlights of success in preserving the and temperate forests have a repository of these
repository and heritage of Deccan region. medicinal plants where in some of these are
still unexploited. Deforestation being caused by
anthropic factors is leading to a loss of these
4.3 Prevalence of Fruit Bats valuable repositories. There is an urgent need to
conserve medicinal plants that are already on the
The status and distribution studies (Venkates- verge of extinction.
warulu et al. 2015) of five species of pteropodid The nutrient management influence growth
bats, namely Fulvous fruit bat (Rousettus and development of these plants. The nutrient
leschenaultii), Indian flying fox (Pteropus management studies on macro and micronutrients
giganteus), Greater short-nosed fruit bat availability of inceptisols under Java citronella
(Cynopterus sphinx), Lesser short-nosed fruit (Cymbopogon winterianus) at Nagarjun Medic-
bat (Cynopterus brachyotis), and the Dawn bat inal Plants Garden, Dr. P.D.K.V, Akola during
(Eonycteris spelaea) in Ranga Reddy district of kharif 2009–2010 and 2010–2011 (Nandapure
4 Natural Resource Management 35

et al. 2015) revealed that in Cymbopogon winteri- highest herbage yield (37.66 t ha1 ). Among
anus the maximum availability of macronutrients the different manures studied, the application of
(N, P, K, S) was obtained through the application 50 % RDF and Neemcake 1.0 t ha1 produced
of 10 t FYM C 140:40:80 kg NPK per ha and the highest herbage yield (40.615 t ha1 ).
highest micronutrients availability of Fe, Mn, Zn,
and Cu with the application of 100 kg N through
FYM. Further it could be concluded that the 4.6 Viable Options for
application of FYM at 10 t per ha in combination Conservation of Biodiversity
with chemical fertilizer at 140:40:80 kg NPK
per ha was found to be more beneficial way of Organic manurial addition to the soil has several
nutrient management to improve the availability advantages apart from maintaining the soil fer-
of macro and micro nutrients status of soil under tility levels. One such organic manure is donkey
Java citronella. manure. Proper spreading of this manure and its
incorporation in the soil resulted in only 5 %
loss. In an animal operated spreader (Reddy et al.
4.5 Geranium as Important 2015a) that consisted of three volumes of ma-
Source of Oils nure box and three openings of sliding plate for
spreading the donkey manure, about 21 % of its
Rose-scented Geranium (Pelargonium grave- nitrogen was lost to the atmosphere in stack piled
olens) is source of one of the most important manure, whereas animal spreader accounted for
essential oils. Geranium oil is widely used in only 5 % loss of nitrogen to the atmosphere.
soaps, perfumery, and cosmetics industries. It The maximum field capacity of donkey ma-
is also used as therapeutic (aromatherapy) to nure spreader was 0.31 ha hour1 and lowest
combat menopausal problems, skin, stress, and 0.21 ha h1 . Further, the donkey manure applica-
anxiety. In India, it is grown in Deccan plateau tion to field was observed as a best viable option
located in Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, to conserve biodiversity.
and Tamilnadu. In recent years, the oil production
has gone down due to significant reduction
in cultivated area in the high altitude areas of 4.7 Contract Farming for
Tamilnadu. Large quantities of geranium oil are Sustainable Horticulture
being imported to India to meet the requirements.
The composition of essential oils is highly Under the present climate change, contract farm-
dependent on the genetic structure of the plant ing of medicinal and aromatic plants for sustain-
but may be strongly influenced by environmental able horticulture (Vinutha and Narayana Swamy
factors, such as water availability, soil structure 2015) are very important. The World Health Or-
and composition, temperature and ontogenetic ganization (WHO) has emphasized the need for
factors as harvest period, plant age, flowering, utilization of the indigenous system of medicine
and others. Geranium responds well to input of based on the locally available medicinal plants in
organic matter. Studies have shown the influence the developing countries. Medicinal and aromatic
of fertilization on yield and content in the compo- plants (MAPs) and their derivatives would play
sition of essential oils in medicinal and aromatic a major role in the medical therapy in spite of
species, and this effect was directly related to the advances in chemical technology and appearance
influence of mineral nutrition on the metabolism of cheap synthetic substitutes. The MAPs are
of the plant. Reddy and Susila (2015) studied the emerging as the industrial crops that require com-
effect of spacing and integrated nutrient manage- paratively less inputs but gives better returns to
ment on herbage yield of Geranium (Pelargonium the growers.
graveolens). The results revealed that planting Contract farming varies depending on
of Geranium at 45  45 cm spacing produced the nature and type of contracting agency,
36 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

technology, nature of crop or produce, and of water was estimated to bring the field from
the local and national context (Vinutha and its deficit moisture status to its field capacity. On
Narayana Swamy 2015). The MAPs have gained the basis of this, a simple guideline based on the
importance in horti-business and development of moisture depletion condition was developed for
entrepreneurship. The experience of horticulture the farmers so that they can analyze their field
development in India has demonstrated that the situation and irrigate ragi for better production.
existing system of delivery of horticulture inputs
and purchase and use of horticulture output
have not been efficient in reaching the benefit 4.10 Water Quality Assessments
of better linkage between horticulture and horti- and Restoration Measures
processing industry to the farmers or the horti-
industry. Given the nature of modern farming Lakes are unique gift of god, diverse, productive,
involving tremendous amount of technological and interactive ecosystems in the world. One of
input and market orientation which require the National Lake of India is the Rewalsar Lake
capital resources, it is inevitable to involve in the historic holy town of Rewalsar, district
private corporate business interests in horticulture Mandi (H.P), India. This lake comes under the
development through contract farming system. In category of sacred lakes and is unique in terms
fact, all over the world contracting of some kind of religious and ecological significance. Kashyap
is a necessity for many or most forms of modern et al. (2015) studied water quality assessment and
commercial horticulture. suggested restoration measures for it. The lake
water quality when analyzed for physicochemical
characteristics viz., pH, electrical conductivity,
4.8 Water Resource and Its transparency, and total dissolved solids (TDS):
Quality alkalinity, acidity, calcium, magnesium, sodium
chloride, potassium, phosphate, sulphate, biolog-
Annual rainfall is the main source of water that is ical oxygen demand (BOD), and chemical oxy-
stored in lakes, ponds, and rivers for human needs gen demand (COD) on a monthly basis over a
as well as for the growth of the plants and crops. period of 6 months in year 2011 revealed that it
The abundance of the plants is highly influenced is alkaline in nature. The TDS and transparency
by the amount of rainfall. The quality of water values were high. The sites that showed greater
is affected owing to the pollutants derived from pollution had higher levels of BOD and COD.
industrial and human activities. Every parameter showed a significant increase
with increased lake water pollution during the
period of the annual Baisakhi fair. This lake is
4.9 Water Management touching the critical stage of water pollution and
is dying slowly due to massive anthropogenic
Water management studies on finger millet (Eleu- pressure.
sine coracona) in Alfisol of mid-land situation There is an urgent need of restoration of
in Chhattisgarh plains (Bisen et al. 2015) has its ecosystems and suitable measures should
shown that soil mulch with 50 % soil moisture be taken at the earliest. Some of the remedial
depletion not only gives higher yield (16.71 q measures for its restoration suggested include.
ha1 ) but also leads to higher water use efficiency
(WUE) (3.81 kg ha1 mm) followed by soil • Canalization of rills-gullies
mulch with 60 % soil moisture depletion (15.97 • Construction of check dams
q ha1 ). The cumulative yield and growth pa- • De-weeding and dredging of slit
rameters data reviewed indicated that there was • Establishment of water treatment plant
significant reduction in the yield of finger millet • Proper outlet for water from lake
after 70 % depletion of soil moisture. The depth • Creation of public awareness
4 Natural Resource Management 37

Lake Kolleru is the largest fresh water wetland TDS (297.70 mg l1 ), Ca (66.08 mg l1 ),
ecosystem in South India. This lake is the home temperature (19.25 ı C), BOD (1.45 mg l1 ), and
for 189 species of birds, including the rare and COD (18.33 mg l1 ) in the surface water under
endangered Grey Pelican. Lake Kolleru has been urban land use, whereas Mg (12.90 mg l1 ),
designated as a RAMSAR site. The spatial and Cl (3.05 mg l1 ), and NO3  (4.19 mg l1 )
temporal evaluation of water quality of Keller were maximum under agriculture land use.
Lake and Upputeru Wet Land Ecosystem, Andhra Maximum pH (7.79), temperature (22.58 ı C),
Pradesh, India, in monthly collected water sam- BOD (1.71 mg l1 ), COD (17.41 mg l1 ), Ca
ples from selected 30 benchmark sites (Sreenivas (64.61 mg l1 ), Mg (13.87 mg l1 ), and Cl
et al. 2015) has shown that the charge balance (3.39 mg l1 ) were recorded during summer
error %age indicated by the balance between the season, whereas EC (264.75 S cm1 ), TDS
total cations (TZC ) and total anions (TZ ) is (297.58 mg l1 ), and NO3  (3.91 mg l1 ) were
between ˙ 1 and ˙10 %. The major cation that maximum during rainy season. The water quality
was detected was sodium ion (61.5 %) followed index (WQI) for selected land uses ranged from
by magnesium (19.9 %), calcium (16.7 %), and 19.89 to 25.12 whereas seasonwise water quality
potassium (1.9 %). Among the anions, chloride index (WQI) ranged from 18.77 to 27.62, which
was the major anion (47.4 %) slightly followed showed that the water quality falls between good
by bicarbonate (40.4 %), sulphates (11.8 %), and and excellent and small variations in water
carbonates (0.5 %). The spatial variability was quality indices were seasonal. These results
known through the preparation of monthly wa- clearly indicated that the surface water quality
ter quality maps by the use of Surfer software. of Kandaghat block of Solan district of Himachal
Further, the temporal variability was assessed by Pradesh was affected by changing land use
cations and their ratios. Salinity in the system patterns during different seasons.
was found to increase gradually from January to
May and reached its highest salinity level. The
salinity level gradually decreased in the month 4.11 Natural Resource
of December. Apart from salinity, Mg:Ca ratios
were also taken into consideration for the eval- 4.11.1 Conservation of Fossil Fuels
uation of the system. The fresh environment in
the lake and river is evidenced during August– The world is confronted with the twin crises of
November. September month recorded the lowest fossil fuel depletion and environmental degra-
salinity in the system. Increased salinity during dation. The indiscriminate extraction and con-
summer months was attributed to reduced inflows sumption of fossil fuels have caused a reduc-
and more evaporation and more backflow of salts tion in petroleum reserves. These finite reserves
from the sea. are highly concentrated in certain regions of the
Land uses and season have an impact on world. It causes a severe foreign exchange prob-
the physicochemical characteristics of surface lem for the countries importing petrol from the
water. This was evidenced in the water quality other countries. Hence, it is necessary to look for
studies conducted in water samples collected alternative fuels (Jadhav et al. 2015), which can
from 39 sampling sites under different land uses be produced from materials available within the
(agriculture, forest, and urban). The physic- country.
ochemical characteristics viz., pH, electrical
conductivity (EC), temperature, total dissolved
solids (TDS), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), 4.11.2 Castor Bean as a Source
nitrate (NO3  ), chloride (Cl ), chemical oxygen of Biodiesel
demand (COD), and biological oxygen demand
(BOD) assessed (Chauhan et al. 2015) revealed Castor bean (Ricinus cummunis) is a potential
the maximum pH (7.69), EC (266.39 S cm1 ), plant species for biodiesel production in fragile
38 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

and marginal environments. Although castor is attention during its growing periods. Due to its
probably indigenous to Eastern Africa but today low demand on soil fertility, it is ideal to replant
castor is distributed worldwide. Castor estab- marginal lands to prevent desertification and
lishes itself easily as a “native” plant and can erosion.
often be found on wasteland and near rail roads An unintended but important advantage to
and has recently also been used extensively as a castor bean project is that the plants absorb
decorative plant in parks, etc. Castor seed con- carbon dioxide, thereby reducing greenhouse gas
tains 40–60 % oil, which is rich in triglycerides, accumulations in the atmosphere. The estimated
mainly ricinolein, and provides a great natural carbon dioxide absorption level of castor bean
resource for biodiesel production. Global castor plants is 34.6 tonnes per hectare, with two grow-
seed production is around one million t year1 . ing cycles per year. Production of castor oil
Leading producing areas are India, China, Brazil, worldwide is 0.5 million tonnes per annum. Con-
and the former USSR. There are several active sumption of petro diesel per day is approximately
breeding programmes for castor. 10 million tonnes. If the entire petro diesel is
Castor bean in arid or semi arid regions using to be replaced by castor biodiesel it needs to
local varieties can provide a valuable resource for produce 7000 times the castor oil that is being
biodiesel production. This type of holistic agri- produced today. It has a lot of industrial usages
cultural approach provides the regional farmers and therefore market is already in existence. The
and local biodiesel industry with two strategic biodiesel prepared from castor oil has certain
benefits: (1) For the regional farmers, the planting properties that are attractive particularly for cold
and harvesting of local varieties of castor bean climate. It may be mentioned that it has flash
on marginal lands provides the farmers with not point of 190.7 ı C which is much higher than petro
only additional income but also provides stabi- diesel and other vegetable oil biodiesel. The oil is
lization of marginal lands that are susceptible to stable at low temperature and makes it an ideal
erosion through either water or wind. (2) The combustible oil for region of extreme seasonal
local biodiesel industry benefits in that they are weather.
guaranteed in continuous supply of raw material India has enjoyed a period of intense economic
for the production of biodiesel which in turn gives growth in last several years. Securing future en-
viable economics to the overall local biodiesel ergy supplies in a shrinking energy market is vital
industries. if this is to continue. After a decade in which oil
Castor bean does not compete with food crops, reserves have shown a pronounced drop, it has
as it can be grown on marginal lands. Castor bean become necessary to find new sources. However,
is not competing with food grade oils. Its toxicity the chances of finding oil wells of considerable
is sensed by animals and therefore not foraged size are becoming more and more limited. The
on. It is high yielding, yielding as much as 350– benefits of growth however have failed to filter
650 kg of oil per hectare when no maintenance down to the many millions of its population
is applied to the crop i.e fertilizers, to a high- still living in rural poverty. Despite the reforms
end yield where annual rainfalls happen at the which went some way to open up the econ-
right times, (1000 l ha1 ). It has a very high omy, India still considers it a welfare state with
oil content of approximately 50 %. The oil seed development planning taking a key role. In its
is collected by hand, by picking the ripe pods approach to biodiesel production, we can see
from the plant. It requires only moderate rainfall the state’s attempt to address both the issue of
(approx. 600 mm) and can withstand long periods energy security in relation to liquid fuels and its
of drought, but will thrive under higher rainfall. obligations to provide for the rural poor (Jadhav
It is an uncomplicated crop that requires little et al. 2015).
4 Natural Resource Management 39

4.11.3 Sorghum a Potential Source has high amount of sucrose and invert sugar
of Energy which are easily converted to ethanol; therefore,
it seems that sorghum is the most suitable crop for
Sorghum is an annual C4 crop in the grass family, biofuel production in arid regions of the world.
having high photosynthetic efficiency with con-
siderable variability in growth characteristics. It
contains both cultivated and wild races and pos- 4.11.4 Soil Resource Management
sesses a significant amount of genetic diversity
for traits of agronomic importance and has the Soil fertility levels and nutrient management in-
potential to be an excellent diversified biofuel fluence the growth and yield of crops. In cluster
crop which is able to fill the needs of multiple bean Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L., studies on the
bioenergy conversion process. The production of fertility levels and agrochemical on its growth
biofuel from plant-based biomass is becoming and yield (Yogi et al. 2015) have shown that
an important alternative to non-renewable energy the variety RGC-1066 was superior to RGC-
sources. 1038 in respect of plant height, dry matter ac-
India has witnessed substantial gains in the cumulation, pods plant1 , seeds pod1 , and test
renewable energy domain, the country still needs weight. Similarly, the seed yield (1300 kg ha1 ),
to make sustained and focused efforts to develop stover yield (3297 kg ha1 ), and biological yield
its renewable sector and realize its vast potential. (4597 kg ha1 ) were also higher with RGC-1066.
Northern India, with only 25 % of realized renew- The maximum values of nitrogen and phosphorus
able energy potential, offers substantial opportu- content in seed and stover and protein content
nities for the country to meet its energy needs in seed, total uptake of nitrogen, phosphorus and
through renewable energy. To achieve this, all potassium, net returns (INR 34,395 ha1 ), and
the stakeholders, including the Central and State B:C ratio (1.41) were also recorded with variety
Governments, the public and private sectors, and RGC-1066. Results further revealed that the ap-
research and scientific institutions, need to make plication of 100 % RDF significantly increased
a concerted effort to help India secure its energy the plant height at 60 DAS and at harvest, dry
needs without endangering the country’s environ- matter accumulation per meter row length at
ment and thereby actively contribute to balanced all the growth stages, chlorophyll content, pods
regional development (Mundiyara et al. 2015). plant1 , seeds pod1 and seed, stover and bio-
He reports that sorghum is a potential source of logical yield, protein content in seed and total
renewable energy in India. The fuel ethanol from uptake of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium,
sorghum is the best choice to be implemented in net returns (INR 39,937 ha1 ) and B:C ratio
India regarding both economic and environmen- (1.58) over preceding levels. Results have also
tal considerations. Because sweet sorghum has shown that among the agro-chemicals, applica-
higher tolerance to drought, water logging, salt, tion of thiourea at 500 ppm as foliar spray being
alkali, and aluminium soils, it may be harvested at par with TGA at 100 ppm, increased the plant
3–4 months after planting and planted 1–2 times a height and dry matter accumulation at 60 DAS
year (in tropical areas). Its energy output or fossil and at harvest, number of pods per plant, number
energy input is higher than sugarcane, sugar beet, of seeds per pod, test weight, seed, stover and
corn, wheat, etc., especially in tropical areas like biological yield, N and P content in seed and
India. Sorghum juice is assumed to be converted stover and protein content in seed and total potas-
to ethanol at 85 % theoretical, or 54.4 l ethanol sium uptake, net returns (INR 35,617 ha1 ), and
per 100 kg fresh stalk yield. Ethanol production B:C ratio (1.45) over control. However, in terms
directly from juice is about 3000 l ha1 . Sorghum of total uptake of nitrogen and phosphorus and
40 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

dry matter accumulation at 30 DAS, chlorophyll 4.11.6 Integrated Nutrient

content, the treatment 500 ppm thiourea proved Management
significantly superior.
Integrated use of inorganic fertilizer coupled
with organic manure, phospho compost, and
4.11.5 Baby Corn crop residue i.e. cotton stalk on yield, nutrient
uptake, and their residual effect on soil fertility in
Maize is a crop with increasing production inceptisol of Akola, Maharashtra, (Shinde et al.
every year, especially in the state of Andhra 2015) revealed that the application of 100 %
Pradesh. During rainy season about 15 varieties Recommended dose fertilizer (RDF) C 5 t of
of maize viz., Vivek-9, Vivek-11, Vivek-15, FYM ha1 resulted in highest NPK uptake as
Vivek-17, Baby corn-1, Ashwini, Bioseed-1, well as fertility status by use of 100 % organics
Maduri, Harsha, Him-129, BH-2187, Varun, in the form of FYM and resulted in higher yield.
HQPM-1, African Tall, and J-1006 developed Integrated use of organic along with optimum
for different use patterns, i.e., grain varieties, doses of chemical fertilizers not only produced
green cob cultivars, baby corn as well as fodder highest crop yield but also increased the uptake
varieties were tested for baby corn potential and and fertility status of experimental soil.
their subsequent utilization as fodder (Shanti Different sources of nitrogen, organic, and
et al. 2015). Highest yield of baby corn was inorganic sources their combinations were eval-
observed in Harsha i.e. 68.96 q ha1 . Most of the uated in chilli (Capsicum annuum L.) for bet-
varieties exclusively released for baby corn gave ter growth, flowering, and fruit yield of chilli
highest baby corn yields ranging from 66.04 (Pariari et al. 2015). The growth parameters like
q ha1 (Vivek-11) to 68.96 q ha1 (Harsha). plant height and number of branches per plant
Traditional maize varieties like Ashwini (50.43 q were recorded maximum with the combination of
ha1 ), Maduri (50.75 q ha1 ), Varun (49.18), and vermicompost and urea at 50 %. Flowering was
BH-2187 (49.04) recorded commendable yields delayed with increase in inorganic nitrogen level
next to baby corn varieties. (25, 50 and 75 %) in the growing media. The yield
The study showed that there was a gradual attributes including fruit yield was found highest
decrease in crude protein content of husk from also with nitrogen received from vermicompost
first pick to third pick i.e., from 14.88 % (first and urea at 50 % level. The qualitative aspects
pick), 10.06 % (second pick), and 8.75 % (third were increased with the application of neem cake
pick) as in case of Vivek-11 and so in other compared to other inorganic sources.
varieties Vivek-17 and Baby corn-1. On the con-
trary, the crude protein % of cob (dehusked)
increased gradually from first pick to third pick 4.11.7 Organic Fruit Production
in the three baby corn varieties tested with mean
values of 8.97 % (first pick) <11.38 % (second Modern agriculture as well as horticulture
pick) <12.40 % (third pick). This indicates that has been heavily depending on the fossil
the protein content of husk is being channelized fuel based inputs such as inorganic fertilizers,
to cob with advancing age of cob. This also infers pesticides, herbicides, and energy intensive farm
that with advancing age of crop (with each pick) machinery. The indiscriminate use of pesticides
the channelization of protein is increasing to the and chemicals has caused serious damage to
reproductive parts of plant (dehusked cob). This the ecosystem. Accumulation of nitrates has
also highlights that the husk of cobs can also be caused water pollution leading to carcinogenic
efficiently used as fodder owing to its high crude effect on human body. It is therefore necessary
protein content. to use ecofriendly methods for sustainable
4 Natural Resource Management 41

fruit production of guava. Dutta et al. (2015) studied (Dipali et al. 2015) studied has shown
studied the effect of biofertilizer on organic fruit that amongst the forms of organic manures, FYM
production of guava grown in new alluvial zones (12 t ha1 ) C Panchgavya (3 %) 4 foliar spray in
of West Bengal. Results revealed that different combination with system of rice intensification
treatment of biofertilizer increased the fruit (SRI) was found to be the best for obtaining
weight and other biochemical composition of higher growth and growth attributing parameters
fruit. Among different treatments, Azospirillum viz., plant height (cm), number of tillers hill1 ,
brasilense C VAM gave the best result. Biofer- plant dry weight (g), CGR (g m2 day1 ), and
tilizer namely Azospirillum brasilense C VAM RGR (g g1 day1 ) in rice.
can be applied for sustainable fruit production of Maize (Zea mays L.) response studies to
guava which are possibly safe and residues free. organic manures and Azospirillum in foothills
of north-eastern India (Kharutso et al. 2015)
has shown that the plant height, stem thickness
4.11.8 Organic Agriculture (cm) and leaf area index were highest with
application of FYM at 10 t ha1 followed by
On sandy loam soils in cowpea Vigna unguicu- FYM at 10 t ha1 C Azospirillum at 20 g kg1
lata (L.) Walp, the application of vermicompost seed. FYM at 10 t ha1 has also produced highest
increased the plant height, number of branches yield attributing characters like cobs weight
per plant, number of pods per plant, number (120.51 g), number of seed rows (34.84), length
of seeds per pod, seed, straw and biological of cob (15.29 cm), grain weight (81.66 g), grain
yield, N, P, and K content in seed and straw, yield (18.16 q ha1 ), and B: C ratio 2.5.
chlorophyll content in leaves, number of total and
effective root nodules, leg haemoglobin content
in root nodules and up to 4 t ha1 (Khan et al. 4.11.9 Organic Farming
2015). The organic carbon, available nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium in soil increased sig- Intensive cultivation with excess and imbalance
nificantly with increasing levels of vermicompost use of chemical fertilizers cause reduction in soil
at harvest of the crop. Seed inoculation with Rhi- fertility status may also reduce the availability of
zobium C PSB significantly increased the plant micronutrients and yield, also the concerns about
height; number of branches per plant; number of the increased pest and disease infestation and
pods per plant; number of seeds per pod; seed, increased cost; organic farming seems to be an al-
straw, and biological yield; N, P, and K content ternative, which may not be acceptable on short-
in seed and straw; chlorophyll content in leaves; term basis, but may be viable on long-term basis.
and number of total and effective root nodules. Some organic manures, viz. farmyard manure,
Leg haemoglobin content in root nodules and the vermicompost, and green manure, are important
test weight and harvest index were found non- constituents of the organic farming system which
significant. However, in respect of phosphorus may not only improve the soil health but also
content uptake in seed and straw with PSB alone enhance the quality of the produce.
proved superior to control and Rhizobium. The The performance of rice to different organic
organic carbon, available nitrogen, phosphorus, manures (Vineethaa et al. 2015) studied revealed
and potassium in soil significantly increased with that highest grain yield of 6307 kg ha1 was
inoculation of Rhizobium C PSB at harvest stage obtained when karanj cake was applied at 3 t ha1
of the crop (Khan et al. 2015). which was on par with RDF (160: 60:40 kg N:
The effect of different forms of organic P2 O5 :K2 O ha1 ) followed by poultry manure,
manures and systems of planting on growth of FYM, vermicompost, press mud, and neem cake
scented rice (Oryza sativa L.) cv. Pusa Basmati which were in turn on par with each other. This
42 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

might be due to number of panicles hill1 and are grown under balanced nutritive approach.
number of filled grains panicle1 formed due to Crop uptake nutrients as and when required
the application of karanj cake. in entire growing period convert the absorbed
Praveen and Swamy (2015) studied retrospect nutrients properly into sink. When the food
and prospects of organic fertilizer for enhancing materials from organically managed soils are
the quality of life. Organic farming is basically consumed, natural immunity of the human
a holistic management system, which promotes beings is developed. Organic input materials
and improves the health of the agro-ecosystem are less costly source, readily available at the
related to biodiversity, nutrient biocycles, soil door step and very easy to apply. The nutrients
microbial, and biochemical activities. Organic are available in entire crop period in a balanced
farming emphasizes on management practices in- way. It provides optimal environment to the crop
volving sustainable use of organic manures, green growth and taps the full genetic potential of crops
manuring, organic pest management practices, to provide satisfactory level yield and quality.
and so on. It has also come to mean that it is The end product is superior in nutritive quality
a system of farming that prohibits the use of than chemical farming and gets higher offer in
artificial fertilizers and synthetic pesticides. the competitive market offered premium price. In
The adverse effects of modern agricultural organic farming products, presence of potassium
practices are not only on the farm but also on the improves the keeping quality and also nutritive
health of all living things and thus on the environ- value in balanced way. It offers much premium
ment. These have been well documented all over price in market and it enhances the quality of life
the world. Application technology, particularly of human beings both in producing as well as in
in terms of the use of chemical fertilizers and consuming sector.
pesticides all around us, has persuaded people to Hence, relatively high success of organic
think aloud. Their negative effects are manifested farming in some countries are due to the high
through soil erosion, water shortages, saliniza- awareness of the health problems caused by the
tion, soil contamination, genetic erosion, etc. Fur- consumption of contaminated food products,
ther, in organic farming all practices are interre- the ill effects of environment degradation,
lated and the end product will be decomposable and appropriate supports by the government
one. So there is no cause for environmental pol- and organizations which promotes the organic
lution in organic farming, ideal combination of farming in the country as well in the global
agronomical, physical, and biological measures levels.
bring down the population harmful microbes and
do not release any residues in soil and crop
environment. 4.11.10 Organic Amendments
The conventional farming had helped India
not only to indiscriminate use of chemical fer- Soils fix huge amounts of phosphorus signifi-
tilizers, pesticides, weedicides, etc. over a period cantly and limit its availability to plants. Only
of time, resulted in environmental pollution and a part of fertilizer phosphorus is readily soluble
hazards in animals and human health. The bi- in water; thus, the water solubility of phosphorus
ological science embraces the entire significant is not always the best estimate of phosphorus
outcome from the various disciplines to enhance availability to the plants. The major problem is
the quality of life. However, among the available phosphorus fixation in the soil due to inorganic
alternatives, organic agriculture is a visible option elements like Al, Fe, and Ca.
to enhance the quality of life of human beings in Organic amendments applied through FYM,
the coming decades for better health, wealth, and vermicompost, poultry manure, and paddy straw
prosperity. (Kumar et al. 2015) affected the availability of
The plant parts from organically managed different chemical fractions of phosphorous. All
soils are intuitively rich and safe crops which organic amendments application increased the
4 Natural Resource Management 43

Olsen’s P. Availability of phosphorus increased in than an individual crop. Studies (Veeranna et al.
the order of paddy straws ‹ FYM ‹ vermicompost 2015) on residual effect of organics and nitrogen
‹ poultry manure, respectively. FYM at 20 t ha1 on maize yield and soil properties in rice-no till
increased the saloid-P, Al-P, and Fe-P. Poultry maize cropping system in Warangal, Telangana
manure at 20 t ha1 also increased all fractions State, during kharif and rabi seasons of 2010–
of phosphorus. During the incubation period in- 2011 and 2011–2012 on a vertisol soil indicated
crease in P availability up to initial 28 days that among the three organic sources (FYM, Rice
was observed but at later stage, P availability straw, Green manure (Sesbania)) applied to rice
decreased. Available P is significantly correlated crop, the residual effect was higher with rice
with saloid-P (r D 0.973*) at 21 days and Ca-P straw on kernel yield of maize (6997 kg ha1 ).
(r D 0.901*) at 60 days, at 5 % level of signif- Among the different doses of nitrogen, higher
icance. Organic amendments showed significant kernel yield was obtained at 300 kg N ha1
increase of soil EC (dSm1 ) and organic carbon (7108 kg ha1 ). The pH of the soil was moderated
(%) but significant decrease of soil pH. in all the organic treatments and bulk density
Fly ash and farmyard manure influenced the was reduced under rice straw combined with
soil biochemical activity and performance of 300 kg N ha1 (1.28 g cc1 ). Organic carbon
rice variety Tellahamsa grown on inceptisol soils content of the soil after the harvest of maize crop
(Reddy et al. 2015b). There was an increase was improved in all the three organic sources
in grain and straw yield of rice with fly ash, compared to initial status (0.44 %) both at higher
FYM, and their interactions. The highest grain and lower nitrogen application rates. FYM and
(5.84 t ha1 ) and straw yield (7.87 t ha1 ) were rice straw improved the available P and K status
recorded by combined application of fly ash at of the soil respectively, while green manuring
10 t ha1 and FYM at 10 t ha1 . Application resulted in higher available status of both P and
of fly ash at 15 t ha1 along with FYM at K in the soil.
10 t ha1 has also resulted in highest urease,
dehydrogenase, and cellulase activity at 30 DAT
(4.48 mg of NH4 C released g1 soil h1 , 5.37 mg 4.11.12 Organic and Inorganic
of TPF produced g1 soil d1 , and 3.50 mg of Mulching
glucose released g1 soil d1 ), 60 DAT (4.80 mg
of NH4 C released g1 soil h1 , 5.47 mg of TPF Moisture conservation in soils is possible by
produced g1 soil d1 , and 3.32 mg of glucose mulching. In addition to moisture conservation,
released g1 soil d1 ) and at harvest (2.53 mg mulching also reduces weed growth, moderates
of NH4 C released g1 soil h1 , 3.07 mg of the crop micro-climate, and improves fertility
TPF produced g1 soil d1 , and 2.16 mg of status of the soil. Moisture management in
glucose released g1 soil d1 ), respectively. The wheat under different agro-ecologies studied
acid and alkaline phosphatase activity was not through Pusa hydrogel, aqua sowing, and organic
influenced by fly ash levels at all the stages viz., mulching during winter seasons of 2010–2011
30, 60 DAT, and at harvest. However, it was to 2012–2013 (Bana et al. 2015) in sandy
significantly influenced by FYM application and loam having 195, 14.0, and 230 kg ha1 NPK,
their interactions. respectively, and 0.34 % organic carbon with
pH of 7.8 indicated that wheat grain and straw
yield increased where Pusa hydrogel, organic
4.11.11 Residual Effects of Organics mulching, and aqua fertilization were applied
and Nitrogen over the control both under limited irrigation
and assured irrigation conditions. However, the
In order to arrive at a profitable, sustainable, and highest yield was obtained where organic mulch
ecofriendly nutrient management, it is necessary was applied both under limited as well as assured
to consider cropping sequence as a whole rather irrigation conditions.
44 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

Pusa hydrogel application at 2.5 kg ha1 under as pooled mean) seed cotton yield and was on
limited irrigation resulted in the highest grain par with all other mulch treatments except sur-
yield of 3.30 t ha1 , while organic mulching face coir pith and no mulch control. Though
and aqua fertilization resulted in yields of 2.79, poly ethylene and biodegradable polyethylene
3.53, and 3.06 t ha1 respectively during the mulching recorded significant increase in yield
years of study. Under assured irrigation condi- over no mulching, considering the cost of poly
tions the grain yield in the hydrogel treatment film and the rate of yield increase, it may not be
was 4.37 t ha1 as compared to control, organic economical under rainfed condition. The sub-soil
mulching, and aqua fertilization where the yields coir pith application was as good as other crop
were 4.04, 4.57, and 4.30 t ha1 , respectively residue mulches and this waste product of coir
(Bana et al. 2015). industry could be used efficiently as mulch for
Use of various moisture conservation prac- rainfed cotton.
tices gave better output under limited availability
of soil moisture than under assured supply of
soil moisture. Performance of various moisture 4.12 Resource Management
management practices including Pusa hydrogel
and organic mulch were remained comparatively Summer rice occupies a sizeable area in Chattis-
poor under normal water availability, because the garh and also in India. Its area is further increas-
hydrogel and mulching are meant for reducing ing gradually with irrigated area. Drip irrigation
the water stress under limited water supply. is a relatively new but revolutionary concept in
The study concluded that the use of various applying water. Drip irrigation may save huge
moisture conservation practices including Pusa quantity of water in summer rice that may help
hydrogel has favorable effect on wheat produc- in enhancement of area of summer rice crop even
tivity and water use efficiency and their effect is under available water resources and good plant
more visible under moisture stress condition. health.
Nalayini et al. (2015) made evaluation of or- Sonit et al. (2015) investigated resource man-
ganic and inorganic mulches for rainfed BT cot- agement in summer rice varieties MTU 1010
ton with RCH 20 Bt as test cultivar at Central and IR 64 through drip irrigation treatments of
Institute for Cotton Research, Regional Station, (0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, and 1.4 IW: CPE ratio) micro
and Coimbatore. Five organic mulch treatments sprinkler irrigation once in 3 day and flooding as
viz., maize stover, sugarcane trash at 50 t ha1 , subplots. Panicle length, panicle weight, sound
gunny sheet spread between two cropped rows, grains panicle1 , and numbers of grains pani-
sub surface coir pith, and surface coir pith appli- cle1 were statistically similar in drip irrigation
cation at 20 t ha1 were compared with two in- at 1.4, 1.2, and 1.0I W: CPE ratio and traditional
organic mulches viz., polyethylene mulching and flooding. The maximum seed yield was obtained
biodegradable polyethylene mulching (Polyethy- in drip irrigation at 1.4 IW: CPE ratio.
lene C 4 % d2w additive) and evaluated against The water use was maximum in flooding
no mulch control. In both years, the crop suf- (3340 mm) followed by micro sprinkler
fered severe moisture stress during boll devel- irrigation (1417 mm) and drip irrigation at 1.4
opment and the desired yield could not be ob- (1300 mm):1.2 (1152 mm) and 1.0 (948 mm)
tained. All the mulch treatments except surface IW: CPE ratio. Drip irrigation at1.4 and 1.2
coir pith application enhanced the seed cotton IW: CPE ratio saved 63 and 59 % of irrigation
yield of RCH 20 Bt significantly under rain- water, respectively overflooding; indicating that
fed condition. The yield increase due to various cropped area under summer rice can be doubled
mulching ranged from 6.2 to 92.8 %. Polyethy- with same quantity of available water by using
lene mulching recorded the highest (1816 kg ha1 drip irrigation without sacrificing grain yield.
4 Natural Resource Management 45

4.13 Effects of Rootstocks lowest optical density of (0.041). Flowers held in

on Grape Production distilled water (control) registered highest scape
bending curvature (29.47ı ) and recorded highest
Root stocks have an influence on yield and qual- optical density (0.088) which was attributed with
ity of grapes. Manjuvani et al. (2015) studied highest microbial count (9.11  106 cfu ml1 )
the influence of rootstocks (1103 P, SO4 , and than neem extract at 1 % (4.26  105 cfu ml).
Dog Ridge) on yield and quality of table vari- These cut gerberas which were held in 1 %
eties (Thompson Seedless, Flame Seedless and neem extract had highest vase life (11.76 days)
Kishmish Chorni) of grapes. High vigour in terms compared to control (4.53 days).
of pruning weight was observed with varieties
grafted on rootstocks when compared to those
raised on own roots. Own rooted varieties per- 4.15 Effects of Coal Dust
formed well compared to grafted varieties with on Nutrient Availability
respect to number of fruitful canes per vine and
number of bunch per vine and resulted in higher Coal dust emitted from open cast mining of coal
yield per vine. Scions on Dog ridge gave high accumulates at different levels up to a distance of
bunch weight, 100 berry weights, and berry di- 2 km from mining site. The soil samples collected
ameter. Among the varieties Thompson Seedless within 2 km from coal mining and beyond 2 km
was more vigorous. Kishmish Chorni produced open cast coal mining sites from four places of
more number of fruitful canes, bunches per vine, opencast i.e., Srirampur, Medipalli, Bhupalpally,
and high yields. Highest bunch weight and berry and Yellandu in Telangana State (Madhavi et al.
diameter was obtained with Flame Seedless. High 2015) indicated that open cast coal mining had an
TSS and low acidity was recorded with scions on impact on soil available macronutrients.
1103 P and Dog Ridge rootstocks. Brix: acid ratio
was high in scions on 1103 P. Flame Seedless and
Kishmish Chorni recorded high TSS. 4.16 Efficacy of Biological
Resources Against Rust

White rust caused by Albugo candida is one of the

4.14 Extending the Vase Life important diseases in rapeseed-mustard. Biocon-
of Flower trol agents and botanicals evaluated against white
rust incidence in rapeseed-mustard during 2010–
Locally available floral preservatives are also 2012 (Gopi et al. 2015) indicated that Tricho-
effective in extending the vas life of cut flowers. derma viride was effective in reducing the disease
Cut gerberas of variety cv. Savannah were incidence of white rust in leaf phase.
precooled at 5 ı C for 6 h, followed by pulsing
with sucrose at 20 % C sodium hypochlorite at
50 ppm for 12 h and then kept in locally available 4.17 Use of Mycoflora
preservative floral solutions i.e. sugar, vinegar, on Rhizoctonia solani
lime juice, commercial bleach, and neem extract
(Bhanumurthy et al. 2015). Under ambient The isolates of mycoflora and florescent Pseu-
conditions, 1 % neem extract maintained better domonas isolated from rhizosphere soil of tomato
water relations, recorded lowest scape bending fields in different mandals of Ranga Reddy
curvature (4.16ı ), highest total soluble solids in district (Sumalatha et al. 2015) were evaluated
stalk (10.08 o Brix), anthocyanin content (5.83 mg against stem blight disease caused by Rhizoctonia
Congo Red g1 fruit weight) in ligules, with solani. Among the screened isolates against
46 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

Rhizoctonia solani, isolate M10 (Trichoderma 4.19 Adjuvants for UV-C Rays
viride) was highly effective with 79.17 % inhi- Protectability
bition of test pathogen under in vitro conditions.
Further, the in vitro studies with eight commercial The effect of UVC rays on biomass develop-
fungicides indicated that propiconazole, hexa- ment of Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin
conazole, tebuconazole, captan C hexaconazole, combination with chemicals, vegetable oils, and
and trifloxystrobin C tebuconazole showed other substrates as adjuvants were evaluated by
100 % inhibition of the radial growth of the exposing the combination for 10–50 min and 2, 3,
pathogen at four dosages (recommended, 75 % and 5 h under laboratory conditions (Jadhav et al.
of recommended, 50 % of recommended, 2015). The biomass produced by B. bassiana
and 25 % of recommended dosage). Potential with or without adjuvants in culture medium after
bioagent Trichoderma showed least sensitivity or exposure to UVC rays decreased with increase
mostly compatible with most effective fungicide in the exposure periods. After 5 h UVC rays
pyroclostrobin C metiram. exposure, the treatment with adjuvant sunflower
oil 1.0 % maintained its superiority and devel-
oped highest (6.13 g) biomass 40 ml1 medium
4.18 Production of Bioresource of B. bassiana fungal mat. It was at par with
sunflower oil 0.5 % (6.07 g). The next effective
Silk worm cocoon size, shape, and quality play treatments for the UVC protectability reflecting
vital role in sustainability of the sericulture in- in fungal biomass production were groundnut oil
dustry. For a successful breeding strategy in silk- 1.0 % (5.70 g) and 0.5 % (5.63 g). Treatment with
worm, one has to give proper importance on Tween 80 0.5 % (2.63 g), molasses 2.0 % (3.13 g),
cocoon characters of parental lines. Khan (2015) and Tween 80 1.0 % (zero g) consistently proved
studied cocoon characters based on multivariate to be inefficient for UVC rays protectability for B.
clustering of different types of silkworm breeds, bassiana. As adjuvants vegetable oils, ghee and
Bombyx mori L. (Lepidoptera: Bombycidae). Ac- indigo 0.5 % and 1 % gave considerable protec-
cording to them, variability measured in terms tion to B. bassiana from the UVC rays producing
of co-efficient of variation was highest for geo- the biomass 4.47–6.13 g against 6.20 and 2.92 g
graphic breeds compared to mutant and evolved biomass development in the unexposed and ex-
breeds. Excepting the cocoon weight and length- posed control, respectively.
breadth ratio in male cocoon of nine evolved
breeds, wide differences among the breeds for all
three types of silkworms’ breeds were observed.
Hence the better performance could be exploited 4.20 Seed Ball Technology
in future breeding program. Clustering of breeds
separately for males and females based on co- In Bundelkhand region, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh,
coon characters indicated that by and large four since its birth, the unfertile land has threatened
groups could be framed and the silkworms from the food grain production, whereas the scarcity of
different groups i.e. geographic, evolved and mu- rangelands and pastures for feed and fodder sup-
tant breeds do not follow the same grouping, ply has restricted the milk availability to the local
rather a tendency of mixing among the breeds people. In this situation, the identification and re-
of different groups were noticed. Among the juvenation of the natural grasslands through sow-
breeds Raj, Sarupat (W), and Tamilnadu White ing of grass seeds in this region has drawn atten-
are significantly different, having the tendency tion even at national level since long back. Geo-
to picture their respective identities separately in graphic information system (GIS) based mapping
dendrogram. The study urged the selection of has been done previously by Indian Grassland
better breeds for future breeding improvement and Fodder Research Institute (IGFRI), Jhansi,
programmes in silkworm. especially for unexplored areas in this region to
4 Natural Resource Management 47

identify degraded rangelands. Maity et al. (2015) fishing (Census 2011) in Devi and Singh 2015.
adopted seed ball technology: way forward to This revealed that in India and in Manipur, rural
revitalizing rangelands in Bundelkhand region, economy was dominant and large numbers of
Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh. people depend on agriculture and allied activi-
Grass seeds are very small and covered with ties. Fishery, both in the country and the state,
fluff or appendages which lead to blowing up of has been a traditional practice dating back to
seeds and hinder its mechanical sowing. To re- several centuries especially for the livelihood of
juvenate these rangelands through grasses, grass the rural people. An attempt made to analyze
seed ball technology or seed pelleting has been the resource use efficiency of inland fish produc-
tried in a new form to provide a better microenvi- tion under different categories of farm size in
ronment to the seeds and to address above prob- Imphal West district of Manipur during 2010–
lems. The experiment was conducted to pellet 2011 (Devi and Singh 2015). The farmers in
Dinanath (Pennisetum pedicellatum) and guinea the district utilized available water resources for
grass (Panicum maximum) seeds. Dinanath grass fish farming. Villages nurtured a variety of fish
produces highly fluffed seed and at harvest stage viz., Katla, Rohu, Mrigal, Common carps, Grass
a substantial portion of seed remains blank due carps, and Silver carps in the ponds. Multistage
to shedding of caryopsis at maturity leading to random sampling procedure was adopted for the
poor germination in field. Seeds were defluffed selection of the ultimate unit of samples. The
through ‘common cotton batting machine’ (used data was collected from 100 selected fish farmers
for quilt making) to get assured germinable naked of Imphal-West district of Manipur. The fish
seeds out of the fluffs. Naked seeds were pelleted farmers were classified into two categories i.e.
by mixing with soil, required nutrient mixture category I large (1 ha) and category II small
and water at right proportion through a rotating (<1 ha) based on the area under fish farming.
tyre. The modified pellets were of 10–15 mm The data were analyzed by using Cobb Douglas
diameter and 2.0–4.0 g in weight and could con- production function to analyze the expenditures
tain 5–10 seeds depending on the purpose, of of inputs used. In category I, the ratio of marginal
which >90 % seed could germinate. This tech- value productivity (MVP) to their factor cost
nology in which soil balls acted as harbor for for the variable pond area was found negative
defluffed seeds during pelleting solved the earlier indicating over utilization hence the expenditure
problem of non-germination of seed pellets due to on this input should be reduced which tends
compactness and/or hardness of those pellets and to decrease the cost of production and increase
uncertainty in presence or absence of real seed in of net returns of the fish farmers, whereas the
the fluffs (Maity et al. 2015). These balls may be variables like lime and fingerlings were found
broadcasted or thrown to the barren rangelands positive indicating under utilization hence their
identified in Bundelkhand region before mon- further use will increase the net returns. In cat-
soon and these would germinate consequently. egory II, the expenditures on fingerlings and feed
At small scale, the technology was in practice in were found positive indicating underutilization
IGFRI and holds a greater potential in large scale hence their further use in the production will
also. increase the net returns and that of human labor
was negative indicating over utilization hence the
expenditure on this input should be reduced to
4.21 Resource Use Efficiency for increase the net returns of the fish farmers. For
Fish Production the overall average farm, the ratio of marginal
value productivity (MVP) to their marginal factor
In India, of the total population, 68.87 % live cost (MFC) of the significant variables of fertil-
in rural areas and in Manipur; 66.57 % of the izers, lime, fingerlings, feed, and human labor
population lives in rural areas; and 57 % of the were 6.78, 4.98, 42.99, 22.07, and 14.29,
workforce depends on agriculture, forestry, and respectively. So, the expenditure on fertilizers and
48 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

human labor is over utilized and it should be has at hand meeting these needs of bioresource
reduced. But the expenditure on lime, fingerlings, management. Once it is known what the different
and feed is underutilized so there is scope for staff members need to be trained on bioresource
more use of them. By doing so, the gross re- management and that these training needs have
turns of fish production could be increased in the been prioritized.
state. It is now time to implement the training plan
that has been developed for bioresource manage-
ment. An important issue facing is commitment
4.22 Bioresource Management to training. This is required and it is seldom well
in Society realized. Hence, there is a need for knowledge of
training models to train professionals. However,
Hulagur and Swamy (2015) studied convergence the training must start by questioning the basic
and collaboration for bioresource management in assumption which has governed our training ap-
society under present climate change. Conver- proach. So an analysis of SWOT, i.e., strength,
gence of bioresource management is the goal of weakness, opportunity, and threats, called for to
work towards establishing a single set of account- enable as to have new conceptualization.
ing standards. Convergence is the tendency for
different technological systems to evolve towards
performing similar tasks. There is a need of the 4.23 Alleviation of Heat Stress
combination of multiple services through lines in Animals
of status having the same knowledge of the sur-
rounding. The notions, functions, and sequences Heat stress is a constant challenge to goats un-
approach a limit. der tropical climatic conditions. Menacing global
Collaboration of bioresource management is warming created the need for research over mit-
more than the intersection of common goals seen igation of heat stress and climate smart animal
in cooperative ventures, but a deep collective de- agriculture. The cytoprotective and immunity en-
termination to reach an identical objective. Col- hancive effects of melatonin during heat stress
laboration is working with each other to do a were studied (Iqbal et al. 2015) in goats. The total
task and to achieve shared goals. The institu- protein level increased in melatonin treated group
tion or organization has objectives of bioresource with the globulin component contributing to the
management to work towards, and that all staff increase than the albumin, while a decline was
members are made aware of these objectives. seen at 40 ı C in melatonin treated group. The
Unless the objectives are known to and shared cortisol level rose significantly (P > 0.05) with
by all staff members, resources cannot be pooled increase in exposure temperature in control ani-
in one direction and the institution or organiza- mals. Significantly (p < 0.05) low-level of cortisol
tion bound to waste resources. To organize and was observed in melatonin in treated group at
mobilize resources for bioresource management all exposure temperature. HSP60, HSP70, lep-
in the best possible and most cost-effective way, tin, and ubiquitin showed a significant (p < 0.05)
there is a need for job description for each job upregulation as a protective effects under heat
function of bioresource management. It is im- stress in both the groups. The relative expression
portant to distinguish between a particular job of HSP60 and leptin was increased many folds
function required in an institution or organization in melatonin treated group at 40 ı C exposure
and individual staff members. One should have temperature. The study clearly supported the im-
a clear picture of what each staff member of mune enhancive effects and cytoprotective role
bioresource management should be able to do as of melatonin with elevation in serum globulin
per her or his job chart. Probably the training level and upregulation of genes like HSP-60 and
needs will be greater than the resources one leptinin PBMCs.
4 Natural Resource Management 49

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 Agrotechnology and Crop
Diversification 5
A. V. Ramanjaneyulu, Narayan Chandra Sarkar,
R. V. T. Balazzii Naaiik, and Ratikanta Maiti

Abstract
As an aftermath of green revolution, agriculture today is facing multiple
problems of shrinking cultivable area, declining water table, global climate
change, loss of soil productivity, pollution of land and water resources
at macro level and decline in factor productivity and soil fertility, devel-
opment of herbicide resistance and pest resurgence, thus unsustainability
in productivity and farm income at micro level. This chapter has high-
lighted the need for adoption of nonmonetary or low monetary inputs
and sustainable practices such as optimum sowing window; crop geom-
etry; demand-driven planting methods; crop diversification; water-saving
micro-irrigation methods; use of nanoparticles for enhancing nutrient use
efficiency; integrated nutrient, pest, disease and weed management op-
tions; and location-specific organic farming strategies to make agriculture
a profitable enterprise.

5.1 Introduction
A.V. Ramanjaneyulu ()
Regional Agricultural Research Station, Professor
Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University, Green revolution, a mega success story in the
Palem, Mahabubnagar District, Telangana 509 215, India history of Indian agriculture, helped the country
e-mail: [email protected] to reach to exporting status from begging bowl
N.C. Sarkar status. It has contributed to food security through
Department of ASEPAN (Agronomy), Institute of substantial enhancement in food production and
Agricultural Sciences, Visva-Bharati, Sriniketan,
productivity. However, this situation supported
West Bengal, India
e-mail: [email protected] by input-intensive conventional agriculture pro-
duction system led to declining or stagnant factor
R.V.T. B. Naaiik
Electronic Media Wing, ARI, PJTSAU, Rajendranagar, productivity, deterioration in soil fertility and loss
Hyderabad, Telangana, India of organic matter, emergence of micronutrient
R.K. Maiti deficiencies, deterioration in soil physical envi-
Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Autónoma ronment, declining ground water table and so on,
de Nuevo León, Carr. No 85, km 145, NL 67700 Linares, thus stagnating farm incomes. In the light of these
Mexico
e-mail: [email protected]
facts, there is a need to reverse the trend through

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 53

R.K. Maiti et al. (eds.), Bioresource and Stress Management, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0995-2_5
54 A.V. Ramanjaneyulu et al.

appropriate location-specific, demand-driven and sown rice and drum seeder revealed that these
problem-oriented agro-techniques and crop di- technologies helped in getting an additional yield
versification strategies. of four bags with INR 6426.00 reduction in cost
of cultivation. Farmers also get an opportunity to
sow black gram or green gram or maize in time.
5.2 Crop Geometry and Planting The straw yield was also increased compared to
Methods transplanted rice. The major constraints experi-
enced by the farmers in direct sown rice are re-
Nileshsadar et al. (2015) reported that, of duced crop growth during long intervals of rains
the three spacings (45  8 cm, 45  15 cm, and resowing of crop if continuous heavy rains
60  15 cm) tested under high-density planting of occur during early stages of crop. The advantages
arboretum cotton, significantly higher kappa’s of direct sown rice are less labour requirement
yield (1656 kg ha1 ) was obtained besides followed by timely sowing. The advantages of
more leaf area (61.35 dm2 plant1 ), chlorophyll machine planting of rice are plantings can be
content index (35.52 %), total dry matter taken up at a stretch during peak season and
production (77.74 g plant1 ) and no. of sympodia maintenance of recommended plant population.
(8.12 plant1 ) at harvest, when the plants were The constraints of machine planting of rice are
sown at a spacing of 45  8 cm as compared to technicality in rising of nurseries and difficulty to
45  15 cm and 60  15 cm. plant seedlings aged more than 18 days.
The pooled data (statistical) analysis of 4 years Singh and Singh (2015) studied the perfor-
of experimentation revealed that drum seeder mance of sugarcane and wheat crops on furrow-
planting was found to be significantly superior irrigated raised bed (FIRB) system in relation to
to line planting, zigzag planting and Mecha- date of planting or sowing. The results revealed
nized System of Rice Intensification (M-SRI), that wheat grain yield was the highest (46.6 q
with regard to plant height, number of produc- ha1 ) in November sown wheat. Wheat yielded
tive plant tillers1 , number of seeds panicle1 , almost the same in flat as well as FIRB method.
dry matter production m2 and thus significantly However, wheat sown in the month of November
higher grain yield (6942 kg ha1 ) (net returns yielded higher than wheat sown in the month of
(INR 72,376 ha1 ) and B:C ratio (2.70)), besides December due to higher number of ear head per
less unfilled grains panicle1 . However, differ- running metre, number of grains per ear head
ent planting techniques didn’t differ significantly and test weight. Under FIRB method wheat yield
from each other in respect of panicle length and (November: 44.1 q ha1 ) is higher over sugarcane
1000 seed weight. The grain yield obtained under C wheat (February to March) in 1:3 row ratio
drum seeder technique was 15.8 %, 25.4 % and (40.2 q ha1 ) and 1:2 row ratio (33.5 q ha1 ).
25.9 % higher than that of line planting, zigzag Tiller population recorded at different stages in-
planting and M-SRI, respectively. Further, zigzag dicated that under FIRB method, tiller count
planting and M-SRI techniques performed sim- was higher in autumn in sole sugarcane and in
ilarly with regard to grain yield and B:C ratio sugarcane planted with wheat on the third week
(Neelima et al. 2015). According to Devy et al. of February, compared with sugarcane planted
(2015), rice cultivation in time is becoming a with wheat on the third week of March. The low-
problem to the farmers due to erratic climatic est tiller population was observed in sugarcane
conditions. Delay in crop season affects the sow- planted with wheat (1:3) under flat method fol-
ing of second crop also. In order to overcome lowed by wheat-sugarcane system. The highest
this problem, the farmers are actively taking up tiller count (231.8 thousands ha1 ) was recorded
direct sowing of rice, sowing with drum seeder in the month of July in sugarcane planted with
and machine planting which helped the farmers wheat on the third week of February under FIRB
to grow the crop within the season besides saving system and the lowest (86.4 thousands ha1 ) in
water. Documentation of success cases of direct sugarcane C wheat (1:3). The cane yield planted
5 Agrotechnology and Crop Diversification 55

with sole sugarcane was highest (89.0 t ha1 ) in day1 and system profitability. However, it did
autumn. Under FIRB method, sugarcane planted not differ statistically with green gram-castor at
with wheat on the third week of February (82.5 t the same level of ‘N’.
ha1 ) was significantly higher than sugarcane Ganvir et al. (2015) studied cotton-based in-
planted with wheat on the third week of March tercropping systems in different row proportions
and sugarcane C wheat (1:2) due to higher NMC, under dry land conditions in Maharashtra and
cane length, cane weight and number of intern- found significantly higher seed cotton equivalent
odes. The lowest cane yield was recorded in yield (963 kg ha1 ), gross (INR 39,445 ha1 )
wheat – sugarcane system (59.3 t ha1 ) and and net (INR 22,571 ha1 ) returns, and B:C
sugarcane C wheat in 1:3 row ratio (60.3 t ha1 ). ratio (2.37) with higher sustainability yield index
(0.62) and sustainable value index (0.46) in
cotton C sorghum C pigeon pea C sorghum
(6:1:2:1) intercropping system, followed by
5.3 Cropping Systems and Crop cotton C sorghum C pigeon pea C sorghum
Diversification (3:1:1:1) intercropping system. Though cotton C
sorghum C pigeon pea C sorghum (6:1:2:1)
Adoption of monocropping which is in vogue intercropping system is more profitable as
in several farmers’ fields can’t be advocated in compared to cotton C sorghum C pigeon pea
the present scenario in view of the possibility C sorghum (3:1:1:1) intercropping system,
of decline in soil fertility, flare up of pest and farmers are facing problems during sowing for
disease complex and emergence of super weeds. maintaining 6:1:2:1 row proportion. Hence, it can
Crop diversification is the need of the hour as it be concluded that cotton C sorghum C pigeon
is required to meet increasing demand for food, pea C sorghum (3:1:1:1) intercropping system is
fodder and fibre, increase income of the farmers, the most suitable cropping system under dry land
restore and sustain long-term soil fertility, reduce condition in Maharashtra.
dependence on off-farm inputs and control the Chaturvedi et al. (2015) reported that total
pest or disease or weed. However, crop diversifi- rice equivalent yield of rabi and summer crops
cation changes depending on the agro-ecological was 9 %, which is 20 % higher in reduced
regions, problems and demand. tillage and mulched plot, respectively, than
Ramana et al. (2015) reported that among conventional tillage and un-mulched field.
18 cropping systems tested for their suitability Among the cropping systems, rice-potato-maize
in terms of productivity and profitability in (CS3) had a significant increased yield of
semiarid tropics, maize-groundnut cropping 25–30 % and 54–56 % higher total REY than
system was found to be the best, followed by CS2 and CS1 during 2011–2012 and 2012–
maize-sunflower, soybean-maize, soybean-wheat 2013, respectively. Combined application of
and soybean-castor. Resource use efficiency in RCT practices consumed 6–10 % less energy,
terms of per day productivity and per day returns while generating 99–143 % and 25–52 % higher
was superior with soybean-maize followed by output energy in CS3 and CS2, respectively,
maize-groundnut and maize-sunflower systems. over conventional practices in rice-wheat system
Maize and then groundnut or sunflower or castor (CS1). Moreover, combined application of RCT
were identified as most remunerative cropping practices improved soil physical characteristics
systems for semiarid tropics. However, Madhu such as bulk density, soil temperature and soil
and Ramana (2015) reported that among different moisture conservation and chemical properties
castor-based cropping systems, maize-castor such as soil organic carbon %, available N, P and
with application of 120 kg N ha1 to castor K. Conservation tillage system sequestered three
gave greater system productivity in terms of crop times higher carbon than conventional tillage
equivalent yield, system gross and net returns and and mulching four times higher C sequestration
benefit-cost ratio, thus higher system productivity than un-mulched condition in agricultural soils.
56 A.V. Ramanjaneyulu et al.

Higher system returns, B:C ratio and profitability net returns were reduced significantly when the
resulted due to combined application of RCT sowing of crop was delayed to 20th November. On
practices, and this was 2.5 and 3 times higher 10 November sown crop produced 26.7 % higher
when followed in CS2 and CS3, respectively, net returns over sowing on the first of November,
compared to rice-wheat (CS1) system under but delayed sowing to 20 November reduced net
conventional practices. Thus, these holistic returns by 7.2 %.
approaches of combined RCT practices are
technically sound, agronomically efficient,
economically attractive, practically feasible 5.5 Water- and Nutrient-Saving
and ecologically safe and may be a win-win Technologies
technology when they are adopted for the long
term and are advocated for the Terai regions of Rapidly depleting water resources, aberrations in
Indo-Gangetic plains of India. monsoon rainfall and changing climate are threat-
ening the sustainability of the agriculture, as well
as food security and livelihood of producers and
5.4 Optimization of Sowing consumers. The challenge is to develop novel
Window technologies and production systems that would
allow the farmers to produce more per drop. Al-
Sowing time is the most important nonmonetary ternate furrow irrigation, micro-irrigation, pulse
input in agriculture and is the basis for success- irrigation and low water requiring alternate rice
ful crop production. Taking a decision regarding systems and irrigated dry cops are the strategies
sowing in the presence of optimum moisture to be adopted.
either due to rainfall or irrigation is very critical.
Sowing should be taken during rainy season only
after receiving 60–70 mm of cumulative rainfall. 5.6 Furrow Irrigation
It requires fine tilth for small-seeded crops and
fine to rough tilth for large-seeded crops. Sowing In the areas where there is no provision for
crops early during rabi season during October micro-irrigation methods and also the small and
helps to establish the optimum plant popula- marginal farmers who can’t afford for the adop-
tion and escapes low-temperature stress during tion of these methods, the best way to save irriga-
November and December and high-temperature tion water without jeopardizing the productivity
stress during summer months, March and April. is alternate furrow irrigation. As concluded by
Bankar et al. (2015) reported that sowing dur- Sankaranarayanan and Nalayini (2015), in cotton,
ing the 41st meteorological week resulted in alternate furrow irrigation used less quantity of
significantly higher yield, attributing it to the size irrigation water (18.4 cm1 ) and recorded the
of seed yield (21 q ha1 ) and straw yield (46 q highest water use efficiency of 69.2 kg ha-cm1
ha1 ), quality parameters (viz. oil and protein and water productivity of INR 32.2 m3 and
yield) and uptake of N and P by the plants due required less amount of water (1444 l kg1 ) to
to favourable weather conditions. According to produce unit kilogramme of seed cotton yield.
Shivran (2015), plant height, tillers plant1 and
dry matter produced plant1 at 60 DAS and
at harvest, spikes plant1 , seeds spike1 , seed 5.7 Micro-Irrigation
yield plant1 , seed (12.69 q ha1 ): straw and
biological yields and net returns (INR 29555 Due to depletion of underground water in scarce
ha1 ) were significantly increased by sowing of rainfall areas, farmers have been facing many
isabgol on 10th November as compared to first problems in irrigating the crops by traditional
November sowing, whereas, growth parameters methods. At the same time, even in irrigated ar-
remained at par but yield attributes, yields and eas, water availability over a longer period of time
5 Agrotechnology and Crop Diversification 57

is becoming a problem. In both the situations, was to the tune of 14 % and 21 % than application
enhancing factor productivity is critical. In such of 50 kg N C 50 kg K2 O ha1 and no fertilizer
situations, drip method of irrigation proved ef- application, respectively. Total nutrient uptake
ficient. Enough empirical evidence is available of N, P and K was higher with drip irrigation
from different parts of the country to suggest that scheduling at 100 % Epan when compared to
drip technology saves water in comparison to sur- other irrigation levels. However, application of
face method of irrigation from 18.7 % to 47.7 % optimum dose of fertilizers 100:100 kg ha1
in orchards and fruits; 2.1–42.9 % in field crops; N and K through drip resulted in maximum
11.9–38 % in vegetable crops; 14.3–51.3 % in uptake of nutrients at all stages compared to
root, bulb and tuber crops; 12–56 % in plantation other fertigation levels.
crops; 36.7–46.7 % in spice crops; and 41.4 % Kombali et al. (2015) emphasized the
in flowers in a properly designed and managed importance of drip fertigation in improving the
drip irrigation system. Likewise, in various exper- productivity of aerobic rice, and their results
iments fertigation registered significant fertilizer revealed that the higher plant height, number of
savings (20–60 %) through drip fertigation (Rao tillers per hill, leaf area per hill and total dry
and Anitha 2015). matter production per hill were recorded under
The research on drip irrigation in ground- drip fertigation at 1.5 Epan up to maturity with
nut is meagre. Padmalatha et al. (2015) have 100 % RDF through water soluble fertilizers
conducted the experiment to identify optimum (WSF) (53.57 cm, 48.13, 3529.8 cm2 and 118.4 g
irrigation depth and suitable irrigation interval plant1 , respectively) which was superior over
under drip method of irrigation to rabi groundnut, surface irrigation and soil application of RDF and
and the results revealed that significantly higher was on par with drip fertigation at 1.5 Epan up
pod yield was obtained with 10 mm depth of to maturity with 75 % RDF through WSF. This
irrigation, which was at par with 15 mm depth is mainly because of WSF through fertigation
given on the third day and 15 mm depth given that resulted in continuous supply of nutrients
on the second day. The lowest groundnut pod besides maintaining optimum water availability
yield was with check basin method at IW/CPE which leads to higher uptake of nutrients and in
1.0, which was 187 % and 23 % lower than that turn recorded higher growth attributes. Rekha et
of 10 mm depth scheduled on the third day during al. (2015) studied the effect of drip fertigation
2006–2007 and 2007–2008, respectively. Higher with the combination of water soluble fertilizers
field water use efficiency was with 10 mm depth and normal fertilizers or alone on economics
of irrigation scheduled on the third day during of aerobic rice. Through drip fertigation with
2006–2007 (7.7 kg ha mm1 ) and 10 mm depth water soluble fertilizer, application of 100 % RDF
scheduled on the fourth day during 2007–2008 recorded higher gross returns of INR121222 ha1
(4.2 kg ha mm1 ). When the quantity of irrigation followed by 100 % and 75 % RDF in which 50 %
water available is equal to that of check basin was applied as basal with normal fertilizer and
method (700 mm1 ), irrigations could be sched- 50 % top dress (INR 114,364 and 105,093 ha1 ,
uled with 10 mm depth of water on the fourth respectively). This was mainly due to an increase
day (300 mm1 ) such that 136 times additional in grain and straw yield. The pooled data revealed
area could be brought under cultivation with the that the application of 100 % recommended
available irrigation water. dose of fertilizer (100:50:50 kg NPK ha1 ) with
The results of experiments conducted by micronutrients (4 kg Zn ha1 C 5 kg Fe ha1 )
Saileela et al. (2015) revealed that higher in the form of water soluble fertilizer (WSF)
green pod yield (3556 kg ha1 ) was realized through drip had significantly higher seed cotton
by scheduling irrigation at 100 % Epan which yield (18.19 q ha1 ) which was found at par
was 9.5 % and 22 % higher than the irrigation with 75 % recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF)
scheduling at 80 % and 60 % Epan. However, the with micronutrients (3 kg Zn ha1 C 3.75 kg Fe
increase in the yield with 100 kg ha1 N and K ha1 ) in the form of WSF through fertigation.
58 A.V. Ramanjaneyulu et al.

Concentration and uptake of nutrients recorded period. Water shortage for 2 days at this stage
significantly highest values with the application reduces the yield by 20 %. Pulse drip irrigation is
of 100 % RD along with micronutrients through a recent concept where small frequent irrigation
drip and the efficiency of major nutrients and applications are applied to saturate the soil
nutrient use, besides improving the soil nutrient and meet the plant water requirements while
status after the harvest of the cotton. The B:C reducing the leaching and run-off losses. The
ratio was found highest (1.82) in the treatment higher the irrigation frequency, the smaller the
of 75 % RDF along with micronutrients (3 kg Zn soil wetting volume. Higher soil water content
ha1 C 3.75 kg Fe ha1 ) followed by 100 % RDF in a small range can be maintained by pulse
(100:50:50 kg NPK ha1 ) C 4 kg Zn ha1 C 5 kg drip irrigation. It has increased the maize grain
Fe ha1 (1.75) through water soluble fertilizer yield (4443.8 kg ha1 ) by 11.8 % compared with
(Magare et al. 2015). The fertilizer application continuous drip irrigation (3974.2 kg ha1 ). The
at 125 % of RD in the form of WSF with 0.75– total applied water was saved by 2.01 % for pulse
1.5 m  0.75 m spacing showed the best effect drip irrigation than that of continuous drip. Water
for yield and quality. Drip method of irrigation use efficiency under pulse drip irrigation was
resulted into 59.12 % and 55.18 % more seed 2.34 kg m3 compared with 2.06 kg m3 for
cotton and cotton seed yield than the conventional continuous drip irrigation recording an increase
method of irrigation. Similarly, the yield of seed of 13.55 % (Madhu et al. 2015).
cotton and cotton seed was 17.17 % and 16.53 %
more in WSF than CF (Jawale and Jawale
2015). 5.9 Nutrient Management
Application of 50 % RDF (250, 250 and
500 kg ha1 of N:P2 O5 :K2 O, respectively) With vast geographical land area and diverse
through fertigation produced the yield and TSS agro-ecological regions across the country, there
equivalent to 80 % RDF through fertigation and is a considerable variation in soil health and
100 % RDF through soil application. Variation in fertility. Further, indiscriminate use of chemi-
yield was attributed to a bunch number and 100 cal fertilizers threatened soil fertility. Long-term
berries weight rather than the bunch weight. The application of inorganic fertilizers along with
treatments with higher doses of RDF (80 % and organic manures in integrated manner plays a
100 %) had higher nutrient content in petioles at vital role in not only obtaining higher crop yields
both bud differentiation and full-bloom stages. but also sustaining soil fertility and sequester-
Significantly higher Ca content in petioles was ing high amounts of organic carbon in the long
recorded with fertigation treatments (Vijaya et al. run under scarce, medium and high rainfall re-
2015). gions. The results also suggest that cropping
systems like rice-maize if continued for long term
may deplete soil organic carbon. Recommended
5.8 Pulse Irrigation management practices (RMPs) like conservation
tillage, erosion control and residue recycling are
Precision water management is the process suggested. In rice-rice cropping system, prior
of determining and controlling the volume, rising of sun hemp or green gram is found to
frequency and application rate of irrigation be the best option to sequester organic carbon
water in a planned and efficient manner. Maize and to bring sustainability. Since significant re-
is both water-responsive and drought-tolerant duction is observed in seasonal CH4 emission,
crop. It requires 500–600 mm of water and scientific irrigation practices like SRI cultivation
demand eight to ten irrigations. Seedling, knee and aerobic rice are better options in tank-fed
height, tasselling, silking and grain filling are and bore or well-irrigated areas. In Nalgonda
critical stages for irrigation. Peak consumption district, most of the area comes under carbon
of water occurs during tasselling and silking density ranges of 3.5–5.5 kg m2 . The highest
5 Agrotechnology and Crop Diversification 59

SOC is observed in agri-silviculture system fol- responded favourably to the residual effect of
lowed by silvi-pasture and agri-silvi-horticulture treatments applied to rice as well as fertilizer
system. Regular additions of nutrients through N levels applied to it. Among rice treatments,
fertilizers along with organic manures are found the residual effects on maize were highest with
necessary for carbon sequestration, particularly the application of 50 % RDFN in combination
in soil with nutrient deficiencies. With the intro- with 50 % RDN as vermicompost. Among the
duction of carbon trading, agroforestry systems fertilizer N levels applied to maize, application
may become more attractive. In crop husbandry of 100 % RDFN resulted in highest dry matter
as well as agroforestry, research addressing both production, grain and stover yields as well as
biophysical and socio-economic issues and iden- uptake of nutrients. The fertilizer needs of maize
tifying, developing and bringing out best manage- crop can be reduced to the extent of 50 % by sub-
ment practices (BMPs) with reference to carbon stituting 25 % fertilizer N through poultry manure
sequestration and sustainable production needs to or vermicompost or FYMCBGA to rice in rice-
be intensified (Rao and Padmaja 2015). maize cropping system. The organic carbon, N, P
and K status and activities of enzymes were not
reduced after the harvest of the following maize
5.10 STCR-Based Fertilizer crop compared to initial values due to integrated
Recommendations to Save nitrogen supply to preceding rice. The soil health
Fertilizer and Increase FUE was best maintained by the integrated nitrogen
management strategy in rice due to the resid-
The shortage and high cost of fertilizers neces- ual effect of the slow mineralization of organic
sitate that every unit of fertilizer be used judi- sources of nitrogen.
ciously. In view of high location-specific nutrient Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM)
needs and soil test-based fertilizer recommenda- fungi are the most important ubiquitous
tion for specific crop and crop sequences, soil beneficial below-ground symbiotic community
testing has updated its methods and techniques for increasing the sustainability of agricultural
to remove soil fertility constraints. According to system. They are obligate biotrophs, active,
Shanwad et al. (2015), STCR approach leads to diverse and ubiquitous in distribution and can
precise use of fertilizer dose compared to RDF multiply successfully only in the presence of
method, and ultimately it can reduce the cost of living plant roots. The role of AMF in agriculture
cultivation, increase yield and act as a basic tool and horticulture is well understood. Mycorrhizae
for sustainable agriculture production as experi- played a key role in mobilizing phosphorus
mented and proved in sunflower crop. efficiently and increased the absorptive area of
root, thus improved the plant growth and offered
many other benefits. The mycorrhizal fungi
5.11 Integrated Nutrient can protect the associated plant against various
Management soil-borne pathogens, heavy metals and toxic
compounds and thereby reduce the indiscriminate
Continuous use of inorganic fertilizers may af- usage of chemicals in the field. Experimental
fect the soil fertility and productivity. Effect of studies have shown that many photosynthesizing
conjunctive use of organic and inorganic ma- plants fail to develop into strong individuals, if
nures as against their independent application deprived of their mycorrhizal partner; besides
on soil fertility and crop productivity studied these it has the potentiality of mobilizing
revealed that among the different combinations different nutrients, particularly nitrogen and
tried, application of 75 % RDFN C 25 % N- phosphorus, and can also produce hormones in
VC recorded the highest nutrient uptake, dry plants under stress conditions. Though some
matter yield, grain and straw yields at flowering studies have been done in mycorrhizae, its
and maturity. The maize crop grown during rabi research did not reach the expected peak. Still
60 A.V. Ramanjaneyulu et al.

mycorrhizae will find application as biofertilizers Treatment seed inoculation with Azotobacter C
by farmers in the near future (Ngomle 2015). PSB recorded significantly maximum value of
Application of Zn 20 kg ha1 CRhizobium net monetary returns and B:C ratio in both the
inoculation) was found to be significantly supe- years and pooled analysis (INR 11,535 ha1 and
rior to other treatments in yield attributes, viz. 2.31) (Solunke et al. 2015).
a number of pods per plant and biological and Gabhane et al. (2015) recommended that con-
grain yield. However, the yield attributing to its junctive use of FYM and Gliricidia leaf ma-
parameters such as seed index and number of nuring (50 % recommended nitrogen) along with
seed pods1 did not show any significant differ- 50 % RDF under low tillage (50 % CT C hand
ence. The economic analysis revealed that the net weeding) was found beneficial in improving soil
returns and benefit-cost ratio were highest in the fertility, higher nutrient uptake and productivity
same treatment (Kamble et al. 2015). of rain-fed sorghum grown in inceptisol under
Tamgadge et al. (2015) reported significantly semiarid climatic conditions. Fifty percent RDN
higher seed cotton yield (14.15 q ha1 ) as com- to intercropped pearl millet was sufficient for
pared to recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF) optimum growth and productivity of pearl millet
C 12.5 kg K2 O ha1 and at par with RDF C when it is grown as intercrop with soybean in 1:2
37.5 kg K2 O ha1 besides uptake of nutrients additive series (Layek et al. 2015).
(NPK): better fibre quality and improvement in The productivity of rice is low due to culti-
soil fertility. vation of low yielding local varieties, poor agro-
Ramanjaneyulu et al. (2015) based on 3 years nomic practices, inadequate nutrient supply and
of experimentation concluded that application of deterioration of soil quality due to removal or
20 kg P2 O5 ha1 besides seed treatment with burning of residues, excessive tillage, etc.
Biophos has resulted in significantly higher seed The results of five cropping cycles revealed
yield (1439 kg ha1 ) than that of 60 kg P2 O5 that highest grain yield of rice obtained under
ha1 with or without seed treatment with Bio- NT (4.65 t ha1 ) followed by MT (4.26 t ha1 )
phos and control (no phosphorus application). and CT (4.20 t ha1 ). Among the nutrient man-
However, it was found at par with that of 20 kg agement practices, the highest grain yield was
P2 O5 ha1 without seed treatment with Biophos recorded fewer than 50 % NPK C weed biomass
(1373 kg ha1 ) and 40 kg P2 O5 ha1 (1421 kg (4.64 t ha1 ) followed by 50 % NPK C green
P2 O5 ha1 ) with or without seed treatment with leaf manuring (4.55 t ha1 ). The soil penetration
Biophos (1416 kg P2 O5 ha1 ). Higher gross (INR resistance (PR) recorded after the harvest of rice
46,555 ha1 ) and net returns (INR 25,675 ha1 ) at different depths (0–5 cm, 5–10 cm and 10–
and B:C ratio (2.21) were observed when 20 kg 15 cm) increased with the soil depth. The PR
P2 O5 ha1 was applied besides seed treatment was minimum under NT and maximum under
with Biophos in castor. The value of alkaline CT at all the depths. The productivity (green
phosphatase enzyme before sowing was 230.9 g pod) of pea (Arkel) was significantly higher un-
g1 dwt soil ha1 . Its activity increased due to der residual effect of CT while Prakash under
addition of Biophos irrespective of phosphorus residual effect of MT as compared to NT. The
doses. The maximum increase was found in the bulk density of soil at different depths was highest
treatment of 40 kg P2 O5 ha1 with Biophos. Seed in CT followed by MT and NT. The soil or-
treatment with Biophos C application of 20 kg ganic carbon and soil microbial biomass carbon
P2 O5 ha1 can be recommended for castor under content at 0–15 cm soil depth were significantly
rain-fed conditions on red sandy loam soils with higher under NT as compared to MT and CT.
medium phosphorus level as it has resulted in The soil available N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S status
higher seed yield and net monetary benefits. increased over the years under NT. Hence, NT
FYM at 10 t ha1 recorded significantly plays an important role in improving crop pro-
greater seed cotton yield (13.75 q ha1 ) and ductivity, soil fertility and carbon sequestration.
gross monetary returns ha1 (INR 26,204 ha1 ). Among different nutrient management options,
5 Agrotechnology and Crop Diversification 61

application of 50 % NPK through fertilizer and of leaves plant-1 , number of primary branches,
50 % NPK either through weed biomass or green number of root nodules and fresh weight of root
leaf manure is viable option for improving crop nodules plant1 which was at par with pig manure
and soil productivity. at 7 t ha1 C Rhizobium at 20 g kg1 seed C
The grain, shank and stover yield, dry matter phosphatica at 20 g kg1 seed. A maximum num-
production and yield attributes of maize were sig- ber of plant pods1 , pod seeds1 , grain weight,
nificantly higher with integration of 25 % RDN grain yield and stover yield were observed with
through FYM or poultry manure or vermicom- poultry manure at 6 t ha1 C Rhizobium at 20 g
post with 125 % RDN (150 kg N ha1 ) through kg1 seed C phosphatica at 20 g kg1 seed.
urea than that of 75 or 100 (120:60:30 kg N, The highest harvest index was also observed with
P2 O5 , K2 O ha1 ) or 125 % RDN through urea poultry manure at 6 t ha1 C Rhizobium at 20 g
alone (Kumar et al. 2015b). kg1 seed C phosphatica at 20 g kg1 seed.
As reported by Bhargavi et al. (2015), number This treatment was found significantly superior
of pods plant-1 (42): seeds pod1 (10): fresh over the rest of the treatments including control.
and dry herbage yield of Andrographis panic- Hence, these findings revealed that poultry ma-
ulata was significantly higher with 50% RDF nure with recommended dose of biofertilizers can
(37.5:25:25 kg N, P2 O5 , K2 O ha1 ) C 50% neem play a significant role in soybean crop production
cake (0.5 t ha1 ) over control followed by 50 % (Changkija and Longkumer 2015).
RDF C 50 % vermicompost (1.0 t ha1 ). Fresh Vikram et al. (2015) from Spiti, a cold desert
and dry herbage yield (2968.9 and 2078.2 kg region of Himachal Pradesh, reported that com-
ha1 ) was recorded in 50 % RDF C50 % neem bined application of 50 % RD NPKC sheep ma-
cake compared to 1386.6 and 970.6 kg ha1 in nure at 10 tonnes ha1 C seed treatment with
control. Rhizobium and PSM was the best and resulted in
According to Angha and Longkumer (2015), 50 % saving of NPK fertilizer over recommended
the plant height, number of plant leaves1 , total fertilizer dosage, giving the highest yields. The
dry matter accumulation, leaf area index, size study also revealed the existence of negative
of head and seed and stover yields, besides the correlation between nodule no. of plant1 and
highest values of N, P, K uptake, highest soil inorganic fertilizers.
available N, K (kg ha1 ) and the highest B:C Katkar et al. (2015) studied the long-term
ratio, were recorded when FYM at 10 t ha1 was effect of nutrient management on vertical distri-
applied along with 50 % RDF (20:30:20 kg ha1 ). bution of sulphur fractions under the sorghum-
In an experiment conducted by Patel et al. wheat crop sequence after 22nd cycle in vertisols.
(2015), the economics of various treatments The continuous application of 100 % NPK along
showed that fertigation at 60 % of RDN gave with sulphur at 37.5 kg ha1 showed increase
the highest net return of INR 176,759 ha1 with in total sulphur (361 mg kg1 ), organic sulphur
B:C ratio of 4.03, thus saving 40 % applied N in (219 mg kg1 ), sulphate sulphur (26 mg kg1 ),
sweetcorn during rabi season in Gujarat. Srinivas heat soluble sulphur (19 mg kg1 ) and adsorbed
et al. (2015) reported positive effects of combined sulphur (39 mg kg1 ) fractions in the soil at 0–
application of organic FYM or vermicompost C 15 cm depth. These fractions were decreased in
Rhizobium and PSB as seed treatment at 25 g the similar trend with the increase in soil depth
kg1 of seed on yield and quality of fenugreek. (15–30 and 30–45 cm). The organic S, sulphate S,
However, total chlorophyll content, leaf moisture, water-soluble S, adsorbed S and non-sulphate S
leaf protein content and fibre content were higher are correlated with each other. Correlation studies
due to application of FYM C Rhizobium and of pH, EC, organic carbon, CaCO3 and differ-
PSB seed treatment. ent forms of sulphur indicated that significant
Application of poultry manure at 6 t ha1 correlation of total S (r D 0.438**), organic S
C Rhizobium at 20 g kg1 seed C phosphatica (r D 0.525**), sulphate S (r D 0.464**), heat sol-
at 20 g kg1 seed showed maximum number uble S (r D 0.347*) and adsorbed S (r D 0.362*)
62 A.V. Ramanjaneyulu et al.

was observed with organic carbon except non- of 100 % NPKCFYM at 5 t ha1 compared to
sulphate sulphur. The different forms of sulphur other treatment combinations.
did not show correlation with pH. Highest dry matter production at panicle initi-
Chauhan et al. (2015) reported that the seed ation (5867 kg ha1 ): grain (5547 kg ha1 ) and
yield and all yield contributing factors such as straw (7630 kg ha1 ) yields were recorded by the
the number of pods per cluster (4.60), diameter of integrated application of FYM at 10 t ha1 C
pods (0.7 cm) and length of pods (20.66 cm) were ZnSO4 at 50 kg ha1 along with RDF followed
significantly higher in the treatment that received by the treatment supplied with FYM at 10 t
75 % RDF C seed treatment with Rhizobium ha1 C ZnSO4 at 25 kg ha1 along with RDF.
C PSB compared to control and RDF alone. The macro- and micronutrient (Zn, Fe, Mn and
Nitrogen status in soil after harvest was found Cu) contents and their uptake by rice at panicle
significant in treatment, i.e. 75 % RDF C biofer- initiation and harvest were markedly influenced
tilizers (Rhizobium C PSB), while phosphorus by the treatments with highest values recorded
and potassium status in soil was found significant supplied with FYM at 10 t ha1 C ZnSO4 at
in treatment, i.e. 50 % RDF C vermicompost C 50 kg ha1 along with RDF. Increased level of
biofertilizers (Rhizobium C PSB). zinc application along with RDF significantly in-
Highest rice yield was obtained with 75 % creased the yield, contents and uptake of nutrients
RDF C 5 t ha1 FYM and was significantly by rice. The results of the investigation indicated
superior over rest of nutrient management prac- that the integrated use of RDF along with FYM
tices. Among intercropping treatments, highest at 10 t ha1 and ZnSO4 at 50 kg ha1 was proved
rice seed yield was obtained with sole rice crop, to be beneficial in improving performance of rice
and the rest of the treatments were comparable (Gopi et al. 2015).
with each other, except rice C black gram (4:2 The optimization of the mineral nutrition is the
replacement series) which was superior to the key to optimize the production of groundnut, as
remaining intercropping treatments with soybean it has very high nutrient requirement, and the re-
or black gram. Seventy-five percent RDF C 5 % cently released high yielding groundnut varieties
t ha1 FYM gave significantly higher soybean remove still more nutrients from the soil. On con-
equivalent yield than rest of the nutrient man- trary groundnut farmers’ use very less nutrient
agement treatments under study. Among inter- fertilizer and sometimes only one or two nutrients
cropping treatments rice C soybean (3:2 and 4:2 resulting in severe mineral nutrient deficiencies.
in replacement series) gave comparable soybean Inadequate and imbalance use of nutrients is one
equivalent yield and was significantly superior to of the major factors responsible for low yields in
the rest of the intercropping treatments (Kumar et groundnut. India is the world’s largest producer
al. 2015a). of groundnut where nutritional disorders cause
According to Harne et al. (2015), seed inocula- yield reduction from 30 % to 70 % depending
tion with Bradyrhizobium japonicum C Bacillus upon the soil types. Thus, it is time to look into
megaterium var. phosphaticum C Trichoderma the multi-micronutrient mixture (MMM) aspects
spp. treatment recorded maximum number of of groundnut for achieving high yield. Appli-
nodules per plant, i.e. 16.60, 31.66 and 60.23 at cation of mixture of zinc, ferrous iron, boron,
30, 45 and 60 DAS, respectively, and nodule dry calcium and magnesium (Multinelf 16) at 60 kg
weight, i.e. 34.20, 95.36 and 155.56 mg plant1 ha1 resulted in significantly higher pod yield
at 30, 45 and 60 DAS. (3284 kg ha1 ) compared to the remaining treat-
Long-term fertilizer experiments carried out ments excluding easy mix (3145 kg ha1 ), zinc
by Meshram and Ismail (2015) revealed the fact high (3059 kg ha1 ), vasundhara (3018 kg ha1 )
that the yield of soybean and safflower besides and boracal (2803 kg ha1 ) at 60 kg ha1 over
micronutrient availability (Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu and B) its higher and lower level at the time of basal
was significantly improved with the application application. The higher yield with Multinelf 16
5 Agrotechnology and Crop Diversification 63

(MMM) at 60 kg ha1 was mainly due to higher synergistic effect of phosphorus and sulphur was
plant biomass, plant branches1 , plant pods1 , observed on root length and dry root weight of
dry pod weight and harvest index. However, 100- soybean at 60 DAS, grain, straw and total biolog-
kernel weight was influenced significantly due to ical yield of soybean. Similar result was observed
application of different multi-micronutrient fertil- in total nutrient uptake of nitrogen, phosphorous
izer mixtures and, similarly, fetched significantly and sulphur by soybean.
higher net return (INR 96,492 ha1 ) and B:C ratio Katore et al. (2015) gave conclusive evidence
of 3.18, followed by easy mix at 60 kg ha1 (INR that legumes such as black gram, green gram
92,377 ha1 , 3.12), zinc high at 60 kg ha1 (INR and soybean save 15.45, 9.47 and 8.17 kg ha1
88,259 ha1 , 3.00), vasundhara at 60 kg ha1 nitrogen compared to sunflower and fallow.
(INR 85,233 ha1 , 2.95) and boracal 12 at 60 kg Prasad (2015) stated that among the much
ha1 (INR 77,883 ha1 , 2.81) over other treat- advancement in sciences, nanotechnology is
ments. Hence, to achiever a maximum economic being visualized as a rapidly evolving field
return from summer groundnut, basal application that has potential to revolutionize agriculture
Multinelf 16, i.e. mixture of zinc, ferrous iron, and food systems and improve the condition
boron, calcium and magnesium at 60 kg ha1 , of the farmer. Technical convergence across
is found to be profitable through improvement of the fields of physics, engineering, chemistry,
productivity of groundnut (Mahatale et al. 2015). biology, agriculture and food sciences is the
Keeping in view the ever-increasing negative essential core of development of nanotechnology.
impacts on human health and ecology due to According to the US Environmental Protection
present commercial farming systems following Agency, nanotechnology is defined as the science
intensive usage of synthetic inputs, researches of understanding and control of matter at
and policy makers are forced to find out an dimensions of roughly 1–100 nm, where unique
alternative way of farming (Ramanjaneyulu et al. physical and chemical properties make novel
2013). Organic farming is one such system which applications possible. The Asia Pacific Economic
provides healthy and safe food without ecolog- Cooperation (APEC) Center for Technology
ical harm. Application of 75 % vermicompost Foresight has predicted that nanotechnology
(on N-equivalent basis of RDF) C Trichoderma will revolutionize all aspects of our economy
harzianum (30–40 ml plant1 ) C azadirachtin and society, with associated large-scale social
(1 % at 3–4 ml lit1 ) C Pseudomonas fluorescens upheaval. According to Singh et al. (2015),
(30–40 ml plant1 ) was effective in improving intensive agriculture practice due to the green
growth, yield and quality parameters of Nagpur revolution in India has resulted in progressive
mandarin and recorded significantly more plant depletion of soil nutrients and nutrient demand.
height (4.81 m); canopy volume (57.40 m3); fruit In Indian agriculture, these are going to increase
yield (92.76 kg plant1 , i.e. 25.70 t ha1 having tremendously in coming years. Nanotechnology
670.25 number of plant fruits1 ); juice content is seen as the important technology for future
(49.15 %); and TSS (11.20 o B) with minimum agriculture production. Smaller size, higher
acidity (0.72 %) compared to the remaining treat- specific surface area and reactivity of nano-
ments. The leaf nutrient status was also improved fertilizers compared to bulk one may increase
with this treatment (Paithankar et al. 2015). the solubility, diffusion and hence availability
Dhage et al. (2015) reported that grain and to plants and enhance crop productivity.
straw yield, uptake of phosphorus and sulphur Nanoparticles and nano capsules provide an
increased with increase in rate of application of efficient means to distribute fertilizers and
P and S individually as well as in various com- chemicals in a controlled fashion with high
binations. Applied S and P increased the num- site specificity. Nanoparticles proved to be
ber of plant nodules1 , fresh weight of nodules, beneficial in seed germination and plant growth.
root length and dry root weight of soybean. The Nanosensors can be useful in precision farming
64 A.V. Ramanjaneyulu et al.

and effective water management in agriculture. improve the weed control efficiency of applied
Nanohydrogels may be used effectively in water- herbicides and competitiveness against weeds.
deficit desert areas. In one of the experiments Approaches such as stale seedbed practice, uni-
at DIHAR, carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC)- form and dense crop establishment, use of cover
based nanohydrogels were developed in the crops and crop residues as mulch, crop rotations
laboratory. Field experiments were undertaken and practices or enhanced crop competitiveness
in high-altitude cold desert Ladakh region to with a combination of pre- and post-emergence
observe effects of different doses of developed herbicides could be integrated to develop sustain-
nanohydrogels and irrigation interval on growth able and effective weed management strategies.
and yield of capsicum (var. California Wonder) in Mandal et al. (2015) reported that weed man-
trenches. Results showed that in nanohydrogel- agement treatments involving pre-emergence ap-
treated plots at 75 kg ha1 , significant increase plication of herbicides such as Targasuper at
(24.2 %) in capsicum yield (42.6 t ha1 ) was 15 g a.i. ha1 Chand weeding at 45 days after
observed compared to control plots (34.3 t ha1 ). sowing resulted in higher bulb yield of onion
Significant increase in leaf chlorophyll content (22.73 and 21.63 t ha1 , respectively) due to
and relative water content (RWC) and membrane maintenance of weed-free condition during the
stability index (MSI) were observed in treated initial stages with pre-emergence application of
plots when compared with untreated plots. In the herbicides and control of late emerging weeds
present study, high amount of irrigation water by one-hand weeding at 45 days after sowing.
savings was also achieved with improved water The weed control efficiency was more than 77.34
use efficiency. and 76.46 % at 50 DAA. The weed index values
ranged from 6.23 to 9.24 % in sole herbicide
and integrated treatments as compared to 68.11 %
5.12 Integrated Weed with weedy check indicating least crop weed
Management competition. Weed-free check fetched the higher
cost of cultivation (INR 68,192 ha1 ), gross mon-
Weeds are ubiquitous in nature and difficult to etary returns (INR193920 ha1 ) and net return
be eradicated. No single weed control method (INR 125,728 ha1 ) over all the other treatments,
was found to be successful in all situations. but it had less benefit-cost ratio (2.84).
Hence, integrated approach involving cultural, As reported by Lalita et al. (2015) based on
mechanical, chemical and biological methods is the results of four seasons of experimentation,
the need of the hour based on the agro-ecological the mean pod yield of groundnut was signifi-
situation. cantly higher with 150 % RDF (1027 kg ha1 )
It is basically an integration of different weed followed by 100 % RDFCFYM at 10 t ha1
management strategies that can be used econom- (1008 kg ha1 ), and both the treatments were
ically by the producers as a part of sound farm on par. Application of 100 % RDFCFYM at
management system. Integrated weed manage- 10 t ha1 also maintained highest post harvest
ment system is not meant for replacing selec- available N status revealing the importance of or-
tive, safe and efficient herbicides but is a sound ganic nutrient sources in nutrient management of
strategy to encourage judicious use of herbi- groundnut.
cides along with other safe, effective, economical According to Saras et al. (2015), weed dry
and eco-friendly control measures. The use of weight of monocot and dicot weeds was lowest
clean crop seeds and seeders and field sanitation in intercultural operation followed by hand
(weed-free irrigation canals and bunds) should weeding at 20 and 40 DAS with maximum weed
be integrated for effective weed management. control efficiency (100 %) and also recorded
Combining good agronomic practices, timeliness higher yield attributes (seed and stover yield
of operations, fertilizer and water management of 16.55 and 49.36 q ha1 , respectively) which
and retaining crop residues on the soil surface gave maximum net monetary returns and B:C
5 Agrotechnology and Crop Diversification 65

ratio (INR 59,404 ha1 and 2.97, respectively). It also resulted in higher contents of major and
In the case of chemical treatment, application secondary nutrients (Vimala et al. 2015).
of herbicide combination (pendimethalin and Sharma and Singh (2015) opined that shifts
imazethapyr (premixed) at 800 g ha1 pre- in weed populations from annuals to perennials
emergence) followed by hand weeding at 30 DAS have become common in conservation agriculture
was found statistically at par with intercultural systems. Perennial weeds are known to thrive
operation followed by hand weeding at 20 better in reduced or no-tillage systems. Most
and 40 DAS. It led to minimum dry weight perennial weeds have the ability to reproduce
of monocot and dicot weeds and higher weed from several structural organs other than seeds.
control efficiency and yield attributes and gave For example, Bermuda grass (Cynodon dacty-
second maximum net monetary returns and B:C lon), nut sedge (Cyperus rotundus) and John-
ratio (INR 45,872 ha1 and 2.20, respectively). son grass (Sorghum halepense) generally repro-
As reported by Das et al. (2015a), it was duce from underground plant storage structures:
found that post-emergence application of stolons, tubers or nuts and rhizomes, respectively.
bispyribac sodium 10 % SC at 30 g a.i. ha1 Crop yield losses in conservation agriculture due
gave significantly lower total weed density, weed to weeds may vary depending on weed dynamics
dry weight and higher weed control efficiency at and weed intensity. However, the presence of
all the stages. Application of bispyribac sodium post-emergence broad-spectrum herbicides pro-
10 % SC at 20 g a.i. ha1 kept the weed density vides an opportunity to control weeds in CA.
and dry weight below the economic threshold Crop yields can be similar for conventional and
level and increased the grain yield in rice. conservation tillage systems if weeds are con-
Succeeding crop black gram sown immediately trolled and crop stands are uniform. Results of
after the harvest of rice was not affected by on-farm trials at several locations in Haryana, In-
the residue of bispyribac sodium at all different dia, revealed that population density of Phalaris
doses. Sreedevi et al. (2015) reported that among minor was considerably lower and grain yield
the weed management practices, pre-emergence of wheat was comparatively higher under zero
application of pendimethalinCrice: dhaincha tillage than conventional tillage.
(1:1) and 2,4-D Na application at 25–30 DAS, In rainy season, when the weed problem is
and pendimethalinCrice: dhaincha (1:1) and one- generally more, growing crops with zero tillage
hand weeding at 60 DAS were effective in reduc- require additional measures for effective weed
ing weed population and weed biomass and in control, including use of nonselective herbicides
increasing grain yields under aerobic unpuddled like paraquat and glyphosate. Zero-till sowing
conditions. As concluded and reported by Kumar in standing crop residues along with application
et al. (2015a), N at 200 kg N ha1 has to be of herbicides in proper combination, sequence
applied for achieving significantly higher grain or in rotation led to lower weed population and
yields (5974 kg ha1 and 4480 kg ha1 ) during higher yield than conventional planting. How-
kharif season under mechanized transplanting ever, changing from tillage-based farming to no-
system. Black polythene mulch of 50  and black till farming is not easy. No till incurs a greater
polythene mulch of 50  plus 3 % CaNO3 spray risk of crop failure or lower net returns than
treatments were superior over other treatments in conventional agriculture, and this perception has
most of the parameters studied. Black polythene seriously hindered its adoption in countries out-
mulch of 50  plus 3 % CaNO3 spray showed side North and South America. Yields of no-
superiority in plant height, number of branches, till crops may be lower by 5–10 % in the ini-
plant spread, flower diameter, mean flower tial years, especially on fine-textured and poorly
weight, number of flowers per plant, yield per drained soils. No-till farming demands use of
plant, yield per plot, yield per hectare and vase extra N fertilizer and heavy reliance on herbi-
life. Weed control efficiency and soil temperature cides. The continued practice of no-till is, there-
was also recorded maximum under this treatment. fore, highly dependent on development of new
66 A.V. Ramanjaneyulu et al.

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 Physiological Basis of Crop
Productivity 6
Ratikanta Maiti and Aruna Kumari

Abstract
This chapter reviews various aspects of the physiological basis of crop
production under climatic changes and the use of different crop geometry
planting techniques and their influence on yield. This includes diurnal
variations in canopy temperature and stress degree, and various abiotic and
biotic stress factors such as chlorophyll, nitrogen and potassium content
under post-flowering moisture stress in sorghum, sodium and potassium
accumulation under salt stress, chlorophyll-scavenging enzymes under
drought stress, physiological responses to foliar spray of organic manure,
zinc, integrated nutrient management, application of nutrients for shelf
life, sustainable land water and crop management, nutrient cycling and
distribution, foliar application of zinc, boron, GA, plant growth regulators,
and application of low-cost technologies such as Rhizobium and PSB for
soil fertility improvement. It also discusses the role of biotechnology and
genetic engineering, green technology, nanotechnology, bio-fortification
in bio-resource and stress management, with a special emphasis on pest
management.

6.1 Introduction

The productivity of crops is influenced by vari-

ous physiological functions of the plants among
R.K. Maiti () which may be mentioned absorption of water
Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Autónoma and nutrients from soils by roots, photosynthesis,
de Nuevo León, Carr. No 85, km 145, NL 67700 Linares,
respiration, transpiration, water relations and so
Mexico
e-mail: [email protected] on. Besides the environmental conditions of pre-
cipitation, temperature, humidity, heat and cold
A. Kumari
Department of Crop Physiology, Agricultural College, stress, other abiotic stresses such as salinity and
Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural drought have direct impacts on the physiologi-
University, Polasa, Jagtial, Karimnagar 505 529, cal functions of the plants and their productiv-
Telangana, India
e-mail: [email protected]
ity. Significant advances have been made on the

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 71

R.K. Maiti et al. (eds.), Bioresource and Stress Management, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0995-2_6
72 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

physiology of plants and mechanisms of resis- higher at 11.30 h, which indicated moisture stress
tance to various abiotic stresses. Several papers at that time. Overall, the moisture adequacy was
were presented on these various aspects at the better under D2 sowing, giving the probability of
Second International Conference on Bio-resource good yield under this sowing, and was closely
and Stress Management in Hyderabad in January followed by D3 sown crops (Tzudir et al. 2015).
2015.

6.4 Abiotic and Biotic Stress

6.2 Impact of Climate Change Management
on Physiological and Yield
Parameters 6.4.1 Post-flowering Moisture
Stress in Sorghum
Climate change has an impact on various phys-
iological and yield parameters. In sorghum the The chlorophyll, nitrogen and potassium content
physiological parameters are analysed in leaves at in the fully expanded third leaf from the top was
the boot stage, 50 % flowering and dough stages. also positively and significantly correlated with
The physiological parameters (viz chlorophyll a grain yield in sorghum genotypes CRS 4, CRS
and b, total chlorophyll, RWC, photosynthetic 19, CRS 20, PEC 17, CSV 18, M 35–1, Phule
rate, PAR, stomatal conductance and leaf thick- Chitra, Phule Moulee, EP 57 and CRS 1 under
ness) and biochemical parameters (viz reducing post-flowering moisture stress (Devkumar et al.
sugars, non-reducing sugars, total sugars and sol- 2015).
uble protein) were found to be higher in the
Phule Revati variety of sorghum when sowings
were taken in the month of October for the rabi 6.4.2 Sodium and Potassium
season, indicating that the rabi sorghum crop Accumulation Under Salt
sown in late October favours obtaining higher Stress
grain and fodder yields. Thus the rabi sorghum
variety Phule Revati, owing to its physiological The tolerance type of plant response to salin-
and yield-contributing characters, was found to ity and drought stress is caused by cellular and
sustain climatic changes and could be exploited molecular modifications, which lend themselves
in breeding programmes (Baviskar 2015). to biotechnological manipulation. Salt tolerance
is related to the efficiency of a tissue to absorb,
deposit and transport the levels of inorganic so-
6.3 Diurnal Variations in Canopy lutes in response to salt stress. The plants that
Temperature and Stress regenerated from the salt-tolerant calli of sugar-
Degree Day cane varieties, namely Co 99004, were selected
when grown in a pot culture system under salinity
Diurnal variations in canopy temperature and stress showing that an increasing supply of NaCl
stress degree day are seen in different crops more adversely affected root growth than shoot
at different dates of sowing. Four mung bean growth. The chlorophyll content, photosynthe-
varieties (V1: Pant Mung-5; V2: Bireswar; V3: sis rate, stomatal conductance and dry matter
RMG-62; V4: Sukumar) sown on three differ- showed a decreasing trend but at a slower rate in
ent dates (D1: 15 February; D2: 1 March; D3: tolerant mutants than in normal plants. Further,
15 March) in a sub-humid tropical environment it was observed that at high salt concentrations,
revealed increases in canopy temperatures at 7:30 NaC content and KC content in shoots of tolerant
and 11:30 h. The mean canopy temperature under mutants were higher compared to normal plants.
D2 was lower than under D1 and D3 in both the The results indicated that leaf area, number of
years, which indicated no moisture stress suffered leaves, CCI, photosynthesis rate, stomatal con-
by the crop during that period. The SDDI was ductance, shoot length, root length, fresh weight,
6 Physiological Basis of Crop Productivity 73

dry weight and some mineral solutes, i.e. KC , had stress conditions. The data showed that the status
a positive role to play in the tolerance of salinity of scavenging enzymes and chlorophyll could
by the generated plant (Gadakh et al. 2015). provide a meaningful tool for depicting drought
tolerance of a rice genotype (Vanisri et al. 2015).

6.4.3 Mannitol Stress

and Chlorophyll-Scavenging 6.4.4 Physiological Responses
Enzymes for Drought to Foliar Sprays
Tolerance
In today’s changing climatic conditions, use
Biochemical markers can be utilized for identify- of organic manures is required for sustainable
ing genotypes for drought tolerance. Changes in agriculture rather than use of fertilizers alone
chlorophyll content and activities of scavenging in the field for producing higher yields. This
enzymes were determined in 14th-day seedlings was evident in chickpea foliar sprayed with
of 20 rice genotypes, each with a different ge- 6 % cow urine, which recorded the highest seed
netic background. Water-deficit conditions were protein content (21.93), number of pods per plant
induced by treatment with mannitol at 20 % con- (47.60), 100-seed weight (24.00 g), seed yield
centration added to the supporting micronutrient per plant (6.77 g), seed yield per plot (1.35 kg)
medium (Yoshida 1981) in Deogirkar 2015. The and seed yield per hectare (22.58 q) rather than
estimation of chlorophyll content and activity of only fertilizer use (Deogirkar 2015).
scavenging enzymes in the leaf tissue carried out
after 24 h exposure to stress indicated an increase
in the activity of SOD and POD in rice geno- 6.5 Role of Society
types exposed to the water-limiting situation. The in Bio-resource Management
increased antioxidant activity was in correspon-
dence with raised levels of free radicals. The 6.5.1 Integrated Nutrient
increase in SOD and POD of the antioxidant sys- Management
tem indicated that the increase in oxidative stress and Biofertilizers
caused by drought might have been overwhelmed
by this enzymatic system. The leaf SOD activity An efficient means of managing resources is the
of Rajendra (34.39): Vandana, IR 64 (31.48), An- adoption of usage of integrated nutrient man-
jali (30.38) and Varalu (30.23) at 20 % mannitol agement and biofertilizers. Fertilizer or manure
were higher than that of check Vandana at no application alone or in combination significantly
mannitol stress. Genotype Rajendra was superior increased the N content in seed and straw and
to check Vandana at 20 % mannitol stress. The total uptake of NPK in the Isabgol (Plantago
results clearly indicated the free radical scaveng- ovate) cultivar. There were also increases in the
ing ability of these varieties under the influence of levels of N content in seed and straw and NPK
drought stress by correspondingly enhancing the uptake, and higher seed and straw yields with
production levels of SOD. The POD activity in vermicompost at 1.5 t ha1 C 50 % RDF. Though
Vijetha (138.60), MTU 1010 (133.40), Vandana the application of Azotobacter and Azospirillum
(136.50), BPT 5204 (127.77), IR 64 (112.90), inoculants marginally increased NPK content,
Prasanna (114.30), B 133 (114.80) and Azucena nutrient uptake in seed and straw was found to be
(102.50) was found to be desirable and reflected higher with biofertilizer. Application of fertilizers
an increased ROS scavenging capacity of these or manures in an integrated manner improves the
genotypes. A significant reduction in leaf chloro- protein content and swelling capacity and results
phyll content was also observed under mannitol in maximum net returns. Though the fertilizers
stress. This study indicated that chlorophyll b or manures improve organic carbon and available
was more sensitive than chlorophyll a for water- NPK in soil, a marginal improvement in soil
74 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

fertility is also achieved by biofertilizers (Shivran studies suggest that climate change may be one
et al. 2015). of the biggest disturbance factors imposed on
ecosystems today (Walther et al. 2002). A recent
review has emphasized that plant–pollinator in-
6.5.2 Impact of Foliar Spray teractions can be affected by changes in climatic
of Nanoformulated Zinc conditions in subtle ways. However, data on the
Sulphate on Growth impacts of climate change on crop pollination are
still limited. An investigation was conducted to
Nanoformulated zinc fertilizer with biopolymers study the impact of climate change on pollination
affects growth and development. The nanofor- in apples in the Kullu Valley with the pollinator’s
mulated zinc fertilizer with or without a zinc diversity, wherein honey bee colonies (Apis mel-
coating is synthesized through ionic gelation pro- lifera) were also supplemented to apple orchards.
cess. The cationic biopolymer chitosan and an- A shift was observed in the numbers of days for
ionic polymer sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP) are the onset, peak and end of bloom for the apple
used to encapsulate the zinc ions by producing cultivar, which further might be related to climate
chitosan nanoparticles. The newly synthesized change. The diversity and density of different
nanoformulated zinc fertilizer is then character- pollinators, viz honey bees, bumble bees, other
ized for confirmation of size, shape, zeta po- wild bees, syrphids, drone flies and others insects
tential, crystalline nature and elemental compo- recorded by the use of scan sampling and the
sition using a particle size analyser, scanning sweep net method revealed that syrphids were
electron microscopy with EDAX, X-ray diffrac- the most abundant pollinators (2.24), followed by
tion and FTIR. The characterized nanoformulated honey bees (1.55). The fruit set (on a spur basis)
zinc fertilizer with or without a zinc coating when at 60–200 m from bee colonies varied between
foliar sprayed at 100 ppm concentration on 35- 34.13–49.88 % and 79.5–71.76 % during 2 years
day-old cotton (var. Suraj) plants increased plant of study. No specific varied trend was seen in the
height, number of leaves, number of squares, root total soluble solids (TSS) of fruits or the number
length, and shoot and root weight at 8 weeks of seeds per fruit (Gupta et al. 2015a).
(20 days after spraying) (Kanjana 2015).

6.5.4 Impacts of Denavelling

6.5.3 Impact of Supplemental and Stalk End Application
Pollinators on Flowering of Nutrients on Yield
and Fruit Set Under Changing and Shelf Life
Climatic Scenario
Denavelling and stalk end application of nutrients
Pollination is an important ecosystem service influence yield and quality of banana. In banana
considered by the Millennium Ecosystem Assess- cv. Dwarf Cavendish, denavelling and stalk end
ment. It is fundamental to the reproduction of application of nutrients improved bunch charac-
flowering plants and is essential for production of ters and yield. A denavelled bunch treated with
about one third of the food consumed by humans a combination of 500 g of fresh cow dung slurry
(Klein et al. 2007). Pollinators are considered with 20 g of sulphate of potash resulted in max-
keystone species in many situations because they imum bunch yield (73.10 t ha1 ), bunch weight
not only support humanity but also maintain (20.57 kg), weight of the hand (2.60 kg) and
diversity in an ecosystem. There is mounting weight of the finger (127.66 g), and finger param-
evidence of a decline in pollinators, which would eters of the bunch like finger length (18.43 cm),
threaten the reproductive cycle of many plants finger circumference (12.90 cm), weight of the
and may reduce the quality of fruit and seeds, pulp (109.16 g) and weight of the peel (42.31 g)
many of which are of nutritional and medicinal also increased. It also resulted in the longest shelf
importance to humans. A growing number of life (7.56 days) (Priyanka et al. 2015).
6 Physiological Basis of Crop Productivity 75

6.6 Sustainable Land, Water 6.6.3 Rooting Responses Under

and Crop Management, Shade Net Conditions
Conservation Agriculture
and Homestead Farming Vegetative propagation of pomegranate (Punica
granatum L.) through cuttings is the most con-
6.6.1 Nutrient Cycling venient and cheap method of obtaining true-to-
and Distribution the-type, fully developed plants in considerably
less time with reduced mortality of rooted cut-
The soil nutrient distribution varies under plan- tings. Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) is an
tations in comparison to cultivable land. The ancient and favourite fruit of many tropical and
soil nutrient status of bamboo plantations was subtropical areas because of its refreshing and
found to vary with cultivable land. The soil pH medicinal qualities. The pomegranate is native
was lower in bamboo followed by other planta- from Iran to the Himalayas in Northern India.
tions and cultivable land. Bamboo plantations had An investigation carried out to evaluate the effect
higher OC, IOC, available nutrients N, P, K and of substrate and IBA on root characteristics of
S, and exchangeable Ca and Mg concentrations pomegranate cuttings indicated that different sub-
than cultivable land. The organic carbon and total strates respond differently to IBA concentrations.
nutrients added through leaf biomass (t ha1 ) to The cuttings treated with 4000 ppm IBA and
soils was higher in bamboo, followed by other planted in coir pith C FYM had the highest
plantations. There were no total returns of nu- percentage of rooted cuttings, survival percentage
trients and OC to cultivable land (Kumar et al. of rooted cuttings, number and length of roots,
2015b). fresh and dry weight of roots, root-to-shoot ratio
and percentage of field establishment of rooted
cuttings (Ratnakumari et al. 2015).

6.6.2 Distribution of Zinc and Zinc

Fractions in Paddy Soils 6.6.4 Impacts of Potting Media
on Growth and Quality
In the upper Krishna project command area the of Ornamental Foliage Plants
distribution of zinc and zinc fractions in paddy
soils at two depths (0–15 and 15–30) from paddy Potting media influence the growth and quality
growing areas of Surpur (Shorapur) and Shahapur of ornamental plants. In the ornamental plant
taluk, when analysed for physicochemical prop- Aglaonema cv. Ernesto’s Favourite a potting
erties, revealed that the soils of the command medium containing cocopeat C sand C FYM
area were neutral to slightly alkaline in reaction C vermicompost in a 2:1:1:0.5 ratio v/v was
with varying electrical conductivity. The organic found to be better in increasing the plant height,
and free calcium carbonate in soils increased with number of leaves, plant growth index, fresh and
increases in depth. The soils were calcareous dry weight of root, visual plant grade, colour
in nature with varying cation exchange capacity grade, root grade and K content (Swetha et al.
(CEC) values of 34.30–59.00 cmol (pC) kg1 2015).
and 36.20–61.20 cmol (pC) kg1 in surface and
subsurface soils, respectively. The order of zinc
distribution in paddy soils were water soluble 6.6.5 Foliar Application of Zinc
plus exchangeable zinc < organically bound zinc and Boron
< crystalline bound zinc < amorphous sesquiox-
ide bound zinc < manganese oxide bound zinc < Micronutrients like zinc and boron improve the
residual zinc (Rajini et al. 2015). growth and yield. They also have an influence
76 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

on the quality of fruits. In a tomato (Azad T-6) fits. GA3 when foliar sprayed increased the fruit
variety, the foliar application of these nutrients size, fruit weight, TSS and ascorbic acid levels.
greatly influenced the vegetative growth in terms An increase in the GA3 concentration beyond
of plant height and number of branches at various 250 ppm decreased the fruit acidity. A still higher
stages (30, 60 and 90 days after transplanting) concentration of GA3 (300 ppm) had a detrimen-
and resulted in early flowering with a maxi- tal effect on the fruit quality of cape gooseberry.
mum number of flowers and fruit yield. Further, Thus an optimum level of foliar application of
these micronutrients improved the physicochem- GA3 is only effective in improving the physico-
ical qualities of tomato fruits and especially im- chemical properties of cape gooseberry (Kumar
proved the TSS:acid ratio. Thus, application of et al. 2015a, b).
boron and zinc either solely or in combination is
quite beneficial for vegetative growth, flowering
and fruiting as well as quality improvement of 6.6.8 Impacts of Salicylic Acid
tomato fruits grown under high-pH soil (pH 8.2) on Growth and Bulb Yield
(Meena et al. 2015a).
Exogenous application of salicylic acid was
found to increase plant growth and alter several
6.6.6 Impact of Boron in Improving physiological processes. In onion var. Agrifound
Spikelet Fertility Light Red and garlic, exogenous application
of salicylic acid (SA) during the winter season
Under the changing climatic conditions of pre- influenced the growth and yield. It increased
vailing high or low temperatures there is a de- vegetative growth in terms of plant height
crease in the spikelet fertility and subsequently (68.18–71.08 cm) and collar thickness (16.90–
a reduction in grain density. Four levels of boron 18.51 mm) with a higher chlorophyll content
(B) sprays in seven genotypes of rice have shown of leaves (31.53–33.01 SPAD). Foliar spray
differential variations in grain filling high-density of SA at 30 days after sowing (DAS), 30 and
grains. The grain filling percentage was higher 45 or 60 days after transplanting (DAT) was
in Rasi at 0.4 ppm B spray and a high-density more effective in producing maximum vegetative
grain weight was seen in IET 21106 (17.73 g) parameters, bulb yield and yield-contributing
with less chaff weight in IET 20979 (0.62 g) parameters. Spraying of SA three times had better
and Rasi (0.68 g). Grain yield was maximum in efficacy than spraying two times in terms of bulb
IET 20979. B resulted in an increase in spikelet diameter (polar: 65.60–67.94 mm and equatorial:
fertility, grain density and yield of rice genotypes 49.10–49.80 mm), bulb weight (59.50–69.25 g),
IET 20979, IET 21106 and IET 21114, which marketable bulb yield (180.91–183.10 q ha1 )
responded more positively to B application (Guru and total bulb yield (266.99–290.91 q ha1 ).
et al. 2015). Application of SA at 30 DAS, 30 DAT and/or
45 or 60 DAT not only increases the vegetative
growth but also increases bulb yield in onion
6.6.7 Impacts of Foliar Spray variety ALR (Pradhan et al. 2015).
of Gibberellic Acid
on Physicochemical
Properties 6.6.9 Impacts of Plant Growth
Regulators and Antioxidants
Foliar sprays of gibberellic acid improved fruit on In Vitro Multiplication
quality. Cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana L.)
is an herbaceous or soft-woody, perennial plant Over the past few years, plant growth regulators
and is grown for its edible fruits, which have such as IAA, BAP and antioxidants like adenine
high nutritional value and potential health bene- sulphate and ascorbic acid have been used for in
6 Physiological Basis of Crop Productivity 77

vitro multiplication of crops. In in vitro multipli- foliar spray could be recommended for increased
cation of banana cv. Karpurachekkarakeli (AAB) growth, flower and seed yield in China aster
there was a higher primordial emergence coupled cv. Kamini, as it is less expensive than GA3
with maximum shoot length and number of leaves (Pavankumar et al. 2015).
by the addition of these to the MS medium (Usha In Gladiolus cv. Darshan, foliar sprays of SA
et al. 2015). and calcium nitrate induced early flowering in
plants that were raised from cormels and resulted
in maximum vegetative growth, number of spikes
6.6.10 Impacts of Pinching and Plant per plant, number of florets per spike and spike
Growth Regulators longevity (Padmalatha et al. 2015).
on Flowering and Yield

Pinching and plant growth regulators (GA3 or 6.6.12 Impacts of Growth Regulators
NAA) influence flowering and seed yield. In on Hastabahar Regulation
fenugreek cv. APHU Methi-1, single pinching
at 25 DAS (P1) resulted in a maximum number Regulation of hastabahar or flowering in most
of pods, length of pods, number of seeds per fruit crops is brought about by sprays of growth
pod and seed yield. Among the plant growth regulators. Use of plant growth regulators, viz
regulators, foliar spraying of GA3 50 ppm (G1) GA3 50 ppm in June C cycocel 1000 and
three times (at 25, 45 and 65 DAS) resulted in 2000 ppm and paclobutrazol 2.5 g a.i. and 3.5 a.i.
the best performance of yield parameters like the per tree and 1000 and 2000 ppm in September
number of pods, length of pods, number of seeds nutrients, viz KNO3 , zinc (0.3 %) and boron
per pod and seed yield of fenugreek. Early flower (0.1 %), used for the regulation of hastabahar in
initiation and early maturity were observed with acid lime, has revealed better performance of acid
application of GA3 . Pinching in combination with lime on treatment. There were increases in fruit
growth regulator (GA3 ) resulted in maximum yield (32.29 kg per plant, i.e. 8.90 t ha1 ) fruit
yield attributes like the number of pods, length juice (48.95 %), TSS (8.13 o B), acidity (6.94 %),
of pods, seed yield and test weight (Krishnaveni ascorbic acid content (30.62 mg 100 ml1 ) and
et al. 2015). weight of fruit (42.49 g) in acid lime (Deshmukh
et al. 2015).
Shoots of mango cv. Kesar were selected and
6.6.11 Impacts of Bio-regulators pruned back by 10 cm and sprayed with 2 %
on Growth and Flowering urea spray during the last week of May, i.e.
after harvest. Spraying of 6-BA at 200 ppm on
Plant bio-regulators influence growth, flowering the post-harvest vegetative flush as well as old
and seed yield. Various plant growth regulators, shoots showed a profound effect in early panicle
viz GA3, SA, maleic hydrazide, alar and paclobu- emergence with a maximum length of panicle
trazol were used as foliar sprays twice at 20 (41.83 cm) without cool inductive temperature
and 35 days after transplanting in China aster for flower bud differentiation. Spraying of 6-BA
cv. Kamini, affecting plant growth, flowering at 200 ppm is effective towards early induction of
and seed yield. SA (200 ppm) spray achieved a flowering in mango cv. Kesar (Shankaraswamy et
higher plant height, number of primary branches al. 2015).
per plant and number of secondary branches per Foliar application of GA3 (200 ppm) C KNO3
plant at 90 DAT, number of flowers per plant, (1 %) in marigold improved the days of opening
flower yield per plant, flower yield per hectare, of the flower from flower bud emergence, 50 %
seed yield per plant, seed yield per hectare and flowering and first harvesting from transplant-
1000-seed weight, and GA3 200 ppm foliar spray ing and maximum flowering span, and increased
was found to be on par with SA 200 ppm. SA flower yield. Similarly, there was also an increase
78 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

in the diameter of the fully open flower, length shelf life, with the highest juice content, peel
of flower stalk, weight of flower and vase life of content and firmness. Further, this treatment also
flowers under foliar application of GA3 400 ppm resulted in the lowest TSS, total sugars and high-
C KNO3 2 % (Taksande et al. 2015). est ascorbic acid content. The analysis of various
physicochemical parameters indicated that BA
50 ppm C wax 6 % preserved the quality of sweet
6.6.13 Impacts of Plant Growth orange with a 45 % concomitant increase in shelf
Retardants on Growth life (Hemalatha et al. 2015).
of Plants

Growth retardants in some ornamental plants are 6.6.15 Impact of Gibberellic Acid
used to retard the growth of foliage of ornamental in Modified Atmospheric
plants. Two growth retardants, viz paclobutrazol Packaging
and ancymidol, in ornamental foliage plants, i.e.
Aglonema cv. Ernesto’s Favourite and Schefflera Sweet orange (Citrus sinensis cv. Nucellar) fruit
arboricola, when applied as soil drench at is harvested at a physiological stage of maturity
monthly intervals from 30 DAT, drastically at the light green stage. Most physiological and
reduced the plant height, number of leaves biochemical changes are affected during storage
produced, canopy width, leaf length and width, and ripening. When sweet orange fruits were har-
leaf area, petiole length and stem diameter vested at physiological maturity and treated with
(Kameswari et al. 2015). GA3 and paraffin wax in a dose-dependent man-
Growth characters like the number of leaves ner, stored in 100-gauge polythene bags with 5 %
per plant, number of branches per plant and dry ventilation and without ventilation, and kept in
matter accumulation per plant are influenced by corrugated fibre board boxes (CFB) at room tem-
the time of application and the concentration of perature (27 C 2 ı C) and humidity of 60–70 %,
growth retardants. In soybean, foliar application most physiological and biochemical changes dur-
of CCC 2000 ppm at 40 DAS reduced plant ing storage and ripening were affected by GA3
height and led to an increase in seed and straw and paraffin wax in a dose-dependent manner.
yield (Badkhal et al. 2015). There was a gradual increase in TSS content and
a reduction in the titratable acidity and ascorbic
acid content. Further, the fruit ripening was re-
6.6.14 Impacts of Growth Regulators tarded and a significant reduction in the decay
on Shelf Life incidence of GA3 and paraffin wax-treated fruit
was observed under the storage condition. The
Post-harvest treatment of fruits with growth reg- fruits treated with GA3 100 ppm in combination
ulators, fungicides and wax help in the reduc- with 6 % wax, wrapped in 100-gauge polyethy-
tion of losses due to wastage. At present there lene bags stored at ambient temperature, had a
is high domestic market potential for sweet or- prolonged storage life up to the 49th day wherein
anges. The effect of growth regulators 2–4 D, they retained desirable quality, colour, flavour
benzyl adenine and GA3 with wax influenced and taste, and overall acceptability (Pimpalpalle
the shelf life of sweet oranges. Of the various et al. 2015).
physicochemical parameters like physiological
loss in weight (PLW), juice content, peel content,
firmness, spoilage, colour index, shelf life, TSS, 6.6.16 Bio-stimulants of Growth
acidity, sugars and ascorbic acid analysed at an
interval of 5 days, fruits treated with BA 50 ppm Certain bio-stimulants such as seaweed extracts
C wax 6 % recorded the lowest PLW, spoilage significantly enhance growth, chlorophyll con-
and colour index, thereby having an improved tent and yield. In soybean, foliar spray of sea-
6 Physiological Basis of Crop Productivity 79

weed extracts (Kappaphycus and Gracilaria) en- hanced the uptake of micronutrients like Fe, Zn,
hanced growth in terms of plant height, number of Mn and Cu (Aware et al. 2015). The interactive
branches, root length, dry matter accumulation, effect of fertility levels and biofertilizers influ-
chlorophyll content index and yield (Mahajan et enced the seed yield of cowpea. Maximum seed
al. 2015). yields are obtained with 75 % RDF C VC at
2 t ha1 and a Rhizobium C PSB combination.
The increase in seed yield is positively correlated
6.7 Low-Cost Technologies for with plant height, number of branches per plant,
Bio-resource Productivity number of pods per plant and number of seeds per
Enhancement pod. Further, seed inoculation with Rhizobium C
PSB led to an increase in plant height, number
6.7.1 Integrated Nutrient of branches at harvest, leaf area index, chloro-
Management in Growth phyll content, number of total and effective root
Improvement nodules, fresh and dry weight of root nodules,
leg haemoglobin content in root nodules, number
Biofertilizers and organic manures play a ma- of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod, and
jor role in supplementing nutrients and thereby seed, straw and biological yield (Meena et al.
help in reducing the quantities of application 2015b).
of inorganic fertilizers. Integration of organic
manures with fertilizers has been traditionally
important in production, for the maintenance of 6.7.2 Drip Irrigation Improves
soil fertility and yield stability in crops. Contin- Physiological Performance
uous use of organic manures could undoubtedly
meet nutrient demand in less intensive production Irrigation of several crops influences the physio-
systems though it is inadequate in the present logical performance by improving the water use
exhaustive agriculture. Nevertheless, integrated efficiency. In healthy runners of cv. Chandler of
use of fertilizer, organic manures and biofertilizer strawberry, drip irrigation led to an increase in the
helps in maintaining yield stability and correcting net photosynthetic rate and stomatal conductance
marginal deficiencies of secondary and micronu- with a concomitant improvement in fruit yield. It
trients, enhancing the efficiency of applied nutri- resulted in an improvement in its physiological
ents and providing favourable soil physical and performance with an increase of 16–30 % in fruit
chemical conditions. There is a need to optimize yield (Kachwaya et al. 2015).
INM in the present exhaustive intensive agricul-
tural production systems.
Gladiolus hybridus is an important cut flower 6.7.3 Low-Cost Technology for
grown under open field conditions in the Peri Higher Phosphorus Use
urban areas of Hyderabad. It is much valued for Efficiency in Rice
its attractive long-lasting spikes. Gladiolus plants
respond well to an ample supply of fertilizers. An The availability of phosphorus in soils is less,
integrated supply of organic manures (75 % RDF, resulting in yield losses. A low-cost method of
FYM, vermicompost) and biofertilizers (Azospir- phosphorous application for higher use efficiency
illum and PSB) improved the growth and flower- and yield is required in the current changing con-
ing in Gladiolus variety ‘Arka Amar’. There was ditions of intensified agricultural systems. In rice,
an early emergence of the spike, with maximum root dipping of 25-day-old rice seedlings before
spike length, number of florets per spike and transplanting for 12 h in diammonium phosphate
individual floret size (Girwani et al. 2015). (DAP) solution at 20 % was effective in increas-
In green gram, integrated nutrient manage- ing the number of effective tillers, yield and the
ment produced maximum seed yield and en- benefit:cost ratio. Phosphorous agronomic effi-
80 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

ciency (PAE) was the highest in foliar applica- first and second plant crops was also observed
tion. Though root dipping treatments exhibited at the grand growth stage with cane trash plus
seedling mortality, it was reduced in soil appli- mycorrhizae application in both plant and ratoon
cation of P, while foliar application led to slight crops, and at the maturity stage, there was higher
scorching of leaves (Mallareddy et al. 2015). uptake of P with 150 kg P2 O5 ha1 (Usharani et
al. 2015).

6.7.4 Impacts of Micronutrients

on Growth and Yield 6.7.6 Bio-fortification with Zinc

In red and laterite soils and those that are acidic Bio-fortification with zinc in speciality corn
in nature, soil availability of micronutrients is (popcorn, sweetcorn, quality protein maize) in
a common problem. It results in reductions of sandy soils by soil application or as a foliar spray
vigour, yield and fruit quality. Micronutrient at the tasselling and milking stage influenced
sprays (ZnSO4 0.1 %, 0.2 %; Borax 0.2 %, 0.3 %; growth parameters like plant height, LAI and dry
FeSO4 0.1 %, 0.15 %; CuSO4 0.1 %, 0.15 %; and matter production, and yield attributes like cob
MnSO4 0.1 %, 0.15 %) in the grape Pusa Navrang number, number of grains per cob, cob girth
cultivar decreased the mortality percentage and and yield. Maximum values were registered
increased the vine growth of the shoots in terms with 25 kg ZnSO4 ha1 along with two foliar
of the diameter and vigour of the shoots. Foliar sprays, i.e. at the tasselling and milking stage.
application of these micronutrients (Borax at Sweetcorn had a higher number of cobs, longer
0.3 %) at 7 days after fruit set and 21 days after cobs and greater maximum cob girth. Further, the
the first spray increased the juice percentage number of grain rows per cob of popcorn were
and TSS. Among the different micronutrients, greater. Zinc fortification in sweetcorn resulted
borax promoted production and improved the in a higher yield. Bio-fortification also led to
vine growth, fruit yield and quality of fruits (Pal maximum green fodder yield and nutrient uptake
et al. 2015). (N, P and K) and zinc uptake in sweetcorn. Zinc
fortification was maximum (zinc content and
zinc uptake) with 25 kg ZnSO4 ha1 along with
6.7.5 Nutrient Uptake two foliar sprays at the tasselling and milking
stage (ZnSO4 ) in both plant (leaves) and grain
Cane thrash and mycorrhizae in the presence of (Debnath et al. 2015).
phosphorous levels in soils influence the nutrient
uptake in crops. Phosphorus application in a ra-
toon crop influences the uptake of nitrogen and 6.7.7 High P Alfisols
potassium. In sugarcane, the uptake of NPK was
not influenced by phosphorus application at the Organics like bio-char influence phosphorus
formative stage in both plant and ratoon crops. availability and recycling in soils that have in-
At the grand growth stage application of mycor- herently low exchange capacities by influencing
rhizae or cane trash plus mycorrhizae improved P the CEC over long time scales. By reducing
uptake even when inorganic P was not applied. the presence of free Al3C and Fe3C near root
Though the uptake of nitrogen and potassium surfaces, this may promote the formation and
was not influenced by phosphorus application, recycling of labile P fractions. Humic substances
higher P uptake was recorded when inorganic P at resulting from organic matter decomposition
50 kg P2 O5 ha1 was applied in the presence of play a significant role in mobilizing insoluble
both cane trash and mycorrhizae. Higher uptake phosphates. Bio-char combined with 30 kg P2 O5
of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in the ha1 resulted in higher seed and haulm yields
6 Physiological Basis of Crop Productivity 81

and also high P uptake in soybean (Kalyani and growth by various modes of action could be a
Sailaja 2015). potential alternative to increase agricultural pro-
ductivity in a sustainable manner. Antagonistic
indigenous plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria
6.8 Organic Agriculture are effective against fungal pathogens causing
diseases. In Capsicum, four rhizospheric isolates
6.8.1 Impacts of Organic Liquid (RS11, RS15, RS14 and RS17) possessing two
Formulations on Growth or more PGP traits showed antagonism against
and Yield Ralstonia solanacearum and enhanced growth
of Capsicum. The isolates were applied as seed
Organic liquid formulations such as jeevamrutha, and soil treatments. Seed bacterization with the
cow urine and Panchagavya are equally effi- RS15 isolate not only showed maximum seed
cient in maintaining the soil fertility and growth germination (83.8 %) and vigour index (914.83)
of plants. In Capsicum, application of jeevam- but also resulted in maximum increases in plant
rutha resulted in higher plant height, number of parameters such as shoot length, shoot biomass,
branches per plant, number of fruits per plant and root length and root biomass. The isolate RS15
fruit yield (Boraiah et al. 2015). can act as a potential biofertilizer agent for Cap-
sicum (Gupta et al. 2015b).

6.8.2 Organic Nutrients and Their

Influence on Enzyme Activity 6.8.4 Impacts of Phosphorus Levels
and PSB Strains on Soil
Different organic nutrient sources influence soil Microbial and Enzymatic
enzymatic activities. In a subtemperate hilly Activities Under Acidic Soils
agro-ecosystem, addition of poultry manure
(Pm), farmyard manure (FM) and vermicompost Soil microorganisms are supportive in the trans-
(VC) in a tomato pea cropping system increased formation of soil phosphorus (P) and are thus an
soil organic carbon (SOC) by 35 %, 57 % and important component of the soil P cycle. These
53 %, respectively. Farmyard manure resulted in are effective in releasing P from both inorganic
a 40–198 % increase in dehydrogenase activity, and organic pools of total soil P through their
while poultry manure resulted in higher “- respective solubilization and also enhancement of
glucosidase activity. All three organic manures soil microbial and enzymatic activities. In a local
led to increased activities of protease and high-yielding variety of rice (cv. Shahsarang),
cellulose enzymes and different hydrolase phosphorus levels and PSB strains influenced the
activities. Alkaline phosphatase and urease soil microbial and enzymatic activities. The soil
activity were more influenced by application microbial carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus
of FYM. The increased phosphatase activity is (P) and dehydrogenase activity (DHA) and phos-
attributed to microbial stimulation by organic C phatase activity were found to be higher (5.61 g
and soil pH (Kumar et al. 2015a). TPF g1 h1 ) at a 60 kg P2 O5 ha1 dose and with
inoculation of Pseudomonas species (Raghuveer
et al. 2015).
6.8.3 Indigenous Plant
Growth-Promoting Bacteria
6.8.5 Impacts of PGPRs on Growth
The indiscriminate use of chemical inputs in and Yield
modern agriculture is severely modifying our en-
vironment. The application of eco-friendly, ben- Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria such
eficial soil organisms that could enhance plant as Pseudomonas or Azospirillium present in
82 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

the soil rhizosphere have an influence in 6.9 Roles of Biotechnology

increasing growth parameters due to their and Genetic Engineering,
ability to synthesize growth regulators such Green Technology,
as IAA, nitrogen fixation, p-solubilization and Nanotechnology,
biocontrol potential. Six efficient strains of TBP Bio-fortification
Karnataka were identified on the basis of their in Bio-resource and Stress
IAA production, nitrogen fixation, siderophore Management, with Special
production, P-solubilization and biocontrol Emphasis on Pest
potential in improving the chilli growth. The Management
chilli seedlings treated with efficient strains of
PGPR showed increases in plant height, number 6.9.1 Molecular Characterization
of branches per plant, shoot dry weight, root dry and Identification of Phyllody
weight, shoot N and P content, and number of Isolates
fruits per plant. The PS-5 strain of Pseudomonas
increased plant height (42.96 cm), number of Phyllody of sesame is an important disease
branches per plant (6.67), shoot dry weight caused by a pleomorphic phytoplasma and is
(12.08 g per plant), root dry weight (0.98 g per transmitted by a leaf hopper called Orosius
plant), shoot N content (with 2.23 % of nitrogen) albicinctus. An incidence of 13–68 % was
and P content (with 0.21 % of phosphorus) per seen from 94 locations in 10 districts of three
plant, and number of fruits per plant (52 fruits states in India (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and
per plant). Similarly, AZP-26 of Azospirillum Maharashtra). Ninety-five phyllody samples were
resulted in greater plant height (39.34 cm per collected from surveyed areas and their DNA
plant), number of branches per plant (6.00), shoot was extracted. The representative 18 samples,
dry weight (11.83 g per plant),: root dry weight representing different geographic regions, were
(0.80 g per plant), shoot N content (2.70 % N per used for amplification with nested PCR. Upon
plant), shoot P content (0.18 % P per plant) and amplification at 1200 base pairs and sequencing,
number of fruits per plant (48 fruits per plant) the nucleotide sequences of phytoplasma 16S
(Sabnis et al. 2015). rDNA shared the highest nucleotide identity
(95 %) with sequences of members of the
16SrI phytoplasmal group. Seed treatment of
6.8.6 Rhizobium Symbiosis imidacloprid at 5 g kg1 followed by spraying
in Soybean of clothionidin at 0.5 g l1 recorded only 21 %
of phyllody incidence and subsequently gave a
Symbiotic native Rhizobium among the soybean yield of 310 kg ha1 (Bharathreddy et al. 2015).
advanced genotypes, i.e. RKS-113, NRC-
93, MACS-1407, KDS-705, JS-2071, DSb-
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variation in canopy temperature and stress degree day ing enzyme activity under the influence of mannitol
index of mungbean (Vigna radiata) varieties under stress towards drought tolerance. In: Compendium of
different dates of sowing. In: Compendium of abstracts abstracts of the 2nd international conference on bio-
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Usha P, Bhagavan BVK, Sudha Vani V et al (2015) An- cal responses to recent climate change. Nature 416:
influence of plant growth regulators and antioxidants 389–395
 Biotic Stress: Diseases
7
Susanta Banik and Ratikanta Maiti

Abstract
The chapter makes a brief review of concerted research activities that
have been directed to study the biology of each disease, its epidemiology,
control measures, screening of crop cultivars for resistance to disease and
mechanisms of resistance. The disease problems and control measures
of various crops such as pulse, oil seeds, cereals and other crops and
the screening techniques for a few pathogens in these crops are briefly
discussed. It also discusses the compatibility of different agrochemicals
on reduction of the cost of material application in combating diseases.

Plants synthesize enormous variety of

7.1 Introduction compounds which are essential for its normal
growth and provide plant its characteristic
The productivity of crops is affected greatly by property which differentiates it within its
disease infection in the absence of effective con- own family members or in its class. These
trol measures. Concerted research activities have compounds are known as primary or secondary
been directed to study the biology of each dis- metabolites necessary for the normal growth
ease, its epidemiology, control measures, screen- of the plant or its ecological interaction with
ing of crop cultivars for resistance to disease the environment. Among these compounds are
and mechanisms of resistance. Several papers are the secondary metabolites, viz. isoprenoids
presented in Second International Conference on or terpenoids, whose precursors are formed
Bio-resource and Stress Management. We are through the mevalonate and non-mevalonate or
narrating a brief summary of these. methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway. The
MEP pathway occurs only in bacteria, malarial
S. Banik ()
Department of Plant Pathology, School of Agricultural parasite, green algae and higher plants whereas
Sciences and Rural Development, Nagaland University, it is absent in humans and fungi. Various plants
Medziphema, Nagaland, India such as Withania somnifera, Glycyrrhiza glabra,
e-mail: [email protected] Salvia miltiorrhiza, etc. are explored to study
R.K. Maiti the secondary metabolic pathways. Furthermore,
Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Autónoma designing specific inhibitors of MEP pathway
de Nuevo León, Carr. No 85, km 145, NL 67700 Linares,
Mexico enzymes should give in herbicides and drugs with
e-mail: [email protected] broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity without

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 87

R.K. Maiti et al. (eds.), Bioresource and Stress Management, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0995-2_7
88 S. Banik and R.K. Maiti

toxicity to humans as these conserved proteins Ridomil MZ 72 WP at 4 g kg1 seed and at 4 g

do not show homology with the mammalian lit1 at 30 and 45 days after sowing recorded the
proteins. Therefore, inhibiting or altering the lowest mean % of disease incidence of 10.20 and
structure of proteins involved in such pathways maximum yield of 877.08 kg ha1 (Jayalakshmi
could provide road block for the growth of et al. 2015).
infectious prokaryotes (Pagoch 2015). Chickpea is an important pulse crop in In-
In plant protection schedule, combined appli- dia. Wilt disease is one of the most important
cations of different agrochemicals are used due chickpea diseases caused by F. oxysporum f.
to several considerations. It is very economical sp. ciceri (FOC). Twenty-seven chickpea wilted
to mix agrochemicals together to save on the samples from different chickpea-growing states
cost of material application. Keeping the above of India were collected, and 18 isolates of FOC
in view, the compatibility experiment in vitro was were isolated and identified based on morpho-
conducted through poisoned food technique by logical and molecular characteristics. The iso-
mixing different fungicides in nutrient agar in- lates of FOC were tentatively divided into five
oculated with Pseudomonas fluorescens. Among groups based on their pathogenic reaction as
the 12 fungicides tested, triazoles, viz. tebucona- highly, strongly, moderately, weakly and non-
zole, propiconazole and hexaconazole, are highly pathogenic. The FOC isolates were tested for
compatible with P. fluorescens, whereas the con- different reactions against a set of 12 host differ-
tact fungicides, viz. mancozeb and propineb, are entials. Eighteen isolates were classified into five
less compatible with P. fluorescens by showing groups on the basis of host differential reaction.
less growth (Hanuman et al. 2015). Group 1 included isolate Akola, Nagpur, Parb-
hani, Badnapur, Rahuri, Hyderabad and Dhar-
wad. Group 2 consisted of Kanpur, Allahabad
7.2 Pulse Crops and Varanasi isolates. Group 3 included only one
isolate Gurdaspur. Similarly, group 4 comprised
Wilt in pigeon pea is considered as the most of isolates from Jabalpur, Rajnandgaon, Raipur
important soil-borne disease caused by Fusarium and Delhi and that of group 5 included isolates
oxysporum f. sp. udum leading to major economic from Nimboda, Udaipur and Bikaner (Rakhonde
loss. P. fluorescens strains are widely employed et al. 2015).
in biological control of F. udum (Raghavendra All 18 isolates of FOC were selected for SSR
et al. 2015). There are limited management op- and ISSR analysis. Out of the 9 SSR primers
tions for this disease occurring in large area as screened 18 produced reproducible and scorable
the pathogen is soil-borne. P. fluorescens strains bands with high degree of polymorphism except
isolated from rhizospheric soils of pigeon pea MB-13. The SSR primers clustered all 18 FOC
from the farmer’s fields of Southern Telangana isolates into five main clusters according to race
Zone, Telangana State, India, were found to give type. In the first subgroup race-1, seven isolates
promising results in vitro in terms of inhibition of Akola, Badnapur, Nagpur, Parbhani, Rahuri,
radial growth and inhibition of conidial germina- Hyderabad and Dharwad were combined in one
tion of the pathogen (Raghavendra et al. 2015). cluster. The second subgroup race-4 consisted of
Among other diseases of pigeon pea, Phytoph- virulent isolates, Jabalpur, Rajnandgaon, Raipur
thora blight has been gaining importance for the and Delhi. The third subgroup race-2 consisted
last few years in Gulbarga district in Northern of virulent isolates, Kanpur, Allahabad and
Karnataka, India. The disease becomes severe in Varanasi. The fourth group race-4A consists
low-lying areas and particularly when the early of Nimboda, Udaipur and Bikaner, whereas
crop growth coincides with the rainy season (June Gurdaspur isolate was identified as race-3. The
to September). In an experiment with fungicides isolates were further analysed by using inter
and bioagents for management of the pathogens, simple sequence repeats (ISSR) primers. The
it was found that seed treatment with sprays of unweighted paired group method with arithmetic
7 Biotic Stress: Diseases 89

average grouped the isolates into five categories produced by group-A (2.60–2.99 million ml1 )
same as obtained by SSR analysis at a genetic of isolates F10, F17 and F19, while that in
similarities ranging from 50 % to 94 %. The group-C of isolates F8, F11, F12, F13 and F15
present race profiling for the Indian population have minimum micro-conidia (1.00–1.99 million
of the pathogen and its distribution pattern is ml1 ). The maximum macro-conidia were
entirely new. The racial pattern obtained during formed in group-A (0.70–0.79 million ml1 )
this study was altogether different from what has of F5, F10, F16, F17 and F19. The minimum
been reported earlier (Rakhonde et al. 2015). macro-conidia were produced in group-C (0.40–
Collar rot disease of chickpea caused by Scle- 0.59 million ml1 ) of F8, F9, F11, F12, F13, F14
rotium rolfsii Sacc is a soil-borne disease that and F15 (Dabbas et al. 2015).
causes considerable damage to the plant stand. A There is considerable loss of yield reported
study was undertaken to test six different antag- in cowpea caused by bacterial leaf blight (Xan-
onists in vitro and in pot culture conditions in an thomonas campestris pv. vignicola) in India. Due
attempt to find out a potential biocontrol agent to the low yield of the crop and neglected con-
for S. rolfsii. The best inhibition of S. rolfsii was ditions under which it is grown especially under
obtained with Trichoderma spp. (PSJ) followed rain-fed situation, plant protection measures are
by T. harzianum (Indore). In pot culture, most ef- uneconomical. Therefore, resistant breeding ap-
fective species of Trichoderma were Trichoderma pears to be the most important approach in dis-
viride (Indore) and T. harzianum (Indore) against ease management. For developing high-yielding
S. rolfsii as the antagonists increased the per- bacterial leaf blight (BLB)-resistant varieties of
centage of seed germination and minimized the cowpea, knowledge of the inheritance of resis-
pre- and post-emergence mortality. Leaf extracts tance to BLB is of prime importance in cowpea
of eight medicinal plants were also evaluated breeding programmes. The inheritance pattern
under in vitro conditions. The radial growth of was studied in the cross C-152 (susceptible)  V-
S. rolfsii was significantly less in the presence of 16 (resistant) using % disease incidence in F1 and
leaf extract of Ashwagandha followed by Van- other segregating generations, viz. F2 , F3 , BC1 P1
tulsi. Among the synthetic chemicals or fungi- and BC1 P2 . The expression of resistance reaction
cides, complete inhibition of mycelial growth of in F1 generation is an indication of the role of
S. rolfsii was observed with Hinosan, Antracol, dominant gene in controlling BLB in cowpea.
Mancozeb, Kitazin and Kavach, in vitro. These Based on the classification of plants into resistant
fungicides also increased seed germination and and susceptible in F2 segregating generation of
decreased pre- and postemergence mortality un- the cross C-152  V-16, a good fit of 3:1 (242
der pot culture conditions (Jayale et al. 2015). resistant, 91 susceptible) ratio revealed the role of
Pea (Pisum sativum L.) is one of the most major dominant gene for field resistance. The F3
widely grown pulse crop in the world. Pea crop population of this cross showed 1:2:1 ratio (52 re-
suffers from many diseases, and among them sistant, 92 segregating, 36 susceptible) and back
Fusarium wilt of pea caused by F. oxysporum cross generations BC1 P1 and BC1 P2 segregated
f. sp. pisi is an important disease. Twenty in 1:1 (22 resistant, 27 susceptible) and 1:0 (52
isolates of F. oxysporum f. sp. pisi were collected resistant, 2 susceptible) test ratio, respectively.
from major pea growing tracts of UP (India), The segregation pattern in different generations
and physiological studies of the representative showed very good fit with the expected ratio
isolates of three groups were made with six confirmed the role of single dominant gene in
different fungicides at 0.1 % concentration. The controlling resistance to cowpea BLB (Khan and
minimum mean radial growth (2.00–2.99 mm) Viswanatha 2015).
was recorded in group-C of isolates F8, F11, Lentil, an important pulse crop, is affected by
F12 and F13 and maximum (4.00–4.99 mm) wilt disease which is the most important disease
in group-A consisting of F10, F17 and F19 of lentil plant caused by F. oxysporum f. sp. lentis.
isolates. The maximum micro-conidia were The plants are infected from seedling stage to
90 S. Banik and R.K. Maiti

later stages of their development. Several lentil pared to resistant accessions like R-GM-41 and
lines were collected from lentil-growing areas for R-GM-49 recording 52.2 and 56.8 conidia per
the purpose of resistance screening against the microscopic field, respectively. The fungal coni-
wilt pathogen. The collected lines were screened dial count ranged from 61.1 to 129 in medium-
with a local isolate of the pathogen under green- resistant accessions and more than 367 conidia
house conditions, and significant differences in per microscopic field in all highly susceptible
disease incidence were observed among them. In accessions. The study indicated the scarcity of
the greenhouse, test plants were inoculated by resistant sources in cultivated sunflower and the
immersing root tips in spore suspension and sow- practical utility of these identified sources of
ing seeds in pre-infested pot soil. Field screening resistance for breeding powdery mildew-resistant
of the test entries was carried out in a naturally sunflower hybrids (Kulkarni et al. 2015).
highly infested farm. At all stages, the plant re- In another study, 38 advanced breeding geno-
sponse to the disease was based on the percentage types were evaluated for powdery mildew disease
of dead plants. Cluster analyses of the greenhouse reaction under natural epiphytotic (field) condi-
and field data led to the selection of three lines tion during rabi 2013. Each genotype was sown
that were resistant under greenhouse and field in two rows of 3 m length with two replications.
conditions (Puri et al. 2015a). The percentage of leaf area covered by white
powdery conidial spores is considered for scoring
the genotypes as per the standard rating 0–9 scale
7.3 Oilseeds at 15-day interval from 30 DAS. Among 38 geno-
types screened, 8 genotypes were found to be re-
Sunflower, an important oilseed crop in India, sistant with less than 10 % PDS and 13 genotypes
is limited by the lack of genetic variability and showed medium-resistant reaction (PDS D 10–
susceptibility to diseases. Powdery mildew dis- 25 %) in field screening. Subsequently, resistant
ease caused by Golovinomyces cichoracearum is and medium-resistant genotypes were screened in
emerging to be a serious constraint in the cultiva- greenhouse condition artificially by spraying fun-
tion of sunflower crop especially in warmer sun- gal spore suspension in 1 % sucrose solution at 30
flower growing region causing around 20–25 % and 45 DAS. Later observations were taken from
yield loss. The past decade has evidenced this dis- bottom, middle and top leaves at 15 days interval
ease regularly during rabi-summer seasons. Un- starting from 30 DAS up to 90 DAS. In artificial
der severe conditions infection ranges from the screening conditions, only two genotypes (RCR-
cotyledonary leaves up to ray florets. Host plant 1947/3-2-9 and RCR-1947/4-1-2) were found to
resistance in released hybrids and parental lines is be resistant (<10 % PDS), whereas the remain-
limited. Identification of resistance source would ing six genotypes were categorized as medium
be the immediate approach especially from the resistant (>10 % PDS) revealing the importance
germplasm lines and promising CMS (cytoplas- of artificial screening conditions. However, 13
mic male sterility) lines utilized in pre-breeding. genotypes remained in medium-resistant cate-
Sunflower germplasm comprising of 120 acces- gory with less than 25 % PDS. In both field and
sions was screened under artificial inoculation artificial screening, the susceptible check Morden
conditions. Among 120 accessions screened, 2 recorded highly susceptible disease reaction to
restorer lines were identified to be resistant and powdery mildew (>50 % PDS) (Supriya et al.
48 accessions were categorized as medium resis- 2015).
tant. Of the remaining lines, 63 were susceptible Stem or pod rot caused by S. rolfsii is an
and 7 accessions were highly susceptible. The important disease in groundnut. Seven bioagents
microscopic observations of conidia stained with tested in vitro showed significant mycelial growth
lactophenol blue were also in accordance with inhibition of S. rolfsii. However, T. harzianum
host reaction. Highly susceptible check ‘Morden’ gave significantly higher mycelial growth inhibi-
showed 468 conidia per microscopic field com- tion (78.37 %): followed by T. viride (74.70 %)
7 Biotic Stress: Diseases 91

and T. hamatum (73.96 %). The rest of the bioa- in the linseed production. In a study, to manage
gents showed 61.22–72.22 % mycelial inhibition the disease by exploiting cheaper and effective
of the test pathogen. All seven bioagents tested in means, the potential of sulphur application in soil
vitro were further evaluated (alone and in com- and on foliage was examined. It was found that
bination) as pre-sowing seed treatment (protec- experimental plots with two sprays of wettable
tive), post-sowing soil application (curative) and sulphur (0.4 %) (sulphex) gave minimum PDI of
combination of protective C curative methods 13.50 with maximum yield (554.67 kg ha1 ) and
against S. rolfsii (sick soil), sowing susceptible B:C ratio (2.68) which was significantly superior
sunflower cv. JL-24 in pot culture under screen to all the other treatments. The next best treat-
house conditions. The three methods of bioagent ment was soil application of sulphur (30 kg ha1 )
treatments have been applied: protective C cura- through gypsum at the time of sowing followed
tive was found the most effective, followed by the by two sprays of 0.3 % wettable sulphur (sulphex)
protective and curative one. Significantly highest (PDI, 20.83; yield, 526 kg ha1 ; and B:C ratio,
seed germination of 93.33, 83.33 and 71.67 % 2.44) (Ajithkumar et al. 2015).
was observed with the bioagent T. harzianum C Niger is a minor oilseed crop cultivated in In-
P. fluorescens in protective C curative, protective dia. It constitutes about 3 % of Indian oilseed pro-
and curative methods, respectively (Kuldhar et al. duction. Niger seed contains 35–45 % oil, 20 %
2015). protein and 12 % soluble sugars. Both seed and
Soybean crop is affected by many fungal, bac- oil are edible and consumed by rural and tribal
terial and viral diseases. Among different fungal people. The productivity of niger crop is low
diseases, wilt of soybean caused by F. oxyspo- owing to its cultivation in unproductive land and
rum f. sp. glycine is the most destructive dis- lack of high-yielding and fertilizer-responsive,
ease reported to cause significant yield losses. disease- and pest-resistant varieties. Niger is sus-
Seven fungicides, viz. metalaxyl (0.2 %), cop- ceptible to diseases like root rot and Alternaria
per oxychloride (0.3 %), thiram (0.3 %), carben- leaf spot. In order to develop a resistant variety
dazim (0.1 %), benomyl (0.2 %), bordeaux mix- for Alternaria leaf spot, a study was undertaken
ture (1 %) and a biocontrol agent T. harzianum, to evaluate the germplasm comprising of 200
were evaluated in vitro against F. oxysporum f. sp. lines for disease resistance during kharif 2013.
glycine. The fungicide benomyl (0.2 %) recorded Each germplasm line was sown in a single line.
maximum growth inhibition (100 %) of the test The same were evaluated for seed yield and
pathogen and was found significantly superior to other ancillary characteristics, viz. days to 50 %
the rest of the fungicidal treatments. The next flowering, days to maturity, plant height, number
best treatment was found to be the bioagent T. of primary branches, number of capitula and
harzianum (82.60 %) with mean colony diame- seed yield. The 0–5 scale was used to score
ter 15.66 mm. It was followed by carbendazim the disease. Thirty-two lines are found to be
(77.77 %), thiram (77.04) and copper oxychloride immune as these didn’t show any infection (i.e.
(76.3 %), which gave mean colony diameter of 0 % infection). The 100 lines were scored 1 by
20.00 mm, 20.66 mm and 21.33 mm, respec- showing 1–10 % disease incidence and are found
tively, and these treatments were statistically at to be resistant. The remaining germplasm (57)
par with each other. Metalaxyl and bordeaux mix- lines were scored 2 by showing 11–25 % disease
ture showed least growth inhibition of 65.55 % incidence and are moderately resistant. None of
and 34.44 % of the test pathogen, respectively the genotypes were found to be susceptible (Su-
(Puri et al. 2015b). varna et al. 2015).
Powdery mildew of linseed (Linum usitatissi- Castor (Ricinus communis L.) is an impor-
mum L.) caused by Oidium liniskoric is one of the tant nonedible industrial oilseed crop grown in
major biotic constraints in successful cultivation tropical and subtropical regions across the world.
of linseed. The disease causes dropping of flow- Fusarium wilt caused by the fungus F. oxysporum
ers and chaffy seed setting leading to serious loss f. sp. ricini is an economically important disease
92 S. Banik and R.K. Maiti

of castor (Ricinus communis L.). Identification of thomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria), sclerotium
best male combiners coupled with wilt resistance wilt (S. rolfsii) and buck eye rot (Phytophthora
is one of the important objectives in castor hybrid nicotianae var. parasitica) appeared only during
breeding programme. In this study, 42 castor 2011, powdery mildew (Oidium stage of
male combiners were screened for 2 years in a Erysiphe lycopersici) was prevalent during 2012.
permanent wilt sick plot at the Regional Agricul- Early blight, leaf curl (tomato leaf curl virus)
tural Research Station, Palem, India, to identify was observed in both years of the surveyed
potential sources of wilt resistance. The inoculum region. Bud blight (peanut bud necrosis virus)
load in the wilt sick plot was maintained at was recorded only from Bellary district in both
2.1  103 colony-forming units per gram of soil, the years. Bacterial spot, buck eye rot and late
and care was taken to avoid water logging and blight and powdery mildew were recorded from
to suppress nematode population. The susceptible Davangere and Belgaum districts, respectively.
and resistant checks, viz. Kranthi and Haritha, Amount of rainfall, its distribution and dry spell
recorded >91 % and <5 % wilt incidence, respec- appeared to influence disease diversity and its
tively. Among the tested genotypes, eight castor intensity (Bhat et al. 2015).
male lines, viz. PCS 301, 302, 303, 304, 315, Tomato is under the constant threat of dis-
322, 334 and 342, were selected as resistant with eases and about 200 diseases are known to in-
<20 % wilt incidence, and eight lines were found fect tomatoes worldwide. Among these, cucum-
moderately resistant with <50 % wilt incidence ber mosaic virus (CMV) is the most devastat-
(Ramya et al. 2015). ing disease, as it can completely destroy the
Breakdown of Fusarium wilt resistance has crop. The characteristic field symptoms of CMV
been observed in castor necessitating the devel- disease include stunting, yellowing, mottling of
opment of durable wilt-resistant cultivars. An leaves, extreme filiformity or shoe stringing of
understanding on the host-pathogen interaction leaf blades, depending on virus strain and the
at microscopic level and how the resistance ex- host. Host range studies conducted on 29 plants
pression affects F. o. f. sp. ricini colonization is and 18 weed species belonging to 13 families for
lacking. Though there is limited knowledge on their susceptibility to CMV through sap inocula-
the genes involved in resistance expression in cas- tion under insect-proof glasshouse conditions at
tor, there is no information on the genes convey- National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources Re-
ing virulence in the pathogen. Marker-assisted gional Station, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, during
selection following the development of reliable rainy season 2013–2014 indicated that 20 plants
markers for tagging of wilt resistant genes will and 17 weed species expressed visible symp-
hasten the breeding programme in evolving wilt- toms. Some of the test plants (crop species or
resistant cultivars. A review has been made by weeds) produced local symptoms, viz. chlorotic
Kumar et al. (2015) on the progress made along spots, chlorotic ring spots, brown necrotic spots,
with future outlook towards Fusarium wilt resis- necrotic spots, necrotic ring spots, necrotic lo-
tance in castor. cal lesions, mottling, mosaic and yellow mo-
saic, and some exhibited systemic symptoms,
viz. necrotic spots, mottling, systemic mosaic
7.4 Vegetables and mosaic mottle. The members of the fam-
ilies belonging to Aizoaceae, Chenopodiaceae,
A survey was undertaken for two years during Cyperaceae, Gramineae, Malvaceae and Portu-
September 2011 and 2012 on diseases of lacaceae, showed only local symptoms, whereas
tomato grown in semiarid regions of Karnataka, the members of families Amaranthaceae, Aster-
India. The crop was found to be affected by aceae, Cucurbitaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae
different diseases in both years. While late and Solanaceae exhibited both local and sys-
blight (Phytophthora infestans), Septoria leaf temic symptoms. Datura stramonium, Solanum
spot (Septoria lycopersici), bacterial spot (Xan- melongena, Helianthus annuus, Citrullus lana-
7 Biotic Stress: Diseases 93

tus, Arachis hypogaea, Cajanus cajan, Phaseolus recorded at alternate dark and light (88.72 mm),
vulgaris, Vigna unguiculata, Abelmoschus escu- followed by continuous dark (82.34 mm). The
lentus and Zea mays failed to exhibit both local excellent (CCCC) sporulation was observed
and systemic symptoms (Jalender et al. 2015). at continuous dark condition. Among the eight
Among the fungal diseases infecting tomato carbon sources tested, highest mycelial growth
crops, early blight caused by Alternaria solani was observed in starch (74.33 mm), followed by
(Ellis and Martin) Jones and Grout is one sucrose (58.88 mm) and maltose (56.78 mm).
of the most catastrophic diseases, causing Carbon sources, viz. sucrose, maltose and glu-
accountable losses. A study was undertaken cose, recorded excellent (CCCC) sporulation.
on the pathogenic, cultural, morphological and Of the eight nitrogen sources tested, highest
molecular variability among the isolates of A. mean mycelial growth and excellent (CCCC)
solani, if any. The results revealed all of the eight sporulation were recorded with potassium nitrate
isolates of A. solani as pathogenic to tomato (cv. (89.00 mm), followed by magnesium nitrate
Pusa Ruby), showing variability among them. (87.00 mm) and sodium nitrate (86.40 mm)
The test isolates could grow better on the basic (Nikam et al. 2015b).
culture medium potato dextrose agar (PDA); The pathogen A. solani also causes early
however, highest mycelial growth recorded of blight disease of potato. In a field study on
the isolate AsLt (88.50 mm), followed by AsBd integrated management of early blight disease
(82.36 mm) and AsHl (78.40 mm), with excellent of potato, fungicides (spray) were found most
sporulation. All of the eight test isolates showed effective in checking the disease, followed
a wide range of variability in respect of their by the bioagents and the botanicals. Of the
mycelial and conidial dimensions and septation treatments, fungicide, iprodione caused highest
also. RAPD-PCR analysis of the four most reduction (67.04 %) in the disease incidence.
virulent A. solani isolates, using 13 OPA primers, This was followed by mancozeb (59.43), SAFF
revealed that the isolates AsBd (Beed) and AsLt (53.37 %) and chlorothalonil (51.14 %). Less
(Latur) were closely related with 85 % genetic than 50 % reduction in disease incidence was
similarity, whereas the isolates, AsHl (Hingoli) recorded with carbendazim (47.48 %) followed
and AsJl (Jalna), were closely related with 50 % by hexaconazole (42.29 %), tebuconazole
genetic similarity, but distinct from that of AsLt (41.47), the bioagent T. harzianum (35.03 %)
and AsBd isolates (Nikam et al. 2015a). and botanical Azadirachta indica (32.39 %).
In a further study on growth media of early Botanical Zingiber officinale and bioagent P.
blight pathogen of tomato A. solani, 12 culture fluorescens were found less effective. Highest
media were tested. Of them, potato dextrose tuber yield was obtained on fungicide iprodione
agar (PDA) supported best mycelial growth of with (350.26 q ha1 ) and over unsprayed control
A. solani (88.50 mm), followed by tomato leaf (yield, 150.20 q ha1 ) with significantly less
extract agar (84.22 mm), tomato fruit extract agar mean Alternaria blight incidence (16.16 %) and
(82.52 mm), Richards’s agar (82.42 mm) and intensity (21.96 %). The second and third best
Czepek’s dox agar (78.22 mm). The excellent fungicides found were mancozeb (at 0.2 %) and
(CCCC) sporulation was observed in PDA, SAFF (0.25 %) which recorded tuber yield of
oat meal agar, tomato leaf extract agar and 300.61 q ha1 and 288.61 q ha1 , respectively
Richards’ agar. The maximum mycelial growth (Wagh et al. 2015).
and sporulation was detected at temperature Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is one of the
25 ı C, followed by 30 ı C and 20 ı C. Maximum important vegetables in Sikkim, India. Among
mycelial growth (88.58 mm) of the test fungus various diseases reported for tomato in Sikkim,
was recorded at pH 7.0, followed by pH late blight caused by Phytophthora infestans
6.5 (78.44 mm) and 7.5 (76.52 mm). The (Mont.) de Bary is one of the most serious
excellent (CCCC) sporulation was observed diseases causing significant yield and quality
at pH of 7.00. The best mycelial growth was losses. To manage the disease organically, field
94 S. Banik and R.K. Maiti

experiment was undertaken during 2013 in two four genotypes, viz. Arka Keshav, Surya,
separate plots. The treatments included cow urine Arka Neelkanth and Arka Nidhi, were found
10 %, garlic bulb extract 5 %, copper oxychloride resistant. The resistant genotypes identified
0.3 %, copper hydroxide 0.3 %, onion bulb may be used for developing brinjal varieties
extract 5 %, Artemisia leaf extract 10 % and resistant to bacterial wilt (Sadarunnisa et al.
T. viride 0.2 % and P. fluorescens 0.2 % along 2015).
with metalaxyl 0.1 % and untreated control. The Mushroom is a more preferred choice of
symptom of the disease first appeared 53 days vegetable owing to its immense health benefits.
after transplanting. The treatments were given Though it is grown indoors, it is affected by
after the initial appearance of the disease. Among several biotic factors. A study was undertaken
the treatments, copper oxychloride was most on the impact of disease incidence on yield
effective with % disease intensity (PDI) of 27.20 attributes of oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus spp.),
followed by copper hydroxide (33.87 PDI) over and its management through effective fungicides
all other treatments, and they were at par with in three different seasons was carried out during
metalaxyl 0.1 %. It was found that the yield of the years 2012 and 2013. The results revealed
tomato was highest in the plots treated with that the association of different fungal species,
copper oxychloride (38.33 t ha1 ) and copper viz. Aspergillus niger (1–5 %), Aspergillus
hydroxide (36.00 t ha1 ). It was also found that if flavus (5–7.5 %), Aspergillus fumigatus (1–
plant protection measures are not given in time, 2 %), Coprinus spp. (5–19 %), Cladobotryum
the yield reduction varied from 97.39 to 100 % (1–3 %), Gliocladium virens (0.5–1 %) and
(Gopi et al. 2015). Trichoderma spp. (7–10 %), was observed in
Bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia solanacearum different mushroom species. The presence of
is regarded as one of the world’s most total fungal flora varied from 7.8 to 26.8 %
important bacterial plant pathogens because in three different seasons. Irrespective of
of its aggressiveness, large host range, broad the seasons, maximum occurrence of fungal
geographical distribution and long persistence in flora was observed in pink oyster mushroom,
soil and water environments. R. solanacearum Pleurotus (9.15 %). Mean temperature and mean
constitutes a serious obstacle to the cultivation relative humidity ranged from 25 to 28.5 ı C
of the economically important brinjal among and 75–90%, respectively. The differences in the
other crops, causing total damage of plantations occurrence of fungal flora in different mushroom
before as well as after bearing fruits. This soil- species may be attributed to the variations in
borne bacterium enters plant roots, invades temperature, and relative humidity prevailed
the xylem vessels and spreads rapidly to during different seasons. Complete elimination of
aerial parts of the plant through the vascular the fungal flora was observed in mushroom beds
system. Typical disease symptoms include sprayed with carbendazim at 0.05 % followed
browning of the xylem, foliar epinasty and by benomyl at 0.01 %. Mean yield of oyster
lethal generalized wilting and can finally lead to mushrooms ranged from 0.54 to 1.32 kg. Among
plant death. Cultural practices and chemicals, if the seasons, mean yield was higher during winter
judiciously used, can reduce disease incidence and rainy seasons (1.32 and 1.0 kg, respectively)
and severity, but alone are expensive and with lesser fungal flora (7.8 % and 18.1 %,
ineffective. The use of resistant varieties is an respectively). During summer season, the mean
effective control strategy to manage bacterial yield was found less (0.54 kg only) due to
wilt. Fifty genotypes of brinjal were screened maximum occurrence of fungal flora (26.8 %)
in a polyhouse for resistance to bacterial coupled with high-temperature and low relative
wilt caused by R. solanacearum by artificial humidity. Cultivation of oyster mushrooms was
inoculation of bacterial suspension both by soil preferred during rainy and winter seasons as
drenching and axil puncturing method during compared to summer season (Rajeswari and Devi
rabi 2011. Among the 50 brinjal genotypes, 2015).
7 Biotic Stress: Diseases 95

7.5 Cereals MCM 104 and MTU 1112, recorded score 1 and
were found resistant to neck blast during 2013
About 400 genotypes of finger millet derived (Bhuvaneswari et al. 2015).
from the cross between a highly blast-susceptible A novel compound GALILEO® (picoxys-
VR 708 and blast-resistant GPU 48 were trobin 25SC) which is considered to be an
screened for blast resistance. Data were recorded effective tool against the rice blast disease
on all quantitative and qualitative characters has been tested. Picoxystrobin is a fungicide
along with scoring of leaf blast, neck blast and belonging to the strobilurin group of chemicals.
finger blast and concluded that the leaf blast The redistribution properties of picoxystrobin are
ranged from 1.00 to 4.00 with a mean of 1.94, unique among commercial strobilurin fungicides
the neck blast ranged from 7.20 to 52.10 with a and those in development, because it shows
mean of 21.18 and the finger blast ranged from both surface diffusion activity and systemic
7.05 to 48.25 with a mean of 21.43. For leaf action through xylem movement. Picoxystrobin
blast 113 lines, for neck blast nine lines and for possesses characteristics of rapid absorption,
finger blast 3 lines showed resistance to blast diffusion in the cuticular waxes, systemic and
pathogen. So these identified resistant lines may translaminar movement, redistribution by surface
serve as potential parental genotypes for future diffusion and protection to the new growth.
breeding programmes to develop desirable stable These complimentary properties give a uniform
segregants for finger millet crop improvement protection of the plant during its growth. Results
programmes (Patro et al. 2015). from across the regions in South Asia showed
Rice genotypes were screened against the superiority of this product in managing
neck blast during rabi 2011–2013 under field the disease when compared with the existing
conditions by standard protocols of IRRI, standards. GALILEO® (picoxystrobin 25SC) at
Philippines. The test entries were artificially 150 g a.i. ha1 has shown superior efficacy for
inoculated with highly virulent blast pathogen the management of leaf, collar and neck blast
by spraying spore suspension in order to ensure with highest grain yield and better grain quality
high disease pressure. Of the 758 entries tested, disease when compared with existing market
18 entries, viz. HRI 173, RP 5130-12-3-5-21-3, standards (Bhaik et al. 2015).
RTN 8-4-2-1-2, RH-1531, OR 2172–7, HUR- Turcicum leaf blight (TLB) caused by
913, NDR-370135, NPG-209, PAU 3761-26-3-1, Exserohilum turcicum (Pass.) Leonard and Suggs
NP-3112, WGL-451, 27 P 52, NDR 6311, CR is a major foliar disease of maize in India. A study
2656-11-3-4-2, CR 2304-5-3-7-1, NP 5031, TRC was conducted to evaluate different chemicals
2008–4 and CN 1729, recorded score 1 and were and biocontrol agent P. fluorescens against TLB
found resistant against neck blast during 2011. under field conditions during rainy seasons of
Out of 818 genotypes screened, eight entries, 2009 and 2010 with seven treatments, viz. P.
viz. RGL 7004, CR 2251-1-1-1-1-3, NLR 20146, fluorescens at 5 g l1 spray, propiconazole at 1 ml
NLR 20131, OR 2391–3, CR 2934–35, CR 3607- l1 , salicylic acid at 100 ppm, mono-potassium
2-2-1-2 and CRL 67-27-1-1-1, recorded score 0 phosphate (MPP) at 10 g l1 , mancozeb at
and found immune; ten entries, viz. MAS 9, UPR 2.5 g l1 , carbendazim C mancozeb at 2 g l1
3425-14-3-1, US 315 (Hybrid), Lalat, Savitri, CR and untreated control with test variety Pioneer
3603-7-2-1-1-3, CRL 67-118-1-3-1, CR 3609- 30v92. Three foliar sprays, at 15 days interval,
1-2-1-1-1, AD 07250 and OR 2394–3, recorded were given starting from the first appearance
score 1 and were found resistant against neck of the disease. It was found that propiconazole
blast during 2012. Out of 979 entries tested, and salicylic acid were on par with % disease
three entries, viz. NLR 3091, AD 07260 and intensity (PDI) of 26.6 and 31.33 respectively,
NLR 3140, recorded score 0; 14 entries, viz. NP followed by P. fluorescens spray (34.66 PDI).
9381, CRG 1190-2-2, OR 2361–1, NP 9380, OR Mancozeb, carbendazim C mancozeb and MPP
2325–12, CR 2713–179, HKR 08–1, WGL 536, treatments recorded PDI of 42, 42.66 and 38.66,
HKR 08–62, PR-113, HKR 08–29, WR 37-2-1-1, respectively. Induction of systemic resistance was
96 S. Banik and R.K. Maiti

evaluated by assaying defence-related peroxidase acterization of genetic diversity (RAPD markers)

enzyme activity, which was highest in salicylic of the test isolates with UPGMA exhibited two
acid treatment (340 U ml1 ) followed by P. major clusters with 66–92 % genetic similarity.
fluorescens (325 U ml1 ). Propiconazole sprays Though most of the isolates showed grouping
has recorded significantly higher yield (10,333 kg specific to the host variety, they did not exhibit
ha1 ) followed by carbendazim C mancozeb any relationship between morphological and ge-
(9333 kg ha1 ) as against control plots (Madhavi netic similarities (Madhavi et al. 2015b).
et al. 2015a). Grain mould of sorghum is a serious global
Variability among the population of banded disease affecting grain quality and its accept-
leaf and sheath blight fungus Rhizoctonia solani ability to the consumer. Grain mould pathogen
in Andhra Pradesh was assessed from 27 isolates infects at the time of flowering and causes
collected from different maize varieties and 1 severe losses when post-flowering wet weather
from rice grown in various regions of Andhra prevails. Fusarium, Curvularia, Alternaria and
Pradesh for easy breeding task. These isolates Bipolaris spp. are some of the fungal pathogens
were analysed for their morphological and ge- that cause floret infection. Contrary to fungi
netic characterization. Morphological character- that infect sorghum floret, fungi infecting grains
ization revealed that majority of the isolates was (and cause grain weathering) are saprophytes
fast growing with raised and fluffy colonies. The and occurrence of the later is extremely weather
hyphal width varied from 5.00 (RS 2, RS20) dependant. Studies have revealed that frequency
to 7.97 m (RS10) of rice isolate (7.34 m). of floret infection was about 25 % with natural
The isolates RS7, RS8, RS9 (Karimnagar), RS10, inoculums. Floret or milk stage grain infection
RS11, RS12 (Khammam), RS16 (Krishna) and frequency played significant role in deciding
RS26 (Kurnool) and one rice isolate RS28 pro- grain mould severity on postmaturity sorghum.
duced barrel-shaped monilioid cells. The clamp Therefore, management of floret infection might
connection was present only in RS1 isolate from cause ultimate grain mould severity. Genotypic
Pragnapur Mandal of Medak district. The three variability in floret infection has been studied.
isolates RS16, RS17, RS18 from Krishna district The use of host resistance and fungicides has
and rice isolate RS28 recorded maximum colony been reported for effective management of floret
growth of 90.00 mm within 48 h of incubation. infection in sorghum. Spraying of fungicides
The colour of most isolates varied from light grey at anthesis significantly reduced seed-borne
to brown, while the rice isolate showed a typical infection at milk stage and grain mould severity
yellowish brown shade. The sclerotial number at maturity. Propiconazole was found the most
per 5.00 mm culture disc of test isolates ranged effective for minimization of floret infection.
from (7.00) to (17.67). Their size varied between Through this new approach, more than 60 %
0.21 m (RS 24) and 1.57 m (RS11). The rice each of Fusarium spp., Curvularia spp. and total
isolate RS28 recorded highest (19.00) sclerotial fungal infection could be reduced on milk stage
count compared to that of maize isolates. Scle- grain compared to control. Visible mould score
rotial colour in all isolates except for RS 24 was was also significantly reduced from 7.0 to 4.0 on
yellowish brown to dark reddish brown, whereas matured grain, thus producing clean grain (Das
the rice isolate was dark yellowish brown. Most et al. 2015).
of the sclerotia were found scattered in the colony
and highest sclerotial aggregation was observed
in RS11. The sclerotial production was surface 7.6 Other Crops
and aerial in most of the isolates including rice
isolate, while it was aerial in RS2. Together, F. oxysporum f. sp. zingiberi causing yellows of
by using principal component analysis (PCA), ginger is one of the most important pathogens
the divergence of morphological, cultural and of ginger in Himachal Pradesh, India. Studies
sclerotial characters of isolates was assessed and were carried out to see morphological variations
grouped into nine similar groups. Molecular char- with respect to mycelial colour, conidial
7 Biotic Stress: Diseases 97

size and formation of chlamydospores and tion. In the field evaluation of Trichoderma sp.
pathogenic variation in terms of disease incidence K2, seed treatment was found effective in man-
among different isolates. The mycelial colour aging chilli wilt (37 %) followed by seedling dip
varied from white to dull white with slightly (29 %). Lowest disease control (12 %) was found
pinkish tinge. The microconidial size varied with the seed treatment with carbendazim (0.1 %)
from 3.16  3.16 m (I19) to 9.13  5.44 m followed by seedling dip in captan (0.2 %). How-
(I7), whereas macroconidial size varied from ever, disease management was found highest at
11.77  3.16 m (I19) to 24.60  5.91 m Magam area of Kashmir as compared to Pattan
(I7). Chlamydospore dimensions also varied (Mohiddin et al. 2015).
in all the 19 isolates of the test pathogen. Grey mildew of cotton caused by Ramularia
All isolates formed chlamydospores on PDA areola is an economically important disease in
medium. Pathogenic variability was revealed Andhra Pradesh, India. The effect of weather fac-
in terms of lesion size that varied from 8.50 tors on the development of grey mildew disease
to 18.00 mm after 10 days of inoculation and in susceptible Bt cotton hybrid Jadoo was in-
incubation period varied from 11 to 19 days. vestigated during kharif 2013–2014 in Vertisols
Genetic variation was also analysed by using at Regional Agricultural Research Station, Lam,
40 ten-mer oligonucleotide RAPD primers, Guntur and Andhra Pradesh under rain-fed con-
out of which two primers yielded informative, ditions. Scoring of disease was done at weekly
strong and reproducible DNA amplicons of F. intervals by adopting 0–4 scale on randomly
oxysporum f. sp. zingiberi and thus were selected labelled plants up to mid-February. The develop-
for studying the variation among isolates. The ment of disease expressed as % disease intensity
dendrogram produced from computerized cluster (PDI), along with meteorological data (maxi-
analysis of the DNA fingerprints revealed 0– mum temperature, minimum temperature, morn-
80 % variation among isolates as expected after ing relative humidity, evening relative humid-
DNA banding pattern analysis of gel image. All ity, rain fall and sunshine hours), was recorded.
isolates were grouped into two different major Correlation between progress of grey mildew
groups, each comprising of ten and nine isolates and weather factors was calculated. The study
(Gupta 2015). indicated that the disease appeared during 44th
T. harzianum (K2 isolate) was selected for the meteorological week (29 Oct–4 Nov 2013), with
evaluation against chilli wilt caused by Fusar- mean maximum temperature 31.3 ı C, mean min-
ium solani in two areas of north Kashmir (Pat- imum temperature 24.1 ı C, mean morning rel-
tan and Magam). These areas are found to be ative humidity 94 %, mean evening relative hu-
hot spots of Fusarium solani causing diverse midity 62 %, sunshine hours 6.4 h day1 and
losses to chilli crop. Combinations of different rainfall 1 mm week1 at flowering stage. The
locally available carriers with different propor- grey mildew increased progressively and reached
tion were found effective in maintaining colony- its peak (43 %) during 52nd meteorological week
forming unit (cfu) load for the period of 120 days. (24–30 Dec 2013), with mean maximum tem-
The maximum inoculum load of 6.22  108 cfu perature 28.9 ı C, mean minimum temperature
g1 was observed in cow dung-charcoal-molasses 16.4 ı C, mean morning relative humidity 93 %,
(3:2:1 v/v) which was followed by cow dung-ash- mean evening relative humidity 49 %, sunshine
molasses (3:2:1 v/v) with an inoculum load of hours 6.4 h day1 and no rain fall at boll maturity
6.18  108 cfu g1 formulation after 30 days of stage. The data on % disease index was subjected
storage. After 120 days, cfu count dramatically to multiple linear regression, and the follow-
decreased in all the combinations with maximum ing equation was obtained as Y D 349.698–7.237
load of 6.2  106 cfu g1 observed in cow dung- max T – 4.307 min T C 1.0 RH II (r2 D 92.26 %).
charcoal-dalweed-soil (3:2:1:1 v/v) followed by The partial regression coefficient for evening rel-
cow dung-ash-dalweed-soil (3:2:1:1 v/v) with an ative humidity was significant and positively cor-
inoculum load of 5.62  106 cfu g1 of formula- related with PDI. This study is useful to plan
98 S. Banik and R.K. Maiti

the management strategies against this important conference on bio-resource and stress management.
disease and take up preventive and/or protec- ANGRAU & PJTSAU, Hyderabad, 7–10 January 2015
Das IK, Govardhan C, Patil JV (2015) Management
tive measures with recommended fungicides like of floret infections of grain molds in sorghum. In:
0.3 % wettable sulphur or 0.1 % carbendazim Compendium of abstracts of the 2nd international
(Bhattiprolu et al. 2015). conference on bio-resource and stress management.
White root rot in apple caused by De- ANGRAU & PJTSAU, Hyderabad, 7–10 January
2015
matophora necatrix (perfect state Rosellinia Gopi R, Kalita H, Avasthe RK et al (2015) Organic
necatrix) is becoming a major threat in the management of tomato late blight in Sikkim Himalaya.
cultivation of crop. The disease occurs in severe In: Compendium of abstracts of the 2nd international
form both under nursery and orchard conditions conference on bio-resource and stress management.
ANGRAU & PJTSAU, Hyderabad, 7–10 January
leading to huge economic losses. Integration 2015
of cultural and biological methods and use of Gupta M (2015) Variability among isolates of F. oxys-
novel chemicals have been quite effective in porum f.sp. zingiberi causing yellows of ginger. In:
reducing the disease incidence and increasing the Compendium of abstracts of the 2nd international
conference on bio-resource and stress management.
production of the crop. These serve as the best ANGRAU & PJTSAU, Hyderabad, 7–10 January 2015
way to manage this soil-borne disease of apple in Hanuman LN, Madhavi BG, Narayana F (2015) Com-
the orchards (Verma and Sharma 2015). patibility of different fungicides with Pseudomonas
fluorescens. In: Compendium of abstracts of the 2nd
international conference on bio-resource and stress
management. ANGRAU & PJTSAU, Hyderabad, 7–
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 Biotic Stress: Insect Pests
8
Ratikanta Maiti and Aruna Kumari

Abstract
The productivity of crops is influenced by abiotic and biotic factors.
Insects are the major pests contributing to severe yield losses. This chapter
makes a concise review of the researches undertaken on insect incidence,
influence of photoperiod and environment on insect multiplication and
the specific control measures in various crops, viz., rice, maize, sorghum,
chickpea, green gram, pigeon pea, black gram, safflower, sunflower, castor,
groundnut, cotton, cabbage, okra, chilli, tomato, tobacco, banana, mango
and sugarcane. It also discusses the various rearing media employed for
the study of biology of insects, the integrated pest management, the
compatibility of insecticides with the fungicides and various weed control
measures.

management requires a coordinated approach,

8.1 Introduction integrating diverse tactics, including cultural,
ecological, biological and chemical control. The
Agriculture is under pressure to reduce reliance productivity of crops is influenced by abiotic
on chemicals and focus on more sustainable and biotic factors. Insects are the major pests
methods of production. In recent decades, IPM contributing to severe yield losses.
has shown great potential for reducing the India is a tropical country with climate con-
dependence of crop protection on chemical ditions being very conductive to insect and pest
control methods. IPM reflects the idea that pest breeding. Pesticides are an important component
in agriculture efficiency and improved food qual-
R.K. Maiti () ity by making them pest-free. Use of pesticides
Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Autónoma
de Nuevo León, Carr. No 85, km 145, NL 67700 Linares,
introduced and increased with the Green revo-
Mexico lution in India. But environmental exposure of
e-mail: [email protected] pesticides to humans can occur through improper
A. Kumari agricultural practices, consumption of contami-
Department of Crop Physiology, Agricultural College, nated food materials or polluted air. Functional
Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural response is an important behavioural response
University, Polasa, Jagtial, Karimnagar 505 529,
Telangana, India
to reveal different aspects of prey-predator
e-mail: [email protected] interactions.

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 101

R.K. Maiti et al. (eds.), Bioresource and Stress Management, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0995-2_8
102 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

It has been established that indiscriminative (Niharika and Chaturvedi 2015) for % par-
use of pesticides is hazardous for human and asitization by natural enemies, eco-friendly
animal health. Hence, pesticide residue has and synthetic insecticides revealed that %
also become an important parameter of quality parasitization varied from 8.1 to 38.62 %.
assessment of food crops for both domestic The significantly highest % parasitization
and export market. Significant advances have was observed in untreated control (38.62 %)
been attained on the physiology of plants and followed by other eco-friendly treatments, viz.,
mechanisms of resistances to various abiotic Thiamethoxam 70 WS 0.3 % seed treatment
stresses. Several papers are presented on these followed by release of Chrysoperla carnea at
various aspects in the second International Con- 10,000 first instar larvae ha1 C Trichogramma
ference on Bio-resource and Stress management chilonis at 1.5 lakh ha1 C mechanical
in Hyderabad, January 2015. collection. The parasitization was (32.78 %)
with Bt at 1 kg ha1 spraying, (32.52 %)
with NSE 5 % spraying and (28.41 %) with
8.2 Rearing Media for Biocontrol endosulfan 35 EC 0.07 % spraying along with
Agent’s Production the combination of above treatments. The lowest
% parasitization was observed in dimethoate
A wide variety of rearing medium is employed 30 EC 0.03 % followed by carbaryl 50 WP
and is under use for the production of the biocon- 0.2 % and quinalphos 25 EC 0.05 % sprayings
trol agents. The rearing media is also employed to (8.1 %). However, the lowest parasitization was
study the biology of insect pests under laboratory observed due to the application of synthetic
conditions. The development and reproductive insecticides.
performance of Corcyra evaluated under 12 dif-
ferent combinations of food containing maize,
wheat, Italian millet and scented rice – alone and 8.4 Insecticides Against Pod
fortified with 3 % dextrose and yeast as rearing Borers
media – indicated that the Italian millet (alone
or fortified) increased the net reproductive rate, Pod borers are a serious pest of crops leading to
innate capacity, number of hypothetical females, a decreased yield due to the damage of pods and
daily finite rate and weekly multiplication. The grains. The pod borer’s damage is more inflicting
potential fecundity was highest and true gener- the grain yield in unprotected condition. In pi-
ation time and doubling time was shortest in geon pea, the yield losses were estimated 35.96 %
the Italian millet rearing medium. The perfor- due to pod borers. Indoxacarb 14.5 SC at 50 g
mance was better in wheat alone (second to a.i. ha1 evaluated (Joshi et al. 2015) against pod
Italian millet) than its fortification with dextrose borer complex, viz., Maruca vitrata, Helicoverpa
and yeast and also superior to maize and scented armigera, Exelastis atomosa and Melanagromyza
rice. Hence, Italian millet alone or fortified with obtusa in pigeon pea variety Asha revealed its
3 % dextrose and yeast was the most suitable effectiveness against these pests. The larval popu-
rearing media for mass production of Corcyra lation per plant, % pod damage and grain damage
(Chaudhuri et al. 2015). due to pod borer complex, viz., Maruca vitrata
(4.07, 3.2 and 2.09 %), Helicoverpa armigera
(2.93, 4.45 and 2.49 %), Exelastis atomosa (3.67,
8.3 Parasitization of Parasitoids 3.07 and 1.94 %) and Melanagromyza obtuse
(2.53, 3.30 % and 2.35 %) in pigeon pea variety
Different parasitoids, viz., Campoletis chlo- Asha were minimum. Further, in protected con-
rideae, Goniophthalmus halli, Rogas aligarhen- dition with Indoxacarb spray, there was reduced
sis, Bracon sp. and Agathis sp., evaluated pod damage and grain yield loss.
8 Biotic Stress: Insect Pests 103

8.5 Insecticide Resistance of Boll the carbamate group of insecticides revealed that
Worm the Mahaboobnagar district strain to methomyl
recorded a LD50 of 3.651 g larva1 which rose
The bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera Hübner sharply to 10.287 g larva1 at LD90 at F1 .
(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is a polyphagous pest Further these values rose to 3.872 and 5.829 g
of worldwide occurrence inflicting annual crop larva1 at LD50 and LD90 , respectively, at F2 .
damage in India worth US $1 billion. In India Interestingly at F3 the resistance recorded was
this insect occurs as a major pest in many 3.934 and 4.668 at LD50 and LD90 . The LD50 and
economically important crops, including cotton, LD90 values of methomyl for Raichur population
pigeon pea, chickpea, tomato, okra, black gram, of H. armigera were 3.630 and 10.417 g
maize, sorghum and many other crops, inflicting larva1 , respectively, at F1 which increased to
substantial crop losses every year. The ability of 3.659 and 5.471 g larva1 at LD50 and LD90 ,
insect species to thrive on diverse host plants is respectively, at F2 and to 3.851 and 4.708 at LD50
an adaptive advantage for their better survival in and LD90 , respectively, at F3 . The resistance of
the ecosystem. toxicity of methomyl to Nagpur population of H.
H. armigera is also characterized by its armigera showed that the LD50 and LD90 values
high mobility and fecundity and it has shown were 2.652 % and 7.214 %, respectively, at F1
great capacity to develop resistance to synthetic which rose to 2.844 and 3.716 g larva1 at
insecticides used in its management. The LD50 and LD90 , respectively, at F2 and to 2.944
versatility of this species may be due to the and 3.279 at LD50 and LD90 , respectively, at F3
presence of a strong genetic variability governing (Upendhar et al. 2015).
the behaviour of H. armigera making it a serious Among the three populations of H. armigera,
pest on several crops. the population of Mahaboobnagar had developed
The occurrence of insecticide-resistant strains 1.006- and 0.988-fold relative resistance at LD50
can be reduced or delayed by reducing the and LD90 , compared to the Raichur population
selection pressure, by using alternate insecticides and still higher levels of relative resistance by
with novel mode of action. The pyrethroids and 1.377- and 1.426-fold compared to the Nagpur
organophosphorus combination of insecticides population at LD50 and LD90 , respectively.
were found to be effective against the resistant Raichur population recorded 1.369- and 1.444-
insect pest population of H. armigera. fold resistance at LD50 and LD90 , respectively, in
The toxicity of all the test insecticides against comparison with Nagpur. In comparison with
insect pest is done by bioassay topical application base line data of Nagpur, susceptible three
method using Hamilton micro applicator. One populations of Mahaboobnagar, Raichur and
microlitre of the respective insecticidal solution Nagpur acquired 121.700-, 121.000- and 88.400-
is applied on the dorsum of second thoracic seg- fold at LD50 and 62.345-, 63.133- and 43.721-
ment by micro applicator. The mortality at 72 h fold resistance to methomyl at LD90 levels,
after treatment can be considered as end point for respectively. The cypermethrin resistance ratio
the assessment of toxicity of test insecticides. The appeared to be high because of the comparison
amount of insecticide present in one microlitre of with most susceptible strain as base line (LD50
test concentration is calculated and expressed as D 0.007 g larva1 ), but in reality it is indicated
(LD50 ) dose in g l1 . that there is decrease in the levels of resistance to
Bioassay of Helicoverpa armigera collected cypermethrin in H. armigera compared to latest
from different crops of red gram, cotton and reports, which may be probably due to decreased
Bengal gram, from different places, viz., selection pressure with significant decrease in the
Raichur, Mahaboobnagar and Nagpur evaluated use of cypermethrin and increasing the area under
(Upendhar et al. 2015) against the degree Bt cotton. The methomyl investigations have
of resistance acquired by H. armigera to indicated that there was a decrease in the levels
insecticides, viz., cypermethrin representing of methomyl resistance in H. armigera compared
synthetic pyrethroids and methomyl representing to latest reports, which may be probably due
104 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

to significant decrease in the use of methomyl before consumption, the dissipation of pesticides
in managing the pest due to reduced bollworm might have resulted in lower levels of pesticides
incidence and due to increased area under Bt residues. The best way to avoid consuming
cotton (Upendhar et al. 2015). synthetic pesticides along with our food is to
eat organic foods.

8.6 Pesticide Residue in Foods

8.7 Rice
India is a tropical country with climate conditions
being very conductive to insect and pest breeding. 8.7.1 Brown Plant Hopper
Pesticides are an important component in agri-
culture efficiency and improved food quality by 8.7.1.1 Antixenosis Affect
making them pest-free. Use of pesticides intro- The brown plant hopper (BPH), Nilaparvata
duced and increased with the Green revolution lugens (Stal.) (Homoptera: Delphacidae), is one
in India. But environmental exposure of pesti- of the most destructive monophagous insect pests
cides to humans can occur through improper agri- of rice throughout the rice-growing countries in
cultural practices, consumption of contaminated Asia. Heavy dependence on chemical pesticides
food materials or polluted air. for the control of this pest leads to many
It has been established that indiscriminative adverse effects like harmful effects on natural
use of pesticides is hazardous for human and enemies, development of insecticide resistance,
animal health. Hence, pesticide residue has also environmental pollution and high cost of
become an important parameter of quality assess- production.
ment of food crops for both domestic and export Cultivation of resistant rice varieties is the
market. Pesticides are tested and approved by the most economical and efficient method for the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which management of BPH. Understanding the mech-
establishes “tolerances”, that limit the amount of anisms underlying mechanisms of rice resistance
a given pesticide that can safely remain in or on a to BPH is very essential for developing varieties
food. with durable resistance. In general, resistant rice
Residues of pesticides in food are influenced plants exhibit two strategies against BPH: an-
by the storage, handling and processing tech- tixenosis and antibiosis.
nologies that occur between harvesting of raw The antixenosis affect studies were conducted
commodities and consumable foods. Processing (Bhanu et al. 2015a) in 12 resistant rice cultures,
technologies, washing and peeling for vegetables, viz., NLR 3090, NLR 3093, MTU 1075, WGL
milling for cereals and pulses and fat reduction 401, WGL II 218-5-1, MTU PLA 99-1-3-1-2,
for animal food can reduce the residue content for NLR 20131, BPT 2404, RDR 34, RGL 7001,
some extent. RGL 7002 and MTU IJ 206-7-4-1 along with
Selected whole or processed cereals and resistant check (Ptb 33) and susceptible check
pulses, viz., jowar, maize, red gram and black (TN1) on insect settling, colonization, ovipo-
gram grown in the Southern Telangana zone of sition and feeding of BPH at Maruteru, West
Andhra Pradesh analysed for acephate, carbo- Godavari district. The settlement of adults after
furan, chlorpyrifos, endosulfan, monocrotophos their release at 24, 48 and 72 h on rice cul-
and quinalphos pesticide standards (Niharika tures assessed by conventional seed box method
and Chaturvedi 2015), have shown that the revealed that the mean number of nymphs and
pesticide residues in these were below the adults settled on these resistant rice cultures after
detectable limits (BDLs) due to strict observance 72 h of their release varied significantly with
of postharvest measures (safety limiting period) the rice cultures and were lower than suscepti-
by the farmers. Though the pesticide usage was ble check, TN1 (12.01 nymphs seedling1 and
reportedly high, as cereals and pulses are stored 20.56 adults per ten plants). Among the tested
8 Biotic Stress: Insect Pests 105

rice cultures, MTU IJ 206-7-4-1 exhibited high fipronil C imidacloprid 80WG proved to be most
level of antixenosis for colonization of BPH (3.22 effective against N. Lugens recording 8.42 hopper
nymphs seedling1 and 1.12 adults per ten plants) per hill followed by Rynaxypyr 0.4G at (9.13),
and recorded lowest number of eggs (79.67). fipronil 0.3G (11.33) and cartap hydrochloride
The other rice cultures were also least preferred (11.64) hopper population per hill. Chloropy-
adults of BPH for oviposition and recorded less riphos, carbofuran and phorate recorded higher
number of eggs compared to susceptible check, hopper population of 13.23, 14.56 and 15.53 per
TN1 (608.00). hill noticed as against 22.61 hoppers per hill in
untreated control.
8.7.1.2 Functional Response of BPH
In tropical rice, it is well established that BPH as 8.7.1.4 Ecological Engineering
a secondary pest problem is caused by ecological Agriculture is under pressure to reduce reliance
disruptions, particularly due to use of insecticides on chemicals and focus on more sustainable
that reduce natural biological control. Among methods of production. In recent decades, IPM
the natural enemies of BPH, green mirid bug, has shown great potential for reducing the
C. lividipennis (Hemiptera: Miridae), is one of dependence of crop protection on chemical
the important insect predators of rice hoppers, control methods. IPM reflects the idea that pest
predaceous on nymphs as well as on eggs of management requires a coordinated approach,
BPH. Functional response is an important be- integrating diverse tactics, including cultural,
havioural response to reveal different aspects of ecological, biological and chemical control.
prey-predator interactions. The term “functional Maintenance of pests below economic injury
response” shows the response of individual natu- levels while minimizing hazards to humans and
ral enemy to varying prey density. environment including natural enemies is a key
An investigation on the functional response component of IPM. Even with the implemen-
of female green mirid bug on the varying egg tation of IPM, modern agro systems are often
densities of BPH (Bhanu et al. 2015b) indicated inhospitable to natural enemies because of de-
that the logistic regression showed a type II creasing landscape heterogeneity, frequent distur-
functional response for female green mirid bug. bance, agrochemical inputs, decreasing genetic
The number of eggs attacked per day per predator diversity and increasingly homogeneous vegeta-
increased from 1.0 at a prey density of 12 to a tion. Due to several problems associated with
maximum of 23.0 at a prey density of 71.0, and inundative and inoculative biological control, this
thereafter the number of eggs attacked per day new approach of ecological engineering came
was decreased gradually with increase in prey to the forefront. The main concept involved in
density. The parameters (using Rogers’ model), ecological engineering is enhancing the build-up
the search rate (a) and the handling time (Th), and activity of natural enemies through changes
were estimated to be 0.318 and 0.0679 (days), in cultural practices having low dependence on
respectively. Based on the estimates of handling external and synthetic in puts, reliance on natural
time, the maximum number of eggs that one processes and habitat management via vegetation
female C. lividipennis was able to consume per structure exerting resource concentration effects
day was 14.73 (Bhanu et al. 2015b). (Reddy et al. 2015).

8.7.1.3 Granular Insecticides

The efficacy of granular insecticides, viz., fipronil 8.7.2 Phototrophic Insect Pests
0.3G, carbofuran 3G, phorate 10G, cartap hy-
drochloride 4G, fipronil C imidacloprid 80WG, The major phototropic insect pest species of
Rynaxypyr 0.4G and chloropyriphos 10G, evalu- paddy are rice gundhi bug, green leaf hopper,
ated (Kharbade et al. 2015a) against brown plant army worm and rice butterfly. Standard design of
hopper-infesting rice has shown that among these Jawahar light trap used to analyse (Muchhala
106 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

et al. 2015) the effect of various weather 8.7.2.1 Insect Pest Incidence
parameters on the seasonal activity of these in Different Systems of Rice
pests indicated that the major activity period of Cultivation
rice gundhi bug, Leptocorisa acuta (Thunberg), In India, currently rice is being cultivated in about
was observed from August to December with 44 m ha, through different methods (transplant-
two distinct peaks during the 39th and 42nd ing, direct seeding, broadcasting, SRI, mecha-
SW; green leaf hopper, Nephotettix virescens nized transplanting, etc.). An assessment of pest
(Distant), was active from August to December incidence in different systems of rice cultivation
with three distinct peaks during the 37th, 39th and (Nadimpally and Rumandla 2015a) revealed that
42nd SW, respectively; army worm, Mythimna during kharif 2008, significantly lower whorl
separata (Walker) was active from September maggot incidence (2.93 %) was noticed in SRI
to November with two distinct peaks during the than conventional method (4.58 %). Higher stem
39th and 44th SW; and Melanitis leda ismene borer incidence (both in terms of dead hearts and
Cramer was active from August to December white ears) was observed in conventional method
with three distinct peaks during the 38th, 42nd (16.94 % and 4.84 %, respectively) compared to
and 44th SW, respectively. Among all the SRI (11.04 % and 1.65 %, respectively) in 2008.
parameters, maximum temperature was found During 2009, dead heart incidence varied from
to be a significantly favourable weather factor for 13.46 % in conventional to 4.97 % in SRI. Con-
development of these pest species. versely, incidence of hispa and thrips was high
Some of the major predatory species Prothyma in SRI method during both the seasons. Signif-
sp., Coenagrion sp. and parasitic species, namely, icantly higher grain yields were realized in SRI
Myrmicaria brunnea Saunders and Enicospilus (4.9 t ha1 ) than in conventional system (4.4 t
purgatus (Say) are also phototrophic. Standard ha1 ) during kharif 2008, but yield differences
design of Jawahar light trap used to analyse the were non-significant across systems during 2009.
effect of seasonal activity (Sharma and Much- In Direct seeding and conventional transplanting
hala 2015) of these major predatory and para- (kharif 2010 and 2011) during kharif 2010, hispa
sitic species and their relationship with various damage was significantly lower (0.19 %) in di-
weather factors indicated that the major activity rect seeding than conventional method (2.56 %).
period of Prothyma sp. was observed from July Higher stem borer incidence (white ears) was
to October with three distinct peaks during the observed in direct seeding (15.25 %) than con-
28th, 37th and 41st SW, respectively; Coenagrion ventional method (10.07 %) in 2008. However,
sp. was active from June to October with two during 2011, stem borer and hispa was lower
distinct peaks during the 37th and 39th SW; in direct seeding. Higher grain yields (12–13 %)
Sirthenea carinata (Fabricius) was active from were realized in direct seeding during both the
August to November with two distinct peaks dur- seasons. The incidence of whorl maggot and stem
ing the 36th and 39th SW; Myrmicaria brunnea borer (dead hearts) did not differ significantly
Saunders was observed from July to August; and across the cultivation systems. However, BPH
Enicospilus purgatus (Say) was active from June incidence was significantly low in direct seeding
to November with distinct peak in the 30th SW with drum seeder and broad casting systems com-
and the 27th and 42nd SW, respectively. Among pared to other systems. Mechanized transplanting
all the parameters, minimum temperature was and direct seeding with drum seeder registered
found significantly favourable for Prothyma sp., 25 and 23 % increased yields over farmers prac-
while morning relative humidity has significantly tice. This information would be highly useful
negative correlation with the activity of Coena- in decision-making on pest management options
grion sp. based on rice cultivation systems.
8 Biotic Stress: Insect Pests 107

8.7.2.2 Lesser Grain Borer sp., Copidosomopsis sp. and Opius sp. were
The growth and development of lesser grain the parasites whose population was found
borer, R. dominica, assessed (Muthukumar et al. maximum from boro seedbed. The transplanted
2015) in different paddy varieties, viz., MTU- field sweeping during boro season indicated that
1075, CM-9 (2012), NLR-34449, BPT-5204, the most abundant insect pests were Leptocorisa
MTU-1001, WGL-14, WGL-3943, WGL-44 and sp., Baliothrips sp., Cofona sp., Scirpophaga
WGL-32100 of varied biochemical composition incertulas, Sogatella sp. and Nephotettix sp. In
(protein, carbohydrates, amylose and phenol), earlier studies, the most abundant arthropods
indicated that the biochemical composition noticed were green leaf hopper, white leaf
(protein, carbohydrate, amylose and phenol) hopper, spiders, dragonfly and damselfly. The
of paddy varieties was correlated with the % maximum temperature played a positive effect
of damage and % weight loss caused by R. on population build-up in seedbed of yellow
dominica. stem borer, leaf folder, pest, predator and
The susceptibility index of the test paddy parasite. The minimum temperature showed a
varieties calculated (Muthukumar et al. 2015) significant positive relation with yellow stem
based on the parameters of observation, viz., borer, pest and predator and parasite population.
adult emergence, mean developmental period, % The significant negative correlation was found
weight loss and the % of damage caused by R. with relative humidity (morning) and relative
dominica, revealed that there was a significant humidity (evening) to the population build-up
difference among the treatments with regard to of YSB. Rainfall and sunshine hours failed to
adult emergence and susceptibility index. The show any significant effect with the population of
maximum number of adults of 75.83 emerged insects.
from WGL-3943 and minimum was recorded in
CM-9 (2012) (17.53). The average susceptibility 8.7.2.4 Resistance to Leaf Folder
index was 10.74 ranging from 8.05 to 12.45. The Rice is the staple food for more than one half
maximum % weight loss and the % of damage of the world’s population. The major reason for
were recorded in WGL-44 (7.30 % and 10.67 %, dismal state of rice production and productivity
respectively) and minimum was observed in CM- worldwide is due to biotic stresses. Among
9 (2012) (0.28 % and 0.71 %, respectively). There insect pests, rice leaf folder (Cnapholocrocis
was significant positive and negative correlation medinalis), earlier considered as a minor pest,
between the protein and phenol contents of the has gained the status of major pest with
paddy varieties with respect to % weight loss the widespread cultivation of HYV and the
and the % of damage caused by R. dominica. accompanying changes in cultural practices. Due
The infestation of R. dominica on paddy varieties to lack of resistant donors and varieties, farmers
resulted in significant increase in protein and are solely dependent on insecticides to combat
phenol contents after 3 months period of storage. this pest. So, there is an urgent need to identify
resistant donors and develop resistant varieties
8.7.2.3 Population Dynamics against leaf folder.
Population dynamics of stem borer and leaf A large amount of variability exists between
folder as well as their predators and parasites the genotypes for leaf folder resistance and
investigated (Chatterjee et al. 2015) through its contributing traits which can be utilized in
sweeping method at weekly intervals revealed breeding programmes to develop rice varieties
that from the seedbed sweeping during boro with strong resistance to leaf folder coupled
season, the most abundant rice insect pests with good grain quality and higher yield under
were Cofona sp., Recelia sp., Hieroglyphus typical tropical irrigated ecosystem. This was
sp. and Hydrellia sp., whereas Micraspis sp., evident from a study conducted (Rao et al.
Mesovelia sp., Paederus sp., Ophionea sp. and 2015) to study the variability and molecular
Agriocnemis sp. Tetrastichus sp., Telenomus genetic diversity for leaf folder resistance in
108 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

30 genotypes including susceptible check TN1 with 2.39 %DH was next to above treatments.
under natural conditions. Based on damage Chlorantraniliprole 18.5SC with 1.71 % white
score (25, 50 and 75 DAT), 21 genotypes ears (WE) followed by Chlorantraniliprole
were resistant, 8 were moderately resistant 0.4G (1.76 %WE) and Cartap hydrochloride
and TN1 was highly susceptible. Correlation 4G (2.19 %WE) were significantly superior
studies among different traits revealed that the over other treatments and untreated control in
trait damage score recorded significant negative checking the stem borer attack at reproductive
correlation with leaf width (r D 0.180**) and phase of the crop. Chlorantraniliprole 18.5SC
SPAD chlorophyll meter reading (r D 0.136**) recorded significantly higher grain yield of
and non-significant negative correlation with leaf 7947 kg ha1 , followed by chlorantraniliprole
length. Molecular diversity studied through 60 0.4G (7023 kg ha1 ) and cartap hydrochloride
microsatellite markers resulted in detection of a 4G (6596 kg ha1 ) and prevented the grain
total of 127 polymorphic alleles. Polymorphic yield loss due to stem borer. Chlorantraniliprole
information content (PIC) values of the markers 18.5SC, chlorantraniliprole 0.4G and cartap
ranged from 0.061 to 0.62 with an average of hydrochloride 4G were found to be effective
0.30. UPGMA analysis has grouped the 30 rice in checking the stem borer at vegetative as well
genotypes into three clusters. Cluster I had only as at reproductive phase of the crop.
one genotype, i.e. TN1, the susceptible check.
Cluster II had 11 genotypes and Cluster III had 8.7.2.6 Panicle Mite
18 genotypes. Five acaricides (diafenthiuron, fenpyroximate,
profenofos, dicofol and spiromesifen) evaluated
8.7.2.5 Yellow Stem Borer (Nadimpally and Rumandla 2015a) alone and
Among the major pests attacking rice crop, in combination with propiconazole for their
the yellow stem borer, Scirpophaga incertulas efficacy against rice panicle mite and grain
(Walker), is the serious pest which attacks the discolouration revealed that a combination of
crop both at vegetative and reproductive stages. spiromesifen 240SC C propiconazole 25EC
This pest causes 25–30 % damage to rice crop. (at1 C 1 ml l1 of water) and dicofol 18.5EC
Insecticide utilization in insect pest management C propiconazole 25EC (at 5 C 1 ml l1 of water)
is very important under farmer’s field conditions were found to be the most effective treatments
and is a last resort, especially when insect with mean % healthy grains of 69.92 and 64.12,
pests assume economically serious proportions. respectively. Spiromecifen C propiconazole and
Further, it is necessary to assess the efficacy of dicofol C propiconazole registered significantly
some of the recommended insecticides from time higher grain yields (5131 and 4686 kg ha1 ,
to time in addition to new chemicals available respectively) as against control (water spray)
in the market for their efficacy against paddy treatment (3943 kg ha1 ).
stem borer before their recommendation. Nine
available insecticides, viz., phosphamidon 40EC, 8.7.2.7 Compatibility of Insecticides
acephate 75SP, chlorpyriphos 25EC, cartap and Fungicides
hydrochloride 50WP, chlorantraniliprole 0.4G, During the crop growth period, sometimes there
chlorantraniliprole 18.5SC, cartap hydrochloride is simultaneous occurrence of both diseases and
4G and carbofuran 3G, evaluated (Kumar et al. pests. The application cost of insecticides and
2015c) against stem borer incidence revealed fungicides increase the cost under such events.
that chlorantraniliprole 18.5 % SC resulted in To reduce the cost of application, the insecticides
lowest of 1.30 % dead hearts (DH) followed by and fungicides applied as tank mix studied
chlorantraniliprole 0.4G with 1.64 % DH and for their compatibility in rice revealed that all
cartap hydrochloride 4G with 2.17 % of DH. the 25 insecticide and fungicide combinations
These were significantly superior over other tested were physically compatible. Among the
treatments in controlling the stem borer damage 25 combinations tested, no phytotoxicity either
at vegetative phase of the crop. Carbofuran 3G at single or at double dose was observed with
8 Biotic Stress: Insect Pests 109

combination of profenophos C kresoximethyl, and stem borer and to investigate their compati-
profenophos C tebuconazole, profenophos C bility as tank mix application for the purpose of
kasugamycin, chloropyriphos C tebuconazole, reducing the application cost in the event of si-
chloropyriphos C kasugamycin, spinosad C multaneous occurrence of both diseases and pests
hexaconazole or spinosad C trifloxystrobin during crop growth period. Among the different
C tebuconazole. However, combinations of combinations tested, pymetrozine 50 % WG at
flubendiamide C mancozeb and flubendiamide 0.5 g l1 in combination with Isoprothiolane 40%
C trifloxystrobin C tebuconazole showed EC at 1.5 ml l1 recorded less leaf blast incidence
high phytotoxicity at both the doses. Of (44.87 %), neck blast incidence (79.29 %) and
all the combinations of chlorpyriphos tested also lesser number of plant hoppers (1.35 hill1 )
with different fungicides, chlorpyriphos C followed by dinotefuran 20% SG at 1.0 g l1 C
kasugamycin (2.5 ml C2.5 ml l1 ) was the most tricyclazole at 0.6 g l1 (52.48 %, 75.28 %, 0.78
effective combination followed by spinosad C hill1 and white ears 0.20 hill1 ) and combina-
trifloxystrobin C tebuconazole (0.4 ml C0.6 g tion product (imidacloprid C ethiprole 80 % WG)
l1 ) in managing multiple insect pests and at 0.8 g l1 C tricyclazole 75 % WP at 0.6 g
diseases (stem borer, leaf blast, neck blast, l1 (47.52 %, 82.10 % 2.72 hill1 ) compared to
sheath rot). Among all the combinations tested untreated check where the incidence of leaf blast
chlorpyriphos C kasugamycin (2.5 ml C2.5 ml and neck blast was 80.90 % and 100 %, respec-
l1 ) followed by chlorpyriphos C tebuconazole tively. The number of plant hoppers and white
(2.5 ml C1 ml l1 ) were most cost-effective. ears in untreated check plot was 224.38 and 0.63
No phytotoxicity was observed with acephate per hill. There was no reduction in the efficacy
at 1.5 g l1 and various aforesaid fungicidal of these insecticides and fungicides when used
combinations. Acephate was equally effective as tank mix and phytotoxicity symptoms were
in all the combinations tested during dead heart observed first in some treatments but recouped
stage with incidence ranging from 2.69 to 5.28 % after short period. Thus, all the insecticide and
as against control (13.22 %). However, it was fungicide combinations used in the investigation
ineffective at white ear stage. Acephate at 1.5 g were compatible with each other and can be
and tricyclazole C mancozeb at 2 g l1 or safely combined as tank mix for the control of
acephate at 1.5 g C kresoxim-methyl at 1 ml rice pests and diseases thus saving labour costs.
l1 or acephate at 1.5 g and tebuconazole C
trifloxystrobin at 0.4 g l1 could effectively 8.7.2.8 Stored Grain Pests
control leaf blast (2.42–3.72 %) as against control Public distribution system (PDS) plays a pivotal
(39.28 %). They have also realized significantly role in West Bengal by providing food and
higher grain yield (5182–5120 kg ha1 ) than nutritional security, maintaining price stability
control (3744.9 kg ha1 ). Among these, acephate and ensuring micro level self sufficiency to the
and tricyclazole C mancozeb combination was poor and downtrodden section of the society.
the most cost-effective against stem borer and According to Annual Administrative Report
blast. Similarly, acephate at 1.5 g and tricyclazole 2010–2011, Food and Supply Dept., Govt. of
C mancozeb at 2 g l1 , acephate at 1.5 g and W.B. 1, 89, 63,621 are Below Poverty line
tebuconazole C trifloxystrobin at 0.4 g l1 , consumers (BPL); 74, 67,406 Antodaya Anno
acephate at 1.5 g C kresoxim-methyl at 1 ml l1 Yojona (AAY) and 63,855 Annapurna beneficiary
recorded highest net profit of INR16685, 16,125 (all belong to poorest section of the society) are
and 16,039 ha1 , respectively, over untreated directly benefited from the public distribution
control (Nadimpally and Rumandla 2015b). system. According to the ministry of Food and
Three fungicides and ten insecticides at rec- Civil Supplies, every year almost 10 % of total
ommended concentrations were evaluated (Patil food grain productions are lost in storage, eaten
and Lande 2015) as tank mix in various fungicide by rodents and insects or spoiled by moisture.
and insecticide combinations for their efficacy Insects are the major cause of loss of stored food
against leaf blast, neck blast, brown plant hopper grain products. As early as 1967, an FAO study
110 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

estimated that worldwide annual losses in storage weight loss (19.31 %) was low in the Delhi lo-
due to insect damage was as high as 10 % of all cation, as compared to other locations (Bajaura,
stored cereals which amounted to 13 million tons 26.77 %; Pantnagar, 24.94 %). Kernel popping
grain lost in that year alone (Wolpert 1967) cited expansion and kernel popping were 57.90 % and
in (Patil and Lande 2015). Rice weevil (Sitophilus 30.21 %, at Delhi, while the same were 46.23 %
oryzae) and lesser grain borer (Rhyzopertha do- and 19.56 % at Bajaura and 49.42 % and 20.72 %
minica) are the important stored-grain insect pest at Pantnagar, respectively. This suggested that
of procured par-boiled rice stored in government environment possibly influences the level of wee-
godowns for distributions through PDS. vil infestation and its effects on kernel popping
An experiment conducted (Goswami 2015) at traits. Grain weight loss was negatively correlated
a godown at Purba Midnapore, West Bengal, for with both kernel popping expansion volume and
management of rice weevil and lesser grain borer kernel popping percentage. Popping expansion
with the application of malathion chemical, safe volume showed positive correlation with popping
to human beings with different doses in storage percentage. Despite decrease in grain weight and
bags just before storing of “Swarna” variety rice popping quality upon weevil infestation, resistant
established that treatment of storage bags with genotypes with least damage to the popping at-
malathion applied as 8.0 ml l1 of water was tributes were identified.
the best treatment against the target insects. It
also suggested that proper malathion dosage in
storage bags plays an important role as an effec- 8.9 Sorghum
tive insecticide against stored-grain insect pests
of rice. It also helps in saving public money with 8.9.1 Shoot Fly
high cost-benefit ratio.
8.9.1.1 Physico-chemical
Characteristics for Resistance
8.8 Maize Sorghum shoot fly, Atherigona soccata is an im-
portant pest of sorghum, and host plant resistance
Popcorn is an important specialty corn type that is one of the important components for minimiz-
not only provides nutritious food in the form of ing the losses due to this pest. A diverse array of
popular snacks but also generates income and sorghum genotypes evaluated (Raut et al. 2015)
employment. The distinguishing popping trait is to identify the physico-chemical characteristics
the formation of large flakes after subjecting conferring resistance to A. soccata. Susceptibility
popcorn kernels to heat treatment. to shoot fly was associated with high amounts of
total sugars, soluble protein, total phenols, crude
8.8.1 Storage Pest fat and leaf surface wetness (RSV 1226, RSV
1251, RSV 1357 and Susceptible check DJ 6514),
Rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae L.) is a serious and seedling vigour, leaf glossiness and trichome
misery for maize grain storage especially in de- density showed resistance to shoot fly. High en-
veloping countries leading to postharvest loss in zyme activity was observed in resistant genotypes
quantity and quality of different specialty corn (RSV 1098, RSV 1188, RSV 2312, RSE 3 and IS
types including popcorn. A set of 21 popcorn hy- 18551). Correlation studies with oviposition and
brids evaluated (Zunjare et al. 2015) for their re- % dead hearts as dependent character indicated
sponses to stored-grain weevil infestation at three the importance of seedling height at 14 and 28
locations, viz., IARI, New Delhi, CSK-HPKV, DAE, leaf length and breadth ratio on 14 and
Bajaura and GBPUAT, Pantnagar, revealed the 28 DAE, seedling vigour, glossiness, LSW, %
presence of wide genetic variations for grain moisture content, soluble protein, total sugars,
weight loss (5.40–48.77 %), kernel popping ex- fats, total phenols and polyphenol oxidase and
pansion volume (6.09–85.21 ml) and kernel pop- peroxidase enzyme activity are important traits
ping (4.33–66.67 %) after infestation. Mean grain conferring resistance against shoot fly.
8 Biotic Stress: Insect Pests 111

8.10 Chickpea nut oil, while there was a minimum % of grain

damage and grain weight loss in stored chickpea
8.10.1 Pulse Beetle in the grain treated with groundnut oil at 1.0 and
0.75 %. The minimum number of eggs 18.0 eggs
The pulse beetle Calasobruchus chinensis is an per 100 grains and 20.5 eggs per 100 grains were
economically important pest of stored chickpeas recorded in the grain treated with groundnut oil at
producing losses ranging from 30 to 100 %. 10 ml (1.0 %) kg1 grain and castor oil at 10 ml
Though conventional methods are being used for (1.0 %) kg1 grain. This shows that groundnut
protection of stored chickpeas against bruchid oil can be used as an alternative to synthetic
species, ecologically sound methods including insecticide against pulse beetle.
resistant genotypes are needed for an integrated
approach to pest management. There is no
information on susceptibility of different varieties 8.10.3 Transgenic Chickpea Lines
of chickpea in southern zone to bruchid damage.
In this connection pre-release genotypes and Evaluation of transgenic chickpea lines, viz.,
popularly grown varieties by farmers were tested BS5A.1(T2) 18-1P1, BS5A.1(T2) 18-2P1,
for their reaction to pulse beetle (Kamakshi BS5A.2(T2) 19-1P2, BS5A.2(T2) 19-2P1,
et al. 2015). Among the 18 chickpea entries BS5A.2(T2) 19-3P1 and BS5A.2(T2) 19-3P2,
tested, 6 were kabuli chickpeas and remaining for resistance to Helicoverpa armigera under
were desi chickpeas. Each germplasm was glasshouse conditions using cage technique was
artificially infested with Calasobruchus chinensis conducted during 2011–2014 at ICRISAT along
and was subjected to antixenosis and antibiosis with two non-transgenic chickpea lines, ICC506
test. Of the 18 genotypes tested, none of the EB (resistant check) and Semsen (control)
genotypes exhibited resistance reaction against revealed that the transgenic line, BS5A.1(T2)
pulse beetle in storage. Vihar was found highly 18-1P1, suffered significantly lower leaf damage
susceptible with the % seed damage of 76.7 % (DR: 2.4) as compared to non-transgenic line,
and the remaining 17 genotypes were under the Semsen (DR: 7.8) and ICC 506 EB (DR: 6.7).
category moderately susceptible (10–60 % of The larval survival and the weight gain by the
seed damage). The minimum seed damage was H. armigera larvae was significantly greater on
recorded in the genotypes NBeG 49 (16.61 %), ICC 506EB (75.8 % and 14.1 mg larva1 ) and
WR 315 (17.2 %), K- 850 (18.7) and JAKI 9218 Semsen (72.9 % and13.1 mg larva1 ) than on
(19.9 %). The developmental period exhibited a the transgenic chickpea lines tested. The weight
negative correlation with % seed damage by gain by H. armigera larvae on other transgenic
recording 29 days in Vihar and 31.5 days in lines ranged from 5.1 to 8.7 mg larva1 , with
K-850. significantly greater weight gain on BS5A.2(T2)
19-3P2 (8.7 mg larva1 ). Significant differences
in grain yield were observed between transgenic
and non-transgenic plants when infested with
8.10.2 Alternative Synthetic H. armigera larvae for 10 days. The dry matter
Insecticide: Pulse Beetle weight was significantly higher in BS5A.2 (T2)
19-3P1 (6.5 g per three plants) than in Semsen
Callosobruchus chinensis L. is a serious pest (3.4 g per three plants) and ICC 506 EB (3.7 g
of chickpea during storage. Various vegetables per three plants). The weight of the pods in
oil, viz., mustard, ground nut, castor, coconut transgenic chickpea lines ranged from 3.3 to 1.6 g
and palm oil evaluated (Rathod et al. 2015a) per three plants as compared to 1.0 g per three
against pulse beetle during storage of chickpea, plants in Semsen and 1.3 g per three plants ICC
revealed a maximum % mortality of bruchid in 506 EB. Seed weight was significantly greater
the chickpea treated with 0.75 and 0.5 % ground- in BS5A.2 (T2) 19-2P1 (2.7 g per three plants)
112 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

compared to Semsen (0.7 g per three plants) and ha1 , 784 kg ha1 , 751 kg ha1 , 728 kg ha1
ICC 506 EB (1.0 g per three plants). Number of and 692 kg ha1 , respectively. The treatment
seeds formed was highest in BS5A.1 (T2) 18- acephate 75SP recorded yield of 657 kg ha1
1P1 (18) as compared to that on non-transgenic followed by the control plot, i.e. 546 kg ha1 .
chickpeas. Since leaf feeding damage was less
in transgenic chickpea plants, the dry matter
weight, pod weight, seed weight and number 8.12 Pigeon Pea
of seeds formed were significantly more than
on non-transgenic chickpea plants (Shaila et al. 8.12.1 Surveillance for Pod Borer
2015).
Pigeon pea, Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp, is one
of the most important pulse crops in India. In-
8.11 Green Gram sect pests feeding on flowers and pods are the
most important biotic constraint affecting yield
8.11.1 Efficiency of New Insecticides of pigeon pea. In India it is attacked by nearly
Against Thrips 250 species of insect pests. The pod borers are
the key impediments for the low productivity.
The insect pests, viz., thrips, Maruca vitrata, In Maharashtra, pod borer Helicoverpa armigera
Spodoptera exigua and galerucid beetles are (Hubner), plume moth Exelastis atomosa Wals-
causing considerable economic loss to green ingham, pod fly Melanagromyza obtusa (Mal-
gram crop. The pod borers are the major pests loch) and spotted pod borer Maruca testulalis
at flowering and pod development stage and are Geyer are considered important in causing eco-
the key impediments for its low production. The nomic losses to the farmers. These pod borers’
existing control measures are not highly effective damages amount to 57 % pods and 35 % seeds
against the insect pests of green gram. There with final yield loss up to 28 %.
is a need to evaluate new molecules with novel A survey carried out under Crop Pest
modes of action and the farmers are using freely Surveillance and Advisory Project (CROPSAP)
without having the knowledge of their efficacy. in eight districts of Marathwada against pod
New insecticides, viz., spiromesifen 240SC, borers’ damage on pigeon pea in four succeeding
lufenuron 5EC, novaluron 10EC, chlorantranilip- years from 2010–2011 to 2013–2014 has shown
role 20SC, flubendiamide 480SC, metaflumizone that during 2010–2011, the pod borer damage (%)
22SC, emamectin benzoate 5WSG, spinosad ranged from 2.90 to 9.44 %. The maximum pod
45SC and acephate 75SP, were evaluated (Kumar borer damage (%) was noticed in Aurangabad
et al. 2015a) for their efficacy against thrips district (9.44) followed by Parbhani (5.04) and
and Maruca vitrata in green gram. Spinosad Osmanabad (4.71). The pod borer damage was
45SC at 0.3 ml l1 was superior in controlling meagre in Latur (2.90). Similarly during 2011–
the thrips population and recorded a 64.32 % 2012, pod borer infestation ranged from 0.59
reduction, while novaluron 10EC at 0.75 ml l1 to 4.36 % with highest in Aurangabad (4.36)
led to a reduction of 52.83 % in thrips population followed by Nanded (3.66) and Beed (3.61)
over control. Further, spinosad 45SC at 0.3 ml and lowest in Osmanabad (0.59). During 2012–
l1 recorded least mean pod damage, i.e. 2013 the pod borer damage (%) was noticed
6.25 %, and recorded highest yield, i.e. 983 kg to the tune of 1.10–3.05 % with a maximum
ha1 , followed by chlorantraniliprole 20SC at in Jalna (3.05) followed by Aurangabad (2.58)
0.15 ml l1 , with 8.37 % pod damage and yield and Beed (2.55). Similarly during 2013–2014
of 875 kg ha1 . The other treatments, viz., average pod borer infestation (%) ranged from
emamectin benzoate 5 WSG, flubendiamide 0.69 to 2.30 % with maximum in Jalna (2.30)
480SC, novaluron 10EC, lufenuron 5EC and followed by Aurangabad (2.13) and Parbhani
metaflumizone 22SC, recorded yields of 826 kg (2.12) and minimum in Nanded (0.69). On the
8 Biotic Stress: Insect Pests 113

basis of 4-year surveyed data, the pod damage at 10 days after first spray, chlorantraniliprole
was severe during 2010–2011 in all districts and 20SC 3.0 ml per 10 l at 20 days after sec-
maximum pod borer damage (%) was recorded ond spray), followed by module 8 (azadirachtin
in Aurangabad (4.63) followed by Jalna (3.08), 10,000 ppm 10 ml per 10 l at 50 % flowering
Parbhani (2.98) and Beed (2.97). On the basis of stage-flubendiamide 480SC 2.0 ml per 10 l at
the above study, it could be concluded that Au- 10 days after first spray-chlorantraniliprole 20SC
rangabad, Jalna, Parbhani and Beed are identified 3.0 ml per 10 l at 20 days after second spray),
as hot spots for pod borer (Badgujar et al. 2015). which registered lowest pod damage due to pod
borer complex with highest monetary returns of
INR33399 and INR27573 per ha, respectively.
8.12.2 Pod Borer Insecticidal However, the highest incremental cost-benefit ra-
Resistance tio of 1:5.7 was obtained with module 8, followed
by module 4 (1:5.1).
Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) collected from The insecticidal property of sweet flag rhi-
major pigeon pea-growing districts of Vidarbha, zome (Acorus calamus L.) formulations inves-
viz., Akola, Amaravati, Buldhana, Yavatmal tigated (Latha and Naganagoud 2015) against
and Washim, was evaluated (Salunke et al. Callosobruchus analis on pigeon pea in storage
2015) for its resistance against commonly revealed that the sweet flag rhizome powder with
used insecticides. The LDP during 2012–2013 talc as a carrier at 2 % concentration reduced the
indicated LC50 value of cypermethrin in the range egg laying with 17.67 eggs per 10 seeds and
of 0.074–0.461 % with maximum in Yavatmal seed damage with 29.33 % as against 98.33 %
(0.461 %) and LC90 value within the range of in untreated check after 120 days of treatment
0.190–1.840 %. LC50 value of quinalphos was in (DAT). The seed weight loss was also less in
the range of 0.018–0.071 % with maximum in the same treatment with 2.42 % seed weight loss
Yavatmal (0.071 %) and LC90 value within range after 120 days. The number of adults emerged per
of 0.058–0.128 %. LC50 value of methomyl was 100 g of seeds after 120 days was 55 adults.
in the range of 0.026–0.083 % with maximum in
Amaravati (0.083 %) and LC90 value within range
of 0.071–0.130 %. LC50 value of indoxacarb was 8.13 Black Gram
in the range of 0.389–4.785 %. The maximum
LC50 value (4.785 %) was noticed in Yavatmal. The productivity of black gram is constrained by
LC90 value was within the range of 6.631– various abiotic and biotic stresses, resulting in
51.548 %. LC50 value of spinosad was in the drastic reduction in mean yield. White fly, is the
range of 0.028–0.067 % with maximum in key impediment for its low production by trans-
Amaravati (0.067 %) and LC90 value within range mitting YMV. There were huge losses due to yel-
of 0.058–0.123 %. low mosaic virus in pulses for the past few years
Ravages of lepidopteron pod borers during due to which most of the farmers switched over
flowering and pod formation stage and pod fly to maize cultivation. As the whitefly, the vector of
during pod formation stage are the major bot- this virus, is polyphagous and very few numbers
tlenecks in attainment of desired productivity of flies are able to transmit the virus to vast
levels of pigeon pea. A cost-effective and farmer- number of plants, control of whitefly is the most
friendly module designed (Sreekanth et al. 2015) important measure to avoid losses due to YMV.
for the management of pod borer complex in New insecticides, viz., spiromesifen 240SC,
pigeon pea by evaluation of 11 modules along diafenthiuron 50WP, acetamiprid 20SP, imida-
with a control revealed superiority of the module cloprid 70WG, thiamethoxam 25WG, buprofezin
4 (spinosad 3.0 ml per 10 l at 50 % flower- 25SC, triazophos 40EC and acephate 75SP, eval-
ing stage, flubendiamide 480SC 2.0 ml per 10 l uated (Kumar et al. 2015b) against YMV trans-
114 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

mitting whiteflies (a vector of yellow mosaic) in third insecticidal spray than other treatments.
black gram revealed that imidacloprid 70WG at However, among all the treatments tested, seed
0.1 g l1 was found to be superior over all other treatment with imidacloprid and thiamethoxam
treatments in controlling the whitefly population alone and imidacloprid C spiromesifen were the
by recording least mean whitefly population, i.e. safest treatments to the natural enemies.
4.33 followed by spiromesifen 240SC at 0.4 ml
l1 with a mean whitefly population of 6.33 and
others, viz., diafenthiuron 50WP at 2.0 g l1 , 8.14 Safflower
thiamethoxam 25WG at 0.2 g l1 , acetamiprid 20
SP at 0.2 g l1 and buprofezin 25SC at 1.7 ml 8.14.1 Compatibility of Insecticides
l1 recorded a mean whitefly population of 8.66, and Fungicides
10.67, 13.33, 16.00 and 20.00, respectively, while
there was highest mean whitefly population of Safflower is attacked by aphids and major fun-
25.00 in untreated control followed by the treat- gal diseases like wilt, root rot and Alternaria
ment acephate with 20.00. Highest grain yield blight. The yield loss due to these biotic con-
was noticed in imidacloprid 70WG at 0.1 g l1 , straints can be up to 50–100 % depending on
i.e. 1172 kg ha1 , while least grain yield was the susceptibility of the cultivar used. Both pests
noticed in the control plot, i.e. 707 kg ha1 . and diseases may occur simultaneously in the
Newer insecticidal molecules with novel field. To bring down the cost of pesticide ap-
modes of action, viz., imidacloprid, thi- plication, farmers tend to mix both the insec-
amethoxam alone as seed treatment and in ticides and fungicides. However, the compati-
combination with other recently introduced low bility of the newly recommended insecticides
dose molecules, viz., spirotetramat, buprofezin, like thiamethoxam, clothianidin and acetamiprid
spiromesifen, triazophos as foliar spray against with the recommended combination fungicide,
the field population of thrips and another set (carbendazimCmancozeb) and Trichoderma as-
of insecticides, viz., acetamiprid and triazophos perellum as seed treatment against diseases like
imposed as exclusively foliar sprays evaluated wilt, root rot and Alternaria blight is not known.
(Jyothi and Kumar 2015) against thrips in black The compatibility of insecticides, viz.,
gram, revealed that imidacloprid C spiromesifen clothianidin, thiamethoxam, acetamiprid and
and imidacloprid C spirotetramat were proved to dimethoate with a combination of fungicide
be highly effective in reducing the thrips popula- (carbendazimCmancozeb) studied (Srinivas and
tion and similarly, imidacloprid C spiromesifen Prasad 2015) for their efficacy against aphids and
was found to be the safest on predators among diseases, has shown that the physico-chemical
foliar sprays. The mean population of predators changes like breaking of fluid or sedimentation
was the lowest in all insecticide treated plots over or change in colour or temperature of the
untreated control plots. The seed treated plots fluid were not noticed when clothianidin or
with imidacloprid and thiamethoxam recorded thiamethoxam or acetamiprid or dimethoate
maximum population of predators, i.e. spiders mixed with (carbendazimCmancozeb). In SSF-
and coccinellids, whereas thiamethoxam C 658 safflower cultivar, in a field trial, aphids were
buprofezin and thiamethoxam C spirotetramat released on the plants and the compatibility of
were relatively more toxic to spiders followed these studied through their application as tank
by thiamethoxam C triazophos and triazophos C mix sprayed only once during the crop growth
acetamiprid (as scheduled spray) on the seventh period has shown that the number of aphids in
day only after the third round of insecticidal top 5 cm twig before treatment were around
spray. The seed treatment with thiamethoxam 20. There were no symptoms of phytotoxicity
in combination with buprofezin, spirotetramat on safflower due to combined application of
and triazophos was found to be more toxic to clothianidin or thiamethoxam or acetamiprid
coccinellids at the third and seventh day after or dimethoate with (carbendazimCmancozeb).
8 Biotic Stress: Insect Pests 115

No disease incidence was observed during the insect pests and diseases. In some situations both
season. There were no significant differences in insect pests and diseases are occurring at the same
insecticide efficacy whether they applied solely time. Farmers are mixing the insecticides and
or tank mixed with carbendazimCmancozeb fungicides to manage pests and diseases without
with a reduction of aphids by 92.7–99.2 % over knowledge if their combinations are compatible
control. The study suggested that tank mixing or not. There are reports of crop damage due to
with (carbendazimCmancozeb) did not affect phytotoxic effect after spraying with combina-
the efficacy of tested insecticides. There was no tions of chemicals. Hence it is imperative to gen-
difference in yield among the treatments. erate information on compatibility of new insecti-
cides and fungicides commonly used by farmers,
which will in turn help the farmers to cut down
8.15 Sunflower their spraying costs and at the same time aid in
use of effective combinations for management of
8.15.1 Insect Management Tactics both insect pests and diseases. The phytotoxic ef-
fect of four insecticides, viz., chlorantraniliprole,
Insect pests vary in their ecology. In sunflower spinosad, profenophos and thiamethoxam when
disease-tolerant hybrid, an attempt was made to mixed with fungicides, viz., saaf and nativo, both
find suitable management tactics (Mane et al. at recommended and double the recommended
2015). The management of defoliators and head dose along with control on castor were studied
borer indicated that seed treatment with imida- (Jyothsna et al. 2015a). Treatments were imposed
cloprid 70WS at 5 g kg1 of seed checked the as foliar sprays thrice at an interval of 15 days
sucking insect pests. Profenophos 50EC at 2 ml with hand compression knapsack sprayer, and the
l1 of water, noticed minimum, i.e. 0.85 larvae of amount of spray fluid used was 500 l ha1 . All the
semi looper plant1 , resulted to less defoliation, combinations of insecticides and fungicides were
i.e. 6.17 and 6.00 % at 45 and 65 days after compatible with each other at both doses with the
emergence. For the management of head borer, phytotoxicity scale ranging from 0 to 1.
spinosad 45SC at 0.1 ml l1 of water recorded Integrated pest management (IPM) module
minimum 0.22 larvae of head borer plant1 . Pro- evaluated (Jyothsna et al. 2015a) in three popular
fenophos 50EC at 2 ml l1 of water and spinosad cultivars of castor, viz., (DCH-519, DCH-177,
45SC at 0.1 ml l1 of water translated maxi- DCS-107), along with farmer’s practice. IPM
mum yield 1433 kg ha1 and 1389 kg ha1 , module comprised of mechanical control of
respectively. Spraying of HaNPV, also checked gregarious stages of tobacco caterpillar and older
the larval population of head borer and recorded larvae of semilooper, economic threshold level-
0.62 larvae of head borer per plant which was based application of thiodicarb 0.075 % against
found at par with module comprised of spraying tobacco caterpillar (at 25 % foliage damage),
NSKE 5 % (0.73 larvae of larvae of head borer indoxacarb 0.015 % against capsule borer (at
plant1 ). Spraying of HaNPV and NSKE 5 % 10 % capsule damage) and dimethoate 0.05 %
proved safer to natural enemies and pollinating against leafhopper (at 10 % hopper burn damage),
bees. These resulted in good yields of 1207 and superior in reducing the insect pest population
1130 kg ha1 , respectively. over farmer’s practice. In the IPM module,
the mean population of semilooper, tobacco
caterpillar, leafhopper and capsule borer damage
8.16 Castor was 0.3 larvae plant1 , 0.8 larvae plant1 , 16.2
leafhoppers three-leaves1 plant1 and 10.3 %
8.16.1 Integrated Pest Management capsule damage as against 0.6 larvae plant1 ,
2.3 larvae plant1 , 20.7 leafhoppers three-
New insecticides and fungicides are being intro- leaves1 plant1 and 16.5 % capsule damage in
duced into the market for the management of farmer’s practice, respectively. IPM module was
116 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

found safer to its larval parasitoid, Snellenius 8.18 Cotton

(Microplitis) maculipennis as compared to
farmer’s practice. The higher mean castor seed The pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella,
yield (1348 kg ha1 ) and avoidable yield loss is a serious pest on cotton infesting the green
(67.6 %) was obtained from IPM module over bolls. The infestation of pink bollworm (PBW) in
farmer’s practice with seed yield of 1008 kg green bolls and larval population was effectively
ha1 and avoidable yield loss of 55.5 %. Further, checked due to spray of deltamethrinCtriazophos
higher net profit of INR 26,889 ha1 and at 450 g a.i. ha1 and was found promising
incremental cost-benefit ratio (ICBR) of 1:5.95 in minimizing the loculi damage in green
was recorded in IPM module. bolls, recorded minimum open boll and loculi
damage due to PBW at harvest and resulted
in the highest seed cotton yield (914 kg ha1 )
than thiodicarb at 750 g a.i. ha1 and lambda-
8.17 Groundnut cyhalothrin (25 g a.i. ha1 ). Spinetoram at 36 g
a.i. ha1 and flubendiamide at 60 g a.i. ha1
8.17.1 Nano-silica Against Bruchids were least effective in reducing pink bollworm
infestation. Further, highest ICBR was recorded
Nanotechnology has become one of the most
in deltamethrinCtriazophos (450 g a.i. ha1 ).
promising new technologies in the recent decade.
Thus, use of deltamethrinCtriazophos at 450 g
The use of nanoparticles as pesticide is an alter-
a.i. ha1 can form cost-effective pink bollworm
native strategy to combat pests which have be-
management option in cotton (Choke et al. 2015).
come resistant to conventional pesticides. There-
fore nanoparticles especially silica nanoparticles
have an excellent potential against stored-grain 8.18.1 Transgenic Cotton
as well as seed protecting agent if applied with
proper safety measures. The efficacy of nano- Transgenic crops hold great promise for
silica evaluated (Jyothsna et al. 2015b) against improving agricultural output, but the potential
peanut bruchid, C. Serratus, tested in groundnut unwanted effects of transgenic crops on soil
cultivar K6, revealed that nano-silica applied at microbial diversity is still not fully understood.
1000 and 500 ppm kg1 of peanut pods provided The majority of studies addressing the risks
complete protection up to 9 months of storage of transgenic crop cultivation have addressed
and did not record any fecundity, whereas the only aboveground effects. However, recent
lowest concentration of nano-silica (250 ppm methodological advances in soil microbial
kg1 ) protected the pods for only 6 months. ecology have allowed researchers to focus on
The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images the underground part and gain knowledge of
also clearly revealed that the amorphous uniform- transgenic crop-driven effects on the microbial
sized flat nano-silica particles resulted in uniform communities and processes in soil that are
distribution of the nanoparticles over the body, essential to key terrestrial ecosystem functions.
resulting in abrasion of the insect cuticle thereby Genetically modified plants have the potential
resulting in loss of water from the body and also to significantly change the microbial dynamics,
caused defacing of the mandibles which in turn biodiversity and vital ecosystem functions such
resulted in the death of the insect. This hypothesis as nutrient mineralization, disease incidence and
for the physical mode of action makes the case carbon turnover and plant growth.
for the use of nanocides stronger. The nanocides The effect of transgenic cotton evaluated by
can be removed by conventional milling process (Mandal et al. 2015) on activities and diversities
without leaving residues on the stored grain un- of microbes of the rhizosphere soils of transgenic
like sprayable formulations of conventional pes- cotton-based cropping system, viz., in soybean,
ticides. red gram, wheat and vegetables under vertisols,
8 Biotic Stress: Insect Pests 117

revealed that soil enzyme activities and micro- has recorded less number of larvae (0.27 larvae
bial population counts of cellulose decomposers, plant1 ) with the highest yield (250.88 q ha1 ).
phosphate solubilizers and nitrogen fixers were
found higher under Bt cotton than non-Bt cot-
ton system. The study clearly indicated that the 8.20 Okra
higher activities of beneficial microbes and diver-
sity under Bt cotton than non-Bt cotton cropping 8.20.1 Shoot and Fruit Borer
system might be due to greater rhizodeposition,
leaf fall and root biomass accumulation serving Okra [Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench], a
as source of bioenergy for native microbes. It member of family Malvaceae, is an important
was further concluded that the Bt cotton-based vegetable crop grown for its tender green fruits
cropping system is having no adverse effect on during the summer and rainy season in India. The
soil beneficial microbes. shoot and fruit borer, Earias vittella (Fabricius),
is a highly destructive pest causing serious dam-
age. The studies on consumption, digestion and
8.19 Cabbage utilization of fruit blocks of selected varieties on
fresh weight basis by the fourth instar larvae (5–
8.19.1 Diamondback Moth 7 days) of spotted bollworm conducted (Sultani
et al. 2015) at a constant temperature of 28 ˙ 1 ı C
The relative toxicity of chemical insecti- in BOD have shown that the survival of larvae
cides, viz., flubendiamide, chlorantraniliprole, was less on fruit blocks (67.00–82.66 %) and
emamectin benzoate, spinosad, lufenuron and on whole fruits (33.01–51.66 %) of HBT-1-19-
novaluron evaluated (Nikam and Chandele 2015) 1-1-2 and HB-03-29-7B in comparison to that
against diamondback moth (DBM), Plutella of HBT-1-18-1-C-1 (82.66 % and 51.66 %) geno-
xylostella L., a pest on cabbage, has shown that types, respectively. Longer larval period (15.33–
among the chemical insecticides that were tested 14.66 days), pupal period (9.66 and 10.33 days),
for their larvicidal action against DBM, spinosad lowest pupal weight (0.07 and 0.08 mg) and
was the most effective, followed by emamectin lowest % adult emergence (93.00–93.33 %) were
benzoate, chlorantraniliprole, flubendiamide, observed on fruit blocks of HBT-1-19-1-1-2 and
lufenuron and novaluron. The LC50 values HB-03-29-7B genotypes than on HBT-1-18-1-C-
recorded were 0.00009 % and 0.00011 % 1 (10.33 days, 8.66 days, 0.11 mg and 96.33 %),
for spinosad, 0.00016 % and 0.00022 % for respectively. The adverse effects were found on
emamectin benzoate, 0.00076 % and 0.00099 % various food consumption and utilization indices
for chlorantraniliprole, 0.00119 % and 0.00148 % of E. vittella larvae on HBT-1-19-1-1-2 and HB-
for flubenadimide, 0.00280 % and 0.00284 % 03-29-7B genotypes.
for lufenuron and 0.01557 % and 0.01888 %
for navaluron, respectively, against third and
fourth instar larvae of P. xylostella. Under 8.20.2 Seasonal Influence on Sucking
field conditions, spinosad has emerged as Pests
“most effective one in reducing the larval
count and increasing the marketable cabbage Seasonal incidence of leafhopper and aphids
head. It is followed by emamectin benzoate, studied (Dudhale et al. 2015) revealed that
chlorantraniliprole, flubendiamide, lufenuron population dynamics of sucking pests and
and novaluron. The larval count and yield weather parameters are correlated. Leafhopper
of marketable cabbage heads in the different population ranged from 0.6 to 18.3 per three
treatment ranged from 0.27–0.89 to 250.88– leaves with its peak in 40th SMW. Aphid’s
189.60 q ha1 , respectively, as against 9.16 and population varied from 0.2 to 15.7 per three
103.56 q ha1 in untreated control. Spinosad leaves with its peak in 40th SMW. Population
118 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

of ladybird beetle was in the range of 0.2– 8.21 Brinjal

15.10 per three leaves with its peak in 40th
SMW. Shoot and fruit borer (number and 8.21.1 Shoot and Fruit Borer
weight basis) was with its peak in 40th
SMW. The correlation studies revealed that Fifteen brinjal genoypes screened (Patil et al.
the population of leaf hopper aphids, fruit and 2015a) for shoot and fruit borer incidence
shoot borer and ladybird beetle was negatively has shown that minimum shoot infestation
correlated with maximum temperature. Minimum as well as fruit infestation on number and
temperature with population of leafhopper, weight basis was recorded on genotype AB 7–2
aphids, ladybird beetle and shoot and fruit borer with 5.97 %, 9.87 % and 9.53 %, respectively,
was negatively correlated and highly significant. followed by genotype GBL 1 which showed
Morning humidity and rainfall showed the 6.17 % shoot infestation as well as 10.28 % and
negative and non-significant correlation with 9.96 % fruit infestation on number and weight
pests of okra. Evening humidity had negative basis, respectively. The highest infestation of
significant correlation with aphids and leafhopper shoot (16.34 %) and fruit infestation on number
activity. (48.75 %) and weight basis (48.35 %) noted on
Okra (var. Akola Bahar) crop was highly genotype JBGR 1. The remaining genotypes,
susceptible to sucking pests, i.e. aphids, jassids viz., JBL 8–8, GJB 2, AB 8–5, GOB 1, JBL 10–
and whiteflies. The foliar application of different 20, AB 9–1, JDNB 19, Surati Ravaiya, JBGR
doses of newer insecticides evaluated for their 6–7, JBL 10–203, JBGR 8–6 and JBL 10–197
effectiveness and economic management of registered shoot infestation ranging from 7.65
sucking pests revealed that the 1.25 % and to 15.10 % while 16.74–44.77 % fruit infestation
1.50 % doses over recommended dose of on number basis and 16.29–44.47 % on weight
treatment with foliar spray applications (at three basis.
DAT and seven DAT) were found to be most
effective against aphids, jassids and whitefly. The
recommended dose with foliar spray applications 8.21.2 Mass Trapping Technology
of thiamethoxam 25 WG at 0.006 % of treatment
was found most effective against average par Field experiments conducted to study the impact
leaf population of aphids, jassids and whitefly. of mass trapping technology on the infestation
Lambda-cyhalothrin 5EC at 0.004 %, followed of brinjal shoot and fruit borer in comparison
by thiamethoxam 25WG at 0.008 % was proved with farmers’ practices in the fields around the
most effective against aphids, jassids and town of Bagalkot, Karnataka, India (Mansa et al.
whiteflies. The recommended dose with foliar 2015), indicated that the total number of moths
spray applications of thiamethoxam 25WG at caught during the 10 weeks of study period from
0.006 % of treatment has emerged as the most ten traps was 861. The highest mean number of
economical recording highest yield, net profit male moths trapped per week was 29.6 during the
and highest ICBR. The highest cost-benefit ratio tenth week and the lowest was 1.7 during the third
has been recorded in treatment thiamethoxam week. Highest percentage of fruit damage (6.6 %)
25WG at 0.006 % followed by triazophos 40EC was reported in the ninth week, whereas low-
at 0.025 % and lambda-cyhalothrin 5EC at est percentage was 0.2 in mass trapping during
0.004 %. The recommended dose with foliar the seventh week, whereas in farmers practices
spray applications of thiamethoxam 25WG highest % fruit damage (27.3 %) was observed in
at 0.006 % of treatment followed by lambda- the ninth week, lowest (0.9 %) was found in the
cyhalothrin 5EC at 0.004 % and triazophos fifth week. In mass trapping block, highest shoot
40EC at 0.025 % was proved to be safer and damage (6 %) was recorded during first week of
conservative to predators. trap installation which was on par with second
8 Biotic Stress: Insect Pests 119

week, i.e. 5.7 %. The lowest % shoot damage was 8.22.2 Acaro-insecticides
observed during tenth week of traps installation,
i.e. 0.4 %. Highest cost-benefit ratio (8.6) was The bioefficacy of acaro-insecticides, viz., bife-
recorded in the mass trapping technology when nazate 240SC, fenazaquin 10EC, thiamethoxam
compared to farmers’ practices. 25WG, chlorfenapyr 10SC, hexythiazox 10EC,
clothianidin 50WG, dicofol 18.5EC (standard
check) and abamectin 1.9EC (treated check)
8.21.3 Predatory Potentiality along with botanicals, viz., neem oil 5000 ppm
of Mites and horti-impact evaluated (Kharbade et al.
2015b) against Polyphagotarsonemus latus
The predatory mites of the family Phytoseiidae (Bank) on capsicum in rabi season revealed
plays an important role in regulating and con- that these acaro-insecticides were promising in
trolling the population of various species of phy- suppressing the mite’s population on capsicum.
tophagous mites throughout the world. Abamectin 1.9EC was observed to be most
The predatory potentiality of two predatory promising by recording lowest cumulative mean
mites Amblyseius indicus and Amblyseius mite population of 3.21 mites per three leaves
tetranychivorous on the egg, larva and adult and was on par with chlorfenapyr 10SC (3.58
stages of phytophagous mite Tetranychus mites per three leaves), fenazaquin 10EC (3.91
neocaledonicus on brinjal host plant studied mites per three leaves) and bifenazate 240SC
(Singh and Singh 2015) revealed that Amblyseius (4.13 mites per three leaves) followed by dicofol
indicus proved to be a better predator with 18.5EC (4.56 mites per three leaves). Next
mean consumption of 8.23 eggs, 3.95 larva effective treatments were thiamethoxam 25WG,
and 2.01 adult as compared to Amblyseius clothianidin 50WG and hexythiazox 10EC which
tetranychivorous with mean consumption of 6.85 recorded 8.00, 8.77 and 9.35 mites per three
eggs, 3.63 larva and 1.90 adult during 72 h. The leaves, respectively, and were noticed at par with
mean number of Tetranychus neocaledonicus each other followed by horti-impact (15.38 mites
consumed increased as the population of the per three leaves) and neem oil 5000 ppm (16.59
vegetable mite increased. These predatory mites mites per three leaves).
can be effectively used in biological control
of phytophagous mites in greenhouse and field
conditions. 8.22.3 Compatibility of Insecticides
and Fungicides

8.22 Chilli The compatibility of four insecticides, spinosad

45SC at 0.25 ml l1 , fipronil 5 SC at 2 ml
8.22.1 Pest Management l1 , diafenthiuron 50 WP at 1.5 g l1 , chlor-
fenapyr 10EC at 2 ml l1 and one fungicide,
In integrated pest management, different insec- copper oxychloride (COC) at 3 g l1 and their
ticides evaluated (Jadhav et al. 2015a) against efficacy against chilli thrips, Scirtothrips dorsalis
major pests of chilli and the safety of these (Hood) and leaf spot, Cercospora capsici studied
insecticides to natural enemy population in chilli (Pathipati et al. 2015) revealed that the four
ecosystem revealed that acetamiprid 20SP at 10 g insecticides and fungicide were physically (with-
ha1 and spinosad 45SC at 135 g ha1 were ef- out forming any precipitation, curding, heating,
fective in reducing thrips and whitefly population. bulbing) and chemically compatible (without any
However, the highest yield (51.30 g ha1 ) was blasting, foaming). There was no phytotoxicity
also obtained from treatment of acetamiprid 20SP effect on any part of the plant from 1 to 14 days
at 10 g ha1 then Spinosad 45SC at 135 g ha1 after spray. Lowest number of thrips leaf1 was
(48.40 q ha1 ). recorded with spinosadC COC (4.77) followed
120 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

by fipronil C COC (5.91), diafenthiuron (6.03) et al. 2015) has shown that the correlation of
and chlorfenapyr C COC (7.42). Lowest disease plant height (r D 0.7775), branches per plant
scale was recorded with spinosadC COC (1.1) (r D 0.7874) and fruits per plant (r D 0.7388)
followed by diafenthiuron (1.5). This study helps with infestation of H. armigera was significantly
to manage the thrips and leaf spot of chilli at same positive, while the effect of fruit pericarp
time and reduce the cost of plant protection. thickness (r D 0.9576) exhibited significantly
negative association with the damage of tomato
fruit borer. However the stem diameter, fruit di-
8.23 Tomato ameter, locules fruit1 and calyx fruit1 showed
positive but non-significant association with fruit
8.23.1 Jassid infestation recorded 0.4855, 0.3048, 0.3413 and
0.3943 correlation values, respectively.
Incidence of jassid (Empoasca binotata Walsh.)
and its botanical management in tomato assessed
for two consecutive seasons (2011–2013) has 8.23.3 Biopesticides
shown that a lower jassid population level
was recorded during 42nd standard week to The efficacy of biopesticides, viz., Beauveria
2nd standard week and 17th–22nd standard bassiana (2.5 kg ha1 ) and Verticillium
(0.06–0.50 leaf1 ). The higher population level lecanii (2.5 kg ha1 ), and novel insecticides,
was maintained during 3rd standard week viz., imidacloprid 30.5SC (100 ml ha1 )
to 16th standard week and peak population and thiamethoxam 25 WG (75 g a.i. ha1 ),
(2.23 leaf1 ) was recorded on 10th standard evaluated (Bharani et al. 2015) against the
week. In management trial acetamiprid was thrips, Thrips tabaci Lind and safety of
found to be most effective against jassid biopesticides and novel insecticides against
providing more than 80 % suppression. However, predatory coccinellids in tomato ecosystem
neemCspilanthes extract gave a satisfactory revealed that lowest thrips population was
jassid control, recording more than 70 % recorded in insecticidal treatments imidacloprid
suppression. Highest yield, 30.15 t ha1 were 30.5SC and thiamethoxam 25WG (1.37 and 1.35
recorded from acetamiprid-treated plots followed nymphs plant1 ), respectively. Biopesticides
by neemCspilanthes (27.55 t ha1 ), spilanthes Beauveria bassiana, Verticillium lecanii (3.26
extract (26.67 t ha1 ) and polygonum extracts and 3.12 coccinellids per five plants) were found
(26.32 t ha1 ). Other than control plots, the safer to predatory coccinellids than insecticides.
lowest yield was recorded from garlic-treated Imidacloprid 30.5SC and thiamethoxam 25WG
(23.11 t ha1 ) plots closely followed by tobacco recorded (2.64 and 2.79 coccinellids per five
extract (24.02 t ha1 )-treated plots. Though plants) in tomato ecosystem.
acetamiprid-treated plots gave satisfactory yield,
it is not feasible for use as it is harmful when
consumed by human beings. Therefore it can be 8.24 Chrysanthemum
suggested to use neemCspilanthes to control the
jassid population effectively (Subba et al. 2015). 8.24.1 Incidence of Aphids
and Thrips

8.23.2 Morphological Characters Fifteen germplasm accessions of chrysanthemum

on Fruit Borer (Dendranthema grandiflora Borkh.) consisting of
yellow, white and red flowered cultivars assessed
The influence of morphological characters in for relative incidence of aphid and thrips (Charan
relation to larval population and fruit infestation et al. 2015) indicated that the genotype Red
of H. armigera in tomato studied (Archana gold was least affected by aphids and recorded
8 Biotic Stress: Insect Pests 121

the lowest population of 19.10 aphids per apical over all other treatments, recorded highest
shoot. The highest mean aphid population was grain yield (2064.35 kg ha1 ): and registered
recorded on PAU-B-107 (31.35 aphids per apical 0.32 average larval plant1 and 2064.35 kg
shoot) followed by Poonam (29.89 aphids per grain yield ha1 . All the treatments except
apical shoot), closely followed by Raichur (29.06 chlorpyriphos were effective in controlling the
aphids per apical shoot) and Akitha (28.27 aphids S. litura population. Chitin synthesis inhibitors
per apical shoot). Among the five cultivars which due to their specificity and safety towards
recorded highest mean aphid population PAU-B- non-target organisms are ideal products and
107, Ratlam selection, Akitha were white flow- could be used in alternations with conventional
ered; Poonam and Raichur were yellow coloured chemical insecticides. The findings are useful in
cultivars. Similarly of the five cultivars which determining the most effective concentration as
recorded lowest aphid population count, Red gold well as interval between treatments with chitin
and Priya were red flower cultivars, IIHR-6 and inhibitors for the management of S. litura.
Kadapa local were white coloured and Aparjitha
was the yellow coloured cultivar indicating no
clear influence of colour on aphid incidence. 8.25.2 Anthranilic Diamide
With respect to thrips incidence, the genotype Insecticides
Redstone recorded lowest thrips count (14.06
per ten plants) closely followed by Kadapa lo- DuPont™ Cyazypyr™ (DPX-HGW86, cyantrani-
cal (14.80 thrips per ten plants). The maximum liprole) is the second anthranilic diamide
thrips population was found in Raichur (53.28) insecticide (IRAC Group 28) registered in
closely followed by Poonam (48.06 thrips per India. The compound is the first in its class to
ten plants), CO-3 (46.71 thrips per ten plants) control a cross-spectrum of important species
and Geethanjali (41.61 thrips per ten plants). The of insect pests on agronomic crops. The pest
top five cultivars which recorded highest thrips groups include piercing-sucking pests such as
population were yellow flowered, and among the aphids, psyllids, leafhoppers, plant hoppers and
five cultivars which received least thrips count, whiteflies, as well as biting-chewing pests such as
four were red coloured and only one cultivar was Lepidopteran caterpillars, leaf miners, fruit flies,
white flowered showing clearly that the colour of sawflies, weevils and beetles and rasping pests
the flower influenced the thrips incidence. such as thrips. The mode of action of Cyazypyr™
is as an agonist of the insect ryanodine receptor
agonist. Cyazypyr™ resulted in rapid disruption
8.25 Tobacco of pest muscle function, immediate cessation
of pest feeding, impaired locomotion and other
8.25.1 Chitin Synthetic Inhibitors activities that are controlled by the insect muscle
action. Cyazypyr™ acts mainly through ingestion
The efficacy of chitin synthesis inhibitors and less so through contact action. Although it
evaluated (Gurve and Chormule 2015) against exhibits the unique selectivity to arthropods and
S. litura on soybean revealed that lufenuron has excellent pest control features, Cyazypyr™
emerged as the most effective treatment on still has remarkably low impact on pest natural
the basis of larval count, % leaf damage enemies since their exposure to the product is
and grain yield, followed by flufenoxuron, very limited. DuPont™ Cyazypyr™ has been
novaluron and diflubenzuron. The average larval designated the coveted reduced-risk product
count, % pod damage and grain yield in the status by the US-EPA. Therefore, products
different treatments ranged from 0.32 to 3.00 powered by DuPont™ Cyazypyr™ are great
and 1076.83–2064.35 kg ha1 , respectively, as technologies in integrated pest management
against 9.005 and 826.88 kg ha1 , respectively, in (IPM) and insecticide resistance management
untreated control. Lufenuron 0.006 % dominated (IRM) programmes in agriculture and valuable
122 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

tools for agronomic crop producers (Rajiv Rathod Among the mango pests, mango hoppers are the
et al. 2015b). most serious and widespread pests throughout
the country. Idioscopus clypealis and Idioscopus
nagpurensis are the most commonly observed de-
8.26 Banana structive species of hoppers in Telangana which
cause heavy damage to mango crop. The hopper
8.26.1 Postharvest Shelf Life damage manifests in the form of poor or no fruit
set and premature dropping of fruits resulting
Banana is considered as staple fruit worldwide in total loss of crop in severe outbreaks. Proper
because it is easily grown, nutritious, a cheap timing of pesticide application is very important
source of energy and vitamins, easy to peel in managing this pest which is dependent on the
and the most edible everyday fruit relished population build-up of the pest.
from cradle to grave. In developing countries Field studies conducted (Anitha et al. 2015)
like India, there is a need for an alternative to study the seasonal incidence and influence of
non-sophisticated technology for extension of abiotic factors on population dynamics of hop-
postharvest shelf life and maintaining the quality pers on mango var. Banganpalli at Fruit Research
at ambient temperature. Such non-expensive Station, Sangareddy, revealed that the incidence
technology is postharvest treatment of fruits of mango hopper was observed on the mango
with 1-MCP, a non-toxic gaseous product that panicles during 47th to 12th standard week from
has been used as a tool to extend postharvest life, 2001 to 2011. A distinct difference in hopper
delay softening and to improve postharvest shelf population peaks were observed in different years
life and storage quality of different climacteric corresponding to the rise in temperature and de-
fruits. creasing relative humidity in different months
Banana cv. Grand Naine evaluated (Jyothi coinciding with the flowering season. An attempt
et al. 2015) for the effect of 1-Methylcyclopropene was made to develop weather-based pest fore-
(1-MCP) on shelf life and postharvest quality warning models using linear regression models
parameters during storage has shown that 1- and the correlation between minimum and max-
Methylcyclopropene was found to be effective imum temperature, forenoon relative humidity
in maintaining the peel colour, firmness, TSS, and hopper incidence was worked out.
ascorbic acid content and titrable acidity under
ambient conditions. The effectiveness increased
with increase in the concentration and duration 8.27.2 Gall Midge
of exposure. 1-MCP at 750 ppb for 24 h was
found to be effective in maintaining the quality Nine mango cultivars screened (Jadhav et al.
of banana cv. Grand Naine under ambient 2015b) for their field reaction against mango
conditions. gall midge P. Matteiana (Kieffer and Cecconi)
(Cecidomyiidae: Diptera) in Gujarat has shown
that infestation of mango gall fly was highest
8.27 Mango (46.75 %) in Kesar while it was lowest (18.43 %)
in Totapuri. The % infestation of mango
8.27.1 Population Dynamics gall midge in Rajapuri (44.00 %), Begumpali
of Mango Hopper (36.16 %), Sonpari (34.28 %), Local (32.02 %),
Amrapali (32.45 %), Mallika (31.07 %) and
The mango, Mangifera indica L. is grown in Dasheri (28.39 %), respectively. Totapuri and
Telangana in an area of 53,000 ha producing Kesar were categorized as least and most
3.22 tonnes and is considered as king of all fruits. susceptible cultivars for mango gall midge.
8 Biotic Stress: Insect Pests 123

8.28 Sapota been affected in North Coastal Zone of Andhra

Pradesh. It causes losses of between 22 and 33 %
8.28.1 Seasonal Incidence of Fruit in cane yield, 12 % in sugar recovery and 27 % in
Borer jaggery. All commercial varieties were more or
less equally susceptible to the early shoot borer,
The seasonal incidence studies (Vijayaraghaven- when the dead hearts were 15 %; the reduction
dra et al. 2015) of sapota fruit borer, Phycita ery- in yield was only half a tonne per hectare. The
throlophia Hampson, (Pyralidae: Lepidoptera) damage due to internode borer infestation results
infesting four genotypes of sapota, viz., cricket in both yield and quality loss.
ball, Kalipatti, DSH-1 and DSH-2, has revealed The efficacy of soil application of granular
that the fruit borer was active throughout the year insecticides over foliar sprays against the ESB
with a varying degree of infestation. Among as well as the INB studied (Bhavani et al. 2015)
the four different genotypes of sapota, the revealed that all the insecticidal treatments sig-
incidence of fruit borer damage was more in nificantly reduced sugarcane borers and were
cricket ball (10.24 %) followed by Kalipatti superior over untreated control. Among the test
(9.64 %) varieties, whereas on hybrids it ranged insecticides, soil application of chlorantranilip-
from 7.33 to 8.07 %. The mean percentage of role 0.4G at 22.5 kg ha1 at the time of planting
fruit damage across the genotypes was highest and 60 days after planting significantly reduced
(16.42 %) in March and lowest (3.79 %) in the incidence of early shoot borer (14.86 %) and
August. Pest incidence was more during dry internode borer intensity (6.12 %) and registered
period, i.e. from November to April and less highest cane yield (99.10 t ha1 ) as compared
during rainy season (July to October). There was to untreated control (43.15 %; 20.01 %; 64.35 t
a significant and positive correlation between ha1 ). However, spraying of chlorantraniliprole
fruit borer damage and maximum temperature in 18.5SC at 375 ml ha1 at 30 and 60 days af-
all genotypes. Rest of the weather factors, viz., ter planting was also found effective against in-
minimum temperature, relative humidity and rain ternode borer (6.20 %) with superior cane yield
fall had no influence on pest population during (97.78 t ha1 ) and it was on par with chlo-
the period of study. rantraniliprole 0.4G at 22.5 kg ha1 at the time
of planting and 60 days after planting. It was
concluded that scheduled soil application of 0.4G
at 22.5 kg ha1 at planting and 60 days after
8.29 Sugarcane planting or spraying chlorantraniliprole 18.5SC
at 375 ml ha1 at 30 and 60 days after planting
8.29.1 Shoot and Internode Borer are effective against early shoot borer and intern-
ode borer and to reap sustainable cane yield in
Among the economically important borer species sugarcane.
infesting sugarcane, only two species, viz., shoot
borer, Chilo infuscatellus Snellen, and internode
borer, Chilo sacchariphagus indicus Kapur, are 8.30 Weed Control
important in Andhra Pradesh under stress condi-
tions. While the early shoot borer (ESB) damages 8.30.1 Biopesticidal Impact
the crop at early stage, the internode borer (INB) of Lantana camara
infests the crop from the cane formation and its
activity continued unabated till harvest. Infesta- Lantana camara is an aggressive invader of nat-
tion by early shoot borer was found high under ural ecosystem due to the presence of harmful
moisture stress conditions. The infestation was allelo chemicals in its leaf, stem and root which
found to range from 15.5 to 60.5 % of the shoots has been found to exhibit an adverse impact
produced and a maximum of 90 % clumps have on other plants growing in its vicinity and on
124 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

agronomic crops. It has been found to inhibit 8.30.3 Post-emergence Herbicides

dicot weeds in the field when the dry matter of in Groundnut
this plant was buried in soil before first rain.
The biopesticidal impact of callus of Lantana Studies carried out on post-emergence herbicide
camara investigated (Singh et al. 2015) on the application at 20 days after emergence in
growth of an aquatic fern Salvinia molesta by use groundnut for finding out an appropriate post-
of D.S. Mitchell bioassay has shown that callus emergence herbicide for maximum weeds control
extract (1 % conc.) showed toxicity to the growth and yield enhancement under kharif groundnut
of S. molesta after 7 days. The leaves and flowers (Mahatale et al. 2015) have shown that the
of this species serve as a source of allelopathic lowest weed index (3.26 %) and minimum
compounds, both exhibited high potential to act weed dry weight was observed under post-
as strong biopesticide and suppressed a number emergence herbicides propaquizafop 10EC at
of organisms including bacteria, fungi, aquatic 100 g a.i. ha1 followed by quizalofop ethyl
and terrestrial weeds in its aqueous leachate or 5 EC at 100 g a.i. ha1 (9.74). Maximum
extract in earlier studies. Further, this plant con- weed control efficiency (96.4 %) was recorded
tains 14 phenolic acids including salicylic acid in post-emergence herbicides propaquizafop
which makes it a safe and potent pesticide. This 10EC at 100 g a.i. ha1 and minimum weed
study highlights the ability of callus of L. camara control efficiency recorded under pre-emergence
to produce allelochemicals under in vitro condi- application of pendimethalin 30 EC at 1000
tions that also exhibited phytotoxicity. a.i. ha1 (81.64 %). This clearly indicated that
weeds were controlled effectively under post-
emergence herbicide. The highest dry pods yield
8.30.2 Selective Post-emergence (2927 kg ha1 ) was recorded with hand weeding
Weedicide in Sugarcane (20 and 40 days after emergence) and the lowest
(1520 kg ha1 ) was under weeded check. Among
The efficacy of metribuzin, a selective post- the herbicidal treatments, in post-emergence
emergence weedicide studied (Devi et al. 2015) herbicides, propaquizafop 10EC at 100 g a.i.
in control of weed flora in sugarcane, revealed ha1 recorded maximum gross monetary return
that post-emergence spraying of metribuzin at and net monetary return. Herbicidal treatments
1.0 kg ha1 C 2,4-D at 2.0 kg ha1 twice at 20 resulted in considerably lower cost of cultivation.
and 90 days after planting controlled the weeds The B:C ratio was found maximum with post-
effectively and registered higher mean cane yield emergence herbicides propaquizafop 10EC at
(90.9 t ha1 ), was found on par with metribuzin 100 g a.i. ha1 followed by quizalofop ethyl 5EC
at 1.5 kg ha1 C 2,4-D at 2.5 kg ha1 sprayed at 100 g a.i. ha1 .
at 20 and 90 DAP (89.3 t ha1 ) or recommended
practice of 2,4-D at 4.5 kg ha1 C Gramoxone at
2.5 l ha1 (88.0 t ha1 ) and found superior to all 8.30.4 Pre- and Post-emergence
other weedicide combinations. Metribuzin alone Herbicides
at 1.5 kg ha1 as pre-emergence application on
third day after planting registered lowest cane 8.30.4.1 Tomato
yield of 77.6 t ha1 (during 2013–2014 season On farm evaluation carried out to know the
only). Hence, metribuzin, a selective herbicide, efficacy of different pre- and post-emergence
proved to be applied safely at 1.0 kg or 1.5 kg herbicides neem cake 200 kg ha1 at sowing
ha1 in combination with 2, 4-D at 2.0 kg or by oxyfluorfen 0.1 kg ha1 as pre-emergence,
2.5 kg ha1 in suppressing the weed growth and 3 DAP; neem cake 200 kg ha1 at sowing of
found alternative to 2, 4-D C Gramoxone, a pendimethalin 1.0 kg ha1 as pre-emergence,
recommended practice which is to be sprayed 3 DAP; neem cake 200 kg ha1 at sowing of
with care because of its non selectivity to metribuzin 0.5 kg ha1 as pre-emergence, 3
sugarcane. DAP; ethoxysulfuron at 50 g ha-1 as pre- and
8 Biotic Stress: Insect Pests 125

post-emergence at 45 DAT; sulfosulfuron at known to be associated with this crop in India.

25 g ha1 at 15 and 45 DAT) in the farmer Among them, Echinochloa colona is the most
field of Chennvelli village in Chevella Mandal of troublesome and widely distributed. Weeds not
Ranga Reddy district during rabi 2013 in tomato only cause quantitative but also hamper the qual-
(Rani et al. 2015) has shown that Orobanche ity of produce due to competition for nutrient,
infestation was not observed up to 60 DAP in moisture, light and, to some extent, for space.
any of the treatments except in control plot. They harbour many insect pests and pathogens
Percent infestation in the field varied from 0.5 resulting in poor crop growth. In early stage of
to 4.0 in different treatments. Application of the crop, grasses are predominant as compared
either metribuzin 0.5 kg ha1 or oxyfluorfen to others, but at later stage, sedges and broadleaf
0.1 kg ha1 or pendimethalin 1.0 kg ha1 as pre- weeds create interference in crop growth. No
emergence along with 200 kg neem cake ha1 or doubt that hand weeding is the established ef-
sulfosulfuron at 25 g ha1 at 15 and 45 DAT was fective method of weed control. But nowadays,
found to be effective in delaying the Orobanche high cost involved and unavailability of labours
infestation and in getting higher fruit yield in makes weed management more difficult. Chem-
tomato during rabi season. ical weed control is regarded to be better than
hand weeding due to the drudgery of weeding
8.30.4.2 Chickpea and meagre availability of labour at peak period
A field experiment conducted to find out the of weed infestation. In this respect, application
effective and economical weed control methods of new and wide spectrum herbicides alone or in
in chickpea on vertisols, with eleven treatments combination may give satisfactory weed control.
four pre-emergence herbicide, three post- At 15 DAT, application of AE 1887196CAE F
emergence herbicides, three cultural treatments 095404 at 45 C 22.5 g ha1 proved significantly
and weedy check, has shown that weed-free superior in reducing total weed density. At 30,
treatment recorded significantly lowest dry weed 45, 60 and 75 DAT, significantly lower weed
weight and highest weed control efficiency, grain, density was recorded under two hand weedings
straw and biological yield. It was at par with of (20 and 40 DAT). At 45, 60 and 75 DAT, two
one Hoeing C two hand weedings, mechanical hand weedings were found effective to minimize
weedings and pendimethalin (PE) at 0.75 a.i. all the weeds species. The weed density was
kg ha1 and significantly superior over rest of significantly highest in unweeded check. The two
the treatments. Treatment weedy check recorded hand weedings (20 and 40 DAT) resulted in the
the lowest grain and straw yield. Among the lowest weed dry matter production at all the time
chemical weed control treatment application of intervals of observations, except 15 DAT. How-
pendimethalin (PE) at 0.75 a.i. kg ha1 was found ever, at 15 DAT, AE 1887196 C AE F 095404 at
beneficial higher grain, straw yield, weed control 45 C 22.5 g ha 1 resulted in the lowest weed dry
efficiency and highest net monetary returns matter production. The highest weed control effi-
and B:C ratio and found most economical and ciency at 75 DAT was witnessed under two hand
effective in controlling weeds and increasing the weedings (20 and 40 DAT) (87.72 %) followed
yield of chickpea (Patil et al. 2015b). by bispyribac sodium at 20 g ha1 (67.30 %)
and AE 1887196CAEF 095404 at 45 C 22.5 g
8.30.4.3 Rice ha1 (65.40 %). Two hand weedings (20 and
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the most important ma- 40 DAT) registered significantly highest grain
jor cereal food crop in agriculture and economy yield (4.63 t ha1 ) over the rest of the treat-
of India. One of major problems in rice culti- ments except treatments AE 1887196 C AEF
vation for low productivity is weed infestation. 095404 at 35 C 17.5 g ha 1 , AE 1887196 C AEF
Infestation of weeds in transplanted rice not only 095404 at 40 C 20 g ha 1 , AE 1887196CAE F
results in yield reduction but quality of produce 095404 at 45 C 22.5 g ha1 , fenoxaprop-p-ethyl
is also impaired. About 100 weed species are C (chlorimuron-ethylC metsulfuron-methyl) at
126 R.K. Maiti and A. Kumari

60 C 4 g ha1 and bispyribac sodium at 20 g Charan MS, Anitha V, Sridevi D et al (2015) Relative
ha1 which were at par with two hand weedings incidence of aphids and thirps in selected cultivars of
chrysanthemum (Dendranthema grandiflora Borkh.)
(20 and 40 DAT). The highest straw yield was in Telangana. In: Compendium of abstracts of the 2nd
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 Research Trends in Abiotic Stress
Resistance of Crops 9
Jorge Isaac Sarquís Ramírez and Ratikanta Maiti

Abstract
Several abiotic stresses such as drought, salinity, temperature, heavy
metals, herbicides and arsenic affect the productivity of crops. This chapter
gives a synopsis of research results on the physiological basis of abiotic
stress resistance on drought resistance of various crops such as guar,
safflower, soybean, mung bean, sorghum, maize, pearl millet, rice, wheat,
oat, chilli, Cucumis, linseed, mustard, sesame, ber, sunflower, Gladiolus,
fodder crops and chilli, and also discusses breeding for drought resistance
in crops. In addition, the chapter gives a short resume of research results on
salinity tolerance of various crops such as psyllium, finger millet, wheat,
maize, rice, jute, beet and fruit crops; in addition it discusses the studies
that have been undertaken on the effects of temperature, heavy metals and
arsenic on crop productivity, multiple stress resistance and the strategies
that have been suggested for abiotic stress management in crops.

challenges this phenomenon poses is—to put it

9.1 Introduction mildly—irresponsible. We can no longer appeal
to ignorance, what we did not know 3, 4 or 5 years
With regard to agricultural practice and food ago but we know now beyond any doubt: added
production, global warming—once a matter of to the pressure on all natural resources by an
controversy but today an irrefutable reality— overwhelming population of seven billion—one
has put the world in a position in which any third of which is permanently below the hunger
attempt to dodge directly facing the tremendous poverty level—a rapidly changing global climate
poses a major threat to peace and social stability
J.I. Sarquís Ramírez () around the globe, not to speak of the billions of
Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa de Enríquez, Estado de lives at stake from the risk of starvation.
Veracruz-Llave, Xalapa, Mexico The scientific community cannot afford to
e-mail: [email protected]
underestimate the consequences of any commit-
R.K. Maiti ment that falls short of totally compromising
Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Autónoma
with an effort to palliate the ever-increasing
de Nuevo León, Carr. No 85, km 145, NL 67700 Linares,
Mexico needs of a very hungry world under conditions
e-mail: [email protected] in which food production—despite undeniable

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 131

R.K. Maiti et al. (eds.), Bioresource and Stress Management, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0995-2_9
132 J.I. Sarquís Ramírez and R.K. Maiti

progress towards record achievements—must order to make progress, everybody will have
deal with an increasingly extreme and erratic to come up to the plate—scientists, politicians,
environment. policy makers, funding organizations, the United
Up to the seventh decade of the twentieth cen- Nations; every one’s contribution is required to
tury, scientific research was conducted in the area prevent a catastrophe of terrifying dimensions.
of abiotic stress with an emphasis on developing This chapter offers the reader an insight into
crop resistance to various adverse conditions that the recent research advances in abiotic stress
would allow food production in areas where pop- resistance presented during the Second Interna-
ulation pressure demanded incorporation of new tional Conference on Bio-resource and Stress
land under cultivation, which would otherwise Management in Hyderabad, India, in January,
be left alone or dedicated to other purposes. 2015.
Advanced technology in soil management, irri- Global warming and climate change have di-
gation and crop management helped tame the rect impacts on crop productivity, which have
most hostile environments; together with newly been widely accepted as facts. The changing
bred varieties of major grain crops for resistance environments create serious challenges to global
to drought, salinity, and heat and cold stress. agriculture and sustainability of the horticulture
This technological progress proved its advantage industry; various changes of physiological and
and allowed the science to merit even a Nobel biochemical processes in plants are used for ad-
Prize. However, as much as the Green Revolu- verse condition tolerance. Crop development for
tion may be worthy of celebration and awards, adverse climatic conditions involves creation of
critics are not altogether unjust in condemning the variation first than selection of the desir-
it for all the environmental degradation it has able genotype. These is done by various breed-
been related to over the past four decades on ing methods such as mutation breeding, marker-
account of the intensive mechanization and in- assisted selection breeding for gene introgres-
tensive use of mineral fertilizers and pesticides sion, mapping QTLs, or identifying new or rare
to guarantee maximum expression of genotype alleles associated with a particular trait. Trans-
potential for quantity and quality of produce, as genic plants are developed through genetic en-
recommended by agronomists—not to mention gineering, identifying the desirable gene in the
the alleged unfairness of monopolization of the plant genome, and used for a resistance line
genetically improved seed industry in the hands for a breeding programme. Rapid production of
of a few huge corporations, which have come to doubled haploids (DHs) through androgenesis is
own the world’s seed market, ousting traditional an important method for genetic improvement of
agriculture and changing rural landscapes and crop plants. Many stress factors can trigger the
ways of life altogether for good. reprogramming of microspores, which have been
Soil erosion, salinity, desertification and water correlated with ultrastructural changes of cells in
pollution do not help in averting the deleteri- embryos and finally haploid plants. It has been
ous effects of global climate change on plant shown that certain pretreatments such as (i) phys-
growth, development and, ultimately, productiv- ical stresses such as cold, heat shock, starvation,
ity. In order to manage plant stress, significant re- drought stress, osmotic pressure, gamma irradi-
search input has been directed to counterbalance ation, oxidative stress and reduced atmospheric
these stress factors and increase crop productivity pressure, and (ii) chemical treatments such as
in pursuit of more sustainable agriculture. An colchicines, heavy metal, abscisic acid (ABA),
increasing number of studies in the areas of CGA, AEC, azetidine and 2-NHA, with either
biotechnology, genetic engineering, green tech- individual or combined effects of more than one
nology, nanotechnology, bio-fortification in bio- stress factor, may positively influence androge-
resources and stress management, with a special netic efficiency. These techniques have been used
emphasis on pest management, suggest that a lot for production of crops for adverse climate condi-
must still be accomplished to favour the needy tions and sustainable crop production (Panigrahi
and the hungry around our world. However, in and Das 2015).
9 Research Trends in Abiotic Stress Resistance of Crops 133

9.2 Drought point. Similarly, much of Latin America must

be regarded as a geographical region threatened
In the context of a worsening global climatic by recurrent dry hot long spells over the usual
disorder, old definitions become inaccurate at cropping timeframe.
best. Such is the case of our conventional con- Inspired by these facts, 2 years ago a group of
cepts of drought, aridity and desertification, all Asian scientists organized the First International
of whose meanings have become rather blurred. Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Manage-
While indeed they were never totally exempt ment in Calcutta, India, as a forum to spread the
from some degree of subjectivity, experts dis- results of ongoing research to tackle the problem
tinguished the more or less permanent climatic in that part of the world. Following up on their
conditions described by the term aridity from steps, a second conference took place in the early
drought, which was taken for a temporary or days of 2015. In the sections that follow, a view is
transitory condition characterized by a severe re- offered of the works presented on that occasion.
duction of water availability compared to regular
standards over a long period of time and over a
large region; in turn, desertification used to refer 9.2.1 Physiological Basis of Drought
to a long-term, distinctively irreversible process Resistance
of destruction of soil potential to sustain life
(Rossi et al. 1992). But fading annual patterns of In reviewing the state of the art in the field, Deva
thermal and humidity regimes on a local scale are and Pandey (2015a) argue that water scarcity
causing food chains and ecosystems to collapse effects such a severe environmental constraint
in a kind of chain reaction triggered once a on plant productivity that drought-induced crop
threshold level of damage to the most vulnerable yield losses quite likely exceed losses caused by
components in the chain is reached, as evidenced all other biophysical limitations together—both
by a number of ecological studies (Dobson et the intensity and the duration of the stress being
al. 2006; MacDougall et al. 2013; Mumby et al. critical in determining the extent of reduction of
2011). From an agricultural perspective any en- leaf size, stem extension, root proliferation and
vironmental imbalance due to abrupt changes in severity of alterations in plant water relations re-
climatic performance is bound to cause changes sulting in significant cuts in water-use efficiency.
in a number of factors, including soil microbes, Plants exhibit a variety of physiological and
pollinators, disease vectors and evidently the crop biochemical responses at the cellular, tissue and
itself in terms of plant growth and development. whole-plant levels in trying to cope with drought
Recent modelling attempts have shown stress. Thus, under such conditions, CO2 assim-
that by around the 2070s, in critical regions, ilation by leaves is reduced mainly by stom-
today’s floods and droughts of the century atal closure, membrane damage and disturbed
will be an every 5- to 50-year occurrence in activity of various enzymes, especially those in
northern-northeastern and southern-southeastern charge of CO2 fixation and adenosine triphos-
Europe, respectively—a projection not to be phate synthesis. Additionally, increased metabo-
taken blithely in light of the need for careful lite flux through photorespiration boosts the ox-
planning on ways to alleviate the impact of global idative load on the tissues as both processes
climate change on a continental scale (Lehner generate reactive oxygen species; damage caused
et al. 2006). Quite the same can be said about by reactive oxygen species to biological macro-
practically any other part of the world, although molecules under drought stress is a well docu-
there is no question that there will be very specific mented major deterrent to growth.
large regions where extreme conditions for plant The major adaptive mechanisms associated
growth will have to be treated as higher priorities with reduced water loss include increased dif-
in view of the size of the human populations at fusive resistance, increased water uptake with
risk—Central and Southeast Asia is a case in profuse and deep root systems coupled to more
134 J.I. Sarquís Ramírez and R.K. Maiti

efficient use and smaller and succulent leaves biomass, pod and seed weight, test weight and
to reduce transpirational water loss. Among nu- harvest index in most of the selected genotypes,
trients, potassium ions allow for increased os- increased fodder biomass was registered. Geno-
motic adjustment; silica increases root endoder- type RGC-986 maintained the highest total and
mal silicification and improves cell water bal- vegetative biomass, but the smallest impact of
ance. Low molecular weight osmolytes such as stress on harvest index was observed for the
glycine betaine, proline and other amino acids, RGC-1025 genotype. With a higher biomass and
organic acids, and polyols have been shown to higher seed yield even under water deficit, RGC-
be either beneficial or even crucial to sustain 1025 was found to be a more suitable variety
cellular functions under drought. Plant growth- for regions characterized by a scarcity of rainfall.
regulating substances such as salicylic acid, aux- The second-best performing genotype in these
ins, gibberellins, cytokinin and ABA modulate conditions was RGC-986, whose better fodder
plant responses to drought. Polyamines, citrulline yield can allow it to be used as a dual-purpose
and several enzymes are known to function as crop (Satyavathi et al. 2015).
antioxidants and to contribute in reducing the
adverse effects of water deficit.
9.2.3 Soybean

9.2.2 Guar Patil (2015) undertook evaluation of soybean

[Glycine max (L.) Merrill] genotypes for drought
Guar or cluster bean [Cyamopsis tetragonoloba under induced water stress. They observed
(L.) Taub.] is an annual legume. It is also the that the relative water content (RWC) and
source of guar gum. The plant thrives well in total chlorophyll content were least affected
arid to semi-arid areas and being a leguminous by water deficit in soybean genotypes AMS-
species, it contributes nitrogen to the soil through 99-33, TAMS-98-21 and JS-335, resulting in
symbiotic fixation. Guar is widely used for its good drought tolerance. Genotypes AMS-99-
high nutritional value; additionally, it is charac- 33 (7.22), TAMS-98-21 (7.85) and JS-335
terized by relatively low calorie content; it is also (7.95) had shown lower stomatal index values
used as an effective treatment for lowering blood in the stress condition at 30 and 50 days after
sugar and cholesterol levels. For these reasons stress initiation, demonstrating higher drought
guar gum has become a high-economic-value tolerance capacity. Genotype AMS-99-33 in
produce and demand for it is rising rapidly due to fact recorded the highest RWC (52.44 %) in
its industrial use in hydraulic fracturing (oil shale the stress condition, followed by TAMS-98-21
gas). The plant can be cultivated as a sole crop as (51.89 %) and JS-335 (51.10 %). Genotype JS-
well as in intercropping or a crop-rotation cycle. 335 showed the worst symptoms of susceptibility
Its economic high value has promoted interest in to drought, followed by TAMS-38 and TAMS-98-
expanding the area of cultivation and, in general, 21. Drought intensity was found to be inversely
there is increasing interest in conducting research related to drought tolerance.
efforts to identify and to develop suitable varieties
for different agroclimatic conditions, especially
in arid environments. One recent study was un- 9.2.4 Mung Bean
dertaken on the growth and yield performance
of five cluster bean genotypes in a water-limited Dutta et al. (2015) studied the water-stress
environment of a semi-arid region. These bean tolerance of mung bean [Vigna radiata (L.)
varieties were evaluated for their yield potential Wilczek] and physiological and biochemical
during a summer season under either irrigation or changes in leaves during seedling development.
scarce rain conditions. Although moisture stress The study assessed the effect of PEG-induced
reduced the total biomass, vegetative and fodder moisture stress on physiological and biochemical
9 Research Trends in Abiotic Stress Resistance of Crops 135

changes in leaves of cultivars K 851 (drought 50 % flowering (0.770) and total biomass (0.635).
tolerant) and PDM 139 (drought susceptible) Grain yield per plant was strongly correlated
during seedling development. A range of four with plant height, SCMR, leaf dry weight, 1000
external water potentials (i.e. 1.0, 2.0, 3.0 grain weight, RLWC and number of leaves per
and 4.0 bars), besides glass distilled water plant. Total biomass was subject to the high-
as a control (0.0 bar), were used. Water stress est direct effect (28.33), followed by stem dry
caused reductions in leaf area, relative leaf weight (17.59), panicle dry weight (15.81), leaf
water content (RLWC), chlorophyll content, the dry weight (2.51) and days to 50 % flowering
chlorophyll stability index (CSI), and phenol (0.326). Indirect effects on grain yield per plant
and ascorbic acid content in both cultivars were also estimated. It was found that panicle dry
studied. In contrast, proline content increased weight showed the maximum indirect effect via
with increasing water stress. Drought-tolerant total biomass, while the indirect effect of total
cultivar K 851 registered a better leaf water biomass was also positive via stem weight and
balance and higher accumulation of proline, panicle dry weight.
phenols and ascorbic acid than PDM 139. Nagesh et al. (2015) undertook field screening
and studied the biochemical basis of resistance
in sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] va-
9.2.5 Sorghum rieties, for their suitability under scarcity of rain-
fall in the Nagarjuna Sagar Project and Krishna
Dhutmal et al. (. 2015) studied variability parame- Western Delta in the Guntur district of Andhra
ters and conducted correlation studies in drought- Pradesh. Sorghum is cultivated to an extent of
tolerant post-rainy sorghum (Sorghum bicolor 25,000 ha in rice fallows by the farmers of the Kr-
L.) genotypes including 48 advanced breeding ishna Western Delta tail and in areas in the Guntur
lines, land races and promising lines. Genetic district of Andhra Pradesh when the irrigation
variability, heritability and genetic advance, cor- water from the Nagarjunaa Sagar Project is not
relation and path coefficient analysis for grain available for paddy in the rabi season. Sorghum
yield and its component characters were evalu- shoot fly, sorghum stem borer and midge are
ated. It was observed that grain yield per plant the major insect pests found to be damaging the
(gm) (35.36):, seed vigour (34.11), panicle dry jowar in this region. Hence, during 2013–2014,
weight per plant (gm) (24.73), stem dry weight 20 ICRISAT varieties or lines of jowar varieties
per plant (gm) (23.11), total biomass per plant were evaluated against these insect pests at the
(gm) (18.45), leaf dry weight per plant (gm) Regional Agricultural Research Station, Guntur,
(13.77) and plant height (cm) (12.29) exhibited Andhra Pradesh, for their suitability under rain-
high genotypic coefficients of variation. The esti- fed conditions. The germplasm tested showed
mates of heritability in a broad sense were high significant variation in reaction to the natural
for total biomass per plant (95.1), grain yield incidence of shoot fly and stem borer. While
per plant (92.5), panicle dry weight per plant ICSV 96011, TAM 2566 and Swarna showed
(94.7), stem dry weight per plant (92.7), plant highest susceptibility to shoot fly (14.47–21.6 %
height (91.7), SCMR at 50 % flowering (84.0) dead heart) and stem borer (27.07–31.57 % dead
and RWC (%) (83.4), days to 50 % flowering heart), entries ICSB 413, 435, 444, 445, ICSV
(72.3), days to physiological maturity (65.2) and 700, 705, 197, ICSV 25019, 25022, 25026, IS
leaf dry weight per plant (68.2). High heritability 2123 and 18551 showed highest resistance to
coupled with high genetic advance and high GCV shoot fly (0–6.9 % dead heart) and stem borer
was observed for grain yield per plant, leaf dry (0–9.37 % dead heart). These were statistically
weight per plant, stem dry weight per plant and on a par with each other. For knowing the bio-
total biomass per plant. A significant and positive chemical basis of resistance and susceptibility to
association was found between grain yield per these pests, four highly resistant lines or varieties
plant and panicle dry weight (0.784), days to (ICSV 25022, 197, 2123 and ICSB 413) and
136 J.I. Sarquís Ramírez and R.K. Maiti

four highly susceptible lines or varieties (TAM significant correlation with the plant height stress
2566, Swarna, ICSV 88032 and 197) were chosen index and grain yield per plant at both the geno-
and their chlorophyll a, b and total chlorophyll typic and phenotypic levels. The stomatal index
content, phenol and carbohydrate contents were exhibited a negative and significant correlation
analysed. Biochemical analysis showed that there with grain yield per plant at both the genotypic
were no statistically significant differences with and phenotypic levels. The largest proportion
respect to chlorophyll a, phenol and carbohydrate of plant water loss occurs via stomata. There-
content, whereas with respect to chlorophyll b fore, the frequency of stomata per unit of leaf
and total chlorophyll content, these treatments area and their size are important factors affecting
showed statistically significant variation. While whole-plant water turnover capacity. Data from
the highest yield (39.81 q ha1 ) was recorded this study allowed concluding that, in the case
for ICSB 413, highly susceptible TAM 2566 of rabi sorghum, selection for a lower stomatal
recorded a lower yield of 18.5 q ha1 only. index favours chlorophyll stability and a higher
Hence it can be inferred that higher-resistance harvesting index. Since all index parameters men-
lines can be utilized in further resistance variety tioned were shown to play a role in determining
breeding programmes, while the varieties with the drought tolerance of rabi sorghum, it seems
higher resistance to shoot fly and stem borer can that they offer ample opportunity to be taken
be used for cultivation by farmers. advantage of for further development of drought-
Kalpande et al. (2015) studied the relationship tolerant genotypes in rabi sorghum.
between grain yield and some of the index param- Ghorade et al. (2015) used the same
eters associated with drought tolerance in rabi experimental material consisting of 5 lines and
sorghum. The experimental material consisted of 12 testers and 60 hybrids developed by crossing
5 lines and 12 testers and 60 hybrids developed five lines with 12 testers by the same line 
by crossing five lines with 12 testers using a line tester scheme in order to identify promising
 tester scheme. The experiment was conducted lines and testers for grain yield and some
during rabi 2006–2007 at the Sorghum Research of the drought tolerance parameters in rabi
Unit, Dr. PDKV, Akola (MS). The interrelation- sorghum under drought stress. The estimates
ships between grain yield per plant (g) and six of the general combining ability effects indicated
index parameters associated with drought toler- that among the five lines used, MS 104A was a
ance, including the CSI (%), harvest index (%), good general combiner for grain yield per plant
drought index (%), dry matter stress index (%), (0.93*) along with five drought tolerance traits,
plant height stress index (%) and stomatal index viz leaf area ratio at 75 DAS (0.57*), dry matter
(%), were studied by calculating the genotypic at harvest (2.69**), chlorophyll content at 75
and phenotypic correlation coefficients. The har- DAS (0.21**), specific leaf weight (0.07**) and
vest index designates the partitioning of dry mat- harvest index (1.17*). Among the testers, M
ter into plant parts in relation to the whole aerial 35–1 showed desirable GCA for grain yield per
plant body. At the genotypic level, it was shown plant (3.61**) along with seven physiological
to correlate positively and significantly with the parameters associated with drought tolerance,
drought index and grain yield per plant. A pos- viz leaf area ratio at 75 DAS (0.84**), dry
itive and significant association of the harvest matter at harvest (3.62**), chlorophyll content
index and grain yield resulted in higher dry matter at 75 DAS (0.34**), proline content (2.95**),
per plant, which was translocated more efficiently CSI (0.07*), specific leaf weight (0.14**) and
through the stem into developing cobs for proper harvest index (3.74**). Another tester, SPV
filling of the grains. The drought index exhibited 504, has also transmitted desirable genes for
a positive and significant association with the dry grain yield per plant (2.07**) along with six
matter stress index and grain yield per plant at physiological parameters like leaf area ratio at
both the phenotypic and genotypic levels. The 75 DAS (1.05*), dry matter at harvest (3.40*),
dry matter stress index showed a positive and chlorophyll content at 75 DAS (0.17**), proline
9 Research Trends in Abiotic Stress Resistance of Crops 137

content (1.85*), CSI (0.13**) and stomatal susceptibility to it. ARBMH-1 (7.30 %) and
index (0.58*). Besides these two testers, other DMIL-142 (9.00 %) among hybrids and inbreds,
promising testers with significant GCA effects respectively, showed the least reductions in cob
for grain yield per plant, along with some of length, while ARBMH-9 and CM-501 among
the physiological traits associated with drought hybrids and inbreds, respectively, registered the
tolerance, were CSV-216 R, Ringni, Parbhani least reductions in cob girth under the stress
Moti and AKSV-13 R. All these six testers and condition. Seed rows per cob, number of seeds
line MS-104A need to be included in future per cob and test weight declined under stress,
breeding programmes to develop high-yielding and the extent of the decline was less in seed
drought-tolerant hybrids of rabi sorghum. rows per cob, indicating its relatively lower
sensitivity to stress in comparison with the
other two parameters. There was an overall
9.2.6 Maize 54.8 % reduction in yield due to stress with
a range from as low as 22.9 % in DMIL-39
Channappagoudar and Sahoo (2015) investigated to 100 % in DMH-1 and DMIL-43. Soil and
the physiological basis of drought tolerance in plant analysis determination (SPAD) values
maize inbreds and hybrids in a field experiment were lowest (13.4 %) under stress compared
during the post-rainy season of 2011–2012 to irrigated conditions, followed by RWC at
to identify stress-tolerant maize genotypes 75 DAS. Drought-resistant genotypes DMIL-
suitable for rain-fed conditions at the Main 39, ARBMH-1 and CM-501 showed the least
Research Station in the University of Agricultural reductions in physiological parameters, viz the
Sciences, Dharwad. The soil in the experiment photosynthetic rate, SPAD values and RWC.
site was medium black with low available There was a mean 78.2 % increase in proline
nitrogen, medium phosphorus and high available content under stress conditions. It was concluded
potassium. In two blocks they evaluated maize that there existed ample variability with respect
hybrids and inbred lines for their tolerance of to various morphological, physiological and yield
water stress, which were irrigated up to 25 days parameters among hybrids and inbred lines. Lines
after sowing. There was no rain fall during the DMIL-142, DMIL-39 and DMIL-78, having
entire cropping period and the observations on better performance of these parameters under
soil moisture status in the stressed block were water-stress conditions, can be incorporated
recorded at weekly intervals after 25 DAS into future breeding programmes for drought
up to maturity. Data were taken on various tolerance, and the hybrid ARBMH-1 can be
biometric and physiological parameters. LAI adopted and recommended for direct cultivation
showed significant differences between the under rain-fed conditions.
genotypes at 60 DAS, with DMIL-181 having Singh et al. (2015) investigated the physio-
higher LAI under both stress and irrigated morphological basis of selection in maize (Zea
conditions. It was observed that stress reduced mays L.) at the Research Farm of Chandra
LAI by 12.50 % compared to irrigated conditions. Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture &
Under the stress treatment, ARBMH-1, followed Technology, Kanpur, India, to search out the best
by DMIL-78, had significantly higher total productive inbred lines based on physiological
dry matter (TDM) than all other genotypes. as well as morphological parameters and the
Among hybrids, the maximum reduction in correlation. In this respect, 50 inbred lines
TDM (76.7 %) was observed in DMH-1 and from the Directorate of Maize Research, New
least in ARBMH-1 (22.3 %), while among Delhi, and maintained by maize breeder CSA
inbreds, DMIL-43 showed maximum reduction Kanpur, were subjected for study on plant height,
of TDM (70.5 %) in the stress condition. DMH-1 chlorophyll intensity, TDM, crop growth rate,
and DMIL-43 did not produce any cobs under leaf area ratio, net assimilation rate, relative
the stress condition, indicating their higher growth rate and total grain yield taken at different
138 J.I. Sarquís Ramírez and R.K. Maiti

stages of crop growth, viz at 45 DAS, 60 DAS among genotypes included in this evaluation. The
and maturity. Based on these parameters and ratio GCA:SCA was lower than unity, indicating
their correlated study the best productive inbred the preponderance of non-additive gene action
lines were selected. Plant height was found to in the expression of all the characters studied,
be maximum at maturity in genotype NP-43 (i.e. except flowering traits. Moderate narrow sense
143.67 cm) and minimum in NP-3 (89 cm) at the heritability was observed for the majority of the
same stage. Dry matter production per plant was characters. Three lines (KMLD-3, KMLD-11 and
observed to be highest in NP-23 (133.83 g) and KMLD-19) and one tester (KML-9) were good
lowest in NP-7 (55 g) at maturity. Crop growth general combiners for grain yield and one or more
rate, relative growth rate and net assimilation yield-contributing characters. Crosses KMLD-3
rate were found to be at a maximum in NP-35  KML-99, KMLD-5  BML-7, KMLD-5 
at maturity. Genotype NP-26 gave the maximum KML-801, KMLD-6  KML-36 and KMLD-
grain yield. High heritability estimates in a broad 11  KML-29 showed significant positive SCA,
sense were observed for all the characters at all standard heterosis and high mean values for grain
the stages of growth registered. An advancement yield per plant and two or more yield compo-
of 49.36 cm2 g1 per cycle of selection was nents. These hybrids were found to be early
observed for LAR at 60 DAS, while it was 1.59 g flowering, with significant negative heterosis pro-
cm2 (leaf area) per day per cycle of selection viding some clue about their usefulness under
for NAR at 60 DAS. The highest genetic gain drought conditions. Therefore, further testing of
over the mean to the tune of about 108.06 % was these new inbred lines for use in a crossing pro-
expected for TDM at 45 DAS at K D 2.06. Grain gramme is recommended to combine major yield
yield per plant showed a positive and significant components with high yield to derive climate-
correlation coefficient with plant height and TDM resilient hybrids.
production at all the stages. On the basis of
these results, it can be concluded that genotypes
NP-35, NP-43 and NP-26 can be utilized for 9.2.7 Pearl Millet
development of productive lines or can be utilized
in heterotic combinations for production of single Patil and Jadeja (2015) evaluated 113 pearl millet
cross hybrids to be used for production of a crop. Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R.Br hybrids under
Sumalini et al. (2015) assessed the general terminal drought stress and optimum (non-stress)
combining ability effects of parents and specific conditions to study their responses to drought
combining ability effects of hybrids for yield and and to identify the traits that are associated
yield-related traits strictly under rain-fed situa- with drought tolerance or escape. All hybrids
tions which, incidentally, mimicked mid season demonstrated significant differences in yield-
drought conditions, i.e. moisture stress at the contributing traits and yielding ability under
flowering stage for a period of 22 days. Combin- stress and non-stress conditions. A wide range in
ing ability analysis using a line  tester design the drought response index (DRI) was observed
was conducted in maize (Zea mays L.) inbred among the hybrids studied. Yield stability of the
lines by growing 135 F1 ’s generated by crossing genotypes depended upon different characters
15 lines with nine testers at ARS, Karimnagar, in the presence and absence of drought stress,
PJTSAU, during the rainy season in 2011. Female with emphasis on the manipulations of different
lines were derived from the recurrent selection traits for enhancing yield under stress and non-
cycle carried out in the drought-tolerant popu- stress conditions. Higher panicle number and
lation ‘Tuxpeño Sequia’ provided by CIMMYT greater biomass accumulation were associated
in 1996. Males were developed using pedigree with target traits for improving grain yield under
breeding. Analysis of variance showed highly stress, but not for enhancing yield under non-
significant genotypic differences for all the traits stress conditions. Increase in the test weight was
studied, indicating a wide range of variability related to drought escape, while higher grain
9 Research Trends in Abiotic Stress Resistance of Crops 139

numbers per panicle and the harvest index were RILs exhibiting extreme root phenotypes were
associated with drought tolerance. Hybrids with screened under natural moisture stress conditions
a high degree of drought tolerance have been in the field to study the influence of root parame-
identified during development of drought-tolerant ters on field performance.
genotypes. Drought escape, stress tolerance and, Traditional rice land races are the reservoir
to a lesser extent, potential yield contributed to of many tolerant genes for biotic and abiotic
determining the grain yield under stress. It is stress. Based on this knowledge, Mohapatra et al.
suggested that in selecting a drought-responsive (2015) investigated genetic diversity and molec-
genotype, emphasis should be given to drought ular characterization of rice landraces (Oryza
stress-responsive traits, viz. root length per plant, sativa L.) using drought stress-linked simple se-
proline content and the DRI. This study also quence repeat (SSR) and sequence tagged sites
indicated that hybrids showing high economic (STS) markers. Their study was undertaken on
heterotic effects for grain yield also depicted high the molecular characterization of specific ge-
heterotic responses for at least one or more yield- nomic loci that influence the tolerance of drought
attributing characters. The presence of both ad- stress in rice to facilitate proper selection of geno-
ditive and non-additive gene action was observed types for breeding programmes. Three drought-
for major yield-contributing traits in the present tolerant controls, viz N22, CR-143-2-2 and Van-
investigation, hence a breeding strategy involving dana, and drought susceptible controls, viz IR64
biparental matings with reciprocal recurrent and IR 20, were used for genetic diversity and
selection for simultaneous advancement of yield- molecular characterization in response to drought
attributing characters is important in pearl millet. stress. The molecular profiling for genetic rela-
tionships among the 55 rice accessions was as-
sessed with 23 previously reported drought stress
9.2.8 Rice tolerance QTL linked SSR markers and candi-
date gene-specific markers of STS. Using PCR,
Varthini et al. (2015) undertook a study on the amplified product sizes (molecular weights) for
selection of rice genotypes on the basis of the each SSR and STS marker were documented and
root system. Drought is a most complex and allelic diversity analysed; polymorphism infor-
harsh stress, but it can be dealt with by ge- mation content (PIC), dendrogram and genetic
netic improvement of rice. Plant roots play an similarity coefficients were calculated by using
important role in water and nutrient acquisition. NTSYS-pc (version 2.02). Out of 23, 15 SSR
An efficient root system is known to regulate markers were revealed to be polymorphic and
the amount of water available to the plant, de- polymorphism ranged from 0.611 (RM126) to
pending on its distribution in the soil. Therefore, 0.971 (RM314) with an average of 0.879, while in
breeding rice for drought tolerance can be under- gene-specific STS markers polymorphism ranged
taken by aiming at improving secondary traits, from 0.119 (Rab21) to 0.950 (OsCam-F), with
i.e. root traits for identification of the tolerant an average of 0.66. Highly polymorphic SSR
genotypes. This study was undertaken to evaluate markers could be used for the evaluation of ge-
rice root morphology by the modified soil-filled netic diversity and identification of promising
root box experimental approach. Recombinant rice genotypes for drought tolerance. The dendro-
inbred lines (RILs) developed from Norungan gram was constructed based on Rogers’s genetic
and IR 64 were screened in three runs, each time distance of specific alleles generated in SSR and
with 48 RILs and two parental lines from which STS markers from the total rice accessions. The
root sampling data was taken on traits such as root UPGMA cluster tree analysis was used to group
length, root thickness, root volume, root density the 55 land races of rice accessions into three
and the root shoot dry weight ratio. Significant major groups in SSR and five major groups by
variation was observed between the two parental STS markers. These findings provide the basis
lines, Norungan and IR 64, as well as RILs. Then for future efficient use of these molecular mark-
140 J.I. Sarquís Ramírez and R.K. Maiti

ers for the genetic analysis of rice genotypes 9.2.9 Wheat

and development of drought stress-tolerant crops
through MAS breeding approaches. Singh and Singh (2015) conducted pot ex-
Tripathy and Dash (2015) characterized a periments to elucidate the effect of plant
set of selected drought-resistant local land growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) (namely
races of Odisha, India, and a few drought- Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas sp. Iso13 and
tolerant improved cultivars and popular high- Microbacterium resistens) and their EPS on
yielding upland genotypes using total seed physiological parameters of soil and wheat plants
storage protein fingerprinting. Fifteen out of under drought. They found drought stress had
19 scorable polypeptide bands with molecular significant adverse effects on the growth of wheat
weights ranging from 26.0 to 123.0 kD revealed seedlings. Seed bacterization of wheat with EPS-
wide polymorphism (78.94 %) based on presence producing bacterial strains in combination with
or absence of bands. Additionally, polypeptide their respective EPS improved soil moisture
markers differed in staining intensity, migration contents. Under drought stress, the inoculated
velocity and frequency among the tested plants showed increased RWC, protein and
genotypes. Genotypes with medium amylose sugar, although proline content and the activities
content (21–22 %) are considered to have of antioxidant enzymes, namely superoxide
better cooking quality. Asumakunda, Bastul, dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD) and catalase
Brahmanaki, Kanding, Kalakeri, Padarabank, (CAT), actually decreased. Pseudomonas sp.
Salampikit, Somo, CR Dhan 40, Anjali, Vandana Iso13 strain isolated from a semi-arid region
and Pandeydhan have been identified as candidate was the most potent PGPR under drought stress.
varieties for intermediate amylose content. The association of inoculum and their respective
Cluster analysis of genetic similarity of the EPS showed greater potential in promoting
protein bands showed a wide genetic variation wheat drought tolerance in comparison to
among the tested materials, with the similarity plant performance under drought when PGPR
coefficients varying from 0.47 to as high as 1.00. inoculum was used alone.
Six of the tested genotypes together and four
paired genotypic comparisons showed complete
homozygosity (SI D 100 %) for seed storage 9.2.10 Oats
protein profile, while Khursudi (Av. SI D 0.58)
followed by Khandagiri (Av. SI D 0.62) and Singh (2015) evaluated 70 genotypes of oat
Nagina 22 (Av. SI D 0.69) had high genetic (Avena sativa) germplasm for traits imparting
dissimilarity compared to most other varieties. drought tolerance in an intermediate zone and the
Cluster analysis revealed nine distinct groups green fodder potential of its components under
of rice varieties at the similarity coefficient rain-fed environments during rabi 2010–2011,
level of 0.91. Khursudi maintained high genetic 2011–2012 and 2012–2013 at RARS, Armoury.
distance from Bastul, Brahmanaki, Zhu 11–26 The genetic variability, character association and
and Vandana, whereas N22 showed appreciable path analysis between green fodder yield and
genetic dissimilarity from Khandagiri and Zhu its contributing characters were studied using 70
11–26. Additionally, Khandagiri was shown genotypes of oat. Analysis of variance showed
to be genetically distant from Asumakunda, highly significant differences among genotypes
Brahmanaki, Hiran, Khursudi, N22, Padarabank, for all characters recorded. A high phenotypic
Anjali and Vandana. These genotypes may be and genotypic coefficient of variation coupled
used in a hybrid formation programme for with high heritability and genetic advance as a
characteristic upland situations. In addition, a few percentage of the mean were reported for green
genotype-specific polypeptide bands identified fodder productivity, plant height, tillers per plant
in the present pursuit should be useful for and green fodder yield, indicating predominance
identification of rice germplasm. of additive gene effects in controlling these
9 Research Trends in Abiotic Stress Resistance of Crops 141

characters. A highly significant and positive systems. Canopy temperature between the 100 %
correlation of green fodder yield was reported (31.8 ı C) and 75 % (32.1 ı C) ETc irrigation
with green fodder productivity, tillers per regimes was not significantly different, but the
plant, plant height and days to flowering. Path canopy temperature for the 50 % (33.1 ı C)
coefficient analysis showed positive direct effects ETc regime was significantly higher than for
of green fodder productivity, plant height, days the other two irrigation regimes. Although
to flowering and tillers per plant on green fodder there were significant differences in canopy
yield. Plant height had shown negative indirect temperature between all three irrigation regimes,
effects through most of the characters. Most the differences between 100 % and 75 % ETc
of the characters showed negative and low- were smaller compared to the 50 % ETc regime.
magnitude indirect effects except days to flower- The IR camera was able to differentiate biotic
ing, crop duration and green fodder productivity. (root rot) from abiotic (drought) stress with
Green fodder productivity, plant height, days to the assistance of ground truthing. Biotic stress
flowering and tillers per plant were considered (Phymatotrichum root rot) was present within the
important; therefore, emphasis should be given to field and canopy temperatures increased in areas
these characters in selection and improvement of where disease was present.
green fodder yield in oat breeding programmes. Rathod et al. (2015) studied the influence of
morpho-physiological traits for drought tolerance
in different cotton species. Their investigation
9.2.11 Cotton was conducted during the kharif season of 2010
and 2011 in RBD on the experimental field of
Although irrigation is required for profitable the Post Graduate Department of Agricultural
yields in cotton and other agricultural crops, it is Botany under non-stress and water-stress condi-
also a major production cost. Deva and Pandey tions in pot culture. Seeds of 31 cotton genotypes
(2015b) investigated remote sensing of biotic (10 G. arboreum and 21 G. hirsutum) were sown
and abiotic stress for irrigation management in three replications. The experimental findings
of cotton. They found that deficit irrigation of are based on 2 years of pooled data under wa-
short-season upland cotton—primarily produced ter stress and non-stress conditions. The results
as an irrigated upland crop—using a LEPA indicated significant superiority of G. arboreum
system enhanced lint yield and conserved over G. hirsutum in tolerance of water stress
groundwater. When a plant water deficit is on the basis of morpho-physiological characters
imposed during peak flowering periods, yield and seed cotton yield and its attributes. G. ar-
is reduced more than when deficit irrigation is boreum genotypes grew consistently taller under
imposed either earlier or later in the flowering stress than under non-stress conditions. At 120
period. Recent investigations have demonstrated DAS under both stress and non-stress condi-
site-specific management (SSM) as an additional tions, G. arboreum genotypes showed signifi-
means to address water management issues. cantly larger specific leaf weight (SLW) than G.
SSM can adopt satellite-based remote sensing hirsutum. SLW was found to be the best indicator
technology and mapping systems to detect for drought tolerance. When SLW was com-
specific areas suffering from stress within pared among G. arboreum genotypes, AKA-8
a field (i.e. water deficit, insect damage or (1.78 g dm2 ), Garrohill (1.91 g dm2 ), AKDH-
disease incidence). Crop canopy temperature, 1 (1.82 g dm1 ), KWA-8 (1.53 g dm2 ), HD-
an effective indicator of plant water stress, 110-151 (1.50 g dm2 ), and AKA-7 (1.49 g
could also be useful in developing an efficient dm2 ) were the best performers, while among
irrigation management system. The use of remote G. hirsutum, PKV-Hy-4 (1.51 g dm2 ), PKV-
sensing to determine canopy temperature has Hy-5 (1.34 g dm2 ), Yamuna (1.17 g dm2 )
been considered useful in monitoring plant stress and PKV-Hy-2 (1.10 g dm2 ) were found to be
by using IRTs mounted on centre-pivot irrigation the better genotypes with regard to tolerance of
142 J.I. Sarquís Ramírez and R.K. Maiti

water deficit. The correlation coefficient values 9.2.13 Linseed

suggest that SLW is highly and positively corre-
lated with seed cotton yield (r D 0.741) and this Root and other morphological characters are im-
criterion may be useful for assessing genotypes portant while breeding for drought tolerance. Ra-
for drought studies. jann et al. (2015) investigated the response of
root and other morphological characteristics un-
der water-stress conditions in linseed (Linum usi-
9.2.12 Cucumis tatissimum L.) with an objective to identify mois-
ture stress-tolerant linseed germplasm based on
Purru and Bhat (2015) investigated assembly, better root and other morphological characteris-
annotation, functional classification of transcrip- tics among 80 lines during rabi 2012–2013 under
tomes and identification of key genes for mois- a randomized block design with two replications
ture stress tolerance in musk melon (Cucumis using cement root structures which mimic field
melo L.), an important fruit crop worldwide, conditions for root and crop growth. Ten differ-
known as a very susceptible plant to moisture ent morpho-physiological characters were evalu-
stress, this being one of the major restraining ated. The germplasm lines 68/56120 (33.8 cm),
factors for its production. The main objective of Bengal-46 (31.5 cm) and ES-13239 (28.5 cm)
this study was to identify key genes that play had showed greater root length and for high root
a major role in moisture stress tolerance by de volume, Bengal-46 (4.3 cc), Bengal-70 (3.7 cc),
novo assembly and annotation of the musk melon CI-2006 (3.5 cc), ES-13239 (3.2 cc) and CI-1924
transcriptome. In this study, a high-throughput, (3.1 cc). Based on the mean per se performance,
SOLiD sequencing technology was employed to three promising lines, viz Bengal-46, ES-13239
characterize the de novo transcriptome of musk and EC-322659, were identified for significantly
melon. High-quality unique reads for Cucumis higher high root length, root volume, fresh root
melo control and stress samples were assembled weight, dry root weight and number of capsules,
using CAP3, DNA STAR and CLC de novo which may perform more efficiently under mois-
assembly programs. Merging of assemblies by ture stress conditions by being able to explore
CAP3 resulted in larger and robust transcripts and successfully utilize moisture from the deeper
instead of using a single program alone. The layers in the soil profile.
assembled transcripts were annotated with gene
ontology (GO) terms using Blast 2 Go. All the
GO terms were classified into functional groups 9.2.14 Mustard
including biological processes, cellular compo-
nents and molecular function. Comparison of Puttawar et al. (2015) undertook screening of
gene expression levels between control and stress mustard with the objective to identify superior
transcriptomes by RNA-Seq mapping revealed drought-tolerant crosses for recombination
that 177 genes were differentially expressed, with breeding and to study the correlation between
some genes highly upregulated in stress samples, the different traits. Thirty crosses obtained by
such as kinases, DREB genes and heat shock crossing two testers (drought-tolerant donors)
proteins; some of these are well known to be with 15 lines along with their parents were
involved in critical pathways, such as plant hor- evaluated in a factorial randomized complete
mone signal transduction, protein processing in block design replicated twice with three stress
the endoplasmic reticulum and inositol phosphate treatments, i.e. control (C), moderate stress (MS)
metabolism. Thus, these selected genes will not and severe drought stress (SS), in pot experiments
only facilitate increased understanding of genetic during rabi 2009–2011. The data recorded
basis of moisture stress response, but also accel- included days to first flower, days to maturity,
erate genetic improvement for drought tolerance plant height, number of branches per plant,
in musk melon. number of siliqua per plant, root length, root
9 Research Trends in Abiotic Stress Resistance of Crops 143

volume at maturity, leaf RWC, proline content, sesame (Sesamum indicum) in Akola, India. The
yield per plant and drought-tolerant efficiency. results revealed that yield-contributing charac-
The genotypes showed significant differences ters and moisture were significantly higher with
for all the characters studied except for number irrigation scheduling at 1.0 IW/CPE (irrigation
of branches per plant under both normal and water amount/cumulative pan evaporation) and
drought conditions. The genotype  treatment nitrogen application at 90 kg N ha1 . Similarly,
interactions were significant for all the traits treatment 1.0 IW/CPE combined with nitrogen
except for days to 50 % flowering and number application at 90 kg N ha1 recorded higher seed
of branches per plant. Severe stress treatment yield than any other combination, while the low-
produced flower and siliqua formation only in est seed yield was recorded for irrigation schedul-
very few genotypes. The mean performance ing at 0.4 IW/CPE combined with 30 kg N ha1 .
of all traits were affected either on the higher
or lower side due to stress. The number of
siliqua per plant and seed yield per plant were 9.2.16 Ber
the traits most affected due to stress. Moderate
stress resulted in 11.7 %, 38.87 %, 34.72 %, Ziziphus nummularia, a wild species of ber (Zizi-
73.69 %, 40.77 %, 7.26 % and 63.67 % reductions phus), is well distributed in the northwestern
in days to maturity, plant height, number of parts of India, where it grows into either a tree
branches per plant, number of siliqua per plant, or a bush in grasslands with an average annual
root volume, LRWC and seed yield per plant, rainfall of even less than 100 mm. Transcrip-
respectively; and 3.11 % and 60.47 % increases tome profiling was undertaken in Z. nummula-
in root length and proline accumulation due to ria genotype Jaisalmer under control and water
stress, respectively. A correlation study under stress at 0.3 MPa using a standardized in vitro
control and stress indicated that seed yield per technique to identify transcript expression during
plant was positively and significantly correlated drought stress (Sivalingam et al. 2015). Tran-
with plant height, number of siliqua per plant scripts were sequenced on an Illumina HiSeq
under control conditions and with plant height 2000 platform and de novo transcriptomes were
and proline content under the stress treatment. assembled for both control and stressed plant
Parents RH-819, Geeta, Kranti, JD-6 and Pusa samples. The trimmed reads were aligned to
Bold and crosses Yaruna  RH-819, Ashirvad the assembled transcriptome (length 150 bp)
 RH-819, JD-6  Geeta and ACN-9  Geeta using the Bowtie2 program. Differential gene
were identified as superior parents and crosses, expression analysis was performed using DE-
respectively, for drought tolerance based on high Seq. Among the unique transcripts identified in
DTE, high mean seed yield under stress, less stress samples, 283 transcripts were found to be
percentage reduction in yield and number of downregulated and 554 upregulated in compar-
siliqua per plant and high percentage increase ison to controls. The important downregulated
in proline content. These five parents (RH-819, transcripts identified are LRR receptor-like serine
Geeta, Kranti, JD-6 and Pusa Bold) and four or threonine protein kinase, oligopeptide trans-
crosses (Varuna  RH-819, Ashirvad  RH-819, porter OPT family, myrcene synthase, LRR pro-
JD-6  Geeta, ACN-9  Geeta) will be exploited tein kinase family isoform1, ATP binding cassette
in breeding mustard for drought tolerance. transporter, phytochrome kinase, pectin esterase
inhibitor like-35, auxin efflux facilitator isoform
1, multidrug resistance protein, pectin methyl
9.2.15 Sesame esterase 3 and ABC transporter B family. Sim-
ilarly, some of the upregulated transcripts are
In a field experiment, Damdar et al. (2015) stud- Raffinose synthase family protein, wall associ-
ied the effects of irrigation and nitrogen levels ated receptor kinase like, acyl transferase like
on yield and water efficiency (WUE) of summer protein, cadmium or zinc transporting ATPase 3
144 J.I. Sarquís Ramírez and R.K. Maiti

like, sucrose synthase 6-like, cytochrome P-450 respectively), dry root weight (30.93 and 79,
like, phosphatase 2C family protein and TT12-2 respectively) and fresh root weight (30.04 and 91,
MATE transporter. The results will undoubtedly respectively). These data indicated the presence
be very useful in identifying novel genes and their of variability, suggesting that these traits were
involvement in the drought tolerance response by under genetic control.
Z. nummularia.

9.2.18 Sunflower
9.2.17 Safflower
An investigation was carried out to understand
Goud et al. (2015) studied the role of the the effect of drought on physiological characteris-
root and its related traits in utilization of tics in 12 sunflower genotypes during rabi 2009–
available moisture under water-stress conditions 2010 at College Farm, College of Agriculture,
in safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.). Fifty- PJTSAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad (Geetha et
five safflower lines were included in the study. al. 2015). Moisture stress treatments were im-
Root and other morphological characters are posed at the flower bud initiation stage (irrigation
important for breeding for drought tolerance. withheld from 40 DAS to 60 DAS), while control
The experiment was carried out to identify plots were irrigated at 10-day intervals through-
moisture stress-tolerant safflower germplasm out the cropping experimental period. The results
based on better root characters and other revealed that water stress showed negative effects
morphological characteristics, at the Main on RWC, photosynthetic rate, leaf fluorescence,
Agricultural Research Station, Raichur, during membrane leakage, chlorophyll content and spe-
rabi 2012–2013. A total of 55 lines were cific leaf area across the genotypes examined. A
evaluated using a randomized block design with decline in specific leaf area under water stress
two replications under specially constructed is considered an adaptation to water stress; how-
cement root structures which mimicked field ever, genotypic variation was significant for the
conditions for root and crop growth for ten characters studied. Genotypes SH-177, SH-491
different morpho-physiological characters. The and DSF-111 were considered promising lines
germplasm sample included lines GMU-1811 and managed to maintain higher RWC, photosyn-
(48 cm), GMU-2293 (45.8 cm), GMU-3828 thetic rate, leaf fluorescence and SPAD chloro-
(44 cm), GMU-4914 (43.3 cm), GMU-4021 phyll meter readings with lower membrane leak-
(43 cm), GMU-174 (40.5 cm) and GMU-589 age and specific leaf area. Thus the above geno-
(40.3 cm), all checked for higher root length, and types could be exploited for drought-resistant
lines GMU-4093 (17.4 cc), GMU-3828 (17 cc), breeding.
GMU-3148 (15 cc), GMU-4454 (14.7 cc), GMU-
2866 (31.2) and GMU-7324 (14.6 cc), checked
for higher root volume. Based on the mean per 9.2.19 Gladiolus
se performance, 12 promising lines, viz GMU-
3148, GMU-2576, GMU-4480, GMU-7324, Ranjan and Hazarika (2015) investigated
GMU-1811, GMU-4021, GMU-174, GMU- mechanisms of adaptation to drought by some
3828, GMU-4454, GMU-609, GMU-4965 and Gladiolus cultivars under rain-fed conditions.
GMU-5197, exhibited high significant per se The study aimed to investigate the inherent
performance for plant height, root length, root adaptation mechanism of some plant cultivars
volume, fresh root weight, dry root weight, to cope or be sustained in a given set of
number of branches per plant and yield per environmental stresses and was conducted in the
plant. High GCV coupled with high heritability northeastern part of India, at Assam Agricultural
were recorded for dry shoot weight (43.34 and University, Jorhat, under rain-fed conditions.
90, respectively), root volume (31.75 and 85, Gladiolus shows wide variation and is popular
9 Research Trends in Abiotic Stress Resistance of Crops 145

among cut flowers. Any cell modifications are laid out in a randomized block design with three
easily detectable. Among the different cultivars replications. Soil moisture samples were taken
of Gladiolus, seven popular cultivars, viz 48 h after effective rainfall during the cropping
Suchitra, Jacksonville Gold, American Beauty, season. Farmyard manure was mixed 1 month
White Prosperity, Blue Isle, Aarti and Apollo, before sowing and straw mulch was spread out
were grown and their adaptation mechanisms after sowing. Plant growth parameters and for-
were evaluated through the physiological and age yield were recorded at the 50 % flowering
anatomical modifications recorded in order stage. The results showed that the plant height,
to understand crop–environment interactions number of tillers branches per plant and dry
with respect to water availability. There were fodder yield of all fodder crops studied was
significant morphological, physiological and greater under straw mulching, followed by the
anatomical modifications in each cultivar under application of FYM, dust mulching and control.
the given condition. Additionally, cultivars The straw mulching treatment was significantly
showed significant differences in leaf anatomical superior over dust mulching and the control treat-
parameters among themselves in the rain-fed ment in terms of growth and dry fodder yield.
condition. Among the seven cultivars under Dry fodder yield of Cenchrus ciliaris, cluster
study, Aarti stood out significantly as the highest bean, pearl millet and Clitoria ternatea was sig-
on these parameters, viz maximum number nificantly greater under straw mulching (3607,
of stomatal cell, maximum pore size, highest 2243, 7041 and 1746 kg ha1 , respectively) than
thickness of the leaf layer, and highest numbers under any other soil moisture conservation treat-
of palisade cells and spongy cells. Further, ment. Fodder yield was also found to be sig-
the highest leaf xylem and phloem size were nificantly higher under the application of FYM
recorded in Aarti, followed by the cultivar (3338, 2046, 6339 and 1604 kg ha1 , respec-
Suchitra. From the study, it was clear that tively) than under dust mulching (2191, 1864,
some cultivars like Aarti and Suchitra undergo 6094 and 1395 kg ha1 , respectively) or con-
significant modifications of various anatomical trol treatment (2012, 1741, 5718 and 1182 kg
parameters in response to water stress. ha1 , respectively). The yield difference was non-
significant between dust mulching and control
but was higher in the first case. This trend was
9.2.20 Fodder Crops found in all four crops taken under investiga-
tion. Maximum soil moisture content (%) was
Meena et al. (2015) studied the productivity of retained under the cropping system of Cenchrus
fodder as influenced by soil moisture conser- ciliaris (4.83) alone, followed by Cenchrus cil-
vation techniques and cropping systems under iaris C Clitoria ternatea (4.09), Cenchrus ciliaris
semi-arid environments. A field experiment was C cluster bean (3.99), Clitoria ternatea (3.58),
conducted from 2011 to 2014 to study the impact pearl millet (3.55), pearl millet C cluster bean
of soil moisture conservation techniques on plant (3.44) and cluster bean (3.42). Soil moisture
growth and yield of fodder crops and to identify content was retained significantly more under
the best suitable soil moisture conservation ap- the application of straw mulching (4.27) over
proach for the region. The treatments comprised dust mulching (3.71) and control (3.41) but was
seven cropping systems, viz sole Cenchrus cil- found to be on a par with FYM (3.99). The soil
iaris, sole pearl millet, sole cluster bean, sole moisture percentage was found to be higher in
Clitoria ternatea, Cenchrus ciliaris C cluster the deeper layers (30–60 and 60–90 cm) within
bean (1:1), pearl millet C cluster bean (1:1) the soil profile. Straw mulching under Cenchrus
and Cenchrus ciliaris C Clitoria ternatea (1:1), ciliaris cropped with Clitoria ternatea was found
and four moisture conservation techniques, viz to be effective for conserving soil moisture and
control, dust mulch, straw mulch (5 t ha1 ) and improving forage productivity in the semi-arid
farmyard manure (5 t ha1 ). The experiment was environments.
146 J.I. Sarquís Ramírez and R.K. Maiti

9.2.21 Chilli biweekly irrigation recorded the maximum yield

of matured fruits (2.75 kg per plot) compared to
Mohan et al. (2015) studied the effect of moisture single and monthly irrigation. Among hormonal
stress and NAA spray on growth, flower bud sprays, NAA at 20 ppm sprayed at the flowering
drop and yield on chilli (Capsicum annuum L.). stage significantly reduced flower bud drop and
Among the problems faced by the farmers in increased fruit yield by 15 %, compared to NAA
chilli cultivation, flower drop is a serious one, at 10 ppm and controls.
which causes a great reduction in yield. Flower
bud drop in chilli is a complex phenomenon
influenced by abiotic stresses like soil moisture, 9.3 Breeding Approaches for
sunlight, high temperature, salinity and growth Drought Resistance
regulators. Biotic stresses like attacks by pests
and disease incidence also cause flower bud drop. In discussing breeding approaches for drought
Moisture stress causes abscission of flowers resistance in crops, Namrata et al. (2015) remind
through its influence on the plant hormone us that by the year 2025, 1.8 billion people
balance, rate of photosynthesis and availability will live in countries or regions where severe
of carbohydrates for growth. This may lead to a water scarcity will be the rule. The states most
heavy drop of reproductive structures. A field affected in India include Rajasthan, parts of Gu-
study was conducted during kharif 2011 to jarat, Haryana and Andhra Pradesh. Now, all the
understand the effects of moisture stress and studies presented at the 2nd International Con-
NAA application on plant growth, flower drop ference on Bio-resource and Stress Management
and yield in chilli at Loyola Academy farm, have evidenced the strong impact of drought
Alwal, Secunderabad. A factorial randomized stress on the normal physiology and growth of
block design was used to test on chilli cv. plants, resulting in an overall reduction of agri-
LCA-235. Treatments comprised three irrigation cultural productivity by preventing crop plants
levels: single irrigation at flowering, biweekly from expressing their full genetic potential.
irrigation and monthly irrigation; and three Drought escape, avoidance and tolerance are
hormonal sprays: control (normal water), NAA- the three mechanisms involved in drought re-
10 ppm and NAA-20 ppm. The results of the sistance. Various morphological, physiological
experiment revealed that moisture stress had and biochemical characters that confer drought
significantly reduced the plant morphological resistance show different types of inheritance
and physiological parameters, viz plant height, patterns (monogenic and polygenic) and gene
number of branches, leaves and LAI. Among action (additive and non-additive). Breeding for
treatments, the biweekly irrigation level resulted drought should be based on the level and tim-
in increased plant growth and LAI compared to ing of stress in the targeted area. If stress is
single irrigation and monthly irrigation. Moisture severe, breeding under stress-free conditions may
stress significantly increased the drop of flower be unsuccessful and traits that confer survival
buds and flowers more under single irrigation may become a priority. Traditionally, three breed-
(20.6 %) compared to biweekly irrigation ing approaches for drought resistance have been
(12.5 %). The percentage nutrient content (N, put to exercise. The first approach consists of
P and K) was decreased in the dropped flower breeding for high yield under optimum (water
buds compared to retained ones on the plants. unlimited) conditions. This may be useful pro-
Enzyme indole acetic acid (IAA)-oxidase content vided there is enough genetic variation within the
(g IAA degraded g1 dry weight hour1 ) in the germplasm handled. The second approach deals
dropped and retained flower buds was increased with the problem that the intensity of drought
with increased moisture stress, which may reflect is highly variable from year to year; as a result,
degradation of IAA. Moisture stress significantly environmental selection pressure on breeding ma-
decreased fruit yield. Among irrigation levels, terials may vary quite largely from generation to
9 Research Trends in Abiotic Stress Resistance of Crops 147

generation. The third approach is to incorporate understanding of the physiological mechanisms

the morphological and physiological mechanisms by which growth and development of crop plants
of drought resistance. are affected by salinity. Research has established
At the molecular level, several drought- that early growth reduction occurs by salinity
responsive genes and transcription factors as much as by water stress. In both cases an
have been identified, such as the dehydration- osmotic effect causes cell elongation to stop as
responsive element-binding gene, aquaporins, higher water potential in the external solution
late embryogenesis abundant proteins and does not support water absorption by the cells;
dehydrins. Plant drought tolerance can be on the contrary, water tends to go out of the
managed by adopting strategies such as mass cell following the adverse water potential gra-
screening and breeding and marker-assisted dient. There seems to be little genotypic vari-
selection. Due to low heritability of yield under ation in plant response at this early stage. In
stress and to the spatial as well as temporal the stages that follow, however, salinity-tolerant
variations in the field environment, marker- species or genotypes differ from sensitive ones
assisted selection may prove more beneficial. in their ability to prevent salt accumulation to
toxic levels in leaf tissues. Ca ions have long
been observed to counteract salinity and prevent
9.4 Salinity growth inhibition by keeping membrane-selective
permeability to K over Na, thus helping maintain
World food production relies heavily on irrigated membrane functional stability. Most crop plants
agriculture, which accounts for up 40 % of the have been shown to be decreasingly salt tol-
yearly global agricultural outcome using only erant from germination through emergence and
17 % of available arable land—a fact which, in increasingly salt tolerant from the period of veg-
itself, describes what modern technology can etative growth through the period of reproductive
accomplish. Nevertheless, vast areas turned into growth.
productive arable land over the latter two thirds of Sreenivas et al. (2015) developed drainage
the twentieth century around the world face an in- technology as a viable tool for reclamation of
creasing risk of becoming unusable land because saline-sodic and waterlogged soils of Godavari,
of salinity and water logging. Over half a billion the Western Delta and India. A sub-surface pipe
hectares are at stake in just Australia, India, was installed in an 18 ha area in a farmers’
Pakistan, and Central and Southeast Asia (Asif fields at the Kalipatnam pilot area in the Godavari
and Ahmad 2002)—a region that is home to over Western Delta canal command area in India in
3.4 billion people, nearly half the world’s entire the year 2005 to combat the problems of water
human population. It goes without saying that logging (depth of water table 0–0.85 m), salinity
what we are dealing with here is a major issue. and sodicity (ECe 5.9–44.8 dS m2 and ESP
Irrigation is by far the number-one user of 19.4–56.6). A nylon mesh envelope material was
fresh water, a fact that underlines the urgency used and 50 m lateral spacing was adopted for the
to develop management practices that ensure the pipe drainage system. The effectiveness of this
most efficient use of the resource as it becomes drainage system in the control of water logging at
increasingly scarce around the globe, while the pilot area was monitored through a network
population and consequently food demand keep of 24 observation wells (150  150 m grid) and
growing at a fast rate in relation to the stability 48 surface grid points (100  100 m) for soil
and functionality of global environmental samples and crop cut data. SSD was operated
mechanisms guarding the homeostasis of our for 4003 h for the year under review (summer of
ecosystems. 2005 to summer of 2009). A total of 66.8 t ha1
In a recent review of the literature on plant of salts was disposed of through the pipe drainage
growth and development under salinity stress, system during the 4 year period. Summer soil
Läuchli and Grattan (2007) looked at our current salinity (0–15 cm) decreased 38 %; after kharif
148 J.I. Sarquís Ramírez and R.K. Maiti

soil salinity decreased 18 % and ground water programmes take much longer periods of time
quality (salinity) improved 40 % from 2005 to and never stop being decidedly labour intensive.
2009. Four years after installation of the sub-
surface drainage system the results evidenced a
1.01 t ha1 increase in wet season rice (kharif ) 9.4.2 Blond Psyllium
and a 2.31 t ha1 increase in the dry season (rabi)
rice yield in the area, in comparison to yields ob- Shivran and Meena (2015) studied the impact of
tained prior to installation of the system. A techno soil type and saline water irrigation on soil salin-
feasibility study indicated that the payback period ity and productivity of blond psyllium (Plantago
was 2.18 years. ovata Forsk).
A 2-year pot culture experiment was con-
ducted at the SKN College of Agriculture, Jobner
9.4.1 Sugarcane (Rajasthan), using two soil types (sandy loam
and loamy sand) and five salinity levels of irriga-
Gadakh et al. (2015) developed a rapid screening tion water (0–4 dS m1 ) to evaluate the effects
technique for salt tolerance in sugarcane on blond psyllium production and soil salinity.
(Saccharum spp.). The investigation was carried These treatments were combined factorially for a
out on sugarcane var. Co- 99004 at the Sugarcane total of ten treatment combinations, which were
Tissue Culture Laboratory and farm of the replicated three times and arranged in a com-
Main Sugarcane Research Station, Navsari pletely randomized design. The maximum plant
Agricultural University, Navsari, during the stand at harvest, spikes per plant, seeds per spike,
2012–2013 and 2013–2014 cropping cycles. test weight and seed yield per plant varied signifi-
Somaclonal variation in combination with in cantly between the two soil types used, regardless
vitro mutagenesis proved beneficial for the of salinity, as shown when all the data were
isolation of salinity and drought-tolerant lines pooled together. However, the data also showed
in little time by employing in vitro selection. that electrical conductivity of a saturation extract
Hence the present study was carried out on in of soil after harvest of the crop was significantly
vitro selection of sugarcane mutants for salinity higher in the sandy loam soil than in the loamy
tolerance and isolation of tolerant mutant lines. sand soil. An increased plant stand at harvest,
A tissue culture technique was used to obtain spikes per plant, seeds per spike, test weight and
salt-tolerant mutants from EMS (0.5 % for 2 h) seed yield per plant were recorded with irrigation
treated embryogenic calli cultured on a selective water of 2 dS m1 ; this treatment resulted in
medium containing different levels of NaCl significantly higher values for spikes per plant
(0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 mM). The 100 mM and test weight than those recorded for plants
concentration of NaCl was decided to be the LD50 grown in fresh water, while they were higher for
of NaCl on the basis of the percentage survival seeds per spike and seed yield per plant than those
of calli. Calli treated with EMS (LD50 ) was found in fresh water and irrigation water of 1 dS
placed on shoot regeneration media containing m1 . Furthermore, it was observed that applica-
the LD50 concentration of NaCl. The plants tion of irrigation water of 4 dS m1 significantly
that regenerated from the tolerant calli were reduced plant stand at harvest, spikes per plant,
grown in a pot culture system under salinity seeds per spike, test weight and seed yield per
stress (with the previous levels) as compared plant in comparison to lower water salinity levels.
to normal plants (the source variety). These The electrical conductivity of a saturation soil
results demonstrated that an in vitro technique extract after the crop harvest increased signifi-
can be exploited to improve agronomic traits and cantly with increasing levels of irrigation water
to increase resistance to abiotic stress in crops EC up to the highest level, i.e. 4 dS m1 , used in
like sugarcane, for which conventional breeding these experiments. It may be inferred that blond
9 Research Trends in Abiotic Stress Resistance of Crops 149

psyllium can be grown well in loamy sands when vacuolar osmotic potential. Transgenic finger
irrigated with water up to 2 dS m1 EC. millet plants (var. GPU 28) were developed for
salt tolerance by over-expression of a vacuolar
NaC /HC antiporter gene from Pennisetum
9.4.3 Finger Millet glaucum (Pg). The PgNHX1 gene was introduced
into a pCAMBIA1301 vector with hygromycin
Syvarna et al. (2015) made an assessment of salt as the selection marker and GUS as the reporter
stress impact on the germination of finger mil- gene, mobilized into Agrobacterium tumefaciens
let (Eleusine coracana), an important nutritious EHA 105, and used for finger millet transfor-
minor millet, quite tolerant of drought and salt mation. The putative transgenic plants that were
stress. In a laboratory experiment, salt stress was generated were confirmed for TDNA integration
induced by addition of different salt concentra- and transgene expression at the transcription
tions to the germination media. The experiment level. Further salt tolerance evaluation of putative
included three varieties of finger millet, viz GPU transgenic plants was tested in the presence of
28, GPU 45 and GPU 67, and five concentrations 250 mM NaCl (including controls). Physiological
of salt, viz 0.2 %, 0.4 %, 0.6 %, 0.8 % and 1.0 % traits, viz leaf senescence, bioassay, cell
NaCl, besides one absolute control, viz 0 % salt. membrane stability (CMS), ion content and
The experiment was replicated twice. Twenty- osmotic adjustment (OA), using both a solution
five seeds were kept in a petri dish containing culture system (hydroponics) and a soil system
filter paper dipped in the listed salt concentra- developed at the Central Soil Salinity Research
tions. Germination was observed from the next Institute (CSSRI), were monitored. Over-
day onwards up to 16 days after sowing. On the expression of PgNHX1 in finger millet resulted
16th day, shoot length and root length were mea- in enhanced salt tolerance as evidenced by higher
sured and shoot and root dry weights were taken. CMS, lower senescence and lower photosynthetic
The germination percentage, germination rate, rate. More detailed analysis revealed less visual
seedling length vigour index and seedling weight leaf injury, higher KC /NaC ratio, higher CMS
vigour index were calculated and recorded. Data and improved OA in NHX1 transgenics, as com-
were statistically analysed according to the two- pared to wild types subjected to the same level
factor complete block design. Significant differ- of salt stress. When performance was evaluated
ences for salt concentration and for variety were in soil systems, based on yield parameters, trans-
observed for all characters recorded. Among the genics showed a 47 % reduction in yield while
three varieties, GPU 67 showed the best salt the wild type plants exhibited extensive chlorosis
tolerance, while GPU 28 was most sensitive. In and failed to survive. These results demonstrate
general, the germination percentage and other the potential value of these transgenic plants for
characters were not affected by up to 0.4 % NaCl agricultural use under salinity stress in the field.
in the germination media regardless of variety,
thus indicating that this much salt in the media
is the threshold for finger millet. 9.4.4 Wheat
Xue et al. (2004) reported enhanced salt
tolerance of finger millet (Eleuesine coracana) by Saroha et al. (2015) studied the effect of salinity
over-expression of a vacuolar NaC /HC antiporter at four salinity levels (6, 9, 12 and 15 EC)
resulting in improved yields in saline soils. One on photosynthetic characteristics of six wheat
of the possible mechanisms by which plants (Triticum aestivum L.) varieties, viz KH-65,
could survive salt stress is by keeping sodium KRL-99, PBW-343, PBW-621, HD-2851 and
ions away from the cytosol. The accumulation HD-2009, differing in salt tolerance. The cellular
of sodium ions inside the vacuoles provides a level of sodium (Na) and potassium (K) was
twofold advantage: (1) by reducing toxic levels measured in all plant parts. Leaf temperature, air
of sodium in the cytosol; and (2) by increasing temperature, photosynthetic rate (Pn), internal
150 J.I. Sarquís Ramírez and R.K. Maiti

CO2 concentration (Ci), stomatal resistance (Rs) 9.4.6 Rice

and stomatal conductance (gs) were also recorded
in the flag leaf at 45 DAS in controls as well Somasundaram et al. (2015) report mitigation of
as salinized plants. Internal CO2 concentration salinity stress on rice seed germination and estab-
was found to be negatively correlated with lishment by seed priming. Priming of seeds with
stomatal resistance. Correlation was stronger salts and growth regulators can lessen the nega-
with increased salinity level, which shows that tive effect of salinity on plant growth and yield.
increased Rs during salt stress limits Ci, which Seeds of elite rice variety Anna 4 were primed
in turn results in reduced Pn. Total biomass and with ascorbic acid, salicylic acid, ’-tocopherol,
seed yield were significantly compromised by GA3 , KCl, PEG, NaCl and KNO3 for 12 h and
the saline environment. Overall, variety KRL- shade dried to bring moisture back to the initial
99 performed better with respect to all the level. Treated seeds were evaluated for various
photosynthetic parameters and depicted a better physiological quality parameters, viz germina-
Na/K balance. All photosynthetic functions were tion, seedling length, vigour index and days to
significantly correlated with total biomass and initial 50 % flowering and complete emergence
seed yield. Thus, it may be concluded that altered under salinity levels of 0.25 %, 0.50 %, 0.75 %
photosynthetic response to salinity stress affects and 1 % NaCl, along with untreated controls.
the total biomass production in wheat. A significant reduction in all seed quality pa-
rameters was observed with increased salinity
level. All treatments turned out to be effective
9.4.5 Maize in enhancing seed quality, when compared with
control. However, seeds primed with GA3 at
Nandhini and Sundaram (2015) report here on 50 ppm for 12 h performed well under all salinity
the effect of lipo-chitooligosaccharide on salt levels and it promoted 100 % germination up to
tolerance and phytotoxicity to roots and shoots 0.5 % NaCl. In addition, KNO3 , ascorbic acid
of maize. Research on the use of signalling and ’-tocopherol were found to be effective in
molecules to enhance crop performance is still in- improving seed germination and vigour under
cipient in India. LCO (lipo-chitooligosaccharide) salinity conditions.
is a unique signalling molecule, which, when Pharate et al. (2015) made an assessment of
present at the time of planting, enhances the salt tolerance at seed germination and seedling
plant’s nutritional capabilities and drives the development in rice genotypes. Twelve genotypes
natural growth processes such as root and of rice were used for experimentation, which
shoot development, immediately and irrespective typically show differential responses to salt
of genotype, soil and other environmental stress. The test material was genotyped with 12
conditions. Germination and early seedling stress-specific SSR primers. These included two
growth are phases during which maize is categories of primers specific to chromosomal
particularly sensitive to salt stress, which can regions associated with seed germination and
thus effectively hinder subsequent growth and seedling development. The marker data obtained
productivity of this crop. The effect of priming allowed grouping of the 12 genotypes into
with LCO signalling compound on growth and two broad categories. Seeds of different lines
establishment of maize seedlings grown under of rice were placed in petri plates lined with
induced salinity levels (0, 2, 4, 6, 8 or 10 ds germination paper. Seeds were placed on
m1 ) was assessed, and the analysis of variance germination paper, with different concentrations
showed that salinity levels and LCO priming of NaCl (100–250 mM) for seed germination
affected seed establishment parameters of maize and for seedling development (125–500 mM)
significantly; phytotoxicity of salt to unprimed being used for experimentation. About 10-day-
maize seedling was increased while salt tolerance old seedlings were used for recording the data.
decreased with increasing levels of salinity. At the higher concentrations of NaCl used, the
9 Research Trends in Abiotic Stress Resistance of Crops 151

plumule remained stunted and root elongation (NaCl) concentrations of 0, 100, 160, 240 and
was also very poor. Hardly any shoot elongation 300 mM on seed germination and seedling
was recorded at 150 mM NaCl. Out of the 12 growth. Increasing NaCl concentration caused
genotypes tested, only genotype 4 showed some reduced seed germination and seedling growth
extent of plumule elongation. Root elongation in both species. Higher germination percentage,
was also inhibited at concentrations of 200 mM root and shoot length, fresh and dry weight were
and higher. Based on the seed germination observed for the C. capsularis jute varieties JRC-
data at 100 mM, test genotypes were grouped 698 and JRC-517 and for the C. olitorius jute
into two categories. Seedling development was varieties JRO-632 and JRO-128 under 160 mM
also affected by salt concentrations. Based on NaCl, as compared to 240 and 300 mM. A
seedling growth parameters, at concentrations general decline in all growth parameters was
above 250 mM NaCl, genotypes can be grouped observed at 240 mM as compared to other salt
into two classes, depending upon the degree concentrations. Seed germination was completely
of yellowing of leaves as well as elongation inhibited at 300 mM NaCl. However, none of the
of shoots. Molecular data correlated with interactions was non-significant. C. capsularis
phenotypic data. Hence this information may variety UPC-94 and C. olitorius variety JRO-204
prove helpful in assisting selection of rice were found to be most susceptible to salinity
genotypes to breed for salinity tolerance. stress. C. capsularis varieties resulted in better
Tomar et al. (2015) studied alleviation of salt germination and seedling growth in comparison
sensitivity in rice (Oryza sativa L.) by foliar to C. olitorius varieties.
spray of homobrassinolide. It is believed that the
repressive effect of salinity on seed germination
and plant growth could relate to a decline in 9.4.8 Beet
endogenous levels of plant growth regulators.
Salinity was imposed on rice-seeded pots by Rameshchand et al. (2015) studied the effect of
addition of sufficient quantities of the major salts salinity (2, 4, 6, 8, 10 EC) on two different vari-
NaCl, CaCl2 and MgSO4 (in the ratio of 7:2:1 eties of fodder beet, Calixta and Kuber, with spe-
NaC , CaC2 and MgC2 on a meq basis) to get the cial reference to the antioxidant system up to the
desired salinity level of 1.5 dS m1 (1:5 dilution ninth leaf stage (BBCH 9). At sampling of BBCH
method). Foliar application of HBR solution at 9, maximum increases in catalase (CAT), peroxi-
1 mg l1 was made at the early vegetative growth dase (POD) and SOD activities were recorded at
stage (20 days after sowing). HBR foliar appli- 6 EC in var. Calixta, whereas var. Kuber showed
cation at 1 mg l1 improved rice performance maximum increases in CAT, POD and SOD at
and increased seed yield under salinity stress by 4 EC. The highest total antioxidant activity was
mitigating effects of salinity stress by as much as also shown at 6 EC for var. Calixta and at 4
over 50 %. The foliar spray of HBR overrode the EC for var. Kuber. Salinity concentrations of 6
inhibitory effects of salinity on plant growth. and 4 EC caused increased chlorophyll content
and photosynthetic activity in Calixta and Kuber,
respectively. Maximum lipid peroxidation in both
9.4.7 Jute varieties was observed at 10 EC. In both varieties,
CaCC , MgCC , NaC and KC content reached their
Naik et al. (2015) studied in vitro screening highest levels at 10 EC. It can be inferred that
of nine C. capsularis jute varieties (JRC-698, most of the antioxidant enzymes and antioxidant
JRC-321, JRC-517, JRC-7447, JBC-5, JRC- systems were enhanced under irrigation with 6
212, JRC-80, JRC-532 and UPC-94) and nine EC and 4 EC; thus, both fodder beet varieties can
C. olitorius varieties (JRO-632, JRO-204, S-19, be grown effectively in moderately saline soils,
JRO-524, IRA, JRO-8432, JRO-128JRO-2407 but variety Calixta seems to be more salinity
and CP-58) for salt tolerance at sodium chloride tolerant than variety Kuber.
152 J.I. Sarquís Ramírez and R.K. Maiti

9.4.9 Fruit Crops leading to the biosynthesis of molecular chaper-

ones, a family of low molecular weight proteins
Bhoyar and Kumar (2015) discussed modern whose function is to ensure molecular stability
techniques for salt stress management in fruit. of the nuclear envelope and contents, since HS
Salinity refers to the saltiness or dissolved salt can break cell homeostasis and cause metabolic
content (such as sodium chloride, magnesium dysfunction, growth retardation and even death
and calcium sulfates and bicarbonates) of a (Kotak et al. 2007).
body of water or in the soil solution. Salt stress Plants experience high temperatures in many
reflects osmotic forces exerted on plants when different ways, and adaptation or acclimation to
they are growing in a salt marsh or under other high temperature occurs over different levels of
saline conditions. Salinity remains one of man’s plant organization. The adverse effect of temper-
oldest environments and horticultural constraints ature stress is experienced by the plant during
on productivity, challenging scientists. Salinity both the vegetative and reproductive stages of
is caused by various factors such as mineral development. The intensity of damage depend-
weathering, use of saline irrigation water, poor ing on two aspects: (1) the rate of tempera-
rainfall and high evaporation rates. ture increase, which will determine the capacity
of the cell to change the insaturation:saturation
ratio in fatty acids in membrane phospholipids
9.5 Temperature rapidly enough to maintain membrane fluidity
within functional limits; and (2) the duration of
Like no other abiotic stress, high-temperature high temperature experienced by the tissue. Once
stress has become commonplace in the scientific the tissue adaptive response reaches maximum
literature in the context of global climate change, expression, continued HS will go on to cause
which by definition is the disruption of global metabolic disruption.
climatic patterns due to the greenhouse effect we In plants, HSR can protect tissues provided
experience as a worsening condition on account the high temperature is transient and does not ex-
of the increment in—mainly—atmospheric CO2 ceed a threshold, which may vary greatly among
presence. No longer are we worried about the species. In general, HSR is expressed constitu-
original cause of it. It is an undeniable reality, and tively in organisms that have evolved in tropical
whether it is of anthropogenic origin or not, the or semitropical climates, having integrated to a
fact remains that current rates of fossil fuel use to greater extent than those species that are typical
meet our ever-increasing demand for energy are of more temperate or cool thermal stimuli in their
sending just too much CO2 into the atmosphere, metabolic make-up. Temperate climate species,
thus playing a pivotal role in the global environ- on the other hand, have been shown to express
mental temperature rising, something for which HSR after an induction process has occurred, and
fast melting of the ice at the North and South the extent of the response goes a much shorter
Poles stands as irrefutable evidence. distance in protecting the tissues for very long.
The transitory experience of supraoptimal en- Once the capacity for thermal acclimation is
vironmental temperature is known to every living surpassed, plant tissues will suffer both physio-
organism. Supraoptimal temperature experiences logical and biochemical damage by prolonged ex-
lasting long enough constitute a heat stress (HS), posure to supraoptimal thermal regimes (Rivero
as opposed to heat shock—a rather short-term ex- et al. 2001).
posure to high temperature—and normally elicit
a defined pattern of response in biological sys-
tems. Plants and animals alike are capable of 9.5.1 Wheat
what is known as the heat shock response (HSR),
which consists of a distinct series of molecu- Satbhai et al. (2015) reported on the protec-
lar events that trigger the onset of transcription, tive role of osmolytes and antioxidants during
9 Research Trends in Abiotic Stress Resistance of Crops 153

high-temperature stress in wheat. Heat stress is a Stomatal conductance, canopy temperature de-
major threat for wheat production in our changing pression (CTD) and photosynthetic rates have
environmental scenario and its negative effect been found to be highly correlated with grain
is already apparent. Plants react by triggering yield apart from biological yield. They wanted
an adaptive response to increase thermo-stability to test whether, besides these traits, there may
by accumulation of osmolytes and antioxidants. be any other selection criteria for mass scale
A gradual increase of heat stress from control selection of wheat genotypes for heat stress. A
(25 ı C) to 30 ı C 1 h, 35 ı C 1 h, 40 ı C 2 h field experiment was thus conducted in a silty
and 46 ı C 3 h was imposed on ten cultivars to clay loam soil, with organic carbon content of
investigate the wheat response in terms of its 0.78 at the Norman E. Borlaug Crop Research
effect on RWC, chlorophyll content, osmolyte Centre of Pantnagar University. Forty-four wheat
(GB and soluble sugar) accumulation, lipid per- genotypes were collected from various sources
oxidation and activity of the antioxidative en- (mainly from the Uttarakhand state) and were
zymes SOD, CAT, GPX, APX and GR. Con- sown in a completely randomized design with
tinuous increases in glycine betaine, total sug- two replications on 2 January 2013. The ratio
ars and NRS were registered during heat stress of variable to maximum florescence (Fv/Fm) and
in thermo-tolerant wheat cultivars, whereas the the SPAD value, morphological parameters (plant
levels decreased at 40 ı C 2 h and 46 ı C 3 h height, tiller number, leaf area index) and various
stress treatment in thermo-sensitive wheat geno- biochemical parameters (proline content, H2 O2
types. RWC, chlorophyll ‘b’ content and MSI content, malondialdehyde content) were tested
significantly declined with a steady increase in in a late planting. Correlation studies revealed
malondialdehyde content from 30 ı C 1 h to that morphological and biochemical parameters
46 ı C 3 h heat stress. Heat stress induced the were less correlated with yield than physiological
activity of SOD, GPX, CAT, APX and GR from parameters. The Fv/Fm ratio and SPAD value at
30 ı C 1 h to 40 ı C 2 h. However, at 46 ı C 3 h post-anthesis were highly correlated with yield.
the activities of all five enzymes declined in all Thus these parameters at post-anthesis can be
wheat cultivars. Thermo-tolerant wheat cultivars used as characters to screen wheat germplasm for
recorded significantly higher activities of all five heat resistance.
antioxidative enzymes. Heat stress-mediated in-
creases in GB and NRS and higher activity of
SOD, CAT, GPX, APX and GR enzymes was 9.5.2 Chickpea
recorded in NIAW-34 and AKAW-4627 wheat
cultivars. GB accumulation declined at 40 ı C 2 h Kuldeep et al. (2015) undertook identification
and 46 ı C 3 h in all thermo-susceptible wheat and evaluation of chickpea germplasm for high-
and to some extent in thermo-tolerant cultivars temperature tolerance. Gram or chickpea (Ci-
with a steady increase of oxidative stress markers cer arietinum L.), a member of the Fabaceae,
(MDA content). Heat inactivation of all five ROS- is an ancient self-pollinated leguminous diploid
scavenging enzymes was observed at 46 ı C 3 h annual (2n D 2 D 16), with a genome size of
stress in all wheat cultivars except NIAW-34, approximately 750 Mbp. Chickpea is not only
AKAW-4627 and NIAW-917, in which incre- an important source of protein in the human
ments in osmolyte levels probably mitigated the diet but also plays a significant role in main-
adverse effect of heat. taining soil fertility through biological nitrogen
Dhyani et al. (2015) undertook correlation fixation. India is the largest producer, accounting
studies to identify traits suitable as selection cri- for 67 % of world production. The experimental
teria for wheat genotypes under heat stress dur- material consisted of 100 genotypes (received
ing post-anthesis due to late sowing. Heat is from ICRISAT) grown in a randomized complete
one of the major constraints on productivity of block design in the All India Co-ordinated Re-
wheat in India as well as in other countries. search Project on Chickpea at the Seed Breeding
154 J.I. Sarquís Ramírez and R.K. Maiti

Farm, Department of Plant Breeding and Genet- 9.5.3 Groundnut

ics, JNKVV, Jabalpur, during rabi 2012–2013.
Chickpea productivity is constrained by several Vaidya et al. (2015) investigated the high-
abiotic stresses, and temperature is one of the temperature impact on biomass production,
most important determinants of crop growth over partitioning and yield of groundnut (Arachis
a range of environments and may limit chick- hypogaea L.) genotypes. Groundnut is an
pea yield. In the present investigation, chickpea important oil seed cash crop of the semi-arid
was grown under a late sowing condition in tropics, where it is exposed to moisture stress
which plant emergence occurs rapidly. A variety and high temperatures. To study the impact
should be developed that is suitable for sow- of high temperature on the performance of
ing in late January. Looking to overall perfor- different groundnut genotypes, a field trial was
mance on the basis of earliness in phenological conducted with six groundnut genotypes (JL-
traits and yield-contributing traits (number of 24, ICGV91114, Narayani, Abhaya, Dharani
effective pods per plant, seeds per pod, 100- and Greeshma). The crop was sown during
seed weight, harvest index and seed yield per summer in order to expose it to high temperatures
plant), genotypes ICCV 93014, ICCV 96317, of over 40 ı C at the flowering and pegging
ICCV 01302 and ICCV 063301 were found to stages and for comparison with winter sowing.
be most promising for the late sowing condi- The total biomass of the groundnut genotypes
tion. Selection of the genotypes based on dif- improved at high temperatures, except JL-
ferent experimentation under late sowing condi- 24 and Narayani, which recorded 11 % and
tions should be considered in further breeding 36 % reductions, respectively. Among the six
programmes. genotypes, Narayani recorded the highest total
Singh et al. (2015) studied the effect vegetative as well as reproductive biomass
of temperature stress on physiological and values during winter, whereas Abhaya did so
productivity processes of chickpea genotypes. during summer. However, it was interesting
A field experiment was therefore conducted to observe that high temperature improved the
to determine the effect of rising temperature vegetative biomass and reduced the reproductive
on the crop growth rate and membrane injury biomass across genotypes. The impacts of high
index of 20 chickpea genotypes and hence to temperature on pod number, pod weight, seed
screen tolerant genotypes grown under different number, seed yield and test weight of the
planting dates. The results indicated that Pusa- selected genotypes were of different magnitudes.
1103 from the north, KWR-108 from the east, With high temperature, genotype Greeshma
RSG-963 from the west and BDG-72 from the recorded a higher number of pods and the
south zones showed higher crop growth rates lowest reductions in pod weight (7.17 %) and
(CGR) and experienced less membrane injury seed number (17.60 %). Under both temperature
index (MII) than other genotypes. Variations in regimes the per se seed yields of Dharani (29.27
MII were noticed among different planting dates, and 18.6 g pl1 ) and Abhaya (26.57 and 18.5 g
i.e. 61.8 %, 64.6 % and 69.4 % for plantings I, pl1 ) were highest, whereas ICGV 91114 (14.6
II and III, respectively. This clearly indicated and 11.2 g pl1 ) and Greeshma (19.75 and 16.1 g
that there exists a negative relationship between pl1 ) showed lower per se seed yield values
these two important parameters. It is therefore as well as lesser reductions under heat stress.
emphasized that the productivity of chickpea Though there were reductions in seed yield of
could be enhanced by selecting genotypes from Narayani and Dharani due to high temperature,
different zones on the basis of MII, as this is they maintained their 100-seed weights and
a very simple parameter and less expensive, Dharani even maintained the highest shelling
and a large number of breeding populations percentage and HI under both thermal conditions.
could be screened for stress tolerance in a High temperatures elicited a different pattern of
short time. response in the selected groundnut genotypes,
9 Research Trends in Abiotic Stress Resistance of Crops 155

and by quantifying these responses, the suitability By using these recommendations, farmers can
of genotype for specific environment may be improve the production and quality of fruits.
identified.

9.6 Heavy Metal Toxicity

9.5.4 Fruit Crops
Sharma and Datta (2015) present a review of
Patil et al. (2015) discussed management of tem- recent research on heavy metal pollution. Metals
perature extremities in fruit crops. The decade like Cd, Hg, Pb and Ni are significant ecological
has witnessed the development of Indian horti- pollutants, as they have a relatively high density
culture, which has resulted in appreciable growth and are toxic or poisonous even at very low con-
and laudable achievements, owing to technolog- centrations. Their existence in the soil and water
ical advancement and the remarkable share of can be tracked down to the operation of the many
the world horticulture scenario attained. Present enterprises in the metal, mining, pesticide and
challenges, such as global climate change, wa- fertilizer industries, all of which cause pollution
ter and soil pollution, water growing scarcity, and threaten the most diverse ecosystems. It is
loss of arable land to urbanization, weed infes- well known that excess presence of heavy metal
tation, and attacks of different pests and dis- causes severe environmental damage and that the
eases, are current important issues to be tack- methods to remove such pollutants from the en-
led. Serious growing interest among scientists vironment are hardly economically viable. Food
on abiotic and biotic stress research is becom- and fodder plants growing in such contaminated
ing widespread. All crops grown under natural soils can play havoc with human and animal
environments are subject to one form of stress health. Most animal feed is from plants, but some
or another. Horticultural crops are omnipresent is of animal origin. It includes hay, straw, silage,
and require specialized care for high production compressed and pelleted feeds, oil and mixed ra-
and quality. In order to sustain our horticultural tions, sprouted grains and legumes. In Rajasthan,
production in the conditions prevailing due to mostly crops like alfalfa, guar, bajra, jowar and
present-day climate challenges, adequate man- oats are used as green fodder. Generally, in these
agement is required. plants, oxidative stress is caused by accumulation
Temperature is one of the most important of excess metals present in the soil and water.
forms of abiotic stress, with direct or indirect
influences on other abiotic stresses like salinity
and drought and, of course, on biotic factors, 9.7 Multiple Stresses
viz insects and pathogens. Because of this be-
haviour of temperature, the productivity of fruits Environmental factors affecting crop productivity
in Maharashtra has decreased considerably, from have all been generally investigated separately,
6.7 t ha1 in 2009–2010 to 6.2 t ha1 in 2010– despite the obvious fact that they usually present
2011. The extremities in temperature can be con- themselves in combination in nature. Although
trolled or managed by adopting various physi- a dry spell may well occur at non-limiting air
cal (mulching, wind breaks, shelter belts) and and soil temperatures, just as a hot day may be
chemical (antitranspirants, growth regulators, sil- a common occurrence in temperate regions under
icon) methods. The use of drought- and salinity- unlimited water availability, the most common
tolerant rootstocks, as well as varieties in differ- scenarios faced by crops involve heat, dryness
ent fruit crops, should be adopted by farmers. and—at least in arid and semi-arid regions—
The ICAR institutes (NIASM and CAZRI), as salinity, all intertwined together. Researchers be-
well as SAU’s, are working on abiotic stress man- lieve that any combinations of varying degrees
agement in fruit crops and have recommended of water deficit, heat and salt will naturally im-
suitable rootstocks and varieties for the dry areas. pact normal plant performance in different ways,
156 J.I. Sarquís Ramírez and R.K. Maiti

compared to the effects caused by each factor In silico analysis of the upstream regions of all
when acting by itself. Putting this proposition to the genes revealed the presence of single or mul-
the test is not as simple as it is to conjecture tiple copies of ABA responsive element (ABRE),
it. Although it is relatively straightforward to dehydration-responsive element (DRE/CRT) and
impose varying degrees of any independent envi- low-temperature responsive element (LTRE). The
ronmental factor and even to impose a combined presence of these elements correlates with the
treatment consisting of varying degrees of each expression and role of these genes under different
factor involved in our experimentation, it would abiotic stresses. These results suggest that the
be wrong to expect identical response mecha- SbSnRK genes might be involved in multiple
nisms to be at work in either case, or a similar stress responses of sorghum.
extent of any single response. Perhaps the most Shireesha et al. (2015) report on grafting used
successful attempts, however, are being made to to improve tolerance of biotic and abiotic stress in
infer the nature of plant response to multiple vegetable crops. Plants exposed to stress exhibit
stresses by using molecular approaches, as the various physiological and pathological disorders
research described below may indicate. leading to stunted growth and severe loss in fruit
quality and yield. One way to avoid or reduce
losses in production caused by adverse soil chem-
9.7.1 Sorghum ical and physical conditions and environmental
stresses in vegetables would be to graft them
Varalaxmi et al. (2015) undertook expression onto rootstocks capable of reducing the effect
analysis of the SnRK2 family of genes in re- of external stresses on the shoot. Grafting is
sponse to multiple abiotic stresses in sorghum. nowadays regarded as a useful tool to speed up
According to the authors, plants respond to ex- the relatively slow breeding methodology aimed
tracellularly perceived abiotic stresses such as at increasing environmental-stress tolerance of
water deficit, salinity and high temperature by fruits and vegetables. Grafting is not associated
activation of complex intracellular signalling cas- with the input of agrochemicals into the crops and
cades that regulate acclamatory biochemical and is therefore considered to be an environmentally
physiological changes. SnRK2 is a plant-specific friendly operation of substantial and sustainable
protein kinase family involved in ABA and abi- relevance to integrated and organic crop man-
otic stress signalling. In order to investigate the agement systems. Nowadays, grafting is used to
functional role of the SnRK2 gene family in reduce infections by soil-borne pathogens and to
sorghum (SbSnRK2.1–2.10) this study aimed to enhance plant tolerance of abiotic stresses.
detect transcriptional profiles under three abiotic
stress conditions, namely water deficit, salinity
and high temperature, as well as following exoge- 9.8 Herbicide Resistance
nous ABA treatment at different time intervals (0,
3, 6, 24 h). In addition, analysis for the presence Prabhu et al. (2015) used a seed bioassay to
of cis elements in the promoter regions of all assess forage sorghum tolerance of different
the genes was undertaken. All the SnRK2 family herbicides. Weed competition in fodder crops
genes were differentially upregulated under water at an early stage is a serious problem for farmers.
deficit stress at different time intervals. The maxi- Many works have been carried out at the Indian
mum levels of expression were observed at 3 and Grassland Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi.
24 h after stress induction. However, the levels Herbicides are one of the options to control
of expression of these genes were low under weeds in forage crops. Field experiments are
salinity and high-temperature stresses. All the accurate and effective but involve investing large
SnRK2 family genes were induced by exposure sums of money, require time and resources,
to ABA, except SbSnRK2.9, which was weakly and impose demands on space and labour. The
induced, while SbSnRK2.2 was unresponsive. efficacy of herbicides is influenced by weather
9 Research Trends in Abiotic Stress Resistance of Crops 157

conditions like heavy rain. Hence a seed bioassay water of the experimental site was to the tune of
experiment was performed after Tal et al. (2000) 10.24–19.17 kg ha1 (total soil arsenic), 3.75–
in petri dishes to determine the selectivity of 6.5 kg ha1 (NaHCO3 -extractable soil arsenic),
different herbicides for fodder sorghum in vitro. 0.34 mg l1 (arsenic in water discharged from
The method is rapid and as accurate as field shallow tube well) and 0.03 mg l1 (arsenic
experiments. Atrazine (0.50, 0.75 and 1 kg in pond water), which were above the WHO
a.i. ha1 ), oxadiargyl (0.07, 0.08 and 0.09 kg permissible limit of 0.01 mg l1 for drinking
a.i. ha1 ), pendimethalin (0.5, 0.75 and 1 kg water and also above the FAO permissible limit
a.i. ha1 ) and the combination of atrazine C of 0.10 mg l1 for irrigation water. It appeared
pendimethalin (0.50 C 0.75, 0.75 C 0.50 and very clear from the study that inorganic arsenic
1C1 kg a.i. ha1 ) were tested on fodder sorghum shared the maximum arsenic load in rice straw,
seeds. Oxadiargyl at 0.09 kg a.i. ha1 recorded while in grains it was considerably low. Species
the highest RRL (99.9 %), followed by atrazine recovered from rice grain and straw are prin-
at 0.75 and 1.0 kg a.i. ha1 (95.6 % and 94.8 %, cipally As-III and As-V with a little share of
respectively) and oxadiargyl at 0.08 kg a.i. ha1 DMA and almost non-detectable MMA and As-
(92 %); both these treatments were significantly B. Discussion of the health risk of As in rice has
superior to the rest. Better root lengths were largely been based on its inorganic arsenic con-
observed in atrazine at 0.75 (2.52 cm) and tent because these species have generally been
1.0 kg a.i. ha1 (2.40 cm) and in oxadiargyl considered to be more toxic than MMA and
at 0.09 kg a.i. ha1 (2.10 cm). Hence, it can DMA and can be directly compared to As in
be concluded that the seed bioassay technique drinking water, assuming equal bioavailability of
offers a better option to test the selectivity of inorganic As in the rice matrix and in water. The
new herbicides in a rapid and accurate way maximum dietary risk of exposure to inorganic
at a minimum requirement for resources and arsenic through transplanted boro paddy in the
time. present experiment was calculated to be almost
1706 % of PTWI (provisional tolerable weekly
intake) for an adult of 60 kg bodyweight. Re-
9.9 Arsenic Resistance ductions in the total As load through organic
amendments in boro rice grain and straw samples
The emerging concern about arsenic (As) in the were manifested predominantly through reduced
groundwater of the Gangetic alluvium in the state accumulations of inorganic As species (As-III
of West Bengal has been principally focused on and As-V), among which As-V accounted for the
the contamination of this toxicant metalloid in largest share.
the endemic areas. The vulnerability of the agri- Considering the enormity of human health
cultural system, precisely the rice–rice system, hazards associated with contamination of the
raised with arsenic-contaminated irrigation water food chain with arsenic, Patra et al. (2015)
during lean periods has been largely ignored. conducted pot culture experiments in the green
Rice is a potentially important route of human house at Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
exposure to arsenic, especially in populations Kalyani, to explore the possibility of its
with rice-based diets. However, arsenic toxicity mitigation in rice grains through water and
varies greatly with species. The initial purpose nutrient management. Water management plays
of the present study (Sinha et al. 2015) was to an important role by altering the redox conditions
take an account of arsenic contamination in sum- of the soil in transforming different forms of
mer rice through arsenic-contaminated irrigation inorganic As, viz arsenate (As-V) and arsenite
water, as well as to evaluate arsenic toxicity in (As-III) under oxidized and reduced conditions,
summer rice with special reference to speciation respectively; application of P and Si restricts the
in Indian grain and its implications for human uptake of these species of As, respectively, into
health. The arsenic status of the soil and irrigation the plant body. Thus the treatments consisted
158 J.I. Sarquís Ramírez and R.K. Maiti

of four methods of water management, viz elicited nodulation. Ethylene content in tomato
maintaining water at saturation throughout seedlings exposed to high salt was reduced
the growth periods (ST), saturation during by application of Achromobacter piechaudii,
the vegetative growth stages (SV), saturation suggesting that bacterial ACC deaminase was
during the reproductive growth stages (SR) and functional. A. piechaudii, which produces ACC,
flooded during the rest of the periods, against increased the growth of tomato seedlings by
continuous ponding of water (CP) as a control; as much as 66 % in the presence of high salt
and two levels each of P, viz 25 mg and 50 mg content. Plant growth promotion by some PGPR
P2 O5 , and 0 and 20 mg silicon kg1 soil. The is associated with the solubilization and increased
extent of the decrease in the As content of uptake of phosphate. PGPR have also been
rice grains with application of both P and Si reported to affect nitrate uptake by plants. In
was 11.5 %; with decreasing water availability addition to eliciting increases in general plant
from ponding to saturation it was about 38 %, growth, some PGPR promote root development
and with combination of water management and alter root architecture by the production of
and nutrient management together it was 65 %. phytohormones such as IAA, thereby leading
Application of 50 mg P2 O5 and 20 mg Si kg1 to increased root surface area and an increased
soil and maintaining the soil under saturation number of root tips. Such stimulation of roots
during reproductive stages was found to be the can aid plant defence against pathogens and
best option to mitigate As contamination of rice can also relate to IST. PGPR-elicited IST can
grains. aid the growth of crops in environmentally
unfavourable conditions. Research on the
mechanisms by which PGPR elicit tolerance
9.10 Abiotic Stress Management of specific stress factors should improve the use
of IST in agriculture by enabling the optimization
Sivaji et al. (2015) undertook abiotic stress of microbial mixtures for the production of
management by rhizosphere bacteria. It is known specific bacterial determinants (e.g. cytokinin,
that PGPR colonize the rhizosphere of many antioxidants, ACC deaminase, VOCs and IAA).
plant species, which are thus benefited by Abiotic stresses are a serious problem for crop
increased nutrient availability and protection or fruit production under dry land conditions in
against diseases caused by plant pathogenic arid and semi-arid regions of the world; these
fungi, bacteria, viruses and nematodes. Some abiotic stresses include high temperature, low
PGPR also cause physical or chemical changes temperature, water deficit, salinity, sodicity, alka-
related to plant defence mechanisms, a process linity, acidity, ion toxicity and deficiency. Abiotic
referred to as ‘induced systemic resistance’ stresses arise from extreme climatic phenomena
(ISR). ISR elicited by PGPR has suppressed plant such as drought, flood and cold; from soil toxicity
diseases caused by a range of pathogens in both of such elements as Na, Al and Fe; and from soil
the greenhouse and in the field. However, some deficiency of elements like P and Zn. Climate
reports on PGPR claim they act as elicitors of change is likely to increase the pressure on In-
tolerance of abiotic stresses such as drought, salt dian agriculture, in addition to our current prob-
and nutrient deficiency or excess. Early studies lems of decreasing land resources, water, labour
reported that inoculation with the PGPR P. Aeni- and other resources; and globalization (Godawari
bacillus polymyxa increased drought tolerance of et al. 2015).
Arabidopsis thaliana. Drought stress affects plant The main objective of dry land horticulture is
hormone balance by inducing increased ABA to minimize the risk of rain-fed farming. Devel-
content in the leaves, which, coupled to reduced opment of orchards in such areas will provide
endogenous cytokinin levels, leads to stomata some security for food supply and protect farmers
closure. Cytokinin produced by P. polymyxa against total or partial crop failure. Once estab-
affects ABA signalling of plants or rhizobia- lished, orchards will yield higher production and
9 Research Trends in Abiotic Stress Resistance of Crops 159

better returns per unit area. Besides being highly evaluated in a randomized block design with
nutritive, dry land fruit crops help in checking three replications. All genotypes of broccoli ex-
soil erosion and maintaining ecological balance. hibited significant differences for all quantitative
Some important considerations to be made while characters under study, except for plant height,
assessing the potential of a certain fruit crop leaf length and leaf width. The highest primary
species intended for introduction into any dry head weight, yield per plant and yield per hectare
zones include the following: (1) it must be able were produced by hybrid Green Pia, followed by
to grow on a wide variety of soils, ranging from Fiesta. Palam Vachitra exhibited a purple head
gravelly to deep alluvial; (2) it should be drought colour, while Palam Kanchan produced yellow
resistant and tolerant of temperatures up to 47 ı C; heads and the rest produced green heads. The hy-
(3) it should be a species that can use a lot of light brids Green Pia and Fiesta, with green-coloured
and grow best in the open; (4) it should be deep uniform heads, may be recommended for cultiva-
rooted and wind firm; and (5) it should possess tion in the cold deserts of Ladakh.
good tolerance of slightly alkaline or saline soils.
Pawar et al. (2015) hold the view that the
key to success in fruit production lies in the 9.11 Conclusions
correct choice of the fruit species to be cultivated.
The characteristic features of some of the fruit Sixty-five works in the general field of abiotic
crops suited for dry land conditions are those stress were presented during the 2nd Interna-
of ber (drought hardy and withstands salinity tional Conference on Bio-resource and Stress
well), pomegranate (can grow on shallow soils Management held in Hyderabad, India, early in
and tolerates salinity), custard apple (tolerates 2015. The spectrum of interests within this most
drought and salinity), guava (does well in a great important field of research in plant biology in-
variety of soils and climates), anola (great tol- cluded, on this occasion, water deficit, high tem-
erance of salinity, alkalinity and sodicity), acid perature and salinity as the major current con-
lime (relatively drought tolerant and can grow on cerns, though concerns about heavy metal toxi-
shallow soils), bael (drought and salinity toler- city, arsenic toxicity, herbicide toxicity and the
ant), wood apple (great tolerance of drought and occurrence of multiple stresses were also pre-
salinity), jamun (withstands drought), karonda sented. The plant systems investigated include
(drought tolerant), date palm (tolerant of drought foremost—naturally—those grains and legumes
and salinity), fig (tolerant of drought and salin- that constitute the basic diet around the world:
ity), tamarind (can thrive well in dry climate, wheat, maize, sorghum, oats, chickpea, ground-
poor shallow soils), etc. Due to its geographic nut and soybean; a number of fruit species, fibres,
diversity, India is rich in agroclimatic conditions. industrial seeds and stalks also received attention.
This is the reason why it is a centre of diversity These studies cover a wide scope of disciplinary
of many fruit species. The wealth in germplasm perspectives, from agronomic to physiological
for these species ensures the presence of ample and biochemical, right down to the molecular
genetic variability to search for desirable genes, level. Each one, equipped with its particular set of
yet we have not utilized this diversity for full experimental tools, has successfully approached
exploitation of its potential benefit in breeding its object of study to provide us with fresh in-
suitable varieties. formation that will prove useful in at least two
Keeping in view the scope of broccoli in ways. For one thing, those whose interest lies
climate-smart diversification, earliness and mul- in designing their own research will find in this
tiple harvest, studies were conducted on varietal chapter inspiring ideas on questions of the ut-
evaluation to find out the best types and varieties most urgency. On the other hand, those who
most suitable for the Ladakh region (Kanwar et are interested in the general area of stress in
al. 2015). Performance of seven broccoli geno- plant systems from an ecological point of view—
types, including Green Head as a check, was as it may concern global climate change in the
160 J.I. Sarquís Ramírez and R.K. Maiti

particular ways in which it threatens ecosystem Deva S, Pandey P (2015a) Plant drought stress: effects and
stability, for example, will find the material most management. In: Compendium of abstracts of the 2nd
international conference on Bio-resource and Stress
valuable to build on current working models Management, ANGRAU & PJTSAU, Hyderabad, In-
explaining interactions between living organisms dia, 7–10 January 2015
and a rapidly changing physical environment, Deva S, Pandey P (2015b) Remote sensing of biotic and
and the prospects of evolution of the ecosystems abiotic stress for irrigation management of cotton.
In: Compendium of abstracts of the 2nd international
thereupon. conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management,
Thirty years after the initial, almost over- ANGRAU & PJTSAU, Hyderabad, India, 7–10 Jan-
whelming euphoria caused by the advent uary 2015
of modern molecular technologies to study Dhutmal RR, More AW, Mehetre SP et al (2015) Vari-
ability parameters and correlation studies in drought
and manipulate plant gene expression, their tolerent post rainy sorghum (Sorghum Bicolor L.)
widespread use has been duly tamed by genotypes. In: Compendium of abstracts of the 2nd
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phenomenon. Having assumed its possibilities Management, ANGRAU & PJTSAU, Hyderabad, In-
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with more realism, we are ready to make the Dhyani VC, Chaturvedi S, Punetha H et al (2015) Cor-
most of them towards advancement of our relation studies to identify suitable traits as selection
understanding of how plants work and just what criteria for wheat genotypes under terminal heat stress.
efforts on our part can help crop plants cope In: Compendium of abstracts of the 2nd international
conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management,
better with adverse environments and actually ANGRAU & PJTSAU, Hyderabad, India, 7–10 Jan-
nudge crop performance, in such situations, to uary 2015
the benefit of mankind. An absolute requirement Dobson A, Lodge D, Alder J et al (2006) Habitat loss,
for that to happen is the adoption of a truly trophic collapse, and the decline of ecosystem ser-
vices. Ecology 87:1915–1927
interdisciplinary approach to research. Dutta P, Bandopadhyay P, Bera AK (2015) Water stress
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 Essence of Plants or Crops
for Adaptation: Learning Lessons 10
for Sustainable Use

Ratikanta Maiti

Abstract
During the process of evolution, plants and crops develop capacity of
adaptation to various biotic and abiotic stresses. The plants possess many
adaptive features that permit plants to thrive in diverse environments. The
chapter discusses concepts, mechanisms, research advances attained on
morpho-anatomical, physiological and molecular mechanisms of plants
and crops for adaptation to adverse abiotic stresses such as drought,
salinity, high, low temperature, abiotic stress resistance and several biotic
stress resistance mechanisms. It also discusses these adaptive features as
well as the evolutionary trends of plants starting from a minute algae to an
angiosperm. A few of the signalling pathway for drought, salinity stress,
etc. are also discussed.

adaptation to the changing environments. Bennici

10.1 Background (2008) discussed origin and early evolution of
land plants.
Starting from the origin of plants from Palaeozoic During this ongoing evolutionary process, the
era to the present era, plants undergo a series species which can adapt to the changing envi-
of evolutionary sequences for adaptation to the ronment can survive while others disappear and
changing environment from aquatic to terrestrial remain as fossil representatives of earlier plant.
habits. Each species possesses specific morph- The plants possess many adaptive features that
anatomical and physiological traits for adaptation permit plants to thrive in diverse environments
to a particular environment. We need to know during the course of evolution. Significant re-
the secret of plant for its adaptive capacity to search advances have been attained on morph-
adverse environments. During the process of evo- anatomical, physiological and molecular mech-
lution, plant species have to struggle for exis- anisms of plants for adaptation to adverse abi-
tence and modify characteristics necessary for otic stresses. These are the essence of plants for
adaptation to adverse environments. Before dis-
R.K. Maiti () cussing these adaptive features, I want to narrate
Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Autónoma the evolutionary trends of plants starting from
de Nuevo León, Carr. No 85, km 145, NL 67700 Linares,
Mexico
algae to bryophyte, pteridophyte, gymnosperm
e-mail: [email protected] and finally to angiosperms. It may be mentioned

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 165

R.K. Maiti et al. (eds.), Bioresource and Stress Management, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0995-2_10
166 R.K. Maiti

here that algae living in aquatic habitat does structural changes associated with physiological
not require any special adaptive features except traits for adaptation to the changing environments
the presence of photosynthetic pigments required and habitat.
for photosynthesis for the elaboration of food. Wikipedia explained nicely the process of evo-
Structurally evolution takes place in this group lution of plants: the evolution of plants has orig-
from unicellular to colonial, filamentous and het- inated in widely varying levels starting from
erotrichous forms having root like rhizoids. Algae bryophytes, lycopods and ferns to the complex
are gametophyte (haploid, n) representing the gymnosperms and finally to angiosperm. During
major part of the life cycle except the phase the course of the evolutionary story, plants ap-
of zygote representing short-lived sporophytes. peared relatively late in earth history. The first
Next advance group is bryophytes which are fossils of plants are supposed to be 475 million
adapted to terrestrial habitat with good moisture years old. The first land plants appeared during
condition. They are mostly thallus, unicellular, the Ordovician era. Gradually these land, plants
to multicellular (Riccia, Marchantia) and finally diversified in the Late Silurian, around 420 mil-
liverworts having tree like structures, all possess- lion years ago, and later in Devonian era. In late
ing rhizoidal root like structures for absorption Devonian era seeds evolved. The flowering plants
of moisture and nutrients from the soil. The life appeared in the Triassic era (200 million years
cycle of bryophytes are mostly gametophytic, ex- ago). The latest major group of plants evolved
cept the sporophyte, the zygote that is short-lived, were the grasses, which became important in
but in the case of Anthoceros, the sporophyte the mid-Palaeogene, from round 40 million years
is little long lived with special elaborated struc- ago. The grasses, as well as many other groups,
ture showing advanced feature. The next group evolved new mechanisms of metabolism to sur-
pteridophyte followed by gymnosperm represents vive in the low CO2 and warm, dry conditions of
sporophyte for a long period. In these two groups the tropics over the last 10 million years.
of plants, spores represent gametophytic phase
which is short lived. In Gymnosperm, Gnetum
represent highly advanced plant having ovule 10.2 Adaptation of Plants: Logics
like structure. It stands as evolutionary link be- of Evolution
tween gymnosperm and angiosperm. Finally an-
giosperm represents highly advanced group with It is claimed that plants descended from algae
highly elaborated structures such as roots, leaves as they colonized the empty landmass. Plants
and stems. In this group, the leaves of some couldn’t have evolved until there was a forma-
species possess dense trichomes, thick cuticle, tion of sufficient ozone layer to block radiation.
wax and compact palisade cells for adaptation to The many structures that plants require in order
xerichabitats. Among the groups, pteridophytes to overcome gravity protect plants from drying
and gymnosperm possess vascular structures viz., out and reproduce, thereby would have devel-
tracheids for transport of water and nutrients oped gradually over millions of years. Molecular
from the soils to the above ground plant or- and fossil evidence explains how plants evolved
gans. In the case of Gnetum, it has vessel-like from simple to complex forms. Plants must have
structure for the transport of water and nutrients. evolved simultaneously in different ways. Seed
In angiosperm, highly elaborated xylem vessels plants are alleged to have attained an advantage
showing different grades of evolution starting over other ancient plants and finally dominated
from long xylem vessels with spiral thickening, the landscape. The ancient forests are the source
gradually to shorter vessels with scalaform to for the different coal beds in evolutionary theory.
simple opposite to alternate vessels. The highly Flowering plants were the most recent to appear
advanced angiosperms possess short truncated since leaves were remodelled to attract polli-
and broad vessels with alternate pits. Therefore, nators and accomplish reproductive functions.
during the course of evolution, plants undergo Lepidodendron, gigantic tree which dominated
10 Essence of Plants or Crops for Adaptation: Learning Lessons for Sustainable Use 167

more than two million years ago with vascular oil reserves in the evolutionary model. The next
bundle, xylem could not survive for thin weak step in the evolutionary story is the develop-
xylem vessels and remain as fossil representative ment of seed plants. The first to evolve were the
of great interest for palaeobotanists. The presence gymnosperms, cone-bearing plants like conifers,
of “living fossil” plants like the Gingko biloba ginkgo and cycads. These plants had adaptive
tree makes it clear that evolution is a plastic traits over the pteridophytes and dominated the
theory that can accommodate both rapid change forests of the late Palaeozoic era. The evolution
and stability for hundreds of millions of years. of flowers and seed protected in a fruit led to the
The creation of plants has attained many diverse origin of the angiosperms with the production of
forms to form the intricate design of plant sys- flowers and fruits and many adaptations have led
tems and the symbiotic relationships that could to diverse types of flowering plants. The presence
not have evolved in a gradual process. It is agreed of living trees that are virtually identical to fossil
by evolutionists that plants evolved from algae species, like the ginkgo and the Wollemi pine,
that slowly began to colonize the land. This could demonstrates the failure of evolution to make
not have occurred until after there was an intact useful predictions. Kenrick and Crane (2008)
ozone layer to protect the plants from some of consider that the origin and early evolution of
the atmosphere’s harmful UV rays. After that land plants occurred in the mid-Palaeozoic era,
alien land, plants had to adapt to the existing between about 480 and 360 million years ago
environments of the new landscape. The plants with far-reaching consequences for the evolution
developed several key characteristics to prevent of terrestrial organisms and global environments.
drying out (desiccation) in the air, to absorb With respect to the origin and early diversifica-
nutrients from the soil, to grow upright without tion of land plants, they mention that from a sim-
the support of water and to reproduce on land. ple plant body consisting of only a few cells, land
With respect to the ability to survive in a plants evolved an elaborate two phase life cycle
given environment in evolutionary biology, adap- and an extraordinary array of complex organs and
tations are often acquired by modifying existing tissue systems. The Late Silurian and Devonian
structures to accomplish their function. In the periods were critical interval during which the
case of algae turning into plants, the pre-existing initial diversification of vascular plants occurred.
structures are mostly absent. The first plants to In the context of the literatures on the origin
evolve were the small mosses and liverworts of plants and their evolutionary sequences dif-
(bryophytes), but these evolutionary dead ends ferent plants starting from lower plants to the
did not lead to the vascular plants that are com- angiosperms, it is concluded that different plants
mon today. The three groups of bryophytes are originate starting from early Palaeozoic to mod-
found in an unexpected sequence in the fossil ern age and many of them disappear for their
record, so evolutionists must accept that they inability to adaptation to the changing adverse
evolved separately from one another. The most environments during geological era and remain as
likely ancestor is a mobile alga known as a fossils. The living Gingo biloba represents fossil
“chlorophyte”. still now owing to its special adaptive capacity
The adaptations of plants to the changing en- still not explored.
vironments has allegedly developed over millions
of years as plants had to acquire new features to
be able to survive on land. The vascular plants 10.3 Plant Traits and Its Relation
are supposed to have evolved separately from to Adaptation to Abiotic
other algae. The ferns, club mosses and horse- and Biotic Stress
tails (pteridophytes) are considered as common
ancestors to the vascular plants that are present Solbrig (1994) discussed plant traits, adaptive
in large quantities today. The vast forests of the strategies and their role in ecosystem function.
Carboniferous are the source of many coal and Phenotypic plasticity can be defined as the ability
168 R.K. Maiti

of one genotype to produce more than one It has been well documented by Maiti and
phenotype when exposed to different environ- his team that glossy sorghums with shining
ments. The phenotypic plasticity contributes to waxy surface and dense pointed non-glandular
adaptation of plants to changing environments. trichomes confer tolerance to shoot fly. An
Sultan (1995) considered phenotypic plasticity increase in trichome density increases tolerance
as a major mode of adaptation in plants. Studies to shoot fly. It has been further demonstrated that
have been undertaken on adaptive response by glossy sorghum lines contributes to tolerance to
genotypes to physical aspects of the environment, drought, salinity and even to disease showing
as well as to biotic factors such as neighbour multiple resistance. It has been observed by
density and the presence of bacterial symbionts. Maiti that trichome density on leaves contribute
Alterations of offspring traits by parental plants to sucking pest tolerance in cotton, tolerance to
of Polygonum persicaria are considered as a aphids and virus in tomato thereby demonstrating
cross-generational aspect of plastic response the role of trichomes in biotic and abiotic stress
to environment. Individual plasticity and local mentioned above. It was further observed that
ecotypes are also considered as alternative bases some morpho-anatomical traits are related to
of species ecological breadth and methodological drought resistance in few crops such as small
problems in distinguishing these alternatives. leaves with dense trichomes. Waxy leaf, thick
cuticle, compact palisade cells, strong thick
collenchyma in stout long petiole in cotton,
10.4 Adaptation for Stress sunflower and castor (not published). Tobacco
Tolerance plants have short and long glandular trichomes
that play several roles in the defense against
It is necessary to have understanding of plant biotic and abiotic stresses.
structural defense, particularly within the context
of plant defense syndromes, which would not
only improve our understanding of plant defense 10.5.2 Herbivory Tolerance
theory, but enable us to predict how plant mor-
phological responses to climate change might The structural traits, such as spinescence,
influence interactions at the individual. pubescence, sclerophylly and raphides, play im-
portant roles in protecting plants from herbivore
attack. In spite of many of these morphological
10.5 Biotic Stress Tolerance characteristics evolved as responses to other
environmental stimuli, each of these traits can
10.5.1 Insect Tolerance or Resistance provide an important defense against herbivore
attack in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
Density of leaf trichomes is related to biotic It is concluded that leaf-mass–area is a robust
and abiotic stresses in plants and crops. The index of sclerophylly as a surrogate for more
role of leaf trichome density as a component of rigorous mechanical properties used in herbivory
resistance to herbivores has been demonstrated in studies (Hanley et al. 2007).
six populations of Datura stramonium (Valverde
et al. 2001). Leaf trichome density was strongly
positively correlated to resistance across popula- 10.6 Abiotic Stress Tolerance
tions. Trichome density was related to resistance,
and positive directional selection on resistance to Abiotic stress affects the crop productivity of
herbivores was observed. The results revealed the cereal crops at various growth stages which ul-
adaptive role of leaf trichomes as a component timately resulted loss in the yield. Physiological
of defense to herbivores and variable selection process such as flowering, grain filling and matu-
among populations. ration was highly affected by abiotic stresses.
10 Essence of Plants or Crops for Adaptation: Learning Lessons for Sustainable Use 169

Salinity reduces the nutrient and water uptake e.g. glutathione-S-transferases and L-ascorbate
and reduced plant growth under salinity stress peroxidase. This is associated with the physi-
and decreased seed reserve under drought and ological functions of other identified proteins
salinity stress (Ashraf and Hafeez 2004). Salinity such as putative sialin, putative inorganic
affects several functions of photosynthesis pyrophosphatase, RNA binding protein and
such as PSII efficiency and the P-N rate, serine or threonine-protein kinase. For adaptation
thereby allowing a good discrimination between to salt stress, several biochemical changes
tolerant and non-tolerant cultivars (Katerji et al. occur such as nitrate reductase (NR) (Rao and
1994). Higher salinity tolerance cultivars of Gnanam 1990). Accumulation of betaine and
winter wheat could relieve senescence at the betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase (BADH) mRNA
reproductive stage (Yanhai et al. 2008). associated with the presence of ABA (Hirofumi
The increasing salinity of irrigation water et al. 2001), proline accumulationin response
caused significant adverse effects on yield to salt stress associated with salt tolerance
attributes and yield of wheat. Domestic line of (Claudivan et al. 2003).
wheat could be grown at a salinity concentration Salinity reduces sorghum productivity
between 4 and 8 g l1 with least reduction drastically but genotypic variability occurs in
in biological and grain yield (Norman and sorghum hybrids and their parents for NaCl-
Schierenbeck 2004). Salt tolerant rice cultivars salinity tolerance at the seedling stage. Glossy
increase root elongation and root number sorghum showed variability in salt tolerance at
functioning as osmotic adjustment in salt tolerant the seedling stage and as well as contents of total
rice cultivars (Maiti et al. 2005, 2009a, b, c, chlorophyll, hydrocyanic acids and epicuticular
d, e, f). The chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total wax (De la Rosa-Ibarra and Maiti 1995).
chlorophyll and total carotenoids contents in the Some prospective strategies for improving
stressed seedlings considerably decreased under crop salt tolerance have been put forward by
both acidic and alkaline stresses, especially in the Ashraf and Hafeez (2004). Salt stress in pearl
salt-sensitive genotype (Suriyan et al. 2009). millet may be alleviated through seed treatment
Decrease in photosynthesis in the salinized (Ashraf and Hafeez 2004).
plants depended not only on a reduction of Salinity affect on seedling growth and geno-
available CO2 by stomatal closure, but also on typic variability was found in maize for toler-
the increasing effects of leaf water and osmotic ance to salinity (Katerji et al. 1994; Fernandez
potential, stomatal conductance, transpiration et al. 2000; Maiti et al. 2004, 2009a, b, c, d,
rate, relative leaf water content and biochemical e, f; Maiti 2010; Humberto and Maiti 2010).
constituents such as soluble carbohydrates, High emergence (%): profuse root system, high
photosynthetic pigments and protein. Plant is seedling vigour is considered as selection criteria
able to escape stress when the duration of salinity for salinity tolerance in maize (2009a, b, c, d,
is short (Sultana et al. 1999). e, f). Higher root growth under saline stress of
Salinity affects reproductive growth affecting some genotypes might be due to a mechanism of
viability of pollen in sensitive cultivar and in- resistance in maintaining osmo-regulation (Jian-
hibits starch synthase activity in pollen more con- jun et al. 2010). The production of profuse lateral
siderably in sensitive than in tolerant cultivars. roots near soil surface in response to salinity
The affect on stigma receptivity is more negative function as osmotic adjustment under salt stress
for seed set compared to pollen viability and (Maiti 1994a, Maiti and Saucedo 1986, Maiti
other physiological parameters The net photosyn- et al. 1981a, b, 1994c, d, 2002, 2009a, b, c, d,
thetic rate considerably decreased in all day under e, f, 2012). Salt- and mannitol-induced osmotic
saline-sodic conditions compared with that under stresses in terms of xylem pressure change was
non-saline sodic conditions (Fu et al. 2008). observed when the transpiration rate of the plant
Salt stress leads to over-expression of was not significantly changed (Jian-jun et al.
reactive oxygen species-scavenging enzymes, 2010).
170 R.K. Maiti

Maize inbred lines showed high NaC exclu- polyethylene glycol-mediated drought stress.
sion at the root surface and the level of xylem Simple technique is adapted to screen the rice
parenchyma (Christian et al. 2005) and the ap- varieties and germplasm for drought resistance.
plication of calcium postponed the depolariza- Several physiological and biochemical changes
tion and decreased the degree of depolarization occur for resistance to drought (Wright et al.
caused by NaCl. High NaCl concentration leads 1983) such as higher leaf water-potentials
to depolarization of maize root cell membrane, (Matthews et al. 1990), great diversity for
which can partly be counteracted by calcium (Jia- physiological and yield traits such as chlorophyll
Min et al. 2008). content, leaf temperature, grain number and grain
Salinity tolerance comes from genes that limit weight, Harvest index and yield (Mutava et al.
the rate of salt uptake from the soil, the transport 2011). Leaf-rolling may alter the leaf surface
of salt throughout the plant, adjusts the ionic micro-climate so that stomata may remain open
and osmotic balance of cells in roots and shoots, and growth continues without associated high
and regulates leaf development and the onset of rates of water loss (Matthews et al. 1990).
senescence. Compartmentation of NaC in vac- Mobilization of pre-anthesis assimilates to grain
uole and accumulation of high salt in root system occurred in sorghum and millet but not in maize
contribute to salinity tolerance (Kawasaki et al. (Muchow 1989). Osmotic adjustment (OA) in
2001). The abundance of ascorbate peroxidase pollen grains may be used as a measure in
in roots was found to be much higher in salt- adaptation of sorghum genotypes to drought
tolerant rice cultivar than in salt-sensitive cul- (Patil and Ravikumar 2011). Susan (1996)
tivar in the absence of stress (Salekdeh et al. identified plant physiological traits in response to
2002). Over expression with the bacterial genes environmental water availability. They used phe-
for trehalose synthesis enhanced salt tolerance in notypic selection analysis to test the prediction
rice; there was fourfold greater dry weight after from functional and comparative studies of plants
4 weeks in 100 mM NaCl in transformed plants that smaller leaves and more efficient water use
than in untransformed plants (Garg et al. 2002). are adaptive in drier environments. Water-use
Pearl millet shows variability in salinity tolerance efficiency was selected to be higher and leaf
at different (Manga and Saxena 1981; Agrawal area was selected toward a small intermediate
et al. 1985; Maiti et al. 2009a, b). Salt toler- optimum in the dry environment. The optimum
ant pearl millet cultivars show increase in root leaf size in the dry environment is greater for
elongation as well as adventitious root numbers plants with higher water-use efficiency.
with an increase in saline stress functioning as Several selection criteria are utilized for large-
osmotic adjustment for salt tolerance (Maiti et al. scale screening for drought resistance in maize
2009a, b). such as difference vegetation index (NDVI):
other selection criteria including leaf senescence,
chlorophyll content, anthesis-silking interval,
10.6.1 Drought Stress root capacitance, final grain yield and grain
yield components. The most stable trait under
Drought is the major problem among all the drought stress was kernel weight. Temperate
abiotic stresses. Selection of drought resistant lines with a wide adaptability can be used in
lines is very important for good crop production drought resistance breeding for both temperate
and better yield under sustainable agriculture. It and tropical environments (Yanli et al. 2011).
is essential to identify genotypic variability for Drought stress leads to reduction of leaf area,
drought resistance and selecting drought resistant stomatal closure and reduction in assimilate sup-
lines and effective use in breeding programme. ply, reduction in silk growth and reduction in
Bhargav and Paranjpe (2004) studied genotypic growth. Similar to other cereal crops the follow-
variation in the photosynthetic competence ing mechanisms operate for drought resistance in
of Sorghum bicolor seedlings subjected to maize.
10 Essence of Plants or Crops for Adaptation: Learning Lessons for Sustainable Use 171

Drought escape: Drought tolerant lines give early of glossy or non-glossy sorghums was also
flowering and grain filling to avoid drought observed under different abiotic stresses at the
escape. seedling stage (De la Rosa-Ibarra et al. 2000a,
Drought tolerance: Drought tolerant lines give b). The glossy lines have greater capacity in
yield under drought owing to some biochemi- the uptake of phosphate than that of non-glossy
cal mechanisms. sorghum lines (Raju et al. 1987). During water
Dehydration avoidance: Dehydration avoidance stress, decreases of GSH, AsA, chlorophyll and
is the ability of the plant to retain a rela- relative water contents in more drought resistant
tively higher level of hydration under drought hybrids were less than those in susceptible
stress. Apart from physiological and biochem- ones. Changes of H2 O2 (Hydrogen peroxide),
ical mechanisms, this is achieved by reducing malionaldehyde (MDA), reduced glutathione
the stomatal number and size. (GSH) and ascorbic acid (AsA) contents and
Reynolds et al. (2007) reported drought- anti-oxidative enzyme activities correlated
adaptive traits derived from wheat wild relatives considerably to drought resistance of rice hybrids
and landraces. They used exotic parents to and more drought resistant hybrids possessed
increase allelic diversity in bread wheat breeding high anti-oxidation capacity (He-zheng et al.
through (i) interspecific hybridization of the 2010). Deeper root length may allow tolerant
ancestral genomes to produce so-called synthetic NILs to extract more water at deeper soil layers.
derived (SYN-DER) wheat and (ii) crossing with Enhanced rooting depth is an important approach
landrace accessions, originating in abiotically for dehydration avoidance and rice adaptation to
stressed environments, which have become drought stress (Venuprasad et al. 2011). Bidinger
isolated from mainstream gene pools. They eval- and Rao (1987) made assessment of drought
uated the inherent genetic diversity encompassed effect on pearl millet [Pennisetum americanum
by drought-adapted landraces compared with (L.) Leeke]. Bidinger et al. (2005) studied QTL
checks using DNA fingerprinting and confirmed effects on phenotype and adaptation in pearl
that some landraces were not only distant from millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] top cross
checks but also showed significant diversity hybrid.
among each other. Improvement in performance Osmotic adjustment regulation is the main
of SYN-DER lines compared with recurrent par- component for physiological machinery of wheat
ents was not related with a larger overall invest- drought resistance is associated with higher KC
ment in root dry weight, but rather an increased content, greater soluble sugar content and greater
partitioning of root mass to deeper soil and proline (Pro) content. Osmotic adjustment of
enhanced ability to extract moisture from those different wheat genotypes in terms of different
depths. The best Mexican landraces had shown content of osmotic solutes (Hong-Bo et al. 2008).
superior ability in terms of water extraction from Hydroxymethylglutathione (hmGSH) and GSH
soil depth and increased concentration of soluble are considered to the improvement of tolerance
carbohydrates in the stem shortly after anthesis. against osmotic stress in wheat and that the
Various researches undertaken team have 5A chromosome influences the stress-induced
confirmed that glossy sorghum lines were more changes in glutathione and hmGSH levels (Gábor
resistant to drought at the seedling stage com- et al. 2004). Water stress effect reduces the
pared to those in non-glossy ones (Maiti 1994b; growth of seminal root in durum wheat (Ahmed
Maiti et al. 1994a). Glossy lines showed better et al. 2005).
growth and higher water use efficiency compared Water stress induces proline accumulation in
to the non-glossy lines (Maiti et al. 1994b), wheat (Hong-Bo et al. 2007). Apart from stress-
although showing variability among genotypes at induced synthesis of proline, the tolerance to wa-
the seedling stage (Maiti et al. 1994a). Variability ter deficit found in transgenic plants was mainly
in physiological and biochemical characteristics due to protection mechanisms against oxidative
172 R.K. Maiti

stress and not caused by osmotic adjustment premature cessation of grain filling (Saini and
(Eliane et al. 2007). Glycinebetaine (GB) may Westgate 1999). Rapid control of leaf area by
protect the PSII complex from damage through senescence is the predominant mechanism at late
accelerating D1 protein turnover and maintaining season drought, inducing long-term avoidance of
anti-oxidative enzyme activities at higher level to dehydration of the upper leaves on eared shoots
alleviate photo damage. Diethyldithiocarbamate (Doa et al. 1996). Drought stress during early
as well as streptomycin treatment can impair the phase can delay or completely inhibit flowering,
protective effect of GB on PSII (Qian-Quan et al. both through an inhibition of floral induction and
2006). development. Several drought-resistance mecha-
VIn maize proline content increased and the nisms, which include drought escape via suitable
relative water content, leaf greenness, 100-kernel phenology, root characteristics, specific dehydra-
weight and grain yield decreased under condi- tion escaping and tolerance mechanisms, drought
tions of water deficit (WD). Under severe drought recovery and a deep root system with high root
stress in maize, anti-oxidant enzyme activities length density at depth, are useful in extracting
decreased significantly (p < 0.01) in later stages, water thoroughly in upland conditions (Fukai and
namely for superoxide dismutase (SOD) dur- Cooper 1995). The variation in rice root response
ing the tasseling and blister stages, for peroxi- to drought from a physiological perspective in
dase (POD) during the milk stage and for cata- terms of morphology and function with respect
lase (CAT) during the tasseling, blister and milk to the different growth environments (upland and
stages. Meanwhile, membrane lipid peroxidation lowland) commonly used by farmers (Veeresh
(measured as malondialdehyde content) signifi- et al. 2011). The control of reactive oxygen
cantly increased (p < 0.01) in all stages (Li-Ping species (ROS) and the stability of photosynthetic
et al. 2006). Under water stress, the actions of pigments under stress conditions are considered
catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and to contribute to drought tolerance. These included
peroxidase (POD) in leaves and roots improved the changes in ascorbic peroxidase (APX),
sharply. Different strategies may be adopted for superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT)
maize crop improvement under drought such as isozyme activities, chlorophyll a, b (Chl a, b) and
(1) cultural practices such as time and method carotenoids contents in response to water stress.
of sowing, plant density and reduced tillage; (2) Sergei et al. (2002) investigated adaptive traits
early planting reduces risk of terminal drought at of wild barley plants of Mediterranean and desert
grain filling stage; (3) selection of cultivars hav- origin. They used reciprocal introduction of
ing robust root system, faster rate of root growth seeds and seedlings to test for local adaptation
and deeper root penetration is highly efficient and to identify a set of co-adapted traits of
in utilizing soil water; (4) alternate partial root Mediterranean and desert ecotypes of wild
zone irrigation; (5) response forming matching barley Hordeum spontaneum. Evidence for
the date of planting with the rainfall distribution; local adaptation was observed in seedling
(6) several management practices such as tillage, introductions into intact environments and
water harvesting and mulching, etc.; (7) adoption from ecotype colonization success in the first
of cropping practices to promote AM and the generation after seed dispersal. They found
making of AM-colonized, drought-tolerant maize genetically determined differences between
cultivars through conventional breeding as well Mediterranean and desert ecotypes can be
as molecular and genomic techniques (Christo- observed as the following: reproductive output
pher and Tony 2008). was higher in desert plants, with smaller seeds
Stress during early grain development cut than in Mediterranean plants. There was a higher
off the kernel sink potential by reducing the competitive ability of Mediterranean plants than
number of endosperm cells and amyloplasts desert plants. Plants of desert origin showed
formed in pearl millet. A water deficit during significant reductions in yield when grown in
any stage of grain development causes the mixed stands with Mediterranean plants; no such
10 Essence of Plants or Crops for Adaptation: Learning Lessons for Sustainable Use 173

effect was observed for plants of Mediterranean as the denaturation of proteins and precipitation
origin. Seed germination and seedling survival of various molecules injury at the membrane
was lower in seeds of desert origin. This was level (Steponkus and Webb 1992) and freeze-
attributed to both genetically determined higher induced dehydration cause multiple forms of
dormancy of desert seeds and a trade off between membrane lesions (Steponkus et al. 1993).
number of seeds and their size (directly related to Varietal differences were observed in protein
seed or seedling vigour). phosphorylation during cold treatment of rice
leaves (Abdullah and Katoa 1997).
Low temperatures (Tw) (below 20 ı C) during
10.6.2 Heat Stress the reproductive period in rice caused low
spikelet fertility and decreased crop growth rate
Rice heat tolerant line showed tightly arranged (CGR) with reduced radiation use efficiency
mesophyll cells in flag leaves, fully developed (RUE) (Hiroyuki et al. 2002). Rice seedlings
vascular bundles and some closed stomata. The treated with cold-tolerant seed-coating agents
mesophyll cells in flag leaves of the sensitive line under chilling stress maintained considerably
were severely damaged by the high temperature higher root vigour, POD, CAT and SOD activities
stress. In contrast, the mesophyll cells in flag and chlorophyll content, had low MDA content
leaves of the resistant line maintained an intact and electrolyte leakage and accumulated more
ultra structure below the high temperature stress soluble sugar and free proline. The cold-tolerant
(Gui-Lian et al. 2009). seed-coating agent improved the ability of rice
High temperature caused a significant increase seedlings in resisting to chilling stress (Hai-Qing
in uptake of N, P and KC in pearl millet but et al. 2007).
the uptake of Ca2C , Mg2C , NaC and S remained Low temperature increased spikelet sterility
unaffected in pearl millet (Ashraf and Hafeez and the number of enlarged pollen grains per an-
2004). High temperature imposed after imbibi- ther. It was concluded that these flowering traits
tion the germination was reduced from 50 to were facultative in nature (Farrell et al. 2006).
45 ı C and there was a small reduction in the rate Low temperatures (5–10 ı C) induced ethano-
of germination but not in Gm . Optimum time of lic fermentation in the roots and shoots of the
sowing in the tropics when maximum daytime seedlings. Grain yield was most strictly reduced
soil temperature at the depth of sowing is in the by low temperature (below 20 ı C) during the
range of 45–50 ı C (Huidobro et al. 1985). reproductive period, as a result of low spikelet
Thus, grain fertilization and grain set were fertility. Rice (Oryza sativa L.) plants are sen-
most sensitive to the maximum temperature at sitive to low temperature during the young mi-
mid-anthesis (Rachel et al. 1998). Heat stress crospore stage. Priming of sorghum [Sorghum
induced ethylene production in developing wheat bicolour (L.) Moench] seeds in 300 g l1 PEG
grains leading to kernel abortion and increased for 2 days at 25 ı C could be used to enhance
maturation in a susceptible cultivar (Dirk et al. sorghum germination at low temperature, while
2007). Physiological traits of high yielding geno- the inclusion of plant hormones per se into prim-
types assessed under heat stressed conditions can ing media could be more effective than double
be used as gene pool in wheat breeding pro- hormone combinations (Tiryaki 2009).
grams for tolerance to heat stress (Bilge et al. Cold stress during the reproductive devel-
2011). opment of spring wheat (Triticum aestivum
L.) cause grain-set failure in the high altitudes
(>1500 m) of the world (Subedi et al. 1998b).
10.6.3 Cold Stress Frost killed spikelets, restricted internode
extension (stem growth) and reduced yield
Cold stress cause the severe cellular dehydration (Whaley et al. 2004). Cold temperatures and
that occurs with freezing in cellular damage, such boron deficiency caused grain set failure in
174 R.K. Maiti

spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Genotypic change. Kovalchuk et al. (2003) presented data
variability was found in response to boron and from the natural “open-field” radiation adaptation
cold temperature (Subedi et al. 1998a). The experiment after the Chernobyl accident and
accumulation of ice in the intercellular spaces provided the first evidence of the involvement
can potentially cause the physical disruption of of epigenetic changes in adaptation of a
cells and tissues caused in part by the formation eukaryote Scots pine (Pinus silvestris) to chronic
of adhesions between the intercellular ice and radiation exposure. They analyzed global genome
the cell walls and membranes (Levitt 1980). methylation of control and radiation-exposed
Freeze-induced dehydration results in cellular pine trees using a method based on cleavage
damage, such as the denaturation of proteins and by a methylation-sensitive HpaII restriction
precipitation of various molecules. However, the endonuclease that leaves a 50 guanine overhang
best documented injury occurs at the membrane and subsequent single nucleotide extension with
level (Steponkus and Webb 1992). Cold accli- labelled [H3 ]dCTP. They observed that genomic
mation involves the stabilization of membranes DNA of exposed pine trees was considerably
against freeze-induced damage (Steponkus and hypermethylated. Moreover, hypermethylation
Webb 1992). Increase in membrane-freezing appeared to be dependent upon the radiation dose
tolerance that occurs with cold acclimation absorbed by the trees. Such hypermethylation
involves changes in membrane lipid composition may be taken as a defense strategy of plants
(Steponkus et al. 1993). Increased freezing that prevents genome instability and reshuffling
tolerance in an ABA-hypersensitive mutant of the hereditary material, allowing survival
of common wheat is observed. Elevated ABA in an extreme environment. Further studies
sensitivity contributes to the improved freezing are clearly needed to analyze in detail the
tolerance through increased expression of the involvement of DNA methylation and other
ABA-regulated low-temperature signal path way. epigenetic mechanisms in the complex process
It is suggested that both positive and negative of radiation stress and adaptive response.
regulation of ABA response is involved in the Subsequently, Igor et al. (2004) investigated
basic mechanism of freezing tolerance in wheat molecular aspects of plant adaptation to life in the
(Fuminori et al. 2008). Chernobyl zone. They analyzed the adaptability
In maize, selection of lines in stressed environ- of native Arabidopsis plants collected from
ments is to adopt indices based on morphological, areas with different levels of contamination
biochemical and physiological traits. Enough around the Chernobyl nuclear power plant from
genetic variation is present in well-adapted 1986 to 1992. Notably, progeny of Chernobyl
germplasm from high altitude. Field emergence plants resisted higher concentrations of the
of maize under early planting was improved by mutagens Rose Bengal and methyl methane
recurrent selection at the rate of 84 %. Seedlings sulfonate. They analyzed the possible molecular
germinated at 7.2 ı C were transferred to field, for mechanisms of their resistance to mutagens and
agronomic traits and recombined to form a popu- found a more than 10-fold lower frequency of
lation for next selection cycle. By using screening extra chromosomal homologous recombination,
techniques, a little improvement could be significant differences in the expression of radical
achieved in field emergence and seedling vigour. scavenging (CAT1 and FSD3) and DNA-repair
(RAD1 and RAD51-like) genes upon exposure to
mutagens (Rose Bengal and x-rays) and a higher
10.6.4 Adaptation to Ionizing level of global genome methylation. This result
Radiations suggests that adaptation to ionizing radiation is a
complex process involving epigenetic regulation
Adaptation is a complex process by which of gene expression and genome stabilization
populations of organisms respond to long-term that improves plants resistance to environmental
environmental stresses by permanent genetic mutagens.
10 Essence of Plants or Crops for Adaptation: Learning Lessons for Sustainable Use 175

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 Breeding, Genetics
and Biotechnology 11
Aruna Kumari and Ratikanta Maiti

Abstract
This chapter give a concise review of research trends in crops, dealing
with various aspects of breeding such as evaluation, genotypic variability,
genetic advancement, character association, path coefficients, combining
ability, etc., and biotechnology in various crops. Several high-yielding
cultivars are evaluated for genetic divergence and stability characters
across environments. It also discusses the research advances in screening
of genotypes against abiotic and biotic stresses, the development of early-
maturing hybrids, the expression of stability traits against environments,
the interactive effect of genotype and environment, heterosis, and attributes
for selection of genotypes.
In view of increasing global warming and growing populations there
is a great necessity to increase crop productivity by utilizing improved
breeding technology. Of the papers presented at the Second International
Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management, held in Hyderabad
in 2015, a good number dealt with various aspects of breeding such as
evaluation, genotypic variability, genetic advancement, character associa-
tion, path coefficients, combining ability, etc. and biotechnology in various
crops, revealing research trends. These research trends are highlighted
below.

11.1 Sorghum
A. Kumari () Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] is an
Department of Crop Physiology, Agricultural College,
Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural important crop of dry land agriculture. In the
University, Polasa, Jagtial, Karimnagar 505 529, northern part of India, sorghum is grown mainly
Telangana, India for fodder production whereas in the central
e-mail: [email protected]
and southern parts of India, it is grown as a
R.K. Maiti source of food and fodder. Forage sorghum is
Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Autónoma
one of the most widely adapted forage crops
de Nuevo León, Carr. No 85, km 145, NL 67700 Linares,
Mexico in drought-prone areas because of its higher
e-mail: [email protected] productivity, better palatability and digestibility.

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 179

R.K. Maiti et al. (eds.), Bioresource and Stress Management, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0995-2_11
180 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

The improvement of forage sorghum is much at the Sorghum Research Unit, Dr. PDKV, Akola
emphasized owing to its importance as a fodder (MS) to identify promising lines and testers for
crop to feed the increasing livestock population grain yield in rabi sorghum under drought condi-
in India. Significant research activities have been tions, the estimates of general combining ability
directed towards various aspects of breeding on effects indicated that out of five lines, the line
sorghum. MS 104 A was a good general combiner for grain
yield per plant (0.93*) along with six yield com-
ponents like plant height, panicle breadth, panicle
11.1.1 High-Yielding Cultivars length, panicle weight, seed setting percentage
and 1000-seed weight. Among the testers, AKSV
Several high-yielding varieties of sorghum have 13 R was a good general combiner for grain
been generated and released for cultivation. In the yield per plant (2.22**) along with six drought
present era of nutritional security, development tolerance traits, viz plant height, days to 50 %
of quality-rich genotypes is of significance. The flowering, panicle breadth, panicle weight, seed
Sorghum Research Unit, Dr. PDKV, Akola (MS) setting percentage and 1000-seed weight. An-
has developed one kharif dual-purpose sorghum other tester, M 35-1, showed a desirable GCA
genotype SPV-1786 with excellent dough and for grain yield per plant (3.61**) along with five
roti-making quality. SPV-1786 recorded grain yield components, viz panicle breadth, panicle
yield (37.97 q ha1 ) nearly equal to that of checks length, panicle weight, seed setting percentage
SPV-1616 (38.44 q ha1 ), SPV-462 (40.49 q and 1000-seed weight. Another tester, SPV 504,
ha1 ) and CSV-15 (37.87 q ha1 ). It has further has also transmitted desirable genes for grain
recorded higher fodder yield (130.47 q ha1 ) yield per plant (2.07**) along with four yield
than the checks SPV-462 (129.13 q ha1 ) and components like leaf plant height, panicle weight,
CSV-15 (121.72 q ha1 ) and comparable to that seed setting percentage and 1000-seed weight.
of check SPV-1616 (131.88 q ha1 ) during the The tester Parbhani Moti was also a good general
3-year AICSIP (All India Coordinated Sorghum combiner for grain yield per plant (1.62*) as
Improvement Project) trials during 2006, 2007 well as for seed setting percentage and 1000-
and 2008 under zone II of the AICSIP trials. seed weight. The tester CSV 216 R (2.61**)
The genotype SPV-1786 possessed comparable was also observed to be a good general com-
grain and stover quality to checks SPV-1616, biner for grain yield per plant. Thus, the study
SPV-462 and CSV-15. However, the dough and specifies that there is a need to exploit all these
roti-making quality of SPV-1786 was found to six testers and one line for a future breeding
be excellent over the checks SPV-1616, SPV-462 programme to develop high-yielding hybrids in
and CSV-15. Hence, SPV-1786 holds promise for rabi sorghum.
further use in breeding programmes oriented
towards improving quality characteristics in
sorghum (Kalpande et al. 2015d). 11.1.2.2 Biomass Production
In indigenous or high-yielding sorghum varieties
or fodder sorghum varieties or sweet sorghum va-
11.1.2 Abiotic Stress rieties, production of a high amount of biomass is
most desirable. Eight sweet sorghum genotypes,
11.1.2.1 General Combining Ability four exotic (Keller, Wray, Urja and BJ 248), four
Drought or water stress is a frequently occurring indigenous (SSV 84, SSV 74, CSV 19SS and
phenomenon. The condition is still compounding CSH 22SS), two grain sorghums (CSV 15 and
due to global warming. Rabi sorghum is more SPV 1616) and one fodder sorghum (CSV 21 F)
prone to the effect of water stress during its were evaluated during the kharif season at the
growth period. In a study conducted (Ghorade Directorate of Sorghum Research (DSR), Rajen-
et al. 2015b) during the post-rainy rabi season dranagar, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, for higher
11 Breeding, Genetics and Biotechnology 181

biomass production during the key crop growth and transpiration rate. Genotype significantly in-
stages (Pancholee et al. 2015). Morphological teracted with the soil depth for all the traits except
character, viz the number of internodes and num- plant height, leaf area index and biomass yield
ber of leaves, was associated with high biomass at flowering. The variety RSV 1037 with a grain
production in the genotypes. Higher numbers yield of 2.5 t ha1 and fodder yield of 10.5 t ha1
of internodes were observed in genotypes CSH was the best performing in medium soils, while
22SS, SSV84 and CSV 19SS. Further, a signifi- the genotype RSV 850 with a grain yield of 1.2 t
cantly higher biomass (g per plant) was obtained ha1 and fodder yield of 6.4 t ha1 was the best
in the genotypes CSH 22SS, SSV 74 and SSV 84 performing in shallow soils.
at the milky stage. The juice obtained was slightly Hybrid breeding for rabi adaptation suffers
acidic in nature; the pH ranged from 4.07 to 6.01. from the constraints of poor yield heterosis, poor
Yield components like test weight, panicle length seed set and poor grain quality. Hybrids involving
and per panicle weight were significantly higher post-rainy season parents lack hybrid vigour and
in SPV 1616, SSV 74, CSV 15, CSH 22SS and those involving kharif parents exhibit good yield
SSV 84. heterosis but have poor grain quality. The loss
Indian sorghum genotypes performed well in in grain yield (open panicle grain yield – selfed
respect of biomass as well as yield in comparison panicle grain yield) was highest in the hybrid
with exotic genotypes. The genotypes SSV 74 at about 22.9 g followed by B lines, varieties
and CSH 22SS were found to be superior for and R lines. Higher grain yields can be obtained
biomass production as well as yield and among in the hybrid with improvement in the pollen
all stages of growth milky stage were best for viability and germinability. Hybrids involving
biomass production. Biomass was not signifi- kharif females were early and those involving
cantly affected by stay-green character. kharif restorers were sensitive to sowing date for
seed set percentage. The hybrids with both kharif
parents had good panicle length. The hybrids in-
11.1.3 Sorghum Screening for volving post-rainy season restorers were sensitive
Abiotic and Biotic Stress to sowing date for grain yield and the hybrids
Resistance with at least one rabi parent had good seed size.
The grain yield under selfing was governed by
11.1.3.1 Screening for Abiotic Stress additive gene action while the seed set percentage
The post-rainy season sorghums are unique to under selfing was governed by dominance gene
India and are important from the perspective of action. The seed set was good in CSV 8R, Phule
both food and fodder, unlike kharif sorghums Anuradha, Phule Chitra, Phule Vasudha, PKV
wherein the grain losses are more in kharif. The Kranti and SPV 1595 when used as both male
commercial value of grain sorghum of kharif is and female parents, indicating their tolerance to
decreased due to infestations of grain mould. cold stress. Among the hybrid parents, R lines
Among the abiotic stress affecting yield, terminal showed stability for many characters across the
drought and cold stress at anthesis assume im- dates of sowing while B lines were less stable
portance. Terminal drought is of common occur- indicating the need for the development of stable
rence, as rabi sorghum is grown under receding B lines for the rabi season (Reddy and Patil
soil moisture conditions. A set of 16 sorghum 2015).
genotypes were evaluated at Rahuri, Maharash- It is concluded that rabi sorghum varieties
tra, for three post-season seasons in two soil should be developed focusing on the traits that are
types (shallow and medium soil depths) (Reddy specific to the soil depths. Breeding rabi hybrids
and Patil 2015). The soil depth was found to should focus on developing female parents with
influence the agronomic and physiological traits. rabi adaptation and restorers with kharif adapta-
The genotype interacted significantly with the tion, both improved for grain yield and seed set
year for all the traits except stomatal conductance percentage.
182 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

11.1.3.2 Sorghum Shoot Fly Resistance grain yield and grain mould parameters (More
Characters et al. 2015b). A highest heterotic effect for grain
A serious pest of sorghum in the early stages yield and its associated traits was observed in
of development is shoot fly. Twenty-six derived the cross 372 A  C43 (100.60 %) followed by
lines and three checks of sorghum evaluated PMS 98 A  KR 199 (48.94 %), DNA 10  KR
for variability and correlation of grain yield 199 (45.93 %), DNA 10  KR 196 (42.72 %)
and shoot fly resistance characters (Ranjith and and IMS 12 A  KR 196 (38.61 %) over hybrid
Ghorade 2015) has shown that highest genetic check CSH 25. For grain mould parameters the
advance and high heritability was observed crosses AKMS 85A  KR 196, AKMS 85A
in trichome density per mm2 . Leaf glossiness  C43, DNA 10  KR 196, DNA 10  KR
showed high positive correlation with number of 199 and PMS 98A  C43 showed highest sig-
shoot fly eggs and dead hearts. The oviposition nificant negative heterosis over tolerant check
percentage on 14th, 21st and 28th days after PVK 801, which shows that these hybrids had
seedling emergence showed significant positive significantly less incidence of grain mould as
correlation with dead hearts. Leaf trichome compared to the check. The hybrids PMS 98 A
density at abaxial leaf surfaces showed significant  C43, DNA 10  KR 196, IMS 12A  KR
negative correlation with shoot fly dead hearts. 199 and DNA 10  KR 199 recorded high mean
The leaf trichome density revealed higher level of and heterosis for grain yield and less incidence
resistance due to non-preference for oviposition. of grain mould. Therefore, these hybrids need to
Seedling vigour showed weaker association with be tested across the environment for their stable
dead heart percentage. Genotypic correlation performance.
confirmed that the number of trichomes on
surface of lamina and leaf glossiness contributed
resistance to shoot fly. Thus, these characters 11.1.4 Genetic Variability
can be used as selection criteria for breeding
shoot fly resistance genotypes. High heritability The genetic variability and nature of character
and high genetic advance as well as positive association in 87 genotypes (50 B lines, 25 R
associations of the characters obtained can be lines and 12 inbred lines) of kharif sorghum
explored in the selection of shoot fly resistance [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Monech] for 17 quantita-
in sorghum. tive traits studied (More et al. 2015a) revealed
the presence of statistically significant differ-
ences among the treatments for all the traits
11.1.3.3 Mould Resistance under study, indicating the presence of variability
Sorghum is a major cereal crop of Maharash- among the genotypes. The genotypic coefficient
tra state grown in both kharif and rabi seasons of variation (GCV) estimates were lower than the
and serves both food and feed requirements of phenotypic coefficients of variation (PCVs), indi-
rural population and cattle. In spite of higher cating the effect of environment on these traits,
productivity of rainy season sorghum achieved however the differences were of lower magni-
by releasing high-yielding hybrids and varieties, tude. High estimates of GCV and PCV were
deterioration of grain due to grain mould is a observed for plant height, days to 50 % flowering,
serious problem. So efforts were made to develop fodder yield, number of primary branches per
high-yielding CMS-based hybrids coupled with panicle, grains per primary branch and harvest
grain mould tolerance. Twenty-four CMS-based index. These traits also showed high heritabil-
hybrids were developed utilizing six female and ity percentage and genetic advance indicating
four male parents following a line  tester mating the presence of additive gene effect. Heritability
design during rabi 2011–2012 and these along ranged from 62.78 % (threshed grade score) to
with ten parents and two checks, viz PVK 801 99.84 % (days to 50 % flowering). On the basis of
and CSH 25, were evaluated for heterosis of percentage performance for grain yield and grain
11 Breeding, Genetics and Biotechnology 183

mould parameters, genotypes ICSB204, PMS7B, 11.1.5 Genetic Divergence

PMS46B, ICSR89058, ICSR90003 and ICSR160
were recorded as promising ones. The traits pan- Genetic divergence studies (Gaikwad et al. 2015)
icle length, panicle width, germination percent- undertaken on 32 genotypes of forage sorghum
age, test weight, number of primary branches, [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] for fodder yield
per grain primary branches and harvest index ex- and its contributing characters grouped the geno-
hibited significant and positive correlations with types into seven clusters. Maximum inter-cluster
grain yield. Field grade score and threshed grade distance was observed between clusters IV and
score showed negative and non-significant corre- VI (59.66). Thus, the parents involved in cluster
lations with germination percentage, test weight, IV (AKFG-09-4, AKFG-09-3, AKFG09-5 and
carbohydrate content and grain yield, while plant Improved Ramkel) and cluster VI (IS47802) can
height showed significant and positive correlation be utilized for improvement of green fodder yield
with fodder yield per plant both at genotypic and and its contributing characters. Relative contri-
phenotypic level. bution of characters towards total divergence re-
The nature and magnitude of genetic variabil- alized the importance of green fodder yield fol-
ity for productivity related and grain quality traits lowed by stem girth and leaf length.
in minicore collections during the post-rainy sea-
son of 2011–2012 at AICSIP, UAS Dharwad, was
assessed (Karadi and Kajjidoni 2015). The anal- 11.1.6 Stability of Sorghum
ysis of variance exhibited the presence of highly Genotypes Across
significant differences for all characters like plant Environments
height, panicle length, panicle width, seed yield
per plant, 100-seed weight, seed volume, bulk Sixty genotypes of sorghum evaluated at two
density, true density and seed size at both 5 % and locations (Hyderabad and Deesa) on two dates
1 % levels of probability. of sowing for six traits, namely, days to flag
High estimates of the PCV and GCV were leaf emergence, days to 50 % flowering, plant
observed for most of the characters except for height, panicle length, 100 seed weight and grain
seed bulk density and seed true density traits. yield per plant (Gomashe et al. 2015), has re-
High heritability coupled with high GAM was vealed that the photoperiod response index (PRI)
recorded for all characters except seed true den- in 15 genotypes was less than 10. This indi-
sity. Highly significant positive association was cated their insensitivity to changes in photope-
observed for grain yield per plant with plant riod. Genotypes CSV 17, IS 35251, IS 35255, IS
height, ear head width, 100 seed weight, seed 35803, AKMS 14B, 2219B and AKR 150 were
volume and seed size at both levels. Hundred- highly photoperiod insensitive. Stability analysis
seed weight showed highly significant positive was carried out using Eberhart and Russell and
association with seed yield per plant, seed volume GGE biplot analysis. In stability analysis mean
and seed size (Karadi and Kajjidoni 2015). squares due to genotypes, environments (linear)
Path analysis revealed that seed yield per plant and pooled deviations were highly significant
had direct effects on plant height, ear head width (p  0.01) for all the traits. This indicates that
and 100-seed weight; direct selection for these genetic diversity existed among genotypes and
traits will be rewarding for improvement of grain environments. Mean squares due to genotypes
yield per plant. Minicore collections exhibited  environments were significant (p  0.05) for
high magnitude of variation with respect to ear grain yield and highly significant (p  0.01) for
head and grain quality characters. Among mini- days to flag leaf emergence and days to 50 %
cores, accession IS-19975 was superior for seed flowering, revealing the differential response of
yield per plant, IS-27034 for test weight, IS-473 varieties under different environments only for
for bulk density, IS-29714 for true density and IS- these three traits. Eberhart and Russell method
19975 for seed size (Karadi and Kajjidoni 2015). gave useful information on stable genotypes but
184 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

it failed to predict a broader picture considering deviation) was highly significant for all the char-
high yields. GGE biplot analysis gave a simple acters except leaf length, leaf area per plant, stem
graphical picture of the genotypes based on their girth and plant moisture percentage, indicating
mean performance as well as stability across the that the major components for differences in
environment. stability were due to deviation from the linear
function. The results illustrated that the geno-
types AKFG-09-6, SSG-59-3 and Imp Ramkel
11.1.7 Stability in Expression were stable genotypes for the majority of charac-
of Traits ters. Two genotypes, viz AKFG-09-6 and AKFG-
09-8, exhibited below average stability. These
Climate change poses a major challenge to feed genotypes are suited to favourable environmental
the ever-growing population. Sorghum is one of conditions.
the important staple food grains supporting more
than 500 million lives in the arid and semi-arid
tropics of Africa and Asia, which are predicted to 11.1.9 Combining Ability
be most adversely affected by climate change. A and Heterosis
study undertaken on the stability in expression of
12 sorghum descriptors in three popular hybrids In a study, three male sterile lines were crossed
(CSH 9, CSH 14 and CSH 16), their parental lines with 22 testers in a line  tester design and
(296A, AKMS 14A, 27A, CS 3541, AKR 150 produced 54 hybrids to estimate the estimates of
and C 43) and two other popular male parents (RS specific combining ability effects in rabi sorghum
29 and Indore 12) over four to six seasons, includ- hybrids in order to identify the potential cross
ing rainy and post-rainy seasons (Hariprasanna combinations for yield and its components in
et al. 2015b), has shown that expression of traits rabi sorghum. Among the 66 hybrids studied,
like time of panicle emergence, natural height of a total of four crosses showed positive and
plant up to base of flag leaf, total height, leaf significant SCA effects for the character grain
length and width, stem diameter, panicle length yield per plant. AKRMS 80A  Rb 307–11
and 1000-grain weight varied slightly between hybrid exhibited highest significant SCA effects
rainy and post-rainy seasons. However, variation for grain yield per plant (18.23**) along with the
was minimal among the years under the same component traits like panicle breadth, number of
season except in the case of time of panicle primaries per panicle and fodder yield per plant.
emergence (CSH 14 and CSH 16; very early to Second cross AKRMS 80A  RS 585 exhibited
medium or medium to very late) and 1000-grain higher significant SCA effects for grain yield
weight (CSH 14; low to high). per plant (12.08**) along with three component
characters like plant height, number of primaries
per panicle and 1000 grain weight. Third cross
11.1.8 Genotype  Environment AKRMS 47A  AKSV 70R showed higher
Interaction significant SCA effects for grain yield per plant
(11.99**) along with other seven component
Genotype  environment (linear) interaction was characters, i.e. days to 50 % flowering, days to
significant for all the studied characters in 13 maturity, plant height, number of primaries per
genotypes of forage sorghum along with check panicle, number of grains per panicle, 1000 seed
variety evaluated for stability at three locations of weight and fodder yield per plant. These three
Maharashtra state (Akola, Washim and Amravati) crosses exhibited positive significant SCA effects
during kharif 2012 (Deshmukh and Zarea 2015) along with positive significant standard heterosis
except stem weight per plant. This indicated the for grain yield per plant. So these three crosses
linear response of the genotypes to environmen- can be utilized well using the heterosis breeding.
tal changes. The non-linear component (pooled It is very well known that if SCA variance, which
11 Breeding, Genetics and Biotechnology 185

is a measure of non-additive genetic variance, is line suitable for developing high-yielding and
high for characters and also observed heterosis early-maturing hybrids in rabi sorghum. The
is also high, such crosses can be utilized for line AKRMS 47A was found to be suitable for
commercial exploitation of heterosis. Fourth developing high-yielding and early-maturing
cross AKRMS 80-1-1-1A  Rb 307–11 showed hybrids in rabi sorghum due to its positive
positive significant SCA effects for grain yield significant GCA effects for grain yield (2.91**)
per plant (11.73**) but in this cross high SCA along with negative significant GCA effects for
is not associated with heterosis (Sakhare et al. days to 50 % flowering (1.47**) and days to
2015a). maturity (0.23**) Similarly, among the 22
Five male sterile lines were crossed with eight testers, tester RL 5–1 gave highest significant
testers in line  tester design and produced 40 and desirable GCA effects for grain yield per
hybrids. Studies (Ghorade et al. 2015d) were plant (7.95**) along with desirable component
undertaken with 40 hybrids and 13 parents and characters like days to 50 % flowering (0.83**)
widely used standard check CSG-9 at Sorghum and days to maturity (1.47**). Similarly,
Research Unit, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi another tester, Rb 397–2, exhibited significant
Vidyapeeth, Akola during kharif 2010–2011 to positive GCA effects for grain yield (6.36**)
identify the potential lines and testers suitable along with negative significant GCA effects for
for development of dual-purpose hybrids in rainy days to 50 % flowering (1.02**) and days to
season sorghum based on general combining abil- maturity (0.3**). Another tester, AKSV 70R,
ity effects. Dual-purpose hybrids have good grain with positive significant GCA effects for grain
yield along with good fodder yield. Line MS- yield (5.35**) along with negative significant
27A was the best general combiner for yield GCA effects for days to 50 % flowering
per plant (6.18**) as well as for fodder yield (0.85**) was also promising. A fourth tester, G
per plant (15.27**). Among testers, AKR-456 45-3-1-1, with positive significant GCA effects
showed significant and desirable GCA effects for grain yield (4.70**) along with negative
for grain yield per plant (16.19**) along with significant GCA effects for days to maturity
fodder yield per plant (10.85**). Another tester, (0.45**) was also found to be desirable. This
AKR 422, also showed significant positive GCA unique combination of potential of a line or
effects for grain yield per plant (9.44**) along tester for grain yield along with early maturity
with the positive and significant GCA effects for can be exploited in the development of high-
fodder yield per plant (16.93). Thus line MS- yielding and early-maturing hybrids in post-rainy
27A along with testers AKR 456 and AKR 422 sorghum, which is the need of present day rabi
need to be exploited extensively in development sorghum for overcoming terminal drought stress.
of promising dual-purpose rainy season sorghum
hybrids.
11.1.11 Heterosis

11.1.10 Development Fourteen kharif -based sorghum hybrids along

of Early-Maturing Hybrids with 2 checks and 13 parental lines (5 cyto-
for the Post-rainy Season plasmic male sterility-based lines and 8 restor-
ers) were evaluated to estimate the heterobeltio-
In post-rainy season sorghum, the early- sis, standard heterosis and mid-parent heterosis
maturing genotypes escape the terminal drought (More et al. 2015b). Heterosis was estimated
conditions. The adverse effects of moisture stress for grain yield per plant, fodder yield per plant,
on the yield are less in such genotypes in the days to 50 % flowering, plant height, third leaf
post-rainy season. Three female lines (AKRMS- area, panicle length, panicle breadth, 1000-seed
80 A, AKRMS-80-1-1A and AKRMS-47A) were weight, ear head weight, chlorophyll content,
studied (Sakhare et al. 2015b) to identify a relative water content, free sugar and protein
186 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

content. The mean squares in respect of geno- crosses can be very well exploited using heterosis
types were significant for all the traits. Four breeding for development of dual-purpose rabi
hybrids yielded higher grain weight per plant and sorghum hybrids. These hybrids need to be tested
were on a par with the highest yielding check, in multi-location trials on a large scale for their
CSH – 14 (90.20 g per plant), and six hybrids evaluation and commercial exploitation.
gave significantly highest fodder yield over the
standard checks. These hybrids also performed
11.1.13 High-Yielding
well for other agronomical and physiological
Early-Maturing Hybrids
traits. High and significant heterosis over mid-
parent and better parent was observed in crosses
High-yielding and early-maturing hybrids are
PMS 28A  C 43 and PMS 28 A  KR 200
popular among farmers as these fit well in
for grain yield per plant and most of the yield
cropping systems. The field is vacated early,
components. A total of four crosses exhibited
which facilitates timely sowing of the following
positive and higher heterosis and heterobeltiosis
rabi crop. In order to identify such early-maturing
for free sugar content, seven crosses for protein
and high-yielding kharif sorghum hybrids,
content and seven crosses for chlorophyll content.
promising hybrids were sorted out (Ghorade
The cross PMS 28 A  C – 43 exhibited high and
et al. 2015c) based on positive significant
significant standard heterosis for grain yield per
standard heterosis for grain yield along with
plant.
negative significant standard heterosis for either
days to 50 % flowering or days to maturity.
11.1.12 Dual-Purpose Sorghum Negative values for the traits like days to 50 %
flowering or days to maturity indicate earliness.
In post-rainy sorghum, a dual-purpose sorghum In total, three hybrids showed positive significant
hybrid is the one with high grain yield along standard heterosis for grain yield along with
with high fodder yield. Among the 66 post-rainy negative significant standard heterosis for either
sorghum hybrids studied (Sakhare et al. 2015c), days to 50 % flowering or days to maturity.
2 hybrids, viz AKRMS 80A  Rb 307–11 and AKMS- 89A  AKR-422 exhibited the highest
AKRMS 47A  AKSV 70R, exhibited signifi- standard heterosis (20.56 %) over the check
cant standard heterosis for grain yield as well as CSH-9 for grain yield along with negative
fodder yield. In the first cross, i.e. AKRMS 80A significant standard heterosis for days to maturity
 Rb 307–11, the standard heterosis for grain (10.69 %). The cross AKMS 30A  AKR-
yield per plant over the check CSH 19 R was 456 with positive significant standard heterosis
22.99 % while for fodder yield per plant it was for grain yield per plant (9.39 %) and negative
21.90 %. Besides standard heterosis, this cross significant standard heterosis for days to maturity
also exhibited positive significant SCA effects (6.60**) was also found to be promising.
for grain yield per plant (18.23**) as well as A third cross, AKMS 89A  AKR-456, also
for fodder yield per plant (18.54**). In another showed positive significant standard heterosis for
cross, AKRMS 47A  AKSV 70R, the standard grain yield per plant (4.15 %) along with negative
heterosis for grain yield per plant was 15.76 % significant standard heterosis for both days to
while for fodder yield per plant it was 28.32 %. 50 % flowering (8.13*) and days to maturity
Along with high standard heterosis, this cross (12.57**). All these cross combinations also
also showed positive significant SCA effects for showed positive significant SCA effects for grain
both grain yield per plant (11.99**) and fodder yield per plant and negative significant SCA
yield per plant (10.79**). In these two crosses, effects for either days to 50 % flowering or days
high standard heterosis for grain yield and fodder to maturity. Thus, these three cross combinations
yield was accompanied with positive and sig- need to be exploited for development of high-
nificant SCA effects for grain yield as well as yielding and early-maturing hybrids in kharif
fodder yield. This clearly indicated that these two sorghum.
11 Breeding, Genetics and Biotechnology 187

11.1.14 Attributes for an Efficient DAE showed positive significant correlation with
Breeding Programme dead heart count at 28 DAE (r D 0.58**); it
had positive direct effect (0.288) with dead heart
In one study (Ghorade et al. 2015a), days to 50 % count at 28 DAE. Number of eggs per plant at
flowering showed positive and significant corre- 28 DAE showed positive significant correlation
lation with grain yield per plant (r D 0.71**) and with dead heart count at 28 DAE (R D 0.432*). It
exerted positive and direct effect on grain yield exhibited positive direct effect (0.032) with dead
(0.86). It showed maximum positive indirect ef- heart count at 28 DAE. Chlorophyll content index
fect on grain yield per plant through plant height showed negative non-significant correlation with
(0.17). Plant height showed positive significant dead heart count at 28 DAE (r D 0.116) and
correlation with grain yield per plant (r D 0.399*) had negative direct effect (0.328) on dead heart
and exhibited positive and direct effect on grain count at 28 DAE. Trichome density per plant
yield (0.394), and the maximum positive indi- showed negative but significant correlation with
rect effect on grain yield per plant was through dead heart count at 28 DAE (r D 0.495**) and
days to 50 % flowering (0.381). Panicle breadth had negative direct effect (0.401) on dead heart
showed negative non-significant correlation with count at 28 DAE. Seedling vigour showed pos-
grain yield per plant (r D 0.179) and it showed itive and significant correlation with dead heart
negative direct effect on grain yield per plant count at 28 DAE (r D 0.379); it had negative
(0.354), thereby revealing that the character direct effect (0.350) on dead heart count at
panicle breadth has no role to play in improving 28 DAE. Leaf glossiness showed negative but
the grain yield. Thousand-seed weight showed significant correlation with dead heart count at 28
positive significant correlation with grain yield DAE (r D 0.492**); it exhibited direct negative
per plant (r D 0.430*). It also exhibited positive effect on dead heart count at 28 DAE (0.194).
direct effect on grain yield per plant (0.251). It Dead heart count at 14 DAE showed positive
also showed highest positive indirect effect on significant correlation with dead heart count at
grain yield through plant height (0.1419). Fod- 28 DAE (r D 0.646**) and it registered direct
der yield per plant exhibited positive significant positive effect on dead heart count at 28 DAE
correlation with grain yield per plant (r D 0.576) (0.419). Dead heart count at 21 DAE showed
but it exhibited highest positive indirect effect positive significant correlation with dead heart
on grain yield per plant through panicle breadth count at 28 DAE (r D 0.756**) and it registered
(0.084). From the study, it was concluded that the direct positive effect on dead heart count at 28
characters days to 50 % flowering, plant height DAE (0.543). The study revealed that selection
and 1000-seed weight exhibited positive signif- based on characters like trichome density and
icant correlation with grain yield per plant along leaf glossiness may be helpful in reducing the
with positive direct effect on grain yield per plant. dead heart count at 28 DAE, as these two char-
Selection based on these attributes may be helpful acters exhibited negative significant correlation
in planning an efficient breeding programme for with dead heart count at 28 DAE along with the
high grain yield in kharif sorghum. negative direct effect on dead heart count at 28
DAE (Ghorade et al. 2015e).

11.1.15 Selection for Reduction

of Dead Heart 11.2 Pearl Millet

The number of eggs per plant at 14 DAE showed 11.2.1 Character Association for
positive but no significant correlation with dead Terminal Drought
heart count at 28 DAE (R D 0.30). It had a neg-
ative direct effect (0.26) on dead heart count Correlation studies (Patil and Jadeja 2015a, b)
at 28 DAE. Number of eggs per plant at 21 under terminal drought conditions indicated that
188 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

grain yield per plant was highly correlated with and high positive correlation observed between
panicle harvest index, drought response index and Fe and Zn densities (r D 0.66 in ICTP 8203
harvest index, whereas under irrigated conditions and r D 0.72 in ICMV 221, p < 0.01) suggested
it was highly correlated with ear head weight that both micronutrients can be effectively im-
per plant and test weight. Drought response proved simultaneously. Both micronutrients had
index was correlated to grain yield per plant non-significant or small positive correlations with
under drought environments only. Under both 1000-grain weight, implying these can be im-
conditions, number of productive tillers per plant proved in large-seeded genetic backgrounds.
exhibited positive significant association with
maximum number of characters, and ear head
girth showed negative significant association 11.2.3 Line  Tester Analysis
with maximum number of characters. Drought-
responsive traits had mutual association with Line  tester analysis was conducted in pearl
each other under terminal drought conditions, millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.) for estimating
but not under irrigated conditions. Hence, while the general and specific combining ability effects
selecting drought-responsive genotype, emphasis (Kathale et al. 2015b). Analysis of variance for
should be given to drought stress-responsive means revealed significant differences for seven
traits, viz root length per plant, proline content characters. Close agreement between GCA and
and drought response index. Thus, correlation per se performance of parents was detected for
results reveal that alleles controlling the grain most of the characters studied. Combinations
yield in stress and non-stress environments are having high per se performance also exhibited
partially different and this underlines the need for high SCA effects and involved at least one good
selection in target environments to improve the general combining parent. Among females, MS
performance of genotypes. 88004 A was the best general combiner for grain
yield and seven other characters. Among restor-
ers, AIB-214 was the best general combiner for
11.2.2 Genetic Variability for grain yield, plant height, ear head girth, ear head
Micronutrients length and fodder yield per plant. The combina-
tion MS 88004 A  AIB-214 was the best specific
In two released and commercial open-pollinated combination for grain yield per plant, whereas the
varieties (ICTP 8203 and ICMV 221) of pearl combination MS 841 A  IC-1179 was the best
millet studied for intra-population variability us- specific combination for grain yield per plant,
ing S1 progenies for grain iron (Fe) and zinc height, total number of tillers per plant and ear
(Zn) densities and 1000-grain weight (Kanatti head girth, ear head length. The combinations
et al. 2015), analysis of variance exhibited highly MS 841 A  IC-223-1, MS 863 A  IC-1153,
significant variability for all the traits in both pop- MS863A  IC-14, MS 99111 A  IC 1153 and
ulations. In ICTP 8203, Fe density varied from 44 MS 98222A  R-1665-3 produced significant
to 76 mg kg1 and Zn density from 40 to 60 mg and desirable SCA effects for most of the traits
kg1 , while in ICMV 221, Fe density varied from studied, indicating potential for exploiting hybrid
40 to 78 mg kg1 and Zn density from 31 to vigour in a breeding programme.
52 mg kg1 . Higher broad-sense heritability was
observed for both micronutrients in both popula-
tions (77 % in ICTP 8203 and 86 % in ICMV 221 11.2.4 Heterosis
for Fe; and 71 % in ICTP 8203 and 72 % in ICMV
221 for Zn). This substantial genetic variabil- The extent of heterosis present and its effects
ity coupled with high heritability implies good on yield and yield components in 50 F1 s (five
prospects for improvement of both populations male sterile lines crossed with ten restorers)
for these micronutrients. The highly significant in pearl millet evaluated during kharif 2010
11 Breeding, Genetics and Biotechnology 189

(Kathale et al. 2015c) revealed that analysis nificant differences for all the descriptors stud-
of variance for means exhibited significant ied indicating sufficient genetic variability. High
differences for all the 11 characters studied, coefficients of variation were observed for flag
viz days to 50 % flowering, days to maturity, leaf width, panicle exertion, number of basal
plant height (cm), total number of tillers per tillers, grain and fodder yields per plant and
plant, number of effective tillers per plant, 1000-grain weight. The estimates of PCV and
1000 grain weight (g): number of grains per GCV for almost all the parameters except grain
cm2 , ear head girth (cm), ear head length (cm), and fodder yields were nearly equal. This re-
grain yield per plant (g) and fodder yield per vealed the existence of immense inherent vari-
plant (g). The interaction mean square for ability that remained unaltered by environmental
parents vs hybrids was significant for seven conditions. Very high PCV and GCV values were
characters, demonstrating the existence of observed for number of basal tillers and grain
sufficient variability in parents and hybrids. The yield per plant, which indicated the existence
magnitude of heterosis and heterobeltosis for all of comparatively high variability for these traits
the characters was highly acceptable. Among and hence could be exploited for improvement of
all the characters, the magnitude of heterosis the traits through selection in advanced genera-
was highest for fodder yield per plant, being tions. Estimation of heritability along with GCV
26.27 % and 21.24 % over mid- and better parent, gave an idea of expected gain from selection.
respectively, in the cross MS 841 A  IC-223- Heritability (broad-sense) estimates ranged from
1. This was followed by the character 1000 0.33 to as high as 0.96. There was high heri-
grain weight (22.67 % and 21.23 %) in the cross tability for all the traits studied except fodder
MS 863 A  IC-1179 and grain yield per plant yield. This indicated that genotype plays a more
(18.34 % and 17.79 %) in the cross for mid-parent important role than environment in determin-
and better parent heterosis, respectively. ing the phenotype, suggesting the predominance
of additive gene action in the inheritance. Very
high heritability accompanied by high genetic
11.3 Foxtail Millet advance as a percentage mean was observed for
peduncle length (0.8 %, 27 %), panicle exertion
Foxtail millet is an important cereal crop grown (0.94 %, 114 %), bristle length (0.86 %, 50 %),
as a staple food grain in China, India and Japan plant height (0.84 %, 20 %) and number of tillers
and for silage and hay in North and South Amer- (0.96 %, 122 %), and hence these traits could be
ica, Australia and North Africa. It is one of the improved by simple selection methods. The D2
oldest domesticated crops and is an ideal climate- analysis grouped the genotypes into ten clusters
resilient crop, highly drought tolerant and usually based on the Torcher method with seven clusters
grown where climatic hazards do not permit the having a single member. Four genotypes (GPU
cultivation of other cereals. 27, KOPFM 15, GPU 28 and KOPFM 18) had
significantly higher grain yield than the check
varieties RAU 2 and Si A 326. These genotypes
11.3.1 Morpho-agronomic can be further evaluated and utilized to develop
Descriptors high-yielding varieties.

The genotypic and phenotypic variance, PCV

and GCV, heritability and genetic advance for 11.4 Finger Millet
12 morpho-agronomic descriptors was studied
(Hariprasanna et al. 2015a) in 40 foxtail millet Finger millet is an important cereal crop among
genotypes including elite breeding lines and re- the small millets and third in importance among
leased varieties as checks during the rainy sea- millets in the country, in terms of area and
son of 2014. The genotypes showed highly sig- production after sorghum and pearl millet.
190 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

It is cultivated mostly as a rain-fed crop in India degree of favourable and unfavourable associ-
for its valued food grains and its adaptability to ations between different useful characters. An
a wide range of geographical areas and agro- investigation undertaken (Diyali et al. 2015) to
ecological diversity, mostly countries in Africa assess genotypic and phenotypic correlations be-
and Asia. India is the major producer of finger tween yield and its components and also between
millet in Asia. the contributing components for simultaneous
improvement of character through selection on
the basis of one of the characters, including path
11.4.1 Protein and Calcium Content coefficient analysis, showed that yield was posi-
tively and significantly correlated with number of
Finger millet is highly nutritious as its grains spikes per plant, number of spikelets per spike,
contain 65–75 % carbohydrates, 5–8 % protein, number of grains per spike, weight of grain per
15–20 % dietary fibre and 2.5–3.5 % minerals. spike, flag leaf area, 1000 grain weight and amy-
Considering its importance in food, adequate in- lose content at both genotypic and phenotypic
formation on its nutritious quality is meagre in levels. Weight of grain per spike, number of tillers
finger millet. The protein and calcium content per plant, number of spikes per plant and flag
was estimated in 48 finger millet genotypes. The leaf area showed positive direct effects along with
estimated protein content among the genotypes highly positive significant correlations with grain
was minimum 5.95 g 100 g1 and maximum yield. Therefore, direct selection for any of the
9.33 g 100 g1 , and the average was 7.49 g characters would be effective for yield improve-
100 g1 . The estimated calcium content among ment in wheat with simultaneous improvement of
the genotypes was maximum 324.47 mg 100 g1 the rest of the character.
and minimum 188.57 mg 100 g1 , with an av-
erage value of 235.74 mg 100 g1 . SNVD-11-
88 contained maximum protein and SRS-13435 11.5.2 Genetic Variability
contained minimum protein. The maximum cal-
cium content was in the genotype SNVD-11-15, Thirty-one genotypes of wheat were evaluated
while it was minimum in the CMLS-01336-SEL- for variability (Bhalerao et al. 2015). High GCV
11 genotype. The protein content of 20 genotypes and PCV values were recorded for number of
out of 48 was more than the average value, and tillers, grains per panicle, yield per plant, yield
content of calcium in 25 genotypes was more than per hectare and number of grains per spikelet,
the average value. This huge variation in protein indicating that these characters are governed by
and calcium content among the genotypes can additive gene effects, and directional selection for
be useful in improving the protein and calcium these traits would be more effective.
content in other genotypes or varieties. Geno- Correlation studies revealed positive and sig-
types with protein and calcium content more than nificant genotypic and phenotypic correlations
average values can be used in bio-fortification of for plant height, number of tillers per plant, num-
finger millet (Das et al. 2015b). ber of grains per spikelet, number of grains per
panicle, yield per plant and harvest index, indi-
cating the importance of these characters for im-
11.5 Wheat proving grain yield of wheat per hectare. The path
coefficient analysis revealed that the characters
11.5.1 Character Association: Bread plant height, number of tillers per plant, grains
Wheat per panicle, yield per plant, yields per plot, test
weight and gluten content had high positive direct
Knowledge of correlation coefficients among var- effects on grain yield per hectare.
ious desirable characters is one of the most im- Therefore, while imparting selection in wheat
portant aspects for any breeding to elucidate the characters, plant height, number of tillers per
11 Breeding, Genetics and Biotechnology 191

plant, number of grains per spikelet, number of that these characters could be selected for wheat
grains per panicle, yield per plant and harvest improvement programmes.
index must be given preference.

11.6 Maize
11.5.3 Wheat Selection Criteria
11.6.1 Agroclimatic Indices
The yield-contributing characters in 40 genotypes
of wheat were studied through range, coefficient The crop growth response is influenced largely
of variation (CV), heritability, genetic advance, by the microclimate environment in the crop;
correlation coefficient and path analysis in particular, the temperature plays a vital role
during 2011 (Muundiyara and Kerkhi 2015), in the potentiality of crop in terms of growth,
with analysis of variance showing significant development and yield. The growth and yield of
differences among all genotypes for all the maize hybrids of different duration with agrocli-
characters, viz days to 50 % flowering, days matic indices was predicted based on growing
to maturity, plant height, number of spikelets day degree (GDD): heliothermal units (HTU):
per spike, productive tillers per plant, ear length phenothermal index (PTI) and also heat use ef-
with awn, number of grains per spike, 1000 grain ficiency (HUE) during the 2011 and 2012 rainy
weight, biological yield per plant, grain yield season at the Maize Research Centre, Hyderabad.
per plant, harvest index and gluten content. A Results revealed that on a pooled basis, signifi-
broad range of variation was observed for plant cantly higher grain yield (6416 kg ha1 ) was ob-
height and biological yield per plant, number of tained with a normal date of sowing (25 June) and
grain per spike and test weight. The phenotypic was on par with 15 days early and 15 days late
variance value for most characters was closer (10 June and 10 July) sowings. However, further
than the corresponding genotypic variance delay in sowing decreased the grain yield sig-
value, showing little environment effect on the nificantly. Among the hybrids the medium- and
expression of these characters. The estimated late-maturity hybrids gave significantly higher
value of broad-sense heritability was found to grain yields (7351 and 7162 kg ha1 , respec-
be between 45 % (productive tillers per plant) tively) due to accumulation of higher GDD and
and 95 % (gluten content). Heritability values HTU compared to early- and extra early-maturity
were determined as 92 %, 92 %, 89 %, 85 %, hybrids (5645 and 5231 kg ha1 , respectively).
84 %, 71 %, 68 % and 67 % for plant height, The phenothermal index (PTI) for consecutive
days to maturity, test weight, days to 50 % phenophases indicated that the PTI gradually
flowering, ear length with awn, harvest index, decreased from emergence to maturity in all the
number of grains per spike and grain yield per dates of sowing during both the years and the
plant, respectively. High heritability coupled highest PTI was observed with early sowing dates
with high genetic advance as a percentage (up to 10 July) in comparison with later dates of
over mean was observed for plant height, test sowing. Higher HUE was observed with the early
weight, number of grain per spike and days sowing date than with the later sowing dates. This
to maturity, suggesting that selection for these trend was observed with all the hybrids of differ-
traits would give good responses. The grain ent maturity groups. However, the early-maturity
yield per plant exhibited highly significant and hybrids were found to be relatively stable with
positive correlation with biological yield per respect to yield compared to the medium- and
plant, test weight, productive tillers per plant late-maturity hybrids, as the HTU did not vary
and number of grains per spike, number of much across the dates of sowing with their short
spikelets per spike, spike length with awn and maturity period. The study indicated that the
plant height showing significant and positive sowing time has a significant influence on the
correlation with harvest index. It was suggested yield of maize under rain-fed conditions. It may
192 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

therefore be necessary to manipulate sowing of significant mean sum of squares values for all
hybrids of different maturity to avoid drought the characters indicating greater diversity among
during the critical periods of crop development; the genotypes. The GCVs for all the characters
furthermore, it would allow farmers to grow the studied were lower than the PCVs, indicating
variety that best meets their needs (Sreelatha et al. the effect of the environment. High GCV and
2015). PCV values were observed for grain yield per
plant and ear height. The difference between the
estimates of PCV and GCV were low for all
11.6.2 Moisture Stress in Maize the characters except shelling percentage, thereby
a lesser role was played by the environment in
The seasonal analysis tool DSSAT v 4.6 was used the expression of this character. The difference
to assess the risk of soil moisture stress on grain between the estimates of PCV and GCV was high
yield of rain-fed maize using 30 years of weather for shelling percentage, indicating the significant
data from 1981 to 2010 in the southern Telangana role played by the environment in the expression
agroclimatic zone of Telangana (Sreenivas et al. of these characters. All the characters showed
2015a). A higher mean grain yield was observed high estimates of heritability except shelling per-
when the crop was sown on 20 June and grain centage. High heritability coupled with high ge-
yield was comparable with crops sown on 30 netic advance as a percentage of the mean was
June and 10 July. Significantly lower grain yield observed for grain yield per plant, ear height,
was noticed under late-sown conditions. Scenario plant height, number of kernels per row, 100
analysis showed that less risk was associated with seed weight and ear length, indicating the role
the 20 June sown crop as the probability of ex- of additive genes in governing the inheritance of
ceeding 50 % moisture stress was very low during these traits, which could be improved through
silking as well as the grain-filling stage. Beyond simple selection.
10 July there was a more than 20 % chance
of exceeding 50 % moisture stress during these
critical phases of the crop. Based on strategic 11.6.4 Combining Ability
analysis, the moisture stress impact was reduced
by providing either one critical irrigation at the The combining ability and gene action for grain
silking stage (55 DAS) or two irrigations, one yield and yield components in maize was esti-
at silking and another at the grain-filling stage mated in 60 crosses of maize (Pole et al. 2015)
(75 DAS), increasing the yield by 13.8 % and obtained by crossing of six lines and ten testers.
19.1 % with decreases in the standard deviation GPM-210 showed good GCA effects for grain
from 2054 to 1360 and 1162, respectively, over yield, days to 50 % tasselling, days to 50 % silk-
the rain-fed conditions. ing, days to maturity, plant height, and num-
ber of grains per row and fodder yield. EC-
558714 and GPM-213 were the best combiners
11.6.3 Genotypic Variability for grain yield and yield components. Among the
testers, EC-558719 exhibited good GCA effects
The genetic variability, broad-sense heritability for days to 50 % tasselling, days to maturity, plant
and genetic advance were estimated in 60 inbreds height, ear length, ear girth, kernel rows and num-
lines of maize during kharif 2013 (Sandeep et al. ber of grains per row, 100 grain weight, fodder
2015) for 12 quantitative characters, viz days to yield and grain yield. The testers IC-558620, IC-
50 % tasselling, days to 50 % silking, days to 541068 and EC-558715 were the best combin-
maturity, plant height, ear height, ear length, ear ers for one or other characters including grain
girth, number of kernel rows per ear, number of yield. The hybrids IC-32118  IC-558620, GPM-
kernels per row, 100-seed weight, grain yield per 35  IC-541067, GPM-154  GPM-405, GPM-
plant and shelling percentage, exhibiting highly 210  EC-558711 and GPM-213  EC-558719
11 Breeding, Genetics and Biotechnology 193

showed desirable SCA effects for most of the ear height and ear length and ear girth, number of
traits studied, revealing potential for exploiting kernel rows per ear, number of kernels per row,
hybrid vigour in a breeding programme. The 100-kernel weight and popping expansion ratio.
estimates of variance indicated predominance of The path coefficient analysis at genotypic level
additive gene action for plant height, number revealed that the character ear height exhibited
of grains per row, 100 grain weight and grain the largest direct effect on grain yield per plant
yield. followed by days to 50 % silking, number of
In maize, the parent GPM-19 was found to kernels per row, number of kernel rows per ear
be a good general combiner for eight characters, and ear length (Sridhar et al. 2015).
while IC-541068 and IC-541060 were for seven Seven promising inbred lines were used for
characters and IC-541066 were for six characters. making crosses in full diallel fashion to produce
The above four parents could be utilized in a 42 crosses. These were evaluated along with
breeding programme of maize. There was close seven parent and three standard checks during
agreement between pre-SCA performance and kharif 2010 (Patil et al. 2015a) for 11 charac-
GCA as well as SCA effects for most of the ters, viz days to 50 % tasselling, days to 50 %
characters. Observation of various characters in- silking, days to maturity, plant height, ear length,
dicated that the cross showing high heterosis and ear girth, number of kernel rows, number of
high SCA effects had high per se performance grains per row, 100 grain weight, fodder yield
and they involved at least one high combining (g) and grain yield (g). Analysis of variance for
parent (Kathale et al. 2015d). means revealed significant differences for all the
Seven inbred lines were crossed in full dial- 11 characters studied. The parent versus hybrid
lel fashion. The resulting 42 crosses along with interaction mean squares were also significant
seven parents were employed for studying the for all the characters, indicating variability in
variance. Analysis of variance revealed signifi- parents and hybrids. The highest magnitude of
cant differences for all the 11 characters stud- heterosis over mid-parent (53.23 %) EC-558715
ied. The parent versus hybrid interaction mean  IC-541060 and over better parent EC-558715
square was significant for all characters, indicat-  IC-541060 (50.91 %) was observed for grain
ing variability in them. The highest magnitude yield. There was close agreement between per se
of heterosis over mid-parent EC-558715  IC- performance and GCA as well as SCA effects
541060 (53.23 %) and better parent EC-558715 for most of the characters. Observation of various
 IC-541060 (50.91 %) was observed for grain characters indicated that the cross showing high
yield per plant. The cross GPM-230  IC-541068 heterosis and high SCA effects had high per
(8.296 %) showed the highest magnitude of stan- se performance and involved at least one high
dard heterosis, followed by IC-541058  GPM- combining parent.
230 (10.32 %) (Kathale et al. 2015a). Studies were undertaken on heterosis and
The correlation and path analysis of yield combining ability analysis in maize (Zea mays
and yield-contributing characters in seven in- L.) to assess the possibility of estimating
bred lines crossed in a diallel mating design the extent of heterosis for yield and yield-
(method II, model I) resulting in 21 crosses was contributing characters in 30 crosses to identify
evaluated during rabi 2012–2013 at the Agricul- superior parents and crosses. Variability existed
tural Research Station, Karimnagar, Telangana, among the genotypes for all the characters
for studying the association of yield components studied, i.e. days to 50 % tasselling, days to
with popping ability and path analysis of these 50 % silking, days to maturity, plant height, cob
characters on yield and popping quality for en- length, cob girth, number of grains per cob,
abling the selection of inbred lines for the ulti- 100 grain weight and grain yield per plant (g).
mate usage in popcorn hybrid seed production. The crosses NM-0913  NM-0973, NM-099 
Correlation studies revealed that grain yield per NM-0973 and NM-0984  NM-0914 had high
plant was positively associated with plant height, mean performance for yield per plant and other
194 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

yield-contributing traits. The mean squares due cluster distance was recorded between cluster IV
to the interaction effects of parents versus crosses and cluster VI (62.538). The canonical analysis
were found to be significant for all the characters, indicated that number of grains per cob, days to
indicating the choice of exploitation of heterosis. 50 % tasselling, grain yield1 , 100-grain weight,
The mean squares for lines were significant for cob length and days to 50 % silking were the
days to 50 % tasselling, days to 50 % silking, important sources of variation in vector I. In
plant height, cob length, cob girth, number of vector II, plant height, days to maturity, days to
grains per cob, 100 grain weight and grain yield 50 % tasselling and number of grains per cob
per plant, while testers were significant for plant were important sources of variation. In vector III,
height, cob girth, number of grains per cob, 100- cob length, number of grains per cob and days to
grain weight and grain yield per plant. The higher 50 % tasselling were important. In vector IV, 100
magnitude of variance in line  tester interaction grain weight, cob girth, days to 50 % tasselling
suggested the presence of greater variability and plant height were important. In vector V, days
among the crosses than among the parents. The to 50 % tasselling, number of grains per cob and
GCA estimates of lines and testers emphasized days to 50 % silking were important. The geno-
the importance of five parents (NM-0935, NM- types belonging to a distant cluster and exhibiting
0913, NM-099, NM-0969 and NM-0973) for high performance in the desirable direction for
their use as good general combiners for yield and days to 50 % tasselling, number of grains per cob,
important yield-contributing characters. These days to 50 % silking and plant height were identi-
parents could be utilized for the development fied as the potential parents for the hybridization
of either a synthetic variety or an elite breeding programme. Genotypes NM-098, NM-093, NM-
population. Out of 30 crosses studied, 4 crosses 0918, NM-0991, NM-0911, GP-87, NM-0923,
(namely NM-099  NM-0973, NM-0984  NM- NM-0924, NM-0955, NM-0912, NM-0921, NM-
0914, NM-0969  NM-0967 and NM-0981 097, NM-0915(W): NM-0959, GP-93, NM-0992
 NM-0914) were identified as the highest and GP-92 were identified as diverse parents to be
potential crosses for hybrid production (Patil crossed with either PKVM-Shatak or Maharaja
et al. 2015b). (Solanke et al. 2015).

11.6.5 Genetic Divergence

11.7 Rice
Thirty-three genotypes were evaluated for ge-
netic divergence to identify the likely desirable 11.7.1 Compartmentation
and potential parents for a maize breeding pro- of Photosynthetic Enzymes
gramme aimed at yield and earliness improve-
ment. Genetic divergence was determined for The high photosynthetic capacity of C4 plants is
nine characters: days to 50 % tasselling, days due to their exclusive mode of CO2 incorporation,
to 50 % silking, days to maturity, plant height featuring stringent compartmentation of photo-
(cm), cob length, cob girth, number of grains per synthetic enzymes into two distinctive cell types,
cob, 100-grain weight (g) and grain yield. Ma- mesophyll and bundle sheath. Firstly, CO2 assim-
halanobis generalized distance values for char- ilation is carried out in mesophyll cells. The chief
acters were used in this study for computing carboxylating enzyme, phosphenol pyruvate car-
genetic divergence. The analysis of dispersion for boxylase (PEPC), in concert with carbonic anhy-
nine correlated variables, using Wilk’s criterion, drase, is vital to create rapid equilibrium between
revealed highly significant differences between CO2 and HCO3 . This step is responsible for the
genotypes for aggregate of the nine characters. hydration and fixation of CO2 to produce the
The 33 genotypes were grouped into six clus- C4 acid oxaloacetate. C3 photosynthesis is an
ters by Tocher’s method. The maximum inter- inefficient process, because the enzyme that lies
11 Breeding, Genetics and Biotechnology 195

at the heart of the Calvin cycle, ribulose-1,5- is 120–125 days. It has an erect plant type and
bisphosphate carboxylase-oxygenase (RuBisCO) attains a height of 95–105 cm with medium
is itself a very inefficient enzyme. The oxygenase tillering ability. It has a medium slender grain
activity of RuBisCO is an unavoidable side re- type nearer to BPT 5204 with high yield with
action, which is a consequence of its reaction a non-lodging habit and multiple gall midge
mechanism. The product of oxygenation, glyco- biotype resistance. The parents of this variety are
late 2-P, has to be retrieved by photorespiration, a MTU 4870 (a long-duration high-yielding BPH-
process that results in the loss of a quarter of the resistant culture with a medium slender grain)
carbon that was originally present in glycolate 2- and JGL 418 (a medium-duration culture with
P. Photorespiration therefore reduces carbon gain high yield and resistance to gall midge). This
to plants and increases the carbon level in the new culture is readily accepted by farmers due
atmosphere, which leads to increases in global to its high yield and resistance to multiple gall
warming. Purely in terms of the carbon economy, midge biotypes, and is accepted by traders as
there is, therefore, a strong selection pressure on the grain type is nearer to BPT 5204 (Raju et al.
plants to reduce the rate of photorespiration so as 2015).
to increase carbon gain, but it also improves water
and nitrogen-use efficiency. So, it is necessary
11.7.3 Aromatic Rice
to manipulate the C3 pathways into C4 mode.
Possibilities for the manipulation of plants to de-
The association between yield traits was worked
crease the amount of photorespiration include the
out in the F1 generation in 28 crosses of aro-
introduction of improved RuBisCO from other
matic rice during kharif 2012 to study the nature
species, reconfiguring photorespiration, or intro-
and extent of correlation among yield and yield-
ducing carbon-concentrating mechanisms, such
attributing characters. Grain yield per plant was
as inorganic carbon transporters, carboxysomes
positively and significantly associated with plant
or pyrenoids, or engineering a full C4 Kranz path-
height, panicle length and panicle weight, indi-
way using the existing evolutionary progression
cating the importance of these traits as selection
in C3 –C4 intermediates as a blueprint. One such
criteria in yield improvement programmes in aro-
attempt is possible in rice, which is belongs to
matic rice (Krishna et al. 2015).
the Poaceae family, as the members of Poaceae,
like foxtail millet, sugarcane, maize, etc., have
a Kranz type of leaf anatomy (Gangurde et al. 11.7.4 Genotypic Variability
2015).
Field experiments were conducted in 31 rice
genotypes during kharif 2012 and kharif 2013 at
11.7.2 Multiple Gall Midge the Agricultural Research Station, Kampasagar,
Biotype-Resistant Rice Telangana State in South India, to estimate the
Genotype genetic variability parameters for yield and yield-
contributing characters. Pooled analysis over the
JGL 13595 (MTU 4870  JGL 418) is a short- environments, genotype and environment inter-
duration multiple gall midge biotype-resistant actions were significant for traits like days to
high-yielding fine-grain rice genotype developed 50 % flowering, plant height, productive tillers
as a substitute for BPT 5204 (a popular cultivated per plant, filled grains per panicle, 1000 grain
variety in India). This culture was developed weight and grain yield, implying differential be-
by a pedigree selection method of breeding by haviour of genotypes under the two environments
evaluation in station trials, MLT and minikit for these characters. The estimates of the PCV
testing in farmers’ fields. It is suitable for sowing were slightly higher than those of the GCV for
from 1 June to 31 July. The seed-to-seed duration all the traits studied across the seasons. Slight
during the rainy season and post-rainy season differences were observed for all the characters
196 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

with regard to variability coefficients, heritabil- 11.7.6 Genetic Divergence

ity and genetic advance percentage of the mean
in different environments. Number of grains per Genetic divergence among genotypes plays an
panicle, number of productive tillers per plant, important role in the selection of parents having
1000 grain weight and grain yield were recorded wider variability for different characters and ulti-
as having moderate to high GCV, PCV, heri- mately for rational use of genetic resources. The
tability and genetic advance percentage of the landraces maintained by farmers are endowed
mean. These characters could be transmitted to with tremendous genetic variability and diversity,
the progeny and phenotypic selection based on as they are not subjected to subtle selection over
these characters would be effective (Bhadru et al. a long period.
2015). The genetic diversity was estimated among 70
landraces of rice using Mahalanobis D2 analy-
sis for 16 agro-morphological and grain quality
11.7.5 Sources of Resistance traits. The mean data after computing for each
to Brown Plant Hopper character were subjected to standard methods of
analyses of variance and diversity analysis. Based
Host plant resistance in paddy to brown plant on the relative magnitude of D2 values, the exper-
hopper Nilaparvata lugens was undertaken by imental material was distributed into nine clusters
screening the germplasm accessions using a stan- by using Tocher’s method. Out of nine clusters,
dard seed box technique. Among 400 germplasm cluster I was the largest, comprising 50 landraces,
accessions, four accessions (IC-578672, 578151, followed by cluster III with eight genotypes. The
464186 and 463837) were found to be resistant clustering pattern revealed that the geographical
and 17 accessions (IC-577478, 578145, 463851, diversity and genetic diversity were not related.
578665, 577482, 463828, 465106, 577741, Total number of grains per panicle, decorticated
578144, 577663, 465109, 466428, 463887, grain length, 100-grain weight, amylose con-
578137, 464128, 578017, 578413) were found tent, time of heading and stem length together
to be moderately resistant. The mechanisms of contributed the maximum (94.16 %) to the total
resistance of selected rice germplasm accessions genetic divergence. A wide range of variation was
were examined using an antixenosis mechanism found in cluster means for all the traits studied.
judged by honeydew production by BPH and The promising landraces from these clusters with
antibiosis mechanism judged by nymphal high mean values for different traits may be
survival, ovicidal test and gain in body weight directly used for adaptation or may be used as
of BPH. Tolerance was judged by days to parents in future hybridization. Maximum inter-
wilting of BPH-infested plants and analysed cluster distance was exhibited between clusters
as the biochemical aspects for resistance, viz VIII and IX, followed by clusters V and IX. The
estimation of phenols, reducing sugars, ascorbic greater the distance between two clusters, the
acid, NPK and proteins. The results revealed that wider the genetic diversity among the genotypes
the resistant and moderately resistant varieties of these clusters. Hence, hybridization between
showed low amounts of honeydew excretion, the landraces from these clusters would pro-
lower numbers of nymphal survival, higher duce high heterotic recombinants (Umarani et al.
numbers of unhatched eggs and a greater time 2015).
to wilting. Survival percentage of nymphs was A set of 76 rice genotypes were subjected
lower in resistant varieties and they took the to Mahalanobis D2 analysis to assess genetic
maximum time to wilt in comparison with diversity among them. All these genotypes were
susceptible check TN1. Rice varieties with grouped into nine clusters with maximum inter-
lower quantities of honeydew excreted usually cluster distance between cluster VI and cluster
had lower survival rates (Ramulamma et al. IX (5805.13) and minimum inter-cluster distance
2015). was observed between cluster I and cluster II
11 Breeding, Genetics and Biotechnology 197

(374.05). Among the ten characters studied, days ents revealed that female NAUR-1 was observed
to 50 % flowering contributed the maximum to- to be a good general combiner for yield contribut-
wards genetic divergence (41.58 %) followed by ing traits, whereas in males, Pusa Sughandh-5,
number of unfilled grains per panicle (12.49 %) Indrayani and Pusa Basmati-370 were good gen-
and number of filled grains per panicle (11.16 %) eral combiners for yield and yield contributing
(Srinivas et al. 2015). characters. The best specific cross combinations
were average  average, average  average and
poor  good, respectively, for grain yield per
11.7.7 Line  Tester Analysis plant.
An experiment consisting of 15 lines, 3 testers
Line  tester analysis using a set of four females and their 45 crosses on heterosis was conducted
(lines) and ten males (testers) was carried out in at a research farm of Birsa Agriculture Univer-
40 hybrids to estimate the extent of heterosis and sity, Kanke, Ranchi, Jharkhand during the kharif
combining ability for yield and its components in season, showing that the cross combination BAU-
rice (Oryza sativa L.) (Patil et al. 2015d). Analy- 274-92  IR-36 gave significantly positive het-
sis of variance for all the characters revealed that erosis to the tune of 31.39 %, followed by BR-
parents and hybrids showed significant differ- 8  IR-36 and BR-8  BD-202 (27 %) and
ences for all the characters, indicating a consider- BAU-211-90  IR-36, BAU-211  BD-202 and
able amount of genetic variability in the material BAU-269-92  IR-36 (25.83, 24.67 and 25.97 %,
studied. Parent versus hybrid comparison was respectively) for grain yield per plant. These
found to be significant for all the characters crosses also showed positive and significant SCA
except panicle length, plant height and grain yield effects for the character. The GCA status of
per plant, indicating substantial amount of hetero- the parents involved revealed high  high, high
sis among hybrids. Among the parents, NAUR-1,  low and low  low combinations, meaning
Pusa Sughandh-5 and Indrayani were the best- involvement of both additive and non-additive
performing parents for grain yield per plant and gene effects. The combinations can further be
some of its related attributes. High magnitude improved through simple selection procedures
of heterobeltiosis was observed for test weight, (additive  additive) or after advancing the gen-
grain yield per plant, grains per panicle, panicle erations through transgression effects (Madhuri
length, days to 50 % flowering and 1000-grain et al. 2015a).
weight. Crosses NAUR-1  Indrayani, NAUR-
1  Pusa Basmati-370 and NVSR-6029  Pusa
Sughandha-5 were found to be most heterotic 11.8 Cowpea
for grain yield per plant. Simultaneous increase
in grains per panicle and panicles per plant had Legumes are considered to be an important com-
positive effects towards higher grain yield. The ponent of a subsistence cropping system because
per se performance of hybrids were, in general, of their ability to form nodules in symbiotic as-
related to the heterotic response in the majority sociation with Rhizobium bacteria, which convert
of characters. This indicated that the selection atmospheric nitrogen (N2 ) into an assimilable
of crosses on the basis of per se performance form of ammonia, to add a substantial amount
or heterotic response would be equally impor- of organic matter to the soil and to grow bet-
tant. Combining ability analysis revealed that ter than many other crops with low inputs un-
both GCA and SCA variances were important der harsh climatic and edaphic conditions. Cow-
for inheritance of various traits. However, SCA pea is one such legume, with 12 characters re-
variances were higher than GCA variances for all lated to nodulation investigated at the Instruc-
the characters, which indicated that non-additive tional Farm UBKV, Pundibari, West Bengal, in
gene action was predominant in the expression of 2014, showing that the indigenous breeding lines
the traits. The estimation of GCA effects for par- had medium-sized spherical nodules distributed
198 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

mostly on tap roots and secondary roots. Highest were more than 35 ı C and the reproductive phase
GCV and PCV were observed for nodule dry was exposed to high temperature of 41.7 ı C.
weight and nodule fresh weight. High heritability High temperature affected pod setting and seed
coupled with high genetic advance was recorded filling and influenced the seed yield. The seed
in nodule dry weight followed by root dry weight yield of the genotypes ranged from 1.36 to 6.73 g
and nodule fresh weight. Seed yield per plant per plant with an average of 3.50 g per plant.
was found to be strongly and positively correlated Among 18 genotypes, the highest seed yield was
with nodules per plant, nodule size and nodule recorded with PU-19 (6.73 g per plant) and it
fresh weight. The correlations between nodules also produced highest number of clusters (25),
per plant and nodule fresh weight was highly pods (40) and seeds (161). It was very pertinent
significant and positive. Highest direct effect on that seed yield during the season was directly
seed yield per plant was exerted by shoot fresh influenced by seed number rather than cluster
weight followed by nodules per plant. Thus, the number or pod number. These findings clearly
native rhizobia, when present in the soil rhizo- indicated that the seed set and seed filling in black
sphere, could be exploited by selection of correct gram crop are crucial for realizing better yield at
genotypes. An avenue for the development of ap- high temperatures.
propriate new breeding lines or varieties through
breeding, considering biological nitrogen fixation
as one of the essential components for improving 11.9.1 Mutagens in Black Gram
the seed yield, could be provided (Das and Sarkar
2015). Seeds of black gram [Vingo mungo (L.) Hepper]
variety VBN 4 and ACM 07002 were exposed to
gamma ray doses at 200, 250, 300 and 350 Gy
and EMS (ethyl methane sulphonate) doses at
11.9 Black Gram 20, 30 and 40 mM. In variety VBN 4, a total
of 40 mutants were observed in the gamma ray-
Black gram (Vigna mungo L. Hepper) is an im- treated plants and 17 mutants were observed in
portant food legume with high nutritive value and the EMS-treated plants. A greater number of
consists of up to 26 % protein. Lack of suitable mutants was observed with gamma rays. Among
genotypes with adaptation to local environmen- the four doses of gamma ray treatment and three
tal conditions is one of the factors affecting its doses of EMS, the dose 350 Gy in gamma ray
production. Efforts to genetically improve the mutagen and 40 mM in EMS mutagen registered
crop productivity of local cultivars involve iden- the highest frequency. In ACM 07002, a total
tification of important morphological and yield of 28 mutants were observed in the gamma ray-
parameters followed by development of advanced treated plants and 16 mutants were observed in
breeding lines. It is a thermosensitive crop. Eigh- the EMS-treated plants. The number of mutants
teen genotypes of black gram were evaluated was higher with gamma rays than with EMS.
(Yerra et al. 2015) for the effect of environmental Among the four doses of gamma ray treatment
conditions on yield. The maximum indirect posi- and three doses of EMS, the dose 300 Gy in
tive effect on seed yield was exhibited by number gamma ray mutagen and 40 mM in EMS mutagen
of branches per plant through number of effective registered the highest frequency (Ramchander
capitula per plant (0.499), followed by days to et al. 2015).
50 % flowering (0.474). Direct negative influ- The magnitude of genetic variability and cor-
ences were observed for days to 50 % flowering relation coefficient among different yield compo-
(0.425) and oil content (%) (0.055), indicating nents in mung bean was assessed in 17 geno-
the importance of depict selection for identifica- types (Sayyad et al. 2015). Significant varia-
tion of a genotype tolerant of high temperature. tions were observed among the genotypes for
The temperatures during the crop growth period all the characters. The highest genetic coefficient
11 Breeding, Genetics and Biotechnology 199

of variation was observed for number of pods pods per plant, days to 50 % flowering and days
per plants, followed by yield per plant, number to maturity, number of pods per plant, early
of primary branches and plant height The yield flowering, tallness, number of branches per plant
per plant showed highly significant and positive and 100-seed weight.
associations with plant height, number of pri-
mary branches, number of secondary branches
and number of pod per plant, 100 seed weight 11.10.2 Resistance to Mechanical
and days to maturity. The number of pods per Damage
plant had a high positive direct effect on yield per
plant, followed by days to maturity, number of Soybean viability and vigour are affected due
primary branches, number of seeds per pod and to the mechanical damage caused to seeds dur-
plant height. Therefore, days to maturity, num- ing processing. Soybean seed germplasm was
ber of primary branches, number of secondary screened for resistance to mechanical damage
branches, number of pods per plant and 100 (Shelar et al. 2015) by the use of a pendulum
seed weight were identified to be the important test device that struck the seeds from heights of
characters that could be used in selection for yield 11.00, 13.00 and 14.50 cm. The percentage of
of mung bean. cracked and split seeds increased with an increase
in the pendulum height, whereas the percentage
of sound seed was decreased as the pendulum
height was increased, irrespective of soybean
11.10 Soybean line. Among the 256 soybean lines screened, the
lines DS-59, DS-61, DS-108, DS-138, DS-139,
11.10.1 Genetic Variability DS-154, DS-94, DS-95, DS-120, DS-130 and
DS-143 were found to be resistant to mechanical
Genetic parameters of variability, correlation and damage whereas 48 lines were susceptible to
path coefficients were studied in 30 genotypes mechanical damage.
along with 3 checks of soybean for 9 charac-
ters (Bodkhe et al. 2015). Analysis of variance
revealed the presence of variability for number
of pods per plant, plant height, days to maturity, 11.11 Pea
seed yield per plant, days to 50 % flowering, days
to first flowering, 100 seed weight, oil content Quality parameters were evaluated in 45 F1 s and
and number of branches per plant. The char- 45 F2 s derived from ten parents in diallel in
acters number of pods per plant, plant height, table pea (Singh et al. 2015). The results showed
number of branches per plant and seed yield per high estimates of heritability in narrow sense for
plant showed higher GCV with high heritability number of developed ovules per pod and shelling
estimates and genetic advance. Significant and percentage based on F2 generation, while green
positive correlations were found between seed pod yield per plant, harvest index and protein
yield and plant height, number of pods per plant, content showed high heritability estimates based
days to 50 % flowering and days to maturity, on both the generations. The genetic advance
and the highest association was between number was high only for green pod yield per plant in
of pods per plant and seed yield. Days to first both the generations, while it was moderate for
flowering followed by 100 seed weight, plant remaining characters at K D 2.06, which indi-
height and number of branches per plant exhib- cated that both additive and non-additive genes
ited the highest direct effects on seed yield. The were effective for controlling these traits, while
study revealed that it would be rewarding to lay yield was under control of additive genes. An
emphasis in a selection programme of soybean advancement of 53 g based on F1 and 46 g
for characters such as plant height, number of based on F2 in green pod yield per plant per
200 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

cycle of selection was observed. It was about and Lens nigricans, possess resistance to either
10 % for harvested index and 8 % for shelling or both the diseases. During the post-rainy season
percentage at the same intensity while protein 2012–2013, accessions of wild species were eval-
content showed about 4 % from a single cycle uated for their resistance or tolerance against wilt
of selection. The probable genetic gain was high and rust. In the same year, interspecific crosses
for all the characters. Protein content showed comprising seven good agronomic bases of do-
positively significant correlation with number of mesticated lentil were made with three accessions
developed ovules per pod and harvest index. A of Lens orientalis. Since L. culinaris and L. orien-
simple pedigree method followed by recurrent talis are the primary gene pool, the crosses were
selection may be effective for improving these successful between the two and 50–65 % seed
quality parameters. setting with viable hybrid seeds was obtained.
The same good agronomic bases of domesticated
lentils were also crossed with three accessions
of Lens ervoides (secondary gene pool). In these
11.12 Green Gram
cases initially after pollination, the embryo de-
velopment started but at a later stage, the hy-
Characterization of 84 germplasm accessions of
brid embryo started aborting. As soon as zygote
green gram (Sowmya et al. 2015b) for morpho-
abortion was observed, growth hormone GA3
logical characters revealed the presence of vari-
(10 ppm) was applied, which resulted in checking
ability among these accessions. Based on plant
of embryo abortion to some extent. The cultivars
growth pattern, 9 were erect, 11 were spread-
of domesticated lentil were also crossed with
ing and the remaining accessions were semi-
three accessions of wild species Lens nigricans, a
spreading type, while on the basis of plant habit
secondary gene pool. After pollination, the hybrid
pattern, only 8 had determinate growth and the
embryo collapsed in all the cases, with the result
remaining were indeterminate type. Based on leaf
that no seed setting in any of the crosses was ob-
size at the fifth node of the plant, 11 had small-
tained. The crossed seed of interspecific crosses
sized leaves, 39 had medium-sized leaves and re-
L. culinaris  L. orientalis and L. culinaris 
maining genotypes possessed large-sized leaves.
L. ervoides, when in a wilt sick plot along with
Therefore, combination of these qualitative char-
susceptible check and in a normal field along with
acters in association with pod and seed (both
susceptible check for rust, has shown resistance
qualitative and quantitative) characters could be
to wilt as well as rust. These interspecific crosses
used to differentiate the existing genotypes from
were back crossed to their respective recurrent
one another, and superior genotypes could be
parent and sufficient numbers of crossed seeds
further used in breeding programmes.
were obtained. The BC1 generations were grown
in a wilt sick nursery, and the resistant plants
were picked up to identify genotypes possessing
11.13 Lentil high yield along with resistance to wilt and rust
(Katiyar et al. 2015).
Lentil (Lens culinaris Medik) is among the old-
est domesticated crops of mankind, which with
time has become important as a food, feed and 11.14 Pigeon Pea
cropping system in many countries of the world.
In India, wilt and rust are the most devastating The response of red gram varieties Asha, PRG-
diseases, which together cause yield losses up to 158, Maruthi, Laxmi and MRG-1004 to planting
80 %. To date, no cultivar or land races of L. culi- geometry under square planting revealed that
naris have been identified possessing resistance square planting of red gram at 100  100 cm
to both the diseases. Some of the accessions of recorded the highest seed yield (2338 kg ha1 )
wild species, viz Lens orientalis, Lens ervoides at 90  90 cm (2120 kg ha1 ) (Rani et al. 2015a).
11 Breeding, Genetics and Biotechnology 201

11.14.1 CMS-Based Pigeon Pea (38.62), high magnitude of useful heterosis

Hybrids (27.62 % over check PKV-TARA and 37.39 %
over check ASHA) and positive SCA effect, and
CMS-based pigeon pea hybrids (16 crosses) both parents involved revealed high GCA effects.
obtained from crosses of two females (lines), This cross could be successfully utilized to
viz AKCMS-92A and AKCMS-87A, and eight obtain superior segregants in further segregating
males (testers), viz AKPR-364, AKPR-324, generations. Another cross, AKCMS-87A 
AKPR-372, AKPR-303, AKPR-057, AKPR- AKPR-359, revealed high mean performance
359, AKPR-215 and AKPR-277, along with (36.17 g), high magnitude of useful heterosis
the standard checks PKV-TARA and ASHA, (19.53 % over check PKV-TARA and 28.67 %
were evaluated (Pawar et al. 2015) to estimate over check ASHA) and positive SCA effect, and
the per se performance, extent of useful both parent involved revealed high GCA effects.
heterosis, average heterosis, heterobeltiosis and One of the parents (AKPR-372), though a low
combining ability effects to find out superior combiner for grain yield, was a good combiner
cross combinations for their further exploitation, for days to 50 % flowering and days to maturity.
showing that the mean squares due to genotypes This cross may be employed to exploit a non-
were highly significant for all the traits studied. additive component along with high heterotic
This indicated the presence of substantial response. However, the performance of this cross
genetic variability among genotypes for all the has to be evaluated in large-scale trials.
traits studied. The highest significant useful
heterosis for grain yield per plant was recorded
in AKCMS-87A  AKPR-324 (27.63 % over 11.15 Lathyrus
check PKV- TARA and 37.39 % over check
ASHA). The highest significant average heterosis 11.15.1 Genetic Divergence
was observed in cross AKCMS-87A  AKPR-
303 (97.95 %). The same cross recorded the Fifty-seven genotypes were evaluated for genetic
highest significant heterobeltiosis (87.51 %) for divergence to identify potential parents for a
grain yield per plant. Among female parents, Lathyrus breeding programme aimed at yield and
AKCMS-87A recorded a significant GCA effect earliness improvement for eight characters, i.e.
for maximum of the three characters number days to 50 % flowering, days to maturity, plant
of clusters, number of pods and grain yield per height (cm), number of primary branches, seeds
plant; also the same female parent, AKCMS- per pod, pods per plant, 100 seed weight (g) and
87A, was found to possess highest GCA effect grain yield. The genetic divergence was com-
for days to 50 % flowering, days to maturity, puted by Mahalanobis generalized distance for
number of branches, number of seeds per pod eight characters. The analysis of dispersion for
and 100 seed weight. The male parent AKPR- eight correlated variables, using Wilk’s criterion,
324 was found to possess the highest significant revealed a highly significant difference between
GCA effect for plant height, number of branches, genotypes for aggregate of the eight characters.
number of clusters, number of pods, number of The 57 genotypes were grouped into eight clus-
seeds per pods, 100-seed weight and grain yield ters by Tocher’s method. The maximum inter-
per plant. The male parent AKPR-372 recorded cluster distance was observed between cluster IV
the highest significant GCA effect for days to and cluster VIII (110.67). The canonical analysis
50 % flowering and days to maturity. The cross revealed that the plant height at maturity, pods
AKCMS-87A  AKPR-324 (3.05) recorded the per plant, yield per plant, days to 50 % flowering,
highest significant positive SCA effect for grain seeds per pod, number of primary branches and
yield per plant, followed by AKCMS-87A  days to maturity were significant and important
AKPR-359 (2.88). The cross AKCMS-87A  sources of variation in vector I; in vector II,
AKPR-324 depicted high mean performance primary branches, days to maturity and days to
202 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

50 % flowering were important sources of varia- relations with yield per plant. This indicates that
tion. In vector III, days to 50 % flowering, days a decrease in these characters will result in an
to maturity, number of seeds per pod and 100 increase in yield. All the seedling characters
seed weight were important sources of variation. studied, viz germination percentage (0.976), root
The genotypes belonging to a distant cluster and length (0.986), shoot length (0.729), seedling
exhibiting high performance in the desirable di- vigour index (0.966) and seedling dry weight
rection for plant height, yield per plant, days to (0.841), showed highly significant positive corre-
50 % flowering and pods per plant were identi- lations with seed yield per plant, indicating the vi-
fied as the potential parents for a hybridization tal role of these characters towards corresponding
programme. Twenty genotypes, viz L-3, L-31, L- gain in yield of sunflower hybrids. The sunflower
33, L-25, L-32, JRL-16, RLK-279, L-37, RLK- hybrids showing high value of desirable seed and
1045, L-44, L-14, L-11, L-07, L-08, RLK-240, seedling characters also yielded higher; this may
L-39, L-05, RLK-602, L-16 and BioR-208, were be due to high germination percentage and early
identified as potential and diverse parents for use vigour of these hybrids. Thus, more emphasis
in a crossing programme (Khillari et al. 2015). should be given to seed and seedling characters
as an early indicator of yield performance, and
seed and seedling characters may be used as se-
11.16 Breeding for Stress lection criteria for identification of high-yielding
Tolerance sunflower hybrids (Nichal et al. 2015).

11.16.1 Garden Pea

11.16.3 Mustard
The performance of eight varieties of garden pea
studied showed that all the varieties had consid- 11.16.3.1 Combining Ability
erable variation in their performance for most Thirty crosses obtained by crossing two testers
parameters. Better yield parameters in terms of (drought-tolerant donors) with 15 lines along
number of green pod per plant, green pod weight, with their parents were evaluated to analyse the
green pod length, green pod yield per plant and combining ability of available genotypes with
yield per hectare were noticed in all varieties drought-tolerant donors and to identify superior
(Khichi et al. 2015). crosses for their exploitation in developing
drought-tolerant varieties of mustard (Puttawar
et al. 2015). Variation among the genotypes was
11.16.2 Sunflower highly significant for all the characters studied,
except days to maturity, thereby indicating a
The correlation studies of seed and seedling char- substantial amount of genetic variability. The
acters with yield of eight sunflower hybrids were significance of parents versus crosses noticed for
studied at the Oilseeds Research Unit, Dr. PDKV, days to 50 % flowering, days to maturity, plant
Akola, and at the Seed Testing Research Unit, Dr. height, number of branches per plant, number
PDKV, Akola, during kharif 2012. The character of siliqua per plant and seed yield per plant
association revealed that the seed characters ker- satisfied the basic prerequisites for comparing the
nel to hull ratio (0.986), seed kernel percentage expression of parents and crosses for different
(0.984), volume weight (0.783) and 100-seed characters; per se performance revealed the
weight (0.741) showed highly significant positive superiority of the parents GM-6, Bio-902, Seeta
correlations with yield per plant, indicating that and ACN-9 for seed yield per plant and number
yield of sunflower hybrids could be increased of siliqua per plant. Among the crosses, GM6
by increase in these seed characters. Seed hull  Geeta, Aashirvad  RH 819, SEJ 2  Geeta
percentage (0.949) and electrical conductivity and Seeta  Geeta exhibited superiority for seed
of seed leachate (0.407) recorded negative cor- yield per plant and number of siliqua per plant.
11 Breeding, Genetics and Biotechnology 203

Significant variations among lines were observed branches. In the F3 and F4 generations the sili-
for most characters like days to 50 % flowering, qua on primary branches showed highest positive
plant height, number of siliqua per plant, 1000 direct effect on seed yield. In the F4 genera-
seed weight and seed yield per plant, and also tion, while siliqua on primary branches exerted
for line  tester interaction, except days to 50 % high positive direct effect on seed yield in both
flowering, which allowed estimation of general the generations, length of main raceme exerted
combining ability and specific ability effects for highly negative direct effect on seed yield.
the above characters, while the mean squares
for testers were significant only for number of
siliqua per plant. The parents Urvashi, JD 6 11.16.4 Safflower
and Vardan were identified as good general
combiners. The crosses SEJ 2  Geeta and In 150 safflower germplasm lines and five checks
Ashirvad  RH-819 were identified as promising evaluated for yield and yield-related components
crosses based on mean and SCA effects for yield and their direct and indirect contribution
and number of siliqua per plant, which were towards yields, analysis of variance and mean
identified for forwarding to the next generation performance for seed yield and its components
for making improvement in the seed yield along revealed significant differences among all the
with drought tolerance, followed by a simple germplasm lines for all characters there by
selection method. indicating presence of variability in genotypes.
Seed yield showed highly positive significant
11.16.3.2 Variability in F3 and F4 correlations with number of effective capitula
Generations per plant and number of secondary branches
Thirty experimental strains of Brassica rapa L. per plant. Path analysis studies revealed that
var yellow sarson for F3 and F4 generations were the highest direct effect on seed yield per
evaluated for variability (Das et al. 2015a). The plant was observed for the character number
F3 generation bilocular groups showed significant of effective capitula per plant (0.413), followed
variation for siliqua on the main raceme and seeds by days to maturity (0.353) and number of
per siliqua. The F4 generation bilocular groups secondary branches per plant (0.096). The
showed significant variations for most of the maximum indirect positive effect on seed
characters except plant height, height up to first yield was exhibited by days to 50 % flowering
fruiting branch, length of main raceme, siliqua on through days to maturity (0.325), with number of
main raceme and seed yield. GCV for all the traits effective capitula per plant (0.189) indicating
were higher than the corresponding PCV in F4 the importance of depict selection for these
generation. Heritability (bs) estimates recorded characters (Gopal et al. 2015).
high for siliqua on main raceme and 100-seed A random mating population of safflower
weight, and genetic advance as a percentage of was evaluated for yield improvement (Tayade
the mean was recorded higher for siliqua on et al. 2015) of recurrent selection and selection
primary branches, length of main raceme, siliqua of promising half-sib families over checks
on main raceme and 100-seed weight in the biloc- AKS-207, Bhima and PKV-Pink. The result
ular group. In F3 generation, seed yield showed showed that there was remarkable variability
significantly positive phenotypic and genotypic in the material used. The additive genetic
correlations with plant height, siliqua on pri- variance and phenotypic variance among half-
mary branches, length of main raceme, siliqua sib families were high for plant height (269.32
on main raceme, seeds per siliqua and 100-seed and 66.33), followed by seed yield per plant
weight, and showed significantly negative cor- (160.68 and 40.17). Heritability estimates
relation with height up to first fruiting branch. in narrow sense were high for seed yield
The F4 generation showed significantly positive per plant (70.20 %), followed by number of
correlation of seed yield with number of primary capitulums per plant (42.96 %) over population
204 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

mean and over check varieties, i.e. AKS-207 positive and significant SCA effects. Hence, these
(51.40 %), Bhima (41.79 %) and PKV-Pink are recommended for yield improvement.
(44.40 %) at 5 % selection intensity for the
same character. The seed yield per plant was
positively correlated with plant height (0.21*), 11.16.6 Groundnut
number of primary branches per plant (0.45*)
and oil content (0.27*). Out of 135 families, 20 11.16.6.1 Adaptability and Stability
half-sib families exhibited significant increases of Groundnut Genotypes
for yield-contributing characters besides seed Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is one of the
yield over check AKS-207, Bhima and PKV- most important oilseed crops, which is commer-
Pink. These families should be utilized for the cially cultivated in rainy, post-rainy and summer
next recombination cycle to improve seed yield seasons in India. The adaptability and stability of
and yield-contributing characters in a future some groundnut genotypes over diverse growing
population improvement programme. environments in a total of 14 environments with
Path analysis studies in 40 safflower simulation was assessed (Ladole et al. 2015).
germplasm including 2 checks (Carthamus Pooled analysis of variance over diverse envi-
tinctorius L.) showed that the highest direct ronments revealed the presence of genotype 
effect on seed yield per plant was exhibited by the environment interactions and significant differ-
character number of effective capitula per plant ences among the genotypes and environments
(0.723), followed by 100 seed weight (0.548) and for pod yield and other component traits. The
days to maturity (Ingole et al. 2015). partitioning of G  E interaction revealed that the
linear component was significant against pooled
deviation for pod yield and seed oil content. How-
11.16.5 Sesamum ever, the linear component was non-significant
for the other component traits, indicating that
The general and specific combining ability eval- the response of genotypes to environments was
uated (Dhuppe et al. 2015) in 25 hybrids of sesa- not controlled genetically. The non-linear compo-
mum (Sesamum indicum L.) obtained by cross- nent (pooled deviation) was also significant when
ing 5  5 genotypes in line L  T fashion with tested against the pooled error, revealing presence
their ten parents and two standard checks for 11 of non-linear responses of the genotypes to the
characters, viz days to first flower, days to 50 % changing environments.
flowering, days to maturity, plant height, number The genotype AK 320 showed specific
of branches per plant, number of capsules per adaptability for favourable environments, and
plant, capsule length, number of seed per capsule, the genotype AK 342 showed adaptability for
1000 seed weight, oil content and seed yield per unfavourable environments with respect to pod
plant, showed that OSC-560 was observed to be yield. However, both genotypes were not very
a good general combiner for seed yield and days stable across environments for the seed oil
to maturity. RT-54 was found to be good general content, but their seed oil content improved
combiner for plant height, number of capsules per proportionally to the improving environment.
plant, number of seeds per capsule and oil con- For the trait pods per plant, the genotype AK
tent. Among males, IS-200 was a good general 327 was found to have average stability. The
combiner for seed yield per plant and number of genotype TAG 24 exhibited average stability
seed per capsule. The cross combinations RT-54 for harvest index. In general, the genotypes that
 NIC-16194, OSC-560  KMR-11, OSC-207 showed a high level of stability were not high
 IS-200, MT-10-13-01  IS-200, MT-10-13-01 yielders, and the high yielders were found to be
 NIC-8600-A, MT-10-13-01  SI-982, SSD- unstable in respect of pod yield and its component
01  NIC-16194 and RT-54  KMR-11 showed traits.
11 Breeding, Genetics and Biotechnology 205

11.16.6.2 Genetic Variability tion of suitable basic material for further im-
and Heritability provement. PCV values were of higher magni-
The knowledge of variability of genetic material tude than GCV values for all parameters under
would be of immense importance in any breeding study. The estimates of PCV and GCV were
programmes. Continuous breeding will lead to high for kernel yield (38.11 and 33.76) and dry
narrowing down the variability among the geno- pod yield (36.30 and 32.26). High heritability
types, which will further hinder the yield in any (h2 ) and high genetic advance as a percentage
crop. One of the ways to increase the variability of the mean (GAM) was observed for kernel
is by introduction of genetically diverse new yield (78.49 % and 61.62 %) and dry pod yield
genotypes. Hence, the success of planned hy- (78.96 % and 59.05 %), while low h2 was noticed
bridization in self-pollinated crops like groundnut for 100-kernel weight (28.51 %) and sound ma-
(Arachis hypogaea L.) to recombine the desirable ture kernels (8.14 %). However, the GAM values
traits from different plants is influenced by the observed were moderate for 100-kernel weight
amount of the variability existing in the gene (11.43) and low for other important traits like
pool. days to 50 % flowering, day to maturity, shelling
Variability and heritability were evaluated in (%) and sound mature kernels (%).
25 genotypes of groundnut (Kahate et al. 2015) High estimates of GCV, PCV, heritability and
including five checks, viz JL-24, TAG-24, LGN- genetic advance as a percentage of the mean
1, JL-220 and AK-159, for 17 characters, viz were observed for kernel yield per plant, pod
pod yield per plant, kernel yield per plant, test yield per plant, number of pods per plant, harvest
weight, shelling percentage, oil content, harvest index and test weight under both stress and non-
index, late leaf spot severity, stomatal frequency stress situations. It indicated the role of additive
per mm2 (adaxial and abaxial), stomata length gene action and hence the usefulness of pheno-
(adaxial and abaxial), stomata breadth (adaxial typic selection for bringing improvement. Pod
and abaxial), non-reducing sugar, reducing sugar, yield showed positive significant association with
SCMR and phenol content. The estimates of number of pods per plant, test weight, kernel
GCV and PCV indicated that maximum GCV and yield per plant, number of seeds and harvest
PCV were observed for LLS severity, followed index at genotypic and phenotypic levels un-
by pod yield, kernel yield per plant, reducing der non-stress conditions, whereas pod yield per
sugar and non-reducing sugar. The estimates plant also showed positive significant associated
of heritability was appreciably high for LLS with kernel yield, number of pods per plant, test
severity, stomatal frequency per mm2 (adaxial weight, harvest index and number of seeds per
and abaxial), test weight, stomata length (adaxial pod under stress conditions. The path analysis
and abaxial), reducing sugar, non-reducing sugar, revealed that the number of pods per plant exerted
phenol content, oil content, stomata breadth the highest positive direct effect on pod yield,
(adaxial and abaxial), pod yield per plant, kernel whereas harvest index and kernel yield exhibited
yield per plant and SCMR. the highest positive direct effect on pod yield
Genetic variability was studied in a set of under stress conditions. Therefore, it would be
22 groundnut genotypes under conditions favour- rewarding to lay due emphasis on the selection
ing normal growth and expression of all the of these characters for rapid improvement in pod
characters (Khan et al. 2015). The analysis of yield (Abubakker et al. 2015).
variance showed significant differences among The genetic variability and character associ-
the genotypes tested for all the eight charac- ation for traits related to yield and water use
ters, justifying the selection of genotypes for efficiency in 225 genotypes consisting of 184
the study. The genotypes showed considerable groundnut minicore accessions and 41 advanced
amounts of genetic variation for all the char- breeding lines studied (Sowmya et al. 2015a) re-
acters and indicated the good scope for selec- vealed that there was high GCV, PCV, heritability
206 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

and GAM for pods per plant, pod yield per for different characters; per se performance re-
plant, kernel yield per plant, SMK and 100- vealed the superiority of the parents GM-6, Bio-
kernel weight, suggesting the presence of consid- 902, Seeta and ACN-9 for seed yield per plant
erable variability for these traits. Low GCV, PCV and number of siliqua per plant. Among the
and high heritability coupled with low GAM crosses, GM6  Geeta, Aashirvad  RH 819,
were noticed for SLA and SCMR. Pod yield per SEJ 2  Geeta and Seeta  Geeta exhibited
plant had significant correlation with all the traits superiority for seed yield per plant and number
except SMK. Path analysis revealed the maxi- of siliqua per plant. Significant variations among
mum direct effect of kernel yield per plant on lines were observed for most characters like days
pod yield per plant. The accessions ICG 13942, to 50 % flowering, plant height, number of sili-
ICG 12000, ICG 532, JL24, ICG 5745, ICG qua per plant, 1000 seed weight and seed yield
5662, ICG 14482, GBFD5272, M282 and ICG per plant, and also for line  tester interaction
13099 exhibited higher SCMR values, and the except days to 50 % flowering, which allowed
accessions ICG 13942, JL24, GKVK13, ICG the estimation of general combining ability and
5745, ICG 2772, ICG 5016, ICG 10036, ICG specific ability effects for the above characters,
9777, ICG 875 and ICG 532 had lower SLA while mean squares for testers were significant
values. These accessions were identified as high only for number of siliqua per plant. The par-
water use efficient based on their high SCMR and ents Urvashi, JD 6 and Vardan were identified
low SLA values, and need to be tested under both as good general combiners. The crosses SEJ 2
water stress and non-stress conditions in order to  Geeta and Ashirvad  RH-819 were identi-
confirm their drought tolerance. High pod yield fied as promising crosses based on mean and
per plant was recorded by genotypes ICG 13942, SCA effects for yield and number of siliqua per
JL24, ICG 930121, GKVK13, ICG 6057, ICG plant, which were identified for forwarding to the
99003, ICG 10036, ICG 10556, ICG 11426 and next generation for making improvement in the
ICG 10479. The identified superior accessions seed yield along with drought tolerance followed
can be further utilized in breeding programmes to by a simple selection method (Puttawar et al.
develop high-yielding and drought-tolerant geno- 2015).
types.

11.16.8 Okra
11.16.7 Mustard
11.16.8.1 Okra Mutagens
Thirty crosses of mustard obtained by cross- Mutation frequency, mutagenic effectiveness and
ing two testers (drought-tolerant donors) with 15 efficiency of gamma rays (at 15, 30, 45 and
lines along with their parents were evaluated for 60 kR) and ethyl methane sulphonate (at 0.2 %,
analysis of combining ability of these available 0.4 %, 0.6 %, 0.8 % and 1.0 %) were assessed in
genotypes with drought-tolerant donors and to M1 and M2 generations with mutagenic treat-
identify superior crosses for their exploitation in ments in okra genotype Parbhani Kranti. The
developing drought-tolerant varieties. Variation gamma ray dose was found to be more effective
among the genotypes was highly significant for to induce a wide range of mutation than ethyl
all the characters studied except days to maturity, methane sulphonate. Among gamma rays doses,
thereby indicating a substantial amount of genetic 30 kR doses were found to be more effective
variability. The significance of parents versus to induce mutation. A number of mutants for
crosses noticed for days to 50 % flowering, days one or more traits, viz plant height, maturity,
to maturity, plant height, number of branches branching and fruit size, were isolated in the M2
per plant, number of siliqua per plant and seed generation. Breeding behaviour of some selected
yield per plant satisfied the basic prerequisite for mutants was studied in the M3 generation. The
comparing the expression of parents and crosses means for various characters increased at lower
11 Breeding, Genetics and Biotechnology 207

doses of mutagens in the M2 and M3 genera- for improvement of yield in okra (Burse et al.
tions. The magnitude of the CV was significantly 2015).
higher than control. Among a large number of
mutants in the M2 generation, 9 in Parbhani
Kranti were selected and may prove useful for 11.16.9 Tomato: Genetic Variability
an okra improvement programme (Jadhav et al.
2015a). Genetic variability, heritability and genetic ad-
Gamma rays were more effective and efficient vances in tomato (Solanum lycoperscicum L.)
than ethyl methane sulphonate in increasing the were evaluated in 38 genotypes of tomato for
production of number of mutants. The frequency yield and various yield-contributing characters.
for chlorophyll mutations ranged from 0.42 to All the genotypes exhibited a wide range of
1.54 % and for viable mutations it ranged from variability for traits under consideration. These
0.34 to 1.98 % in Parbhani Kranti. The efficiency traits were also found to be highly heritable.
of the mutagen was measured in terms of per- The PCV was found to be greater than the GCV
centage of lethality and sterility induced. The for all the characters studied. High heritability
efficiency and effectiveness for chlorophyll and was observed for fruit yield per plant followed
viable mutations in Parbhani Kranti was highest by average fruit weight, while primary branches
at 0.6 % ethyl methane sulphonate and 30 kR gave lowest heritability results. High heritability
gamma rays, respectively, on a lethality basis. combined with high genetic advance was shown
There was a progressive increase in mutation fre- by average fruit weight, suggesting that additive
quency of chlorophyll and viable mutations with gene action plays a major role in governing these
increases in gamma radiation and ethyl methane traits and these traits can be improved by simple
sulphonate doses (Jadhav et al. 2015b). selection (Thapa et al. 2015b).

11.16.8.2 Path Coefficient Analysis

Correlation and path coefficient analysis for 11.16.10 Tomato: Character
yield components in 50 genotypes of okra Association
[Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench] (Burse
et al. 2015) showed that the yield per plant was Correlations and path coefficients were studied in
significantly and positively correlated with plant 38 tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) genotypes
height, number of primary branches per plant, for 13 yield-contributing characters (Thapa et al.
number of fruiting nodes per plant, number 2015a), revealing that yield per plant was highly
of fruits per plant, average fruit weight and significant and positively correlated with average
length of fruit. Leaf area, days to first harvest, fruit weight, fruits per plant, locule number per
diameter of fruit and moisture content were fruit, pericarp thickness, fruits per cluster and
significantly and negatively correlated with yield number of clusters per plant. Strong association
per plant. of these traits indicated that selection based on
Path coefficient analysis indicated that average these traits would ultimately improve the fruit
fruit weight, diameter of fruit, plant height, and yield.
length of fruit, leaf area and number of fruits Path coefficient analysis is used to obtain a
per plant showed high positive direct effects as clear picture of the inter-relationship between
the major yield-contributing traits for enhancing yield per plant and its components, direct and
the yield of okra. Based on direct and indirect indirect effects. Analysis revealed that highest
effects of different yield components on yield, it positive direct effects on fruit yield per plant
would be rewarding to give stress on the number was exhibited by average fruit weight followed
of fruits per plant, number of fruiting nodes per by fruits per plant, clusters per plant, fruits per
plant, average fruit weight, length of fruit and cluster and pericarp thickness; they showed pos-
plant height, while formulating selection indices itive and significant associations with fruit yield
208 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

per plant in both correlation and path coefficient and C. f. formicarius (Fabricius). C. f. elegantu-
analyses (Thapa et al. 2015a). lus is found in the Western Hemisphere (North,
South and Central America, the Caribbean Basin
and parts of the Pacific Basin). These pests feed
11.16.11 Cassava on roots, inducing the plant to produce bitter-
tasting terpene compounds, which make even
The nature and magnitude of genetic diversity slightly damaged roots unfit for consumption.
of 18 genotypes of cassava was studied (Rao Therefore, it is not uncommon for these weevils
et al. 2015). The analysis of variance showed to reduce yield by as much as 60–100 % in the
significant differences among the genotypes for absence of adequate control measures (Mohanty
all the traits. Based on Mahalanobis D2 anal- et al. 2015c).
ysis, all the 18 genotypes were grouped into Thirty genotypes of sweet potato were eval-
five clusters. Cluster IV had the maximum num- uated to elicit information on the magnitude of
ber of genotypes (7) followed by cluster I (5). genetic variability, heritability and diversity, and
Maximum inter-cluster distance was observed to predict the gains realized through selection,
between cluster IV and V (62.40): while the character association, cause-and-effect relation-
intra-cluster distance was maximum in cluster ship and divergence for the quantitative charac-
IV (17.2). Tuber dry matter content (64.05 %) ters in sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) (Mo-
contributed the maximum percentage followed hanty et al. 2015a). Among all the genotypes
by plant dry matter content (20.26 %), height of studied, genotype Accession-22 had the highest
first branching (9.15 %), starch content (5.23 %), root yield per hectare and was found to be suit-
number of leaves per plant (0.65 %) and stem able for the local agroclimatic conditions. The
diameter (0.65 %), suggesting that selection of genotypes 440127, SWA-2 and ST-14 were also
one or two elite genotypes from divergent (IV found to be elite for different characters. High
and V) and (II and V) clusters based on the PCV and GCV were observed for characters like
above characters and crossing would result in vine length, vine internodal length, number of
more heterosis and novel hybrids. branches per plant, number of leaves per plant,
total leaf area, number of roots per plant, root
yield per plant, “-carotene content, starch con-
11.16.12 Sweet Potato tent, total sugars, reducing sugars, non-reducing
sugars and total root yield per hectare, indicating
Sweet potato, Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam., is the high variability available in the germplasm for
seventh most important food crop worldwide. these characters for further improvement. High
It is grown in more than 100 countries, and heritability (h2 ) coupled with high genetic ad-
among the world’s root and tuber crops, it is sec- vance as a percentage of the mean was observed
ond in production to the white potato, Solanum for the characters vine length, vine internodal
tuberosum L. Sweet potato is an important staple length, number of branches per plant, length of
food in several parts of the world. It is also leaf lobe, number of leaves per plant, total leaf
grown for human consumption as a vegetable area, root girth, root yield per plant, “-carotene
(both fleshy roots and leaves), for processing as a content, starch content, total sugars, reducing
snack food, for animal feed, for industrial starch sugars, non-reducing sugars and total root yield
extraction and fermentation, and for various other per hectare, indicating that these characters were
processed products. The crop produces adequate least influenced by the environmental effects and
to high yields in both low-technology and high- were governed by additive genes, and selection
technology systems. will be rewarding for improvement of such traits.
The most important biotic constraints on sweet The total root yield per hectare (t ha1 ) had
potato production worldwide are the sweet potato significant positive correlation with traits like
weevils Cylas formicarius elegantulus (summers) number of branches per plant, number of roots
11 Breeding, Genetics and Biotechnology 209

per plant, root girth, root yield per plant and 11.16.13 Bitter Gourd
“-carotene content, and also showed direct ef-
fects on number of branches per plant, num- Bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L.) is an
ber of roots per plant, root length, root yield important tropical and subtropical cucurbit
per plant, starch content and reducing sugars. vegetable grown throughout India for its tender
The high direct effect of these traits appeared to fruits. It is considered a prized vegetable because
be the main factor for their strong association of its pharmaceutical and high nutritive value,
with total root yield per hectare. Analysis for especially ascorbic acid and iron. Bitter gourd
divergence using a D2 statistic revealed highly has been used for centuries in the ancient
significant differences for different traits, group- traditional medicine of India, China, Africa and
ing the 30 genotypes into six clusters. Cluster Latin America, as its extract possess antioxidant,
II had the maximum number of genotypes (8) antimicrobial, antiviral, antihepatotoxic and
followed by cluster I (7). The highest percent- antiulcerogenic properties, and also has the
age contribution to divergence came from “- ability to lower blood sugar. In spite of the
carotene content and starch content, suggesting potential economic and medicinal importance
that selection of one or two elite genotypes from of the crop, due attention has not been given
divergent (II and VI) and (III and VI) clus- to a need-based crop improvement programme.
ters based on the above characters and crossing There is a prime need for its improvement and
would result in more heterosis and novel hy- to develop varieties or hybrids suited to specific
brids. agro-ecological conditions. Being monoecious
For crop improvement in sweet potato, knowl- in nature, its sex expression is influenced by
edge of genetic diversity helps the breeder in temperature.
choosing desirable parents for use in the breeding Evaluation of the performance of parents and
programme. The diverse genotypes or accessions their F1 hybrids for yield and earliness during
can be crossed to produce superior high-yielding the summer season revealed significant variation
hybrids possessing resistance to various abiotic in mean performance among the parents and
and biotic stresses. The genotypes were charac- hybrids for all the characters studied. Among the
terized based on response for 10 morphological hybrids, the best performing hybrids were IC-
and 18 quantitative characters. Correlation and 044438  IC-045339, IC-044417  IC-470558
path coefficient analyses were carried out for 18 and IC-033227  IC-044438 for most of the
characters of yield and its components. Character characters like yield, vine length, number of lat-
association indicated that tuber yield per hectare erals per vine, number of fruits per vine and
was positively and significantly associated with fruit length, while for earliness in terms of days
number of tubers per plant, tuber yield per plant to first female flowering and node number at
and “-carotene content at phenotypic and geno- which the first female flower appeared, the hy-
typic correlation levels, and tuber yield per plant brids IC-044438  IC-045339 and IC-045339 
was positively and significantly associated with IC-470560 were found to be superior. Among
vine length, vine internodal length, leaf area and the parents, genotype IC-044438 followed by IC-
tuber girth at both phenotypic and genotypic 033227 and IC-470560 recorded highly signif-
levels. Path analysis indicated that number of icant yield and yield-related traits like number
branches per plant, root length, root yield per of fruits per vine, average fruit weight and pulp
plant and starch had direct effects on tuber yield thickness, while IC-470560 and IC-044438 were
per hectare; the remaining characters had negligi- found to be early as they recorded minimum days
ble to low and moderate indirect effects through to the first male flower, the first female flower and
other component characters. Number of tubers sex ratio (male to female). These superior hybrids
per plant, tuber yield per plant and “-carotene and parents may be further tested in different
content are reliable characters to use for improve- locations during the summer season for their
ment of sweet potato (Mohanty et al. 2015b). stable performance and may be recommended
210 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

for commercial cultivation and also can be used world’s cotton, with the USA’s share being 3.1
in a future breeding programme (Rani et al. million tons and India’s share being 1.2 million
2015b). tons (Deshmukh et al. 2015).
The genetic variability was analysed in 28
hybrids in a line  tester design, obtained by
11.16.14 Chilli crossing of seven lines with four testers along
with parents and two checks. There were signifi-
The genetic diversity among 63 genotypes using cant positive associations of number of monopo-
Mahalanobis D2 statistic for ten quantitative and dia per plant, number of sympodia per plant,
six qualitative characters in chilli was assessed number of bolls per plant and ginning percentage
(Janaki et al. 2015). The fruit diameter followed with seed cotton yield per plant. Boll weight
by yellow carotenoids, red carotenoids, ascorbic had significant and positive associations with
acid and capsaicin contributed the maximum ginning percentage and uniformity ratio, and a
towards genetic divergence. The 63 genotypes positive and non-significant association with mi-
were grouped into eight clusters. Among all cronaire value. There was a significant negative
the clusters, clusters III and V were the largest, association of uniformity ratio and micronaire
containing 17 genotypes, followed by cluster with fibre strength.
IV (11), cluster I (8) and cluster II (7). The Path coefficient analysis revealed that number
clusters VI, VII and VIII were monogenotypic. of monopodia, number of sympodia, number of
The mutual relationships between the clusters bolls per plant and ginning percentage had the
revealed that inter-cluster distance values were maximum direct positive effect on seed cotton
greater than intra-cluster values. The intra-cluster yield per plant and number of bolls per plant, ex-
D2 values ranged from 0.00 (VI, VII and VIII) to hibiting an indirect effect on seed cotton yield, viz
434.43 (V). The inter-cluster D2 values varied the number of sympodia, fibre length, number of
from 117.25 (between cluster I and III) to monopodia per plant and plant height. Among the
4139.41 (between cluster IV and VIII). The high fibre quality traits, fibre length showed a negative
intra- and inter-cluster distances indicated the indirect effect on yield via the ginning percent-
presence of wide genetic diversity among the age, micronaire value and uniformity ratio, while
genotypes present within and between clusters. the ginning percentage exhibited indirect positive
The genotypes from clusters IV, V and VIII may effects via number of sympodia, boll weight,
be utilized in breeding programmes for yield number of bolls per plant, micronaire value and
improvement. uniformity ratio on seed cotton yield per plant.
Path coefficient analysis revealed that bolls per
plant and fibre strength should be given greater
11.16.15 Cotton emphasis in a cotton yield improvement pro-
gramme as well as for modern ginning and spin-
Cotton, or ‘white gold’, is a premier cash crop ning mills, as they contribute maximum direct
of the rainy season and one of the prominent effects, while the number of sympodia per plant
eco-industrial crops of India, generating sizeable contributes maximum indirect effects through the
employment. Cultivated cotton genus Gossypium trait bolls per plant (Patil et al. 2015c).
bears spinnable seed coat fibres. It plays a triple Combining ability analysis is an important
role by producing lint, oil and protein. Cotton tool for identifying superior parents suitable for
stalk are also used as fuel and for making particle developing both new cultivars and hybrids. The
and paper board. India has the largest area in general combining ability of the parents and spe-
the world. China and India are the major cotton- cific combining ability and heterosis of hybrids
consuming countries in the world (around 58 % obtained by crossing three female lines with six
of world cotton consumption). As regards export, testers in a line  tester fashion for seed cot-
the USA and India export around 55 % of the ton yield and fibre quality traits were evaluated.
11 Breeding, Genetics and Biotechnology 211

Analysis of variance for combining ability in- four testers revealed that both additive and non-
dicated the predominance of non-additive gene additive variances were important in the inheri-
action for all the characters under study except tance of various traits studied. Combining ability
plant height, 2.5 % span length and oil content. revealed significant differences within parents,
The parents AK032 and AK053 among the lines crosses, line (except for days to 50 % flowering,
and DR-7R among the testers were found to number of sympodia per plant, days to maturity,
possess significant GCA effects for most of the boll weight, ginning percentage, fibre length, uni-
yield-contributing characters. Maximum hetero- formity ratio and fibre strength), testers (except
sis for seed cotton yield per plant was recorded for number of monopodia per plant, number of
by AK023  DR-7R over the standard check. The sympodia per plant, plant height, number of bolls
highest significant heterosis in desirable direction per plant and micronaire value) and line  tester
for fibre strength was recorded by AK023  DR- (except for number of monopodia per plant and
7R followed by AK023  AKH-976 over the ginning percentage). However, significant differ-
check (Madhuri et al. 2015b). ences were also observed for parents and crosses
The combining ability effects in parents and for all the traits studied, except for number of
their hybrids in diploid cotton, obtained by cross monopodia per plant, boll weight, micronaire
combinations using a line  tester mating design, value, seed cotton yield per plot and seed cotton
were evaluated (Solanke et al. 2015) in a set of yield qt ha1 . General combining ability is gen-
ten parents—two females (GMS line), viz GAK- erally associated with additive gene action while
423 and GAK-8615, and eight males (tester), specific combining ability is genetically due to
viz AKA-9703, AKA-0110, AKA-9620, AKA- dominance and epistasis. The variance due to
9009-1, AKA-0209, AKA-5, AKA-7 and HD- SCA was higher in magnitude than the variance
162—and their 16 crosses along with check PKV due to GCA for the characters days to 50 % flow-
Suvarna. The mean squares due to genotypes ering, number of monopodia per plant, number
were highly significant for all the traits stud- of sympodia per plant, day to maturity, plant
ied expect for number of monopodia per plant, height, number of bolls per plant, boll weight,
ginning percentage and oil content. This indi- ginning percentage, uniformity ratio, fibre length,
cated the presence of substantial genetic variabil- micronaire value, bundle strength and seed cotton
ity among genotypes for all the traits studied. yield per plant, seed cotton yield per plot and
Among female parents, GAK-8615 recorded sig- seed cotton yield qt ha1 , which indicated the
nificant GCA effects for seed cotton yield per predominance of non-additive gene action.
plant, number of sympodia per plant and number The general combining ability of the parents
of bolls per plant. Among males, AKA-9703 was and specific combining ability and heterosis of
the best general combiner, with high GCA effects hybrids was estimated for yield and fibre qual-
for plant height, number of bolls per plant and ity traits. The four females (lines), viz CAK-
2.5 % span length. The tester AKA-5 exhibited 8660, CAK-3456, CAK-2160 and CAK-32, and
significant GCA effects for seed cotton yield five males (testers), viz AKH-5120, AKH-073,
per plant. The tester AKA-7 exhibited significant AKH-545, AKH-976 and AKH-32NS, and their
GCA effects for seed cotton yield per plant and 20 crosses were evaluated. The parents CAK-
2.5 % span length. The cross GAK-423  AKA- 2160 (10.417) among the lines and AKH-976
0110 (6.396) recorded the highest positive SCA (24.665) among the testers were found to possess
effect for seed cotton yield per plant. It also significant GCA effects for most of the yield-
exhibited SCA effect in a desirable direction contributing characters. The cross CAK-2160 
for fibre strength, ginning percentage, number of AKH-976 recorded the highest significant posi-
sympodia per plant and days to 50 % flowering. tive SCA effects (22.667 **) for seed cotton yield
Analysis of variance for combining ability in per plant. Maximum useful heterosis for seed
28 hybrids obtained (Deosarkar et al. 2015) by a cotton yield per plant was recorded by CAK-2160
line  tester design by crossing seven lines and  AKH-976 (71.00 % over check PKV HY-5 and
212 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

95.43 % over check PKV HY-2). GCA effects characters indicated that the crosses showing
of parents and SCA effects of two crosses, viz high heterosis and high SCA effects had high
CAK-2160  AKH-976 and CAK-2160  AKH- per se performance and they involved at least
545, were identified as the best crosses for a one high combining parent. The combinations
further crop improvement programme (Gedam PA-720  JLA-802, PA-528  AKA-7, PA-402
et al. 2015).  JLA-802, PA-532  JLA-802 and PA-08 
The 24 crosses through a line  tester design JLA-802 showed significant and desirable SCA
involving six diverse female lines and four male effects for most of the yield and fibre quality
parents were evaluated to study the extent of traits studied, indicating potential for exploiting
heterosis and to estimate general and specific hybrid vigour in a breeding programme.
combining ability effects (Kalpande et al. 2015a).
Analysis of variance for means revealed
significant differences for all the 13 characters 11.16.16 Roselle
studied. The line  tester interaction mean square
was significant for all the characters except Genetic variability, correlation and path analysis
number of boll and days to maturity, indicating studied in a set of 60 diverse genotypes of roselle
sufficient genetic diversity among them. The vari- (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) for 11 traits showed that
ance due to GCA and SCA indicated that the non- the PCVs as well as the GCVs were high for
additive type of gene action was predominant important productivity characters like fibre yield
for all the characters studied. The magnitudes per plant, dry stick weight per plant, green fresh
of heterosis, heterobeltosis and standard or weight per plant and green dry weight per plant
economic heterosis for all the characters were (for PCV) and medium for other characters like
highly appreciable. Among all the characters, plant height and bark thickness. High heritabil-
the magnitude of heterosis was highest for plant ity coupled with high expected genetic advance
height, measuring to the extent of 117.89 % over was observed for fibre yield per plant, dry stick
standard check NH-615 in the cross PA-532  weight per plant, green fresh weight per plant
AKA-7, followed by seed cotton yield per plant and green dry weight per plant. Fibre yield per
(65.32 %) in the cross PA-528  AKA-7 over the plant was found to be significantly and positively
mid-parent. Among females, PA-08 was found to correlated with plant height, base diameter, bark
be the best general combiner for nine characters, thickness, green fresh weight per plant, green
viz days to 50 % flowering, day to boll bursting, dry weight per plant and dry stick weight per
number of bolls per plant, plant height, lint yield, plant. Plant height, base diameter, green fresh
span length, fibre strength, uniformity ratio and weight per plant, green dry weight per plant and
short fibre index, with significant GCA effects. dry stick weight per plant also exhibited signifi-
The females PA-720 and PA-532 were the best cant positive inter-correlation among themselves.
general combiners for five characters including Partitioning of correlation coefficients of various
seed cotton yield per plant. Among males, AKA- components upon fibre yield per plant into direct
7 was found to be best general combiner for and indirect contributions revealed that green
seed cotton yield and its contributing characters, fresh weight per plant had the maximum direct
which had significant GCA effects for five effect upon fibre yield per plant, followed by
characters, viz number of sympodia, bolls per plant height, bark thickness and dry stick weight
plant, boll weight, plant height and seed cotton per plant (Satyanarayana et al. 2015).
yield per plant. The male parent Dwd-arb-10-1
was also found to be best general combiner for
five seed cotton yield and fibre quality characters. 11.16.17 Cashew Nut
There was close agreement between per se
performance and GCA as well as SCA effects for Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is one of
most of the characters. Observations on various the most important export earning crops of India,
11 Breeding, Genetics and Biotechnology 213

occupying an area of 9.91 lakh hectares, with a et al. 2015) for yield-attributing and yield pa-
production of 6.25 lakh tonnes. Although India is rameters, showing that cashew varieties such as
the largest producer and exporter of cashew in the Amrutha, BPP-4, Madakathara-2, K-22-1, VRI-
world, the productivity is very low (only 722 kg 3, Ullal-4, UN-50 and Goa-1 were identified for
ha1 ) as compared to other countries, which is dwarf architecture, which need further evalua-
primarily due to seedling progeny of poor ge- tion. Similarly, both Priyanka and Dhana can be
netic stock. Being a highly cross-pollinated crop, exploited for cashew apple processing purposes.
development of hybrids exhibiting heterosis for The out turn % demonstrated by the majority
important economic characters is one of the ways of the varieties was within the acceptable in-
to enhance the productivity. Despite the impor- ternational standard. The cashew varieties BPP-
tance of cashew as a commercial export-oriented 8, Vengurla-7, Bhaskara, NRCC Sel-2, Ullal-3,
crop, the crop is challenged with a number of Kanaka, Vengurla-4, Bhubaneswar-1, VRI-3 and
problems like low and variable nut yield, low % Dhana combined two or three traits that were
kernel turnover and susceptibility to insect pests significantly different from the rest of the vari-
as a result of establishing cashew farms with eties. However, cashew varieties such as BPP-
unselected seeds. 8, Vengurla-7, Bhaskara, NRCC Sel-2 and Ullal-
3 seem outstanding for most of the parame-
11.16.17.1 Fruit Set ters.
Variability studies in cashew nut on flowering
parameters, fruit set, apple weight, nut weight
and kernel weight revealed the existence of wide 11.16.18 Conservation of Citrus
variability. Total number of flowers varied from Species
270.85 (H 117) to 748.57 (H 94). The fruit set
under natural conditions was found to be 7.83 The northeastern region of India is considered
to 28.62. Sex ratio varied from 0.08 to 0.32 and one of the ‘mega-biodiversity hotspots’ in the
apple weight was recorded to be maximum in H world because of its diverse presence of flora
116, and nut weight, kernel weight and nut yield and fauna. This region stretches from 21ı 570
per tree were maximum in H 94 (Sreenivas et al. N to 29ı 280 N and from 89ı 400 E to 97ı
2015b). 250 E, and is considered as one of the natural
homes of Citrus. In a naturally cross-pollinated
11.16.17.2 Heterosis genus like Citrus, nature has eventually created
The extent of heterosis determined in 20 F1 different forms of Citrus and the region has the
cashew hybrids (Sethi et al. 2015) has indicated conducive environment, suitable soil and topog-
that the hybrids A-71, B-27, C-30 and C-41 raphy for perpetuation of these various forms. It
exhibited better heterosis in terms of nut weight can be regarded as ‘a live museum of Citrus’.
(g), kernel weight (g) and overall nut yield (kg The wide adaptability of Citrus is also reflected
per tree) than the rest of the tested hybrids. The in its general distribution of topographical sit-
relative heterosis, heterobeltiosis and standard uations. It also holds a unique position in the
heterosis among these superior hybrids varied world map of Citrus occurrence and diversity and
from 85.71 % to 94.88 %, 57.33 % to 65.85 % and possesses wide diversity of Citrus species either
15.51 % to 30.70 %, respectively. Hence, these in cultivated or in wild forms. About 17 species
hybrids may be recommended for cultivation to are found in the northeastern region of India and
increase production and productivity of cashew 8 species are indigenous to this region. There is
under agroclimatic condition of Odisha. every possibility of occurrence of these Citrus
species as the states are a contiguity of the Hi-
11.16.17.3 Evaluation of Cashew Nut malayan belt. The Khasi mandarin of the region
Twenty-five released varieties of cashew from is unique in its quality. Other than the commercial
different parts of India were evaluated (Tripathy species, some of other species of Citrus, namely
214 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

rough lemon, Kamala Australia, Samphola, Cit- 11.16.20 Papaya

ron, Singkin, various limes and lemons, pumme-
los, grapefruit, etc., are available in various types Papaya (Carica papaya L.) is one of the impor-
either in homesteads or in forests. Due to changes tant delicious fruit crops grown in the tropical
in climatic condition, the productivity of Citrus and subtropical parts of the world. Regular con-
has shown a decreasing trend over the last few sumption of papaya can ensure a good supply
years. Many of the underutilized Citrus species of vitamins A and C, which are essential for
are on the verge of extinction due to various good health. Papaya is rich in the enzyme papain,
interventions. Considering the importance of the which helps in the digestion of proteins. Biofer-
valuable Citrus wealth of this region, emphasis tilizers play a very significant role in improving
has been laid on collection and maintenance of soil fertility by fixing atmospheric nitrogen both
Citrus species (Hazarika 2015). in association with plant roots and without it.

11.16.20.1 Integrated Nutrient

Management
11.16.19 Guava
Integrated nutrient management studies (Supriya
et al. 2015) in Papaya revealed that treat-
Guava (Psidium guajava L.) is one of the richest
ment with biofertilizers with 100 % NPK C
natural sources of vitamin A and pro-vitamin A.
AZO C AZS C PSB exhibited maximum results
Red-coloured varieties contains lycopene twice
in plant height (69.72 cm), number of functional
that of tomato. Nectar and fruit juices are a
leaves (23.8), leaf area (708 cm2 ), stem girth
convenient and refreshing way to provide nutri-
(5.81 cm), petiole length (38.2 cm) and petiole
tion to the people. Except for jam and jelly, the
girth (2.94 cm), number of fruits per plant
consumption of other guava processed products
(20.6), unit fruit weight (1.35 kg), fruit length
in India is limited due to problems like grittiness
(26.1 cm), fruit circumference (36 cm), fruit
and browning associated with its products. So far,
width (16.9 cm), fruit yield (38,955 kg ha1 ) and
red-coloured varieties are not exploited for nectar
dry matter yield (4500 kg ha1 ).
preparation in India.

11.16.19.1 Standardization of Nectar 11.17 Miscellaneous

Recipe
Five red pulped varieties, namely Kohir red, 11.17.1 Tuberose Dye
Kohir long, red-fleshed, hybrid 1–6 (SRD) and
Lalit, available within germplasm collections, The time of immersion for tinting the spikes
were analysed for physicochemical characteris- of tuberose cultivar for use in various food
tics (Kumar et al. 2015b). The hybrid 1–6 and dyes is important for value addition. A study
red-fleshed varieties were found to be the best of the spikes of tuberose cultivar Suvasini treated
varieties for processing in terms of the colour with different food dyes and times of immersion
of the pulp, chemical constituents such as TSS, showed that 5 % concentration of food dyes with
acidity, ascorbic acid content and total sugars. 2 h of immersion was the optimum one, resulting
Lycopene plays an important role in masking the in the best colour shades without edging at petals,
browning of the product. Nine recipes of nectar with the maximum bud opening percentage
standardized and evaluated for organoleptic (26.43) and the highest mean floret size (3.95).
qualities for two selected varieties showed that
the nectar prepared with the composition of
20 % pulp, 17 o Brix TSS and 0.3 % acidity was 11.17.2 Marigold
rated superior for all quality attributes such as
appearance, aroma and flavour, taste and overall Marigold cultivar Pusa Narangi Gainda exposed
acceptability. to different doses of 60 Co gamma rays (5, 10,
11 Breeding, Genetics and Biotechnology 215

15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40 Gy) (Majumder et al. and greater acceptance by the target audience—
2015) revealed that 20 Gy and 15 Gy doses were malnourished populations (Joshi et al. 2015).
identified as LD50 values for in vivo and in vitro
conditions (53.24 % and 52.55 % plant survival).
Morphological variations existed between irradi- 11.18 Innovative Technology for
ated and non-irradiated plants. Treatment with Bio-resource Management
20 Gy induced early flower bud (49.18 days)
compared to control (55.56 days) under in vivo 11.18.1 Molecular Characterization
study. Under in vitro conditions, the flower colour Using DNA Markers
was changed to yellow (yellow 10 YR) compared
to the control (orange 5 YR) at 15 Gy. In the Variability exists among genotypes for several
M1 generation, two mutants in flower form (M1 characters. Molecular markers are utilized in
and M3 ), one in colour (M4 ) and another one identifying the genetic variability for traits
in flower earliness (M2 ), were isolated under in as disease or pest tolerance or susceptibility,
vivo mutation, whereas five mutants in flower evaluation of traits for yield, for abiotic or biotic
colour (¤m1, ¤m2, ¤m5, ¤m6 and ¤m7) and two responses, etc. Several molecular markers are
in flower form (¤m3 and ¤m4) were isolated in available with wide utility. The dendrograms
irradiated plants, which were quite distinct. obtained by usage of these markers exhibit the
Variability caused by induced mutations need variable degrees of relationship existing among
not be essentially different from variability the genotypes.
caused by spontaneous mutation during Molecular markers are utilized in identifying
evolution. Therefore, it is necessary to carry on the similarity between the two genotypes from
the M2 generation. The mutants selected from the different locations. In cotton, the inter-simple se-
M1 generation were selfed to raise the six putative quence repeat DNA (ISSR) marker was used for
mutants (pm1, pm2, pm3, pm4, pm5 and pm6) molecular evaluation of 12 elite cotton genotypes
of the M2 generation. These could successfully to Gossypium hirsutum. The dendrogram gener-
maintain their distinct traits. Among them, pm3 ated by the ISSR marker showed two clusters
produced early flowering in 47.89 days and pm4 of the genotypes of Gossypium hirsutum that
gave light orange-coloured flowers (orange 10 were brought from two locations, viz Dharwad,
YR) (Majumder et al. 2015). Nanded and Parbhani. The similarity coefficient
value obtained by the ISSR marker dendrogram
was in the range of 0.32–0.80. Among the 12 elite
11.17.3 Breeding for Micronutrients genotypes evaluated, only 2 cotton genotypes,
NDH-58 and NDH-88 showed the highest simi-
Micronutrient malnutrition in the recent past larity. The genotype PH-1009 showed the lowest
has emerged as a serious threat to the world’s similarity coefficient of 0.428. ISSR primers IS-
nutritional security, predominantly in developing 12 and IS-13 were effective in generating the
countries. In the process of bio-fortification, maximum number of amplicons of eight in num-
breeding of essential micronutrients into ber, while ISSR primers IS-2 and IS-14could
widely consumed staple food crops is one generate only four amplicons (Kalpande et al.
of the promising strategies for combating 2015b).
hidden hunger. At the same time, it aids by
improving availability of micronutrients in
edible plant parts, in higher concentrations. 11.18.2 DNA Finger Printing of Rice
Success of a bio-fortified crop relies on Cultivars
various important aspects, viz an efficient
crop improvement programme, significantly DNA finger printing is employed to determine
high nutrient availability along with increased the allelic diversity and relationship among the
retention capacity, wider adoptability by farmers organisms. Closely related cultivars could be
216 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

identified with the technique of fingerprinting. Among various genetic strategies that are
The sequence repeat (SSR) markers analysis that available, genetic transformation and molecular
was done to determine the allelic diversity and breeding approaches have been attempted in
relationship among 23 rice varieties developed by tomato and pigeon pea, respectively, for bio-
Dr B.S.K.K.V. Dapoli revealed a total of 35 SSR fortification with zinc.
primer pairs to be polymorphic and generated Tomato was transformed with the high-affinity
184 alleles with an average of 5.26 alleles per zinc transporter gene through a standardized tis-
primer pair. The number of alleles amplified sue culture protocol. A set of 250 pigeon pea
for each primer pair ranged from 2 to 8. The accessions were screened to identify the high
polymorphic information content (PIC) values grain zinc donor lines. A biparental mapping pop-
of each primer pair ranged from 0.23 to 0.78 ulation was developed and an SSR marker system
with an average of 0.58. The UPGMA grouped was used to screen for parental polymorphism.
23 rice varieties into two main clusters, which Estimation of zinc content in the F3 seeds resulted
were further divided into two sub-clusters. The in identification of several promising transgres-
first major cluster consisted of 7 released rice sive segregants (Mathapati et al. 2015).
varieties, and 16 varieties formed the second
major cluster. Thus, most of the closely related
cultivars of rice that were released from Dapoli 11.18.4 Genetic Stability of In Vitro
were identified with the fingerprinting of the Multiplication
polymorphic SSR primer pairs. These results
could be useful for resolving the problem that Medicinal plants, because of their excessive
arises in the seed certification programme, as well usage and deforestation, are being lost and are
as determination of genetic diversity of the rice becoming endangered. An endangered medicinal
varieties very quickly. Similarly, it will protect plant was efficiently regenerated by in vitro plant
the varieties from commercial exploitation by regeneration via an indirect organogenesis leaf-
others because of its uniqueness in amplification derived callus for the endangered medicinal plant.
pattern (Nikam et al. 2015). An optimal level of callus was developed from
young and fresh leaves cultured on Murashige
and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with
11.18.3 Genetic Strategies for 4.44 M 6-benzyladenine (BA), 5.37 M 1-
Bio-fortification naphthalene acetic acid (NAA). The highest
frequency of shoot multiplication was observed
One of the major stresses limiting crop productiv- on MS medium supplemented with 13.62 M
ity is nutrient deficiency stress. Several elements thidiazuron (TDZ) by gradual sub-culturing of
are reported to be below critical levels in the the proliferated callus mass, at which 89 % shoot
soil around the globe. Among the micronutrients, multiplication was obtained, with an average
it is reported that 25–30 % of cropped area is number of 23.8 shoots per callus. SCoT (start
deficient in Zn globally. This not only limits the codon targeted polymorphism) markers were
productivity of crops but also means it is in short employed to evaluate the genetic stability of in
supply for human nutrition, where approximately vitro regenerants with that of the donor plant.
one third of the world’s population is suffering The analysis of 18 selected in vitro regenerants
from zinc deficiency. In view of this, there is that was done using 10 responded SCoT primers
an urgent need to develop Zn-dense crops and revealed 44 scorable bands (330–1690 bp). The
therefore bio-fortification is considered a cost- banding pattern of each primer confirmed the
effective and long-lasting solution to overcome genetic uniformity of the regenerants with its
zinc malnutrition. Micronutrient-dense crops can donor plant and substantiated the efficacy and
be obtained through consistent efforts through ge- suitability of this protocol for in vitro propagation
netic strategies to obtain long-lasting outcomes. of this potent medicinal sub-shrub.
11 Breeding, Genetics and Biotechnology 217

A protocol that was developed would be help- of heat stress are seen during both germina-
ful in reducing the pressure on natural popula- tion and grain-filling stages. Terminal heat stress
tions for secondary metabolite production, espe- refers to the rise in temperature at the time of
cially for extraction of essential oils and alkaloids grain filling. This terminal heat stress is more
(Seth and Panigrahi 2015). responsible for the decline in wheat production
and productivity. Among the wheat-cultivated six
agroclimatic zones, four zones experience high
11.18.5 Genetic Variability in Wheat temperature stress and cover an area of 13.5 m ha
Using RAPD Marker that is under heat stress. The previous 11 QTLs
associated and identified with the stress traits,
Genetic variability among 25 wheat genotypes when validated in an Indian genetic background,
was analysed by a random amplified polymorphic indicated that among the QTL linked markers,
DNA (RAPD) marker method for assessing the 11 markers produced distinct and sharp scorable
link between the different accessions of wheat bands for all the 38 genotypes grown in two
to exploit genetic diversity for a future breeding different environments.
programme. The results revealed the existence Further, out of these 11, 6 microsatellites
of high genetic diversity among the wheat geno- produced monomorphic bands without any
types studied. Out of 25 primers, 11 selected differentiation to the QTL linked population
primers could amplify 23 clear and identifiable parents. Five microsatellite markers that were
bands, of which 15 bands were polymorphic, polymorphic were selected for validation of the
accounting for 65.22 % of genetic polymorphism. Indian wheat genetic backgrounds for different
The remaining primers were not amplified for heat stress adaptive traits. These markers lay in
the set of genotypes that were studied. All the different genomic regions on the 1B, 2D, 5A,
wheat genotypes studied could be divided into 5D and 7D chromosomes. Two microsatellite
two major groups. Jaccard’s coefficient of sim- markers (gwm131 and gwm304) showed
ilarity ranged from 0.54 to 0.95. Several poly- significant marker-trait associations particularly
morphic bands were also observed in different with the canopy temperature depression and total
genotypes, which helped in molecular diversity chlorophyll content under heat stress; besides
analysis of these genotypes. The wheat genotypes producing genotypic data with QTL linked SSR
were found to be clustered into two major groups; markers the phenotypic variances explained
the first group includes 15 genotypes and the sec- by these markers can be further confirmed in
ond included 10 genotype. The highest similarity mapping populations or backcross populations
was observed between AKAW-3717 and WSM- and thus can be used subsequently in future
1472 genotypes. The most distant genotypes were breeding programmes as donors of the traits
AKAW-2344 and AKAW-4073. RAPD technol- (Gajghate et al. 2015).
ogy is a potentially simple, rapid, reliable and Genetic diversity and association analysis
effective method of detecting polymorphism for were carried out in 35 wheat genotypes using
assessing genetic diversity between genotypes, 17 morpho-physiological characters under
and these help in the selection of parents for high temperatures during grain-filling stage
hybridization (Ninghot et al. 2015). conditions. Based on genetic distance, 35
genotypes were grouped into 5 multi-genotypic
clusters. Clusters III and IV had a maximum
11.18.6 Genetic Diversity Under ten genotypes each, while cluster II had three
Temperature Stress genotypes only. Both cluster I and V each
consisted of six genotypes. Maximum intra-
Wheat production in many environments around cluster distance (3.826) was exhibited by the
the world is restricted due to heat stress, which cluster III followed by cluster I (3. 125) while
has a serious impact on productivity. The effects minimum intra-cluster distance was observed
218 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

in cluster II (2.521). Clusters III and IV showed might be the most efficient one for utilization in
maximum inter-cluster distance (5.446) followed breeding programmes (Shivani and Sreelakshmi
by clusters III and V (5.141) and minimum 2015).
(3.379) between cluster I and IV. Based on per Genetic diversity of 10 soybean cultivars of
se performance and clustering pattern under Glycine max L. was carried out using 50 RAPD
stress conditions, genotypes HD 2967, HD primers of the OPA, OPAC, OPC, OPB, OPG,
2997, HD 2733, CL 3125, WRY 544 and DEW OPL, OPH, OPR, OPX series. Twelve selected
14 emerged as potential genotypes for future polymorphic RAPD markers produced 90 frag-
use in recombination breeding. Utilization of ments of which 64 fragments were found to be
these parents in a hybridization programme polymorphic and resulted in 72.74 % polymor-
could be useful in getting a wide spectrum of phism. All cultivars could be distinguished based
variability to isolate the desirable segregants on the RAPD profiles unweighted pair group
for high yield under terminal heat stress. method with the arithmetic average (UPGMA)
Grain yield had a significant genotypic positive used to construct a dendrogram. The value of
correlation with biological yield (0.754**) and similarity coefficient of the dendrogram calcu-
harvest index (0.507**). Biological yield had lated by the RAPD marker ranged from 0.313
a positive significant correlation with number to 0.618. In addition, cluster analysis was used
of spike per plant (0.415**). Harvest index to determine genetic variation among soybean
showed a significant positive correlation with cultivars. The narrow genetic base that exists
1000 grain weight (0.334*) and biological yield among the soybean cultivars can be used for the
(0.343*).The path analysis based on genotypic selection of divergent parents for breeding and
correlations revealed that total chlorophyll mapping purposes (Kalpande et al. 2015c).
content had maximum direct effect on grain
yield followed by carotenoid content, harvest
index, 1000 grain weight, and days to flowering, 11.19 Climate Change—Impact,
canopy temperature depression and grains per Adaptation and Mitigation
spike. Therefore, for improving the grain yield
under terminal heat stress conditions, the breeder 11.19.1 Genetic Diversity in Rice
should aim for selecting genotypes with a higher Genotypes Resistant to Leaf
harvest index, more spikes per plant, bold grains Folder
and a stay-green characteristic (Kumar et al.
2015a). Rice genotypes exhibit variability in terms of
resistance or susceptibility to pests or diseases.
The variability is evaluated by molecular mark-
11.18.7 Reciprocal Recurrent ers. In rice, 20 genotypes exhibiting resistant
Selection and susceptible reactions against rice leaf folder
were characterized by using 11 primers of SSR
Reciprocal recurrent selection might be the markers. Out of these 11 primers of SSR mark-
most efficient for utilization of all three types ers, 7 primers were found to be polymorphic
of gene effects, viz additive, dominance and exhibiting 78 % polymorphism with primers RM
epitasis. These three gene effects were found 3691, RM 600, RM 14 and RM 228. These 11
to be responsible in varying proportions for all primers of SSR markers resulted in a total of 123
the crosses for seven characters in safflower. amplified bands. The band size was in the range
Among the epistatic interactions, dominance  of 100–1000 bp in polymorphic primers. One
dominance interaction was found to be more primer, RM 3691, resulted in a clear variation
important than additive  additive interaction in the banding pattern between the resistant and
for all the crosses. Thus, for improving the susceptible rice genotypes for leaf folder. The
characters, the reciprocal recurrent selection Jaccard’s similarity values indicate the presence
11 Breeding, Genetics and Biotechnology 219

of wide-range genetic diversity. In rice genotypes a toxic chemical (viz hydrocyanic acid) is present
these values ranged from 0 to 89 %, indicating in it, affecting the metabolic activities of the
that there is a wide range of variability for re- organisms. The mechanisms behind the toxicity
sistance or susceptible to leaf folder. Further, of hydrocyanic acid are not well understood. A
the dendrogram exhibited a variable degree of study that was conducted to study the leaching
relationship among the genotypes. There were ten toxic effect of hydrocyanic acid from cassava
genotypes that showed resistance and ten that ex- waste indicated that during the soaking of cassava
hibited susceptibility reactions to the leaf folder. waste in brackish water, it results in the formation
These were grouped into two different clusters a bio-film over the waste material. This bio-film
indicating that these two groups are significantly was formed due to the microbial activity. The
different even at the molecular level. Among hydrocyanic acid did not leach in to the water
these genotypes, in cluster one, two genotypes due to the formation of this bio-film; as a result,
(INRC- 3021 and W 1263) were found to be its toxicity for the shrimp culture could not be
closely related while in cluster II, NLR 145 and detected.
Sri Satya were closely related with an 86–89 % Bacteria from the bio-films were cultured and
similarity index (Kamakshi et al. 2015). characterized using 16sRNA universal primers
and NCBI BLAST of isolates. The results con-
firmed the presence of five Shewanella species
11.19.2 Expression of Bt Cry Toxins (1386–1413 bp) having the potential for antivib-
rio property. Certain in vitro studies of the an-
Extent of Cry proteins in leaves is crucial to the tivibrio property of Shewanella species isolates
protection expected against insects feeding on revealed that not all the Shewanella species iso-
cotton leaves. Bt toxin levels in cotton genotypes lates exhibited the antivibrio property against
at two growth stages, viz the vegetative and Vibrio harveyi. An isolate of Shewanella species
reproductive stages, and in different plant parts isolate at a concentration of 105–6 cfu ml1
(apical leaves, bottom leaves and squares) were could inhibit the growth of pathogenic Vibrio
quantified. The quantitative levels of Bt toxin in parahaemolyticus. The study showed that cassava
cotton genotypes were found to be higher during waste was non-toxic and resulted in improvement
the vegetative stage (90 DAS) and decreased as of shrimp growth due to the antivibrio property
the reproductive stage (120 DAS) approached. of bacteria that developed on the bio-film of the
Further, it was observed that Cry 1Ac levels cassava waste (Lalitha et al. 2015).
were higher than those of Cry 2A throughout the
growth phases and the Cry toxin level decreased
as the plant attained maturity (Tokas et al. 2015). 11.19.4 Genetic Engineering for
Disease Resistance

11.19.3 Molecular Characterization Plants show resistance to certain pathogens and

of Cultured Bacteria for pests, and this resistance has no doubt played
Antivibrio Property a key role in crop protection since the dawn
of agriculture. Use of resistant varieties of host
Microorganisms, especially bacteria, utilize plants is considered the cheapest, easiest, safest
carbon as a source of energy for various and most effective device to control plant dis-
metabolic activities. One of the locally available eases. Moreover, for a variety of diseases, such as
carbon sources of energy is cassava waste. those caused by vascular pathogens and viruses,
It is cheaply available in local areas. Several which cannot be adequately controlled by any
studies have confirmed that it is more effective available means, the use of resistant varieties
in reducing metabolites and increasing shrimp provides the only means to obtain acceptable
growth. However, although it is a cheap substrate, yields. There are several conventional methods of
220 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

breeding for disease resistance, but it is a crucial The RGCs that were isolated from chilli
development. Biotechnological advances in the showed sequence similarity with the NBS
field of tissue culture technology and recombi- region of other known R genes, viz RPM1,
nant DNA technology (genetic engineering) have CaMi, RPS2, N, L6, Lettuce R gene and RPP5.
opened a completely new array of possibilities to Multiple alignment of isolated chilli RGCs using
raise resistance in hosts to diseases. CLUSTALW grouped these into two classes.
Genetic engineering, also called genetic modi- An amino acid signature in the conserved
fication, is human manipulation of an organism’s motifs comprising the NBS domain clearly
genetic material in a way that does not occur distinguished the two classes. All chilli RGCs
under natural conditions. Genes expected to con- belonged to the class of the R gene with the
fer resistance are isolated, cloned and transferred LZ (leucine zipper) domain in the NBS region
into the crop in question. There are numerous and TIR domain and three RGCs (CaRGC4,
examples of plants engineered (transgenic plants) CaRGC8, CaRGC10) of chilli showed separate
for improved resistance to pathogens. In the case grouping.
of fungal and bacterial pathogens, transgenes Sixty RAPD markers were analysed by bulk
coding for toxin inactivation, antibacterial pep- segregant analysis to identify the resistant and
tides, lysozyme, phytoalexins, PR-proteins, RIP susceptible germplasm of chilli wherein none
(ribosome inactivating proteins) and chitinases have resulted in any polymorphism between the
have been employed for the expression of re- bulks (Khagandramani et al. 2015).
sistance. In the case of viral pathogens, sev-
eral transgenes have been evaluated—virus coat
protein gene, DNA copy of viral satellite RNA, 11.19.6 Molecular Variability
defective viral genome, antisense construct of of Fusarium udum Isolates
critical viral genes and ribozymes. The viral coat
protein gene approach is the most successful. Wilt is one of the most widespread red gram
However, the large majority of transgenes are still diseases in the country and has been a constraint
at the experimental stage and are under trials in on red gram productivity. Morphological as well
model crops such as tobacco and potato (Deepthi as molecular studies can be utilized for assessing
et al. 2015). the pathogen diversity. These studies were used
to characterize the 14 isolates of Fusarium udum
collected from red gram cultivars of different red
11.19.5 Resistance Gene Candidates gram-growing regions in the Southern Telangana
Zone (STZ) of erstwhile Andhra Pradesh, In-
Degenerate primers based on the conserved dia (presently in Telangana state) to assess this
motifs of plant disease resistance (R) genes pathogen diversity. All the isolates exhibited con-
were used to isolate analogous sequences called siderable morphological and cultural variability
resistance gene candidates (RGCs). The NBS, in terms of colony growth, pigmentation and
LRR and kinase domain are characteristic external texture. RAPD primers (98) used to
features of many plant resistance genes. The test the molecular variability among the isolates
NBS domain has many conserved amino acid indicated that though all the markers could detect
sequences among different R genes. Chilli high levels of polymorphism among the fungal
(Capsicum annuum L.) production is seriously pathogen isolates, the degree of polymorphism
affected by root knot nematode disease, for varied depending on the marker that was se-
which no resistant source is available in the lected. OPK and OPI series markers detected high
cultivated germplasm. The NBS domain was levels of polymorphism among the Fusarium
analysed in one of the studies on chilli by the use udum isolates. NTSYSpc (version 2.0) cluster
of degenerate primers designed to the conserved analysis based on Jaccard’s similarity coefficient
region after PCR amplification. grouped all the isolates into two major distinct
11 Breeding, Genetics and Biotechnology 221

groups with a minimum of 5 % similarity index. Near-isogenic lines (NILs) were developed
This suggested that there was the existence of a as a breeding strategy on the background of the
minimum of two specific races of the pathogen famous wheat cultivar PBW 343. A backcross
that were prevailing in the pigeon pea grow- breeding approach was utilized to incorporate the
ing areas of STZ. The maximum variation was KB resistance from an already registered genetic
seen among the pathogen isolates collected from stock KBRL 22 in the variety PBW 343. The
Rangareddy compared to others. Fu11 and Fu12 NILs so developed were evaluated for resistance
isolates of Fusarium udum showed 50 % simi- at every generation of selfing after six back-
larity with most of the RAPD markers. M3 and crosses. One of these resistant lines, KB 2012–
M4 isolates of the Mahaboobnagar district were 03, was evaluated for yield across five different
grouped separately from the rest of the isolates of locations in the northwestern plains zone of India.
Rangareddy district (at a 20 % similarity index) Simultaneously, 194 SSR markers were used to
with around 60 % similarity among the two iso- characterize the parents, PBW 343 and KBRL
lates, suggesting high levels of variability among 22 and the NIL KB 2012–03. Out of these, 47
the isolates that were collected from the same markers were found to be polymorphic between
agroclimatic region of Andhra Pradesh (Suresh the parents. Eleven SSR markers were able to
et al. 2015). characterize the regions specific to KBRL 22. The
multi-location yield testing also revealed that on
an average basis the NIL KB 2012–03 (42.3 q
ha1 ) yield was significantly superior to the
11.19.7 Molecular Characterization parental check PBW 343 (35.6 q ha1 ). Thus, the
for Karnal Bunt Resistance lines identified in this study can be utilized as a
source of KB and high yield (Kumar et al. 2015c).
The increasing wheat yields in the country of
India have opened the option of exports. For
Indian wheat to be exported readily, there is a 11.19.8 Suppression Subtractive
need to satisfy the quarantine requirements of Hybridization
international standards.
Karnal bunt (KB) disease of wheat has been a Stress-inducible genes in response to gradual
hindrance to wheat export. KB caused by Neovos- water-deficit, high temperature and salt stresses
sia indica (Mitra) Mundkur (syn. Tilletia indica) can be identified through suppression subtractive
is an important wheat disease with implications hybridization. Signalling among the different
for wheat quality and trade. The disease reduces pathways may induce various types of genes
grain quality and inflicts changes on the chemi- under the different types of abiotic or biotic
cal composition of infected grains. The infected stresses. Pearl millet is an important cereal crop
portions of the kernel are replaced with masses that withstands drought, high temperature and
of dark, fishy-smelling fungal teliospores, ren- salt stresses and thus has an advantage as a
dering the grains unfit for human consumption. source of desirable genes for genetic engineering.
Although yield losses are usually low, interna- Despite this, it is considered as an orphan crop
tional quarantine policies against the disease may because of its vast untapped potential. Hence,
restrict the free flow of the global wheat trade. any progress for the molecular perception of
Currently, resistance breeding is being pur- different abiotic stress tolerance mechanisms in
sued as the main strategy for its management. this crop may provide a basis for developing
The development of resistant varieties through multiple stress-tolerant genotypes. Three cDNA
resistance breeding is difficult because of the libraries were constructed using a suppressive
considerable influence of environment on disease subtractive hybridization (SSH) technique to
expression and limited variability for KB resis- identify novel genes expressed under gradual
tance in hexaploid wheat. water-deficit (dehydration in dessicator), high
222 A. Kumari and R.K. Maiti

temperature (42 ı C) and salt (250 mM NaCl) phenotype revealed that three markers RM20060
stresses in pearl millet (ICMR 356) seedlings. on chromosome 6, RM5647 on chromosome 8
Of the 202, 158 and 141 ESTs analysed from and RM4771 on chromosome 10 showed least
water-deficit, high temperature and salt stressed recombination frequency and these three were
libraries, 77 %, 83 % and 78 % of the clones markers found to be linked to the stigma exertion
were identified to be stress responsive in nature, trait (Sruthi et al. 2015).
respectively, while the uncharacterized genes
contributed to 13–15 % of the transcriptome that
provided new candidate genes for investigation
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Sridhar M, Murali Krishna K, Sultana R et al (2015) cashew varieties under Odisha condition. In: Com-
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 Post-harvest Technology for Reducing
Stress on Bioresource: Recent 12
Advances and Future Needs

Somesh Sharma, Ashok Kumar Thakur, and Ratikanta Maiti

Abstract
Diverse agroclimatic conditions afford ample opportunities to grow a large
number of agricultural crops. The present day agricultural shifts its focus
towards quality, quantity and processing and value addition. In order to
deliver a quality product to the market and ultimately to the consumer,
to command buyer attention and to give the grower a competitive edge,
proper post-harvest management is required. Nearly, 20–25 % of fruits
and 30–40 % of vegetables are wasted due to inaccurate post-harvest
practices during harvesting packaging, storage, grading, etc. This wastage
can be reduced to some extent through the adoption of proper scientific
methods such as by cleaning, washing, sorting and grading, waxing,
packing, pre-cooling, curing, chemical treatment, irradiation, harvesting
at right maturity stage, free from injuries, properly storing and grading,
right packing, temperature and humidity of storage, cleanliness of storage,
chemical composition of produce and variety. In this chapter, the recent
trends in research and developmental work done in the field of post-
harvest management of agricultural commodities especially perishable
ones like fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants have been summarized.
The literature has been presented and discussed under different sections
include the extent of post-harvest losses, post-harvest physiology, handling
during harvest and post-harvest, packaging, processing, value addition,
quality assurance, marketing, etc. The text described here provides a gist
of research trends and new avenues in the field of post-harvest technology.

S. Sharma ()
School of Bioengineering and Food Technology, Shoolini Solan, HP, India
University of Biotechnology and Management Sciences, e-mail: [email protected]
Solan, HP, India R.K. Maiti
e-mail: [email protected] Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Autónoma
A.K. Thakur de Nuevo León, Carr. No 85, km 145, NL 67700 Linares,
Department of Seed Science and Technology, Dr Y S Mexico
Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 229

R.K. Maiti et al. (eds.), Bioresource and Stress Management, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0995-2_12
230 S. Sharma et al.

12.1 Introduction storage life and retain quality protect vegetables

and fruits from fluctuating weather conditions
The term post-harvest means the use of science and help in precision planning. The stored veg-
and technology for the management of food com- etables and fruits can be used economically for
modities and ornamental plants at post-harvest making various products. These methods ensure
level and include packaging, transportation, stor- confirmed supply of fresh vegetables and fruits in
age, processing, development of improved prod- off-season.
uct, preservation and marketing. It also means Post-harvest management can be considered
the handling of an agricultural product after har- as second production operation to add values to
vest to prolong storage life, freshness and an the products and the basic means for effective
attractive appearance. India is the world’s second marketing (Nag et al. 2015). Food processing
largest producer of fruits and vegetable. In order is a sun rising sector in the Indian economy
to deliver a quality product to the market and that has gained importance in recent years. It
ultimately to the consumer, to command buyer at- constitutes around 9 % and 11 % of the GDP
tention and to give the grower a competitive edge, in manufacturing and agricultural sector, respec-
proper post-harvest management is required. The tively, as per the annual report of ministry of
vegetables and fruits gets various physiological food processing industry, 2013–2014. Jainuddin
changes after harvesting; the changes include et al. (2015) reported the performance of Indian
utilization of energy reserves through respiration, food processing sector by analyzing important
changes in biochemical composition, changes in elements like share of FDI in FPI, bank credit
texture, physiological loss in weight, shriveling deployment to FPI, export share, employment
and shrinkage, rotting or losses through spoilage status, registered and unregistered FPI units, etc.
and increased ethylene production. The percentage share of gaur gum and groundnut
In addition to these metabolic changes, there to total export of processed products was found
may be losses in quality through mechanical to be higher over the 3 years but annual growth
damage, pest and diseases, through physiological in export was moderately decreasing in both
disorders, high or low temperatures and faulty (21.76 % for groundnut and 7.75 % for gaur gum)
storage atmosphere. Nearly, 20–25 % of fruits commodities but in case of milled and pulses
and 30–40 % of vegetables are wasted due to in- products, it has increasing at the rate of 56.35 %
accurate post-harvest practices during harvesting and 40.57 %, respectively. The annual growth in
packaging, storage, grading, etc. This wastage export value of processed products was found to
can be reduced to some extent through implemen- be highest in case of cocoa (80.10 %) followed by
tation of proper and scientific methods by clean- milled (67.41 %) products. The annual growth in
ing, washing, sorting, grading, waxing, packing, credit deployment to food processing sector was
pre-cooling, curing, chemical treatment, irradi- moderately higher (around 30 %) as compared
ation, harvesting at right maturity stage, free to total credit disbursement to industry sector
from injuries, properly storing and grading, right (23.13 %). The share of foreign direct investment
packing, temperature and humidity of storage, in FPI has shown ups and downs over the year but
cleanliness of storage, chemical composition of it has increased drastically in the year 2013–2014.
produce, kinds of crop and variety. Proper storage The per annum growth in FDI for food processing
practices include duration of storage, tempera- sector (22.91 %) was found to be marginally same
ture, relative humidity, air circulation and main- pattern as that of FDI for total industrial sector
tenance of space between containers for adequate (25.64 %) of the country. The study also found
ventilation and avoiding incompatible product that among the states, Andhra Pradesh (14.52 %)
mixes. Pre-storage treatments given to a com- has generated highest employment opportunity
modity (fruits and vegetables) generally after har- followed by Maharashtra (12.87 %) state in the
vesting to reduce post-harvest losses and enhance food processing sector whereas Uttar Pradesh has
12 Post-harvest Technology for Reducing Stress on Bioresource: Recent Advances and Future. . . 231

the highest number of food processing units in except area were found non-significant at the
India. The study also indicated that highest num- pre-harvest contractor level.
ber of food processing units were found in grain
mill products with 75,704 (49.27 %) followed by
food products with 22,821 (14.85 %) and fruits 12.3 Post-harvest Physiology
and vegetables with 14,066 (9.16 %).
The basic fact in the post-harvest handling of
produce is that harvested crops are the “living
12.2 Post-harvest Losses entities”. It is known fact that produce is living,
biological entity when it is attached to the growth
All those losses which occur after the healthy of parent plant in its agriculture environment.
commodity has been separated from the stalk or However, even after its harvest, the harvest pro-
stem or other medium from which it is originated duce is still living as it continues to perform the
and nourished to growth. Further, these are the metabolic reactions and maintain the physiology
losses that occur between the periods of separa- systems that were present when it was attached
tion of the healthy commodity from this parent to plant. An important aspect of plants, especially
plant until they are consumed. Perishable hor- the horticulture commodities, is that they respire
ticultural commodities are liable to post-harvest even after harvested from the parent plant. They
losses arising due to inappropriate management respire by taking up oxygen and giving of carbon
of physical, physiological and microbiological dioxide, heat and even lose water. However, when
deterioration during their post-harvest life. These attached to plant the losses are due to respiration
factors determine the quality of the product. Tem- and transpiration is replaced from the flow of sap,
perature, humidity and composition of the at- which contains water, photosynthates and miner-
mosphere and the physical stress derived from als. Respiration and transpiration even continue
physical damage in the plant tissues are the most after harvest even if the plant has been removed
important factors that plays the pivotal role in from its parent plant. Therefore, losses of res-
post-harvest quality. pirable substrates and moisture are not made up
The thorough knowledge of the post-harvest and deterioration has commenced.
respiratory metabolism, ripening, ethylene The post-harvest life of most horticultural per-
synthesis, post-harvest handling, crop quality, ishable commodities like cut flowers, fruits, veg-
food safety and post-harvest pathologies is etables and potted flowering plants is relatively
essentially required to manage the post-harvest shorter. Arrays of post-harvest technologies are
quality. Raisin is predominantly infected by employed to extend the shelf live by managing
black Aspergilli throughout the globe. Sefloo or controlling various physiological processes.
et al. (2012) reported that Aspergillus section The vase life is inversely related to respiration
Nigri was the most common species on raisins in rate, therefore quick cooling to the lowest safe
Khorasan-e-Razavi stock storage and markets. temperature has the pivotal role in extension
However, Aspergillus niger, A. awamori, A. of post-harvest life of perishable crops. Addi-
carbonarius, A. tubingensis, A. foetidus and tionally, low temperatures also manage senes-
A. aculeatus were identified. Green mould rot cence, water loss, ethylene, leaf yellowing and
caused by Penicillium digitatum is one of the diseases. However, the risk of chilling injury
most prominent post-harvest rots of kinnow is associated with low temperature treatments.
(Citrus deliciosa) fruits during storage and Chemical strategies include the application of
marketing (Sharma et al. 2012). Yasir et al. abscisic acid to reduce water loss, pre-treatment
(2011) reported that among the factors that with the volatile ethylene inhibitor 1-methyl cy-
cause reduction in its production and productivity clopropene (1-MCP), treatment with gibberellins
area, distance and number of labour significantly or cytokinins (CKs), hypochlorite, etc. Floral
affected at producer level. However, all variables senescence is an active process with many of the
232 S. Sharma et al.

hallmarks of programmed cell death. Molecular ity by manipulating the genetic makeup of the
analysis has revealed a large number of candi- crop. Agarwal et al. (2012) recommended that
date genes with possible roles in senescence and the past 2 decades have been rewarding in terms
remobilization. Virus-induced gene silencing has of deciphering the ethylene signal transduction
been used to evaluate the potential role of some of and functional validation of the ethylene receptor
these genes, particularly regulatory genes such as and downstream genes involved in the cascade.
transcription factors and kinases, although none The ethylene perception, receptor-mediated reg-
has yet been identified as a key controller. Orna- ulation of ethylene biosynthesis, role of ethylene
ments are particularly suited to testing transgenic receptors in flower senescence, fruit ripening and
strategies for extending shelf life. The results other effects induced by ethylene are emphasized
of experiments using constructs where inducible upon. The expression behaviour of the receptor
promoters are used to drive genes that extend and downstream molecules in climacteric and
flower life is reported. Of particular interest is the non-climacteric crops is also elaborated upon.
dramatic extension of longevity resulting from Possible strategies and recent advances in altering
silencing a component of the 26S proteasome, the ethylene sensitivity of plants using ethylene
which indicates the importance of targeted pro- receptor genes in an attempt to modulate the
tein degradation in control of floral senescence regulation and sensitivity to ethylene have also
and could serve as a strategy for extending the life been discussed. Not only will these transgenic
of ethylene-insensitive ephemeral flowers. Future plants be a boon to post-harvest physiology and
research will undoubtedly focus on providing crop improvement but it will also help us in dis-
better germplasm by using traditional, genomic covering the mechanism of regulation of ethylene
assisted and/or molecular breeding approaches sensitivity (Agarwal et al. 2012).
for improving the post-harvest performance of Yang et al. (2011) studied the ox horn pepper
ornamentals. Lee et al. (2012) observed that 1- fruit to explore the effect of UV-C treatment
methyl cyclopropene (1-MCP) treatment to Asian on the sensory quality, nutritional quality and
pear (Pyrus pyrifolia Nakai) harvested at 130 physiological index. The objective was to provide
and 140 DAFB effectively delayed firmness loss reference for short-term storage and to prolong
during storage at 25 ı C. 1-MCP treatment also shelf-life of ox horn pepper fruit. The dose of
reduced respiration rate to the tune of 50 % at 0.9 kJ m2 was the best treatment for protecting
14 days of shelf life. It completely checked the ox horn pepper fruit from rotting and weight loss,
incidence of internal browning and remarkably and there was a significant difference compared
reduced pithiness and core browning, however with the control. The soluble solid and Vc content
promoted the flesh spot decay to some extent. of ox horn pepper fruits treated by 0.9 kJ m2
The tomatoes harvested at matured green stage UV-C were significantly higher than the control
were better during storage and storing in the on the 15 day. Treated group could maintain the
ECS prolongs the shelf life (Muhammad et al. content of chlorophyll, restrain the respiration
2011). The heptose pool is an important source rate and relative permeability increasing and re-
of carbon and/or energy in avocado fruit (Blakey duce the accumulation of MDA; the activities of
et al. 2012). The low concentrations of two hep- SOD, POD and CAT on ox horn pepper fruits
toses, D-mannoheptulose and perseitol and the were higher than that of the control. Hence, Post-
quick reduction in their levels during post-harvest harvest senescence of ox horn pepper fruit was
indicate that optimal post-harvest management held back and fruit quality was maintained by
in terms of cold storage and ripening temper- UV-C treatment. Hu et al. (2011) reported that
ature regimes is necessary to reduce the post- 90 % ripening attained about 42 days after female
harvest disorders and maintain high-quality avo- flowering is the proper harvest time for Hami
cado fruit. The knowledge of ethylene receptors melon cultivar Huangpi 9818 based on the post-
and its signal transduction pathway is vital for harvest quality parameters like SSC after 14 days
manipulating and regulating ethylene sensitiv-
12 Post-harvest Technology for Reducing Stress on Bioresource: Recent Advances and Future. . . 233

in storage (16.99 %), organic acids (0.83 %) and Table 12.1 Antagonists and their efficacy against green
vitamin C (28.86 102 mg.g1 ). mould rot (Penicillium digitatum)
Kuhn et al. (2011) focused on how to reduce % Growth
the length of the post-harvest sunning period Sr. No. Antagonists inhibition
1 Debaryomyces hansenii 89.63
to maximize both colour development and fruit
2 S. pararoseus (KFY-1) 83.15
quality. It was demonstrated that 14 mg N l1
3 Pseudomonas fluorescens 82.41
resulted in a low yield, small fruit, low vegetative (Pf-1)
growth and low N content in leaf dry matter, 4 B. subtilis 74.44
but good fruit colour development. Excessive N 5 P. fluorescens (CHAO) 69.82
fertigation (224 mg N l2 ) did not produce the
significantly highest yield or the largest fruit, but conventional system of production. In general,
it did enhance vegetative growth and resulted in the changes of ripening and cell wall metabolism
less fruit colouration. N fertigation influenced op- parameters in the tomato fruits treated with hot
timal picking date; higher N fertigation delayed water for 10 min at 55 ı C after low-temperature
the time of picking and increased the incidence storage exhibited a comparable pattern to that of
of green fruit. Fruit from the high-N treatments non-cold-stored fruit (Zhang et al. 2012).
required more days of post-harvest sunning to Regulation of respiration rate is the basis of
obtain the comparable red skin colour than fruit modified atmosphere or control atmosphere (MA
from the lower N-treatments. However, when all or CA) storage system. Accurate mapping of
treatments were picked at ca. 20 % fruit col- respiration process is the key to success of these.
oration it was not possible to reduce the length Models developed by Pandey and Goswami
of post-harvest sunning period by N supply. Most (2011) based on the principle of enzyme kinetics
of the post-harvest colour development occurred with Arrhenius type and four-parameter second-
within the first 6–9 days following harvest; colour order polynomial model for capsicum showed
developed on both sides but was enhanced on better agreement with the experimental data than
the shade side of the fruit. The shade side of the non-linear model developed.
the fruit had a greater potential for better red
colour development than the blush side of the
fruit. The content of soluble solids, fruit firmness 12.4 Harvesting
and contents of minerals were not influenced by
N supply. The sunning period significantly re- Fresh commodities especially fruits and
duced fruit firmness. Grass cover competed with vegetables are highly perishable in nature may
the tree for N uptake with the narrow herbicide be unacceptable for consumption if not handled
strip producing the smallest yield, the smallest properly during harvesting. These commodities
vegetative growth and the reddest fruit. The wider pass through a long channel before their use,
the herbicide strip the lower the N fertigation which may lead to number of undesirable
necessary for optimal fruit production. physico-chemical changes in their composition.
Sharma et al. (2012) reported following antag- Commodities that are processed into valuable
onists (Table 12.1) for control of green mould rot products also require essentially a right stage
(Penicillium digitatum). of picking. So for the effective post-harvest
Based on visual evaluation for the incidence management of commodities to provide their
of biotic (diseases and pests) and abiotic (phys- acceptable quality for the consumption to a
iological disorders and mechanical damage) in- maximum extent, it is very much essential
juries after a storage at 25 ı C and 85 % of UR to understand about their optimum maturity
for 14 days, Fischer et al. (2012) suggested the and stage of harvesting, post-harvest handling
adoption of phytosanitary management measures operations and the physiological changes in their
and adjustments in post-harvest processing aim- composition which take place during ripening,
ing fruits with better quality in both organic and transportation and marketing. Harvesting is the
234 S. Sharma et al.

separation of commodity from its parent plant. handling operations. There are a number of stor-
Removal of fish from water is also harvesting. age techniques that are being used for commodi-
Harvesting with improper method results in ties that are highly perishable in nature such
the damage of crop by bruising which can be as fruits and vegetables. The quality of stored
caused by compression, impact or vibration. potato (Solanum tuberosum) tubers is largely de-
Therefore, during harvesting factors such as termined by the initial quality of tubers. Bethke
delicacy of crop, maturity, time and method of and Busse (2010) reported that vine-kill treat-
harvesting mode of packaging and transportation, ment and tuber maturity at harvest have long-
economy of the operations should be taken into term effects on tuber quality during the storage.
consideration. Post-harvest losses of fruits ranges Puerta-Gomez et al. (2013) developed the model
between 22 and 25 % and majority of which for the estimation of growth rate with an ex-
occurs at the time of harvesting. perimental linear cooling profile (slow cooling)
Dehulling and deseeding of tamarind from in baby spinach leaves reported that the the-
dehuller-cum-deseeder was 4–5 times faster at oretical minimum temperature for growth was
dehulling operation and 11–13 times faster at de- 5.88 ı C and 4.76 ı C for Salmonella and E. coli,
seeding operations than manual processing when respectively. Gustafson et al. (2012) quantified
operated at 4 cm rings clearance and 5 kg h1 anthocyanin (ANC), proanthocyanidin (PAC) and
feed rate (Aruna et al. 2015). Elkins et al. (2011) chlorogenic acid (CA) concentrations in wild
reported that platform-harvested fruit had 57 % blueberry fruit (WBB) exposed to a variety of
fewer stem punctures. The other advantages are: post-harvest handling practices relevant to con-
sumers and to industry. Additionally, we ana-
• Night-time lights
lyzed the bioactive potential of WBB subjected
• Overhead shading
to common culinary preparations such as baking,
• Increased vertical reach
boiling and microwaving. Levels of ANC, PAC
• Re-configured conveyors to target a productiv-
and CA in individually quick frozen (IQF) wild
ity goal of 6 bins worker1 day1
blue berry (WBB) that had been subjected to
However, major barriers to widespread adop- temperature fluctuations, which are often encoun-
tion are: tered during distribution and handling for retail
sales, dropped by approximately 8, 43, and 60 %,
• Capital and maintenance costs
respectively, compared to an IQF WBB compos-
• Orchard renovation expense
ite that was stored continuously from harvest at
• Fruit sorting challenges
80 ı C. Baking IQF wild blue berry (WBB)
• Lack of imminent drastic labour shortage
reduced anthocyanin (ANC), proanthocyanidin
• Post-harvest Handling
(PAC) and chlorogenic acid (CA) concentrations
The agricultural commodities being living or- by 11.2, 14.6 and 10.6 %, respectively, while
gans continue to respire even after harvesting. boiling decreased ANC, PAC and CA concentra-
In addition to degradation of respiratory sub- tions by a minimum of 7.4, 14.4 and 36.8 %, re-
strates, a number of changes in taste, colour, spectively. However, microwaving IQF WBB for
flavour, texture and appearance take place in 1 min increased ANC concentrations by 12.9 %
harvested commodities that makes them unac- but exposure to 3 and 5 min resulted in signif-
ceptable for consumption by the consumers if icant decreases (29.8 and 81.6 %, respectively)
these are not handled properly. The improper (Gustafson et al. 2012).
temperature of storage may lead to disturbance Duvenhage et al. (2012) studied the packed
in the normal metabolism of the harvested or- cartons of plum fruit with three doses of irradi-
gans. It is well established that the quality of ation (400, 900 and 1400 Gy) where after the
the harvested commodities cannot be improved fruit was cold stored for 42 days with a dual
further but it can be retained until their con- temperature regime and then 7 days to simulate
sumption if the rate of metabolic activities are shelf-life conditions and found that the respi-
reduced by adopting the appropriate post-harvest ration rate of the fruit generally increased as
12 Post-harvest Technology for Reducing Stress on Bioresource: Recent Advances and Future. . . 235

the irradiation dose increased, except after shelf- observed by Mattiuz et al. (2012), in study on
life where it decreased after reaching a maxi- treatment with pulsing solutions containing silver
mum at 400 Gy. Even at the highest dose most salts, 8-HQC and sucrose. The soluble carbohy-
of the quality parameters measured at the end drates and reducing sugars content decreased, and
of cold storage was above the minimum arrival higher contents were measured in flowers treated
standards for overseas markets. However, shrivel with STS (2 mM). All parameters related to
was higher than the maximum allowed. It is sug- flower coloration were reduced in all treatments.
gested that refinement of the system using insect- Similar results were obtained for carotenoid con-
proof bags and irradiation would be an effective tent, except for the STS treatment (2 mM), which
non-toxic alternative to currently used mitigation differed significantly from the other treatments on
treatments for plums (Duvenhage et al. 2012). the 8th and 12th days of vase life. The inflores-
King chilli (Capsicum chinense Jacquin) fruits cences longevity varied from 12 days (distilled
treated with calcium chloride (0.5 %) packed in water) to 15 days (STS 2 mM).
non-perforated bags and stored under refrigera- Post-harvest treatment with chlorine solution
tion at 5 ı C recorded lowest physiological loss (200 ppm sodium hypochlorite) for 15 min has
in weight (2.55 %) and change in fruit colour the potential to control decaying incidence, pro-
(10 %) and highest value of ascorbic acid content long shelf life (up to 22 days) and preserve
(120.5 mg 100 g1 of fruit) at 9th day after valuable attributes of post-harvest tomato fruits
storage and longest shelf life (9 days) (Rongsen- (Sood et al. 2011). Oligochitosan treatment (pre-
nungla et al. 2012). harvest 0.05 % oligochitosan) was most effective
In order to determine the effectiveness of in maintaining the fruit quality of apricot, in-
ethanol, Bal et al. (2011) examined quality creasing storage period of fruits by modulating
variations due to menthol and thymol treatments, the ripening and senescence of fruit cells (Liu
during the cold storage of cv. Kozak Siyah. et al. 2012). Prompt pre-cooling and cold envi-
For this aim, grape clusters were dipped into ronment (0 ı C) during storage reduces decaying,
solution containing 40 % ethanol for ethanol respiration, ethylene production, total acid con-
treatment, on the other hand; 0.1 ml menthol tent falling, SSC content falling and pubescence
and thymol absorbed gauzes were put near the rate of Zizyphus jujuba Mill., resulting in main-
clusters for treatments of menthol and thymol. taining the membrane permeability of fruit cell,
Besides, pads containing sulphur and control hardness and edible rate (Pan et al. 2010).
grape (without treatment) were also taken. Later, Semper fresh treatment could maintain the
all clusters were packed with polyethylene bags storage quality such as soluble solids content
and stored at 0–1 ı C and conditions of 85–90 % (SSC), vitamin C content and titratable acid in
relative humidity; some quality characteristics fruits (Li and Chen, 2010). The loss of water and
were examined at 30 day interval. As a result decay rate of fruits were also been inhibited. The
of findings, better results from treatments activity of some antioxidant enzymes (SOD and
of ethanol, menthol and thymol than control CAT) also indicated that Semper fresh treatment
were found out during the storage of modified can prevent the quality degradation of Newhall
atmosphere. In the research, decreases in total navel orange. The optimum concentration was
phenolic compound content, tannin content and 15 g l1 treatment.
anthocyanin content were observed at the end The prevention of litchi pericarp from brown-
of the storage period. Among the treatments, it ing and losing water is most important and diffi-
was determined that menthol treatment showed cult problems for post-harvest storage of litchi.
as same effect as sulphur treatment and would The production of litchi and its current post-
be used as an alternative method for sulphur harvest storage techniques in Guangxi have been
treatment. studied. The post-harvest biology of local va-
Reduced relative water content of Oncidium rieties in Guangxi was supposed to be further
flowers treated with pulsing STS (2 mM) was studied by learning experience from China and
236 S. Sharma et al.

other countries. Keeping view of maturity and hyde helps to determine stressful atmospheres in
senescence, low temperature and atmosphere that green and leafy vegetables (Cantwell and Kas-
affects the post-harvest of litchi fruit, practical mire 2002a, b).
storage technologies meeting the needs of litchi The harvested fruits of mango (Langra and
production in Guangxi have been put forward to Samar Bahisht Chaunsa) varieties showed signif-
make the post-harvest storage characteristic and icant variations in quality characteristics by vary-
diversified (Yao et al. 2010). ing harvest stage, storage conditions and their
Oligochitosan treatment can also prolong stor- combinations. The contents of vitamin C and
age period of fruits by modulating the ripening acidity were highest in fruits harvested at 80
and senescence of fruit cells. The qualities and (early stage) days after fruit set (DAFS) and
indexes of Saimaiti apricot fruits treated by pre- sugar contents in fruits harvested 110 DAFS (late
harvest 0.05 % oligochitosan were superior to stage). The weight loss was highest and shelf
other testing group. The effect of the storage life was longest for fruits harvested at 80 DAFS
system on the chemical composition and thermal (early stage) and waste percentage was lowest for
properties of pineapple fruit (Ananas comosus L.) fruits harvested 95 DAFS (mid stage). The waste
of cv. Josapine was investigated. The fruits were percentage, weight loss, pH, total soluble solids,
stored in a refrigerator, 10 ˙ 1 ı C, 35 % H2 O carotenoids and total sugar increased the percent-
and a humidity chamber, 10 ˙ 1 ı C, 75 % H2 O. age of acidity and vitamin C was decreased with
The properties of the fruit juice were examined storage time or ripening process, irrespective of
every 4 days for changes in proximate analysis, maturity stages. The ripening rate was increased
total soluble solids, colour, freezing point, water and the shelf life was decreased with the increase
activity, pH, sugar contents, thermal conductivity in storage temperature. The skin colour, total
and density (Liu et al. 2012). soluble solids, sugar contents and carotenoids
The statistical analysis indicates that total were well correlated (Baloch and Bibi, 2012).
soluble solids are indicative of the ripening of
the pineapple fruit Shamsudin et al. (2011).
1-Methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) significantly 12.5 Storage
decreases synthesis of ethylene and maintains
firmness of apples for a long period of time, Diffusion channel is a potential system to ex-
whereas the synthesis of ethylene in pears is tend the shelf-life of tomato. Optimization of the
only slightly decreased or remains unchanged. length and diameter of the diffusion channel for
The application of 1-MCP effectively prevents maintain a steady-state O2 concentration in air-
negative physiological changes during storage of tight storage chambers at different temperatures
most fruit kinds but some negative consequences viz., 10, 20 and 30 ı C. Combinations of length
of its usage are also possible. of 60, 120, 180 and 240 mm and diameter of 3,
For sugar snap peas, however, low tempera- 6, 9 and 12 mm were tested by Kandasamy et al.
ture in normal air is the best storage condition (2015). Both length and diameter had a signifi-
and tolerance to modified atmosphere is limited. cant effect on the steady-state O2 concentration.
Modified atmospheres are routinely used to con- When the diameter was 3 and 6 mm, increasing
trol discoloration in cut lettuce products, but other the length had no significant effect on steady-
aspects of quality may be negatively affected state gas concentration. Similarly, no significant
(off-doors, texture, ascorbic acid concentrations). difference in the gas concentration was observed
Spinach is a leafy green which is little benefited by changing the diameter was observed when the
by modified atmospheres and will only tolerate length of channel was less than 120 mm and
moderate O2 and CO2 levels (about 5 %). Mon- greater than 180 mm. Diffusion channel length
itoring changes in ammonia concentrations in of 180 mm and diameter of 9 mm maintained
addition to measurement of ethanol and acetalde- the O2 concentration as low as 6–8 % and CO2
12 Post-harvest Technology for Reducing Stress on Bioresource: Recent Advances and Future. . . 237

concentration as high as 16–18 %. Respiration cultivated ‘Camino Real’. In a general way, the
rate of tomato decreased with increase in length. MA correlated inversely with decay with the
Temperature also had a significant influence on exception of conventional cultivated ‘Camino
respiration rate that was directly proportional to Real’. Strawberries from both cultures can be
the temperature. The respiration rates of 1.95– stored for 5 days without losing quality regardless
8.36, 2.5–11.43 and 4.2–14.3 mg O2 kg1 h1 the production system.
at 10, 20 and 30 ı C, respectively, was sustained The cool and wet storage of premature spikes
under the diffusion channel system irrespective of Consolida ajacis cv. Violet Blue for 72 h in
of length and diameter of the channel. Quality distilled water followed by placing them in 0.2 M
parameters such as firmness, acidity and ascorbic sucrose improves the cut flower vase life and
acid were found to be significant (p  0.05) by can be used as an effective post-harvest storage
temperature, channel length and diameter. Total system for this beautiful cut flower (Waseem et al.
sugars and lycopene content had a significant 2009).
difference with temperature and diameter but A high respiratory rate is characteristics of
not with length of channel. The colour change ‘Maxi Gala’ and ‘Brookfield’ apples in all
(E) was directly related to lycopene formation. storage conditions. The ‘Brookfield’ apples
Temperature had a significant effect on TSS but presented high pulp cracks when stored under a
length and diameter of channel had no significant HRH environment. The temperature of 1.0 ı C
effect. The pH was not significant with temper- decreases the ACC oxidase enzyme activity
ature, diameter and length of channel. Quality and ethylene production and maintains higher
evaluation indicated that tomato stored at 10 ı C flesh firmness. The LRH maintains higher
for 45 days and 38 days at 20 ı C obtained best flesh firmness and total soluble solids and
results using diffusion channels of length 180 mm decreases the flesh breakdown. The fruits of the
and diameter of 9 mm. Tomato stored under these ‘Brookfield’ cultivar presented a lower storage
conditions had good appearance, colour and good potential in relation to the other cultivars (Weber
marketability conditions. et al. 2012).
Bamboo battens storage structure with AC Apples stored at 1.0 ı C in standard CA
sheet roofing with bottom and side ventilation (1.0 kPa O2 and 2.0 kPa CO2 ) showed less
retained the maximum total soluble solids (TSS), ethylene production, respiration, ACC oxidase
ascorbic acid retention, total sugars (reducing activity and lower breakdown and mealy pulp
and non-reducing) compared to other methods incidence. Increasing in CO2 concentration at the
of storage (Rekha et al. 2015). The maximum end of the storage period was not more efficient
percentage of marketable bulbs was recorded in than standard CA in maintenance fruit quality
bulbs stored in bamboo battens storage structure during shelf life, but did not cause damage in
with AC sheet roofing with bottom and side the fruits. The decrease in O2 and/or temperature
ventilation followed by bulbs stored in wooden during storage reduces the fruit decay incidence
battens storage structure with galmenium sheet (Brackmann et al. 2012). Bahri et al. (2012)
roofing and with bottom and side ventilation at reported that calcium chloride was the best
3 months of storage. CMA for preserving water content and TSS of
In stored strawberries, pH, SS, relation SS/TA, lettuce during ambient storage. In addition, water
decay and mass loss have increased (Avila content and TSS decreased by increasing STP for
et al. 2012) during storage. The firmness varied ambient stored lettuce.
irregularly, TA and H decreased significantly. The Respiration rate and ethylene production of
values of volatile compounds (VC) increased fruit applied with AVG were greatly reduced
with the exception of methyl acetate (MA). more than those in control. Flesh firmness and
Ethanol (Et), acetaldehyde (AA) and ethyl acetate acidity of fruit applied with AVG were higher
(EA) correlated positively with decay for organic than those in control. Flesh browning occurred
238 S. Sharma et al.

in all of the control fruit regardless of harvest 12.6 Packaging

date. However, AVG-treated fruits were free of
flesh browning except for late harvested fruits. Packaging is one of the most important processes
At 185 DAFB, ‘Fuji’ apples were harvested and to maintain the quality of product for storage,
pre-storage heat treatment was done for 3 days at transportation and end use. It also prevents qual-
38 ı C and 6 h at 46 ı C. Heat treatment at 38 ı C ity deterioration and facilitates distribution and
and 46 ı C prior to CA storage greatly reduced marketing. The basic functions of packaging are
respiration rate and ethylene production. The in- protection, containment, information and conve-
cidence of flesh browning were 35 %, 14 % and nience. The first examples of packaging were
5 % in control fruit, heating at 38 ı C and 46 ı C, natural objects – shells, gourds and leaves – used
respectively. The titratable acidity was lower at to contain food and drink so that it could be
heated apple than at controlled one (Kweon et al. consumed in a place away from where it was
2012). obtained. There are different types of packaging
Storage insects are aerobic organisms requir- systems such as individual packaging, external
ing oxygen for their survival. Therefore, they packaging. The importance of packaging is that
respond to altered atmospheric gas compositions it reduces the product damage and food spoilage,
containing low O2 or high CO2 . The lower the reduces the risk of tempering and adulteration,
grain moisture content (m.c) and the correspond- presents food in a hygienic and often attrac-
ing intergranular humidity, the higher the mor- tive way, promotes goods in competitive mar-
tality due to the desiccation effect on insects ket place, increases consumer choice and saves
caused by low O2 or elevated CO2 concentra- energy. There are different packaging materials
tions. To achieve insect control, the temperature used for horticulture crops some of them are pa-
of the grain should be above 21 ı C. Hermetic per board, corrugated fibre board cartons, plastic
storage is based on the principle of generation crates and wooden crates. The novel food pack-
of an oxygen-depleted, carbon dioxide-enriched aging techniques include biodegradable coatings,
interstitial atmosphere caused by the respiration modified atmosphere storage, etc.
of the living organisms in the ecological system Guava is one of the most delicious and nu-
of a sealed storage. A sufficiently low oxygen tritious fruits, liked by the consumers for its
and elevated CO2 atmosphere is created through refreshing taste and pleasant flavour. The cli-
a natural metabolic process based on insect res- macteric nature of guava fruit results in rapid
piration and in cases where the commodity has ripening and very short shelf life ranging from 2
sufficiently high moisture, the respiration of the to 3 days at room temperature. The fruit ripen-
microorganisms within a sealed storage system. ing in guava is characterized by loss of green
An O2 ingress rate of 0.05 % day1 is sufficient colour, softening, shrinkage, loss of brightness
to arrest the theoretical weight loss at a level and rot development. Chitosan, an edible coating,
of 0.018 % over 1-year storage period. At this protects perishable produce from deterioration by
ingress rate, the possibility of a residual surviv- reducing transpiration, respiration and maintain-
ing insect population is eliminated. This low O2 ing the textural quality. Fruit coating with 1 %
ingress level could serve as a guideline for the chitosan effectively extended the shelf life of
sealing specifications of structures appropriate to guava up to 7 days in terms of delayed ripening,
the hermetic storage method. The applications for higher firmness retention and lesser physiological
which hermetic technology has been most widely weight loss (Krishna and Rao, 2015). Cantwell
accepted are (a) for long-term storage of cereal and Kasmire (2002a,b) summarized the following
grains, primarily rice, corn, barley, and wheat; (b) post-harvest technologies for highly perishable
for long-term storage of a variety of seeds to pre- crop produce (Table 12.2).
serve germination potential and vigour and (c) for Apricot cultivars show variable response to
quality preservation of high-value commodities, packaging films and optimal permeability may
such as dried fruits (Navarro, 2012). also differ (Gouble et al. 2012). Baby corn is
12 Post-harvest Technology for Reducing Stress on Bioresource: Recent Advances and Future. . . 239

Table 12.2 Postharvest technologies for highly perish- bacteria counts and polyphenol oxidase activity
able crop have increased. The losses of ascorbic acid,
Sr. No. Crop Technology total phenolics, total carotenoids and antioxidant
1 Broccoli Increased CO2 concentration activity were determined as 11.54 %, 7.56 %,
2 Sugar snap peas Low temperature 29.08 % and 17.36 %, respectively. Generally,
3 Spinach Moderate O2 and CO2
greater reductions occurred in blank samples
concentrations (about 5 %)
which were not treated with any chemicals,
but were packed under modified atmosphere
conditions. A little weight loss, total dry matter
loss and polyphenol oxidase activity increase
a highly perishable commodity owing to higher
were found in samples packaged in carbon
respiration rate. The availability of a range of
dioxide enriched atmosphere and treated with Ca-
new food good polymeric films with different
ascorbate C citric acid. This condition was also
permeabilities to the atmospheric gases has re-
found to be more effective in limiting the quality
vived the interest in packaging in sealed bags.
losses and preventing organoleptic degradation.
Cobs packed in 0.2 % ventilated polybags irre-
On the contrary, control samples were generally
spective of gauges were found to be promising.
rejected by the panelists at 95 % probability level
Cobs packed in unventilated polybags under all
because of their deleterious odour and colour.
gauges were subjected to anaerobic respiration
The use of modified atmosphere through the
and tended to produce off odours and off flavours.
development of fruit with cassava starch is called
Santos et al. (2011)) used of cassava starch
edible films and has been widely used for the
at 2 % and corn starch biofilms at 4 % and
reduction of postharvest losses by reducing the
observed reduction in the mass loss, maintained
metabolic activity and loss of water, improving its
the firmness, improved the visual aspects
commercial aspect and reflecting in the increase
and prolonged the storage period without
of the commercialization period. The purpose of
decreasing the fruits quality. The flowers
this study was to evaluate the use of edible cas-
packed in polyethylene and stored in cold
sava biofilms in maintaining post-harvest toma-
store at 10 ı C expressed maximum flower
toes and bell peppers. The fruits were immersed
diameter (5.94 cm), fresh weight of flowers
in a suspension of cassava starch biofilms at
(16.24 g), minimum physiological loss in
concentrations of 0 % (control), 3 % and 4 %, and
weight (0.69 %) and minimum abscised petals
it was also carried out an assessment covering the
flower1 (2.17). The moisture content played
fruit with polyethylene film as a way of com-
the critical role (Kumar et al. 2011). Incedayi
parison between the edibles. The tomatoes and
and Suna (2012) treated cauliflower florets with
the bell peppers were stored at 12 and 24 ı C for
NaCl (1 %) C Na-metabisulphite (1500 ppm)
12 and 7 days, respectively. It can be concluded
solution and chlorinated (150 ppm, pH 6.9).
that tomatoes covered with cassava starch biofilm
They were then rinsed with tap water. In this
at 3 % had a better appearance than the control
manner, one group of vegetables was treated with
fruits and the ones covered with polyethylene
citric acid solution (1.5 %) and the other group
film. Under the conditions of the experiment,
with Ca-ascorbate (0.5 %) C citric acid (1 %)
the tomato fruit ripening proceeded normally.
solution. After centrifugation, the samples were
In the experiment with bell peppers, it can be
packed in 20 % atmospheric air C80 % N2 and
concluded that the temperature of the 12 ı C was
20 % atmospheric air C70 % N2 C 10 % CO2
effective in maintaining fruit quality, especially
conditions with biaxially oriented polypropylene
for treatments with the use of edible biofilms for
(BOPP) film. After 15 days of storage at
12 days post-harvest (Santos et al. 2011).
4 ˙ 2 ı C ascorbic acid, total phenolics and total
Chitosan coatings inhibit the activity of CAT
carotenoids contents have decreased; whereas
and POD and reduced their peak activity. The
aerobic mesophilic, psychrophilic, total coliform
squash with chitosan treatment could reduce the
240 S. Sharma et al.

occurrence of chilling injury and the decline of bags registered minimum reducing sugar (0.70,
storage quality. The group with 10 g l1 chitosan 0.91 and 1.27 %) followed by fruits stored in
gave the best inhibition of chilling injury (Yuan 200 gauge polypropylene bags (0.72, 0.95 and
et al. 2012). Hameed et al. (2012) concluded that 1.31 %) respectively on 7, 14 and 21 days.
mangoes should be harvested at the advance stage Highest reducing sugars were registered in
of maturity, and the use of polyethylene bags for 4 % ventilated polypropylene bags viz., 0.88 %
packaging of fruit in ambient conditions is not (7 days) and 1.10 % (14 days). The fruits stored
practicable to extend the shelf life of mangoes but in polypropylene bags with 0.5 % ventilation
it might be applicable after further investigation recorded lowest non-reducing sugar (0.81 %)
in controlled low temperature and high humidity. followed by 1 % ventilated polypropylene bags
Sidhu et al. (2012) concluded that garlic vari- (0.91 %) (Jadhao et al. 2015).
ety PG-01 has longer storage life. Garlic cloves
could be stored in LDPE film for 5 days at
room temperature and more than 15 days at re- 12.7 Preservation
frigerated conditions. Statistical analysis showed
that storage period, storage condition and pack- One of the major advances in human history was
aging material have a significant effect at 5 % the ability to preserve food. It was the prerequisite
level of significance on the moisture content and to man settling down in one place, instead of
colour of the samples, whereas variety has a moving from place to place in the never-ending
non-significant effect on the quality parameters. hunt for fresh food. The earliest preservation
Treating the flowers in boric acid 4 %, packing technologies developed were drying, smoking,
in PP 60 micro and CFB packaging was found chilling and heating. Later on the art of con-
significant and extended the shelf life of flowers trolling, these technologies was developed. The
to 192.32 h. Visual quality and the physiological work of Pasteur in the nineteenth century then
parameters were highly significant in this pack- made it possible to understand the real mode
age when compared to other packages and control of operation of preservation techniques such as
(Thamaraiselvi et al. 2010). heating, chilling and freezing, providing the basis
The kagzi lime fruits stored in 300 gauge for more systematic monitoring and control. The
polypropylene bags recorded significantly use of various compounds such as salt and spices
minimum pH up to 28 days (Jadhao et al. 2015). to preserve foods was also used in ancient times.
As the levels of ventilation increased, pH of Unfortunately, the gradual use of a wider range
kagzi lime also increased. The acidity of kagzi of chemicals for preservation such as boron or
lime fruits decreased significantly with the days cumarine sometimes led to misuse (Zeuthen and
of storage period. Fruits stored in 300 gauge Sùrensen 2003). The shelf-life of fresh sugar-
polypropylene bags registered comparatively cane juice is limited due to enzymatic browning
highest acidity on 7, 14, 21 and 28 days of caused by polyphenol oxidase (PPO) enzyme.
storage followed by fruit stored in 200 gauge High pressure processing is one of the novel food
polypropylene bags. The lowest brix/acid ratio of preservation methods used as an alternative to
fruits was recorded in 300 gauge polypropylene thermal treatment. Sreedevi and Rao (2015) ob-
bags (1.12) followed by polypropylene bags served that the inactivation of PPO in sugarcane
of 200 gauge (1.16) at the end of storage. juice increased with increase in either pressure
The ascorbic acid of fruits decreased with the or dwell time. Maximum 21 % inactivation of
enhancement of storage period. Among different PPO was obtained at 400 MPa and 25 min.
gauges of polypropylene bags, fruits stored During the sauerkraut production by conventional
in 300 gauge polypropylene bags recorded fermentation of cabbage causes loss of glucosi-
highest ascorbic acid content as compared to nolates (GSs). The thermal treatment (blanching)
fruits stored in 200 gauge polypropylene bags. followed by fermentation (4 % brine at 25 ı C) by
The fruits stored in 300 gauge polypropylene the probiotic strain Lactobacillus paracasei LMG
12 Post-harvest Technology for Reducing Stress on Bioresource: Recent Advances and Future. . . 241

P22043 retained 27.2 ˙ 2.3 micro mol 100 g1 trends were observed for springiness, gummi-
GSs 71 h after fermentation, out of the initial ness, chewiness and cohesiveness with the excep-
35 % of the total GSs before fermentation (Sarvan tion of ash. On the contrary, the mean adhesive-
et al. 2013). Mushrooms are especially sensitive ness showed negative correlation with protein, fat
to senescence, browning, water loss and micro- and ash content and shown positive correlation
bial attack. Gamma-irradiation was previously with moisture content and level of orange pulp
tested in wild Lactarius deliciosus, being verified (Nikam et al. 2015).
that its application up to 1 kGy did not imply Scanning electron microscopy showed oval
significant changes in chemical parameters (Fer- and irregular shaped potato starch granules with
nandes et al. 2013). average diameter of 15 micro m and the granule
Fruits and vegetables consumption has risen diameter increased after storage. Peak viscosity
noticeably during recent decades, leading to a was lower after storage at 8 ı C and higher at
greater frequency of food borne illnesses associ- 16 ı C. Hot paste viscosity decreased while break-
ated with fresh produce. Novel industrial appli- down viscosity and set back viscosity increased
cations and improvements in ozone technology after storage and there was no significant change
together with new regulatory actions worldwide in cold paste viscosity. A significant decrease in
have emerged in recent years, making its use pasting time and increase in pasting temperature
in the food industry easier. This technology has was observed after storage. Phosphorus content
attracted considerable commercial interest, espe- showed significant positive correlation with peak
cially because ozone does not leave any residues viscosity (r D 0.452, p < 0.05) and breakdown
on the treated produce and it is accepted by viscosity (r D 0.685, p < 0.01) and a negative
many organic grower organizations. However, correlation with amylose content (r D 0.674,
discrepancies regarding the efficacy of this tech- p < 0.01). ‘Kufri Sindhuri’ starch showed signif-
nology are often found in the bibliography and icantly (p < 0.05) higher peak, hot paste, break-
further research is still needed. Method of ozone down and cold paste viscosity. The X-ray diffrac-
generation and application, concentration and ex- tion pattern of starch showed a distinctive max-
posure time to the gas as well as the way in imum peak at around 17 degrees, 2 theta and
which produce is packed was studied. In this it was not affected by the cultivar or storage
sense, standardization in the working conditions temperature.
and in the units to measure ozone concentration Sharma and Sharma (2015) developed and
will be useful to better understand the mode of analysed blend of 65 % Aloe vera juice C35 %
action and the effects of ozone on food products. aonla juice and found good amount of ascorbic
Consequently, it would be possible to improve acid (78.65 mg 100 g1 ) and phenolics (32.15 mg
its potential as a sanitizer in the food industry 100 g1 ) compared to control sample (100 %
(Horvitz and Cantalejo, 2014). Aloe vera). It also possessed high antioxidant po-
The burfi prepared with addition of orange tential (70.85 %) and strong antimicrobial activity
pulp in sweetened khoa is popularly known as (32 mm inhibition zone). The calculated energy
Santra burfi in Maharashtra and it has great value of the developed product was recorded to
commercial potential owing to its typical taste. be 53.65 Kcal 100 g1 , which was significantly
The santra burfi was prepared by varying the low compared to the control sample (165 Kcal
rates of orange pulp addition and was tested for 100 g1 ). Citrus fruits are well known for their
various textural properties such as hardness, co- refreshing fragrance, thirst quenching ability pro-
hesiveness, gumminess, chewiness, adhesiveness viding adequate vitamin C as per recommended
and springiness with TA-XT2i Texture Analyzer dietary allowance and phytochemicals which play
using two-bite compression. The hardness was the role of neutraceuticals, such as carotenoids
found to have positive correlation with proteins, (Lycopene and “-carotene), limonoids, fla-
fat and ash content, while the moisture and level vanones (Naringins and rutinoside) and vitamin-
of orange pulp had negative correlation. Similar B complex (Sree, 2015; Ladaniya, 2008).
242 S. Sharma et al.

Pomegranate fruit can be processed to various quality indices. Variety of oil palm, pro-
delicately flavoured RTS beverage. Further, cessing method and storage history have signifi-
pomegranate juice can be blended with other fruit cant effect on specific heat capacity of the sam-
drinks (Yadav et al. 2006). Ready-to-serve (RTS) ples. The specific heat capacity increased in the
prepared from sweet orange (Citrus sinensis temperature range from 10 to 10 ı C followed
Osbeck) variety Sathgudi using sugar substituted by a decrease to about 80 ı C. The specific heat
with fructose, 50 % sucrose C 50 % fructose and capacity of cold processed palm oil was generally
50 % sucrose C 50 % sucralose were rated as best lower, ranging from 1.29 to 5.26 J g1 o C, while
recipes (Byanna and Gowda, 2012). The RTS that of hot processed samples ranged from 1.80
beverage had storage stability up to 6 months. to 6.24 J g1 o C (Alakali et al. 2012). Sandhu
During storage period, the TSS, acidity and et al. (2013) tries to explain the complex mass
reducing sugars increased, while pH, total sugars, transfer mechanisms taking place during deep fat
non-reducing sugars and ascorbic acid decreased frying with respect to real time pressure vari-
(Byanna and Gowda, 2012). Aviram et al. ations inside potato discs and chicken nuggets.
(2002) found that pomegranate juice flavonoids Frying experiments were performed at two tem-
inhibited low-density lipoprotein oxidation and peratures of 175 ı C and 190 ı C for 200 and
cardiovascular diseases in humans. Pomegranate 240 s for potato discs and chicken nuggets, re-
juice is thirst quenching and is the best for spectively. The guage pressure increased rapidly
patients suffering from leprosy, high cholesterol above the atmospheric pressure immediately af-
levels and heart, kidney and tuberculosis patients. ter the samples were introduced into the hot
Extracts of fruit has antiviral (Poliovirus) activity oil. The rise in pressure was greater in potato
(Konowalchuk and Speirs, 1978). discs with greater initial moisture content. This
The blending of fruit drinks could be an eco- was expected due to sudden moisture flash-off.
nomic requisite to utilize the fruits profitably, As frying progressed, the temperature inside the
as some varieties of fruits used for processing samples increased whereas the guage pressure
may not have otherwise favourable characteris- started decreasing and became negative. The on-
tics such as colour, aroma and mouth feel. There set of negative pressure was observed during
is continuous increase in TSS, acidity and sugars initial stages of frying for chicken nuggets, but
contents of tamarind jelly; however satisfactory in the middle of frying for potato discs. The
keeping quality was observed up to 90 days in negative pressure values before the product is
the jelly prepared using sugar (100 %) followed taken outside the fryer may cause increased oil
by a combination of sugar (40 %) C liquid glu- uptake during frying itself. During the post fry-
cose (60 %) (Supe and Saitwal 2015). Adarsh ing cooling, the pressure further decreased and
et al. (2015) observed the maximum retention reached negative values. The negative pressure
of ascorbic acid, least browning, reducing sugars is expected to have caused rapid absorption of
and total sugars content of dehydrated slices surface oil during both frying and cooling stages.
were observed in 1 % sodium hydrogen sulphite Initial size of cauliflower, drying air tempera-
(NaHSO3 ). The mean scores for organoleptic ture and velocity governs the drying time; how-
characters, such as colour and appearance, tex- ever rehydration ratio is dependent on combined
ture, taste and flavour were found maximum in effect of temperature and airflow velocity. Vita-
1 % NaHSO3 pre-treated slices, whereas the high- min C content of the dried cauliflower is affected
est score for overall acceptability was recorded by temperature only and non-enzymatic brown-
in 1 % NaHSO3 C 0.5 % citric acid pre-treated ing is a function of temperature, airflow veloc-
samples. Jiang et al. (2010) standardized explo- ity and interaction of temperature and airflow
sion puffing conditions for sweet potato chips and velocity Gupta et al. 2013. Gupta et al. (2013)
reported that the puffing temperature is 91 ı C, standardized of the drying process parameters
vacuum drying temperature is 75 ı C and vacuum (temperature 60.10 ı C, air flow 59.28 m min1 ,
drying time is 47 min is optimum with respect to size 3.35 cm) and attainments in terms of time,
12 Post-harvest Technology for Reducing Stress on Bioresource: Recent Advances and Future. . . 243

vitamin C content, rehydration ratio and brown- ing silica gel were evaluated for biochemical vari-
ing values were 491.22 min, 289.86 mg 100 g1 , ability using SDS-PAGE profile of total soluble
6.91 and 0.14, respectively, with the desirability protein after 7 days of accelerated aging (physio-
factor of 0.787. logical stress) at 100 % RH and 43 ı C. Among the
Ledbetter (2012) has provided high quality various methods used for drying seeds, silica gel
products for nearly a century, annually account- was found to be the best alternative to the method
ing for approximately 20 % of available tonnage using drying chamber. It not only maintained the
to California’s dry apricot industry. The ‘Pat- seed quality but also provided a faster drying rate
terson’ cultivar currently dominates California than dryer. Total soluble seed protein banding
dry apricot sales, but the cultivar is not without pattern of different categories samples revealed
faults. Newer cultivars and breeding accessions that there has been decline in band intensity,
are being evaluated for quality attributes when band numbers or loss of some bands in acceler-
processed as dry product. Apricot cultivars ‘Pat- ated aged seed as compared to unaged seeds but
terson,’ ‘Golden sweet’ and breeding selection highest decline was observed in acid dried and
Y117 were evaluated for changes in CIELAB ultra-dried seeds. Optimum moisture content for
coordinates L*, a* and b* as well as colour com- storage of sorghum seeds was found to be 5–7 %.
ponents chroma and hue throughout a 7 month Seed survival was adversely affected below 5 %
storage period at 25 ı C. Fresh fruit samples moisture content. Therefore, drying by silica gel
of the three accessions differed significantly in and up to 5–7 % can be suggested for sorghum
initial quality characteristics (flesh firmness, sol- seeds.
uble solid content (Brix) and juice acidity), with Shere et al. (2015a, b) reported that increase in
cultivar ‘Golden sweet’ being harvested at a more proportion of oat flour in the composite cookies
fully mature state. Drying ratios of the three greatly improved taste, flavour and textural qual-
accessions varied significantly and ranged from ities. The protein, fat, ash, fibre contents were in-
3.96 (Y117) to 4.61 (‘Patterson’). Pre-storage dry creased with increase in oat flour in the composite
apricot halves from the three accessions were cookies, however, carbohydrates decreased with
visually distinct and colour coordinates L*, a*, increase in proportion of oat flour.
b*, chroma and hue all varied significantly among Chilli cultivars LCA-334 dried at faster rate
the accessions. Values of L*, a*, b* and chroma and had maximum physiological weight loss
decreased throughout the storage period for all in 5 days with less pod discolouration. The
apricot accessions, but the rate of decrease was chemicals treatment with potassium carbonate
accession dependent. Hue values of dried apri- and calcium carbonate accelerated drying, with
cot halves remained relatively constant during quick maximum physiological weight loss.
the 7 month storage period, regardless of acces- However, maximum oleoresin was observed in
sion. Colour degradation was most pronounced cultivar Indom-5. Potassium carbonate treatment
in cultivar ‘Patterson’, holding sufficient visual recorded maximum oleoresin and capsanthin
appeal for marketability between 4 to 5 months colour value (Sarada et al. 2015).
in storage. In contrast to ‘Patterson’, dried halves Antoniolli et al. (2012) determined the shelf
of ‘Golden sweet’ and Y117 were deemed mar- life of minimally processed (MP) ‘Perola’
ketable at the end of 7 months storage and there- pineapples treated with ascorbic acid (AA) and
fore suitable for sales during the important holi- citric acid (CA) based on physical, chemical,
day period. sensorial and microbiological attributes. Slices
In a study by Vijay et al. (2015), seeds dried were dipped into drinking water (control)
by four different drying methods namely silica or combined solutions of AA: CA (%)
gel, saturated salt solution of lithium chloride, (1.0:0.5 and 1.0:1.0) with sodium hypochlorite
conc. sulphuric acid and dryer and conditioned (NaClO 20 mg L1 ) for 30 s. The samples
at four different moisture content i.e. 3 ˙ 0.2 %, were conditioned in polyethylene terephtalate
5 ˙ 0.2 %, 7 ˙ 0.2 % and control (11 ˙ 0.2 %) us- packages and stored at 4 ˙ 1 ı C for 13 days.
244 S. Sharma et al.

The low peroxidase activity in the slices treated appearance and nutritional quality of the products
with antioxidant combinations was related to was observed by fortification with extracted ly-
low pH values observed in these samples. The copene.
treatments 1.0:0.5 and 1.0:1.0 (AA: CA, %)
favoured maintenance of the initial a* values
and avoided the pulp browning. The ascorbic 12.8 Post-harvest Quality
acid increased more than double on the 2nd day
in the treated slices. By the 4th day, the CO2 Post-harvest quality of agricultural crops is one of
values suggested a higher respiratory activity in the important parameters for its sale or preserva-
the slices treated with anti-browning compounds. tion. It not possible to increase the quality of crop
The antioxidant treatments did not produce after harvest and if a good quality of produce is
detectable residual flavours in the MP pineapple. received at the processing centre then only we can
Regardless of microbiological safety during the achieve a high quality of value added product. So
13 days of cold storage, the control slices can it is important that a quality product be used for
be kept by 6 days, afterwards the colour and value addition. The quality product also fetches
dehydration become strong enough to affect the good price in the market. Pineapple is one of
appearance. On the other hand, MP ‘Perola’ the important tropical fruit crops of Bromeliaceae
pineapples treated with 1.0:0.5 (AA:CA, %) and family, considered as an important table fruit
NaClO (20 mg L1 ) can be stored for 8 days at because of its enticing sugar acid blending and
4 ˙ 1 ı C, which represents the extension of the also popularly used in canning industry. Around
shelf life in 2 days. After this period, the overripe 47 % of the total pineapple produced in India
odour starts to develop. is from North Eastern Himalayan (NEH) region,
Suhasini et al. (2015) studied the osmotic which proved that it is a potential crop of this
dehydration of karonda. The physico-chemical agro-eco region. Though in Mizoram, pineapple
properties like moisture content, ascorbic acid, Fe is cultivated in comparatively smaller area (1.53
content and acidity of the product were evaluated thousand hectare) and the total state production
during the storage period. During storage, slight is around 13.53 thousand tonnes but the crop
decrease in ascorbic acid, iron content, acidity is widely consumed as table fruit in Mizoram.
and increase in moisture content of osmo-dried Pineapples have a short post-harvest shelf life
product of karonda was noticed. The microbi- at ambient temperature and deteriorate quickly.
ological changes of the products and a taste The average minimum loss reported is 21 % and
panel evaluated the organoleptic quality of the occasional instance estimated of 40–50 % and
products during the storage period. All the prod- above. Thus it is of utmost importance to de-
ucts were acceptable at all the storage periods. velop a technique for extending the shelf life of
However, osmotic pre-treatment with 5 % NaCl pineapple at ambient temperature by reducing the
for 3 h found highly acceptable. Minimum mi- post-harvest decay and maintaining the physico-
crobial count (2.00) was recorded for osmosis chemical qualities of fruit. The effect of nine
in 5 % NaCl solution for 3 h. The product of post-harvest treatments viz., spraying of NAA at
5%NaCl solution for 3 h when stored 4 months at 100 mg L1 , gibberellic acid at 100 mg L1 , fruit
room temperature secured highest sensory score dipping in salicylic acid at 5 mM, covering the
(82.05). fruit with perforated polythene and newspaper
Prathibha et al. (2015) suggested lycopene bag, fruit coating with wax at 60 gL1 , fruit
extracted from tomato processing waste can be dipping in maleic hydrazide at 500 mgL1 , cov-
effectively utilized to enhance the nutritive value ering of fruit with dry straw and untreated control
of tomato beverages especially tomato soup. The on fruit physico-chemical qualities and shelf life
antioxidant activity of lycopene fortified tomato of pineapple cv. Giant Kew studied has shown
soup at 30 mg 100 g1 on 60th day was recorded that GA3 at 100 mgL1 may be the best post-
to be 23.04 mg AAE 100 g1 . Improvement in harvest treatment to extend the shelf life while
12 Post-harvest Technology for Reducing Stress on Bioresource: Recent Advances and Future. . . 245

maintaining the fruit physico-chemical qualities skin colour, total soluble solids, sugar contents
of pineapple cv. Giant Kew during storage at and carotenoids were well correlated (Baloch and
room temperature (Mandal et al. 2015). Bibi, 2012).
Javaherashti et al. (2012) studied nutrition The compounds of peach aroma had great
value and sensory characteristics of some difference between pre-harvest and postharvest
different winter pumpkin genotypes. The results storage. The content of lactones and esters, char-
showed a significant difference for nutritional acteristic compounds of peach aroma, were much
quality in investigated genotypes. Ziaber lower after 4 weeks of storage (Peng et al. 2012).
genotype had the highest fresh weight, dry matter, Christen et al. (2012) determined the quality
antioxidant capacity, total flavonoid and total of several apricot cultivars by non-destructive
phenolics content as compared to the other geno- VIS/NIR spectroscopy using different devices. In
types. Furthermore, a significant relationship order to determine non-destructively the soluble
was found between antioxidant capacity, total solids content (SSC), titratable acidity, firmness
flavonoid and total phenolics content of fruits. and ground colour values of apricot, NIRs spectra
Aktas et al. (2012) reported that the and data obtained from destructive tests were sub-
harvested bunch tomatoes are sensitive to fruit jected to PLS regressions (Partial Least Square
abscission and desiccation of calyxes, which Regression). In a first approach, a portable device
limit product marketability. It is concluded that was used in order to predict and to follow-up
pre-harvest application of ReTain containing the fruit quality and maturity on tree for the
15 % aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG) (150 ppm) cultivar ‘Orange Red Reg’. Calibration models
7 days before commercial harvest to ‘Monroe’ allowing the determination of soluble solids con-
peaches can increase financial returns to growers tent (SSC), titratable acidity, firmness and ground
through increased fruit size and quality benefits colour were carried out with high precision. SSC
as well as maintain a higher flesh firmness was determined with a root mean square error of
following post-harvest storage and export. cross-validation (RMSECV) of 0.62 o Brix, titrat-
The impact of harvest stages and storage con- able acidity was determined with RMSECV of
ditions over the post-harvest quality of mango 1.45 meq 100 g1 , firmness with RMSECV of 6.3
(Langra and Samar Bahisht Chaunsa) varieties DI and ground colour intensity with RMSECV of
has been investigated. The fruit was harvested 2.4 (a*). R-values were situated between 0.49 and
at 80 (early stage): 95 (mid stage) and 110 (late 0.66. External validation of the models gave sim-
stage) days after the fruit setting and designated ilar levels of precision. In a second approach, two
as samples I, II and III, respectively. The har- devices were tested for the prediction of the post-
vested fruit was stored under three different stor- harvest quality of 40 apricot cultivars. Global
age conditions till its ripening. Significant vari- models combining 40 cultivars were carried out
ations were observed in quality characteristics with high precision for the non-destructive deter-
by varying harvest stage, storage conditions and mination of SSC and with reliable precision for
their combinations. The contents of vitamin C firmness in post-harvest. Depending on the device
and acidity were highest in sample I and sugar used, SSC was determined with RMSECV-values
contents in sample III of the fruit. The weight loss between 0.58 and 0.71 o Brix and R-values be-
was highest and shelf life was longest for sample tween 0.94 and 0.95 and firmness with RMSECV-
I and waste percentage was lowest for sample II. values between 8.4 and 9.1 DI and R-values
The waste percentage, weight loss, pH, total sol- between 0.77 and 0.85. Such results show the
uble solids, carotenoids and total sugar increased potential of the VIS/NIR technology as a non-
the percentage of acidity and vitamin C was destructive tool for measuring apricot quality and
decreased with storage time or ripening process, for the follow-up of this quality from the orchard
irrespective of maturity stages. The ripening rate and along the whole supply chain. Ramos et al.
was increased and the shelf life was decreased (2012) studied three different spacing’s, com-
with the increase in storage temperature. The bined with ten diploid watermelon cultivars, eight
246 S. Sharma et al.

of which were experimental hybrids, originated two most important factors in the international
from the Plant Breeding Program of Embrapa marketing of horticultural commodities in the
Semiarido and two commercial cultivars (Sugar present scenario of liberalized world trade. Litchi
Baby and Smile) for agronomical performance is a crop with a limited marketing period due to
and post-harvest fruit quality. The experimental the narrow harvest season and short shelf life. The
hybrids Hyb 02, Hyb 03, Hyb 04, Hyb 05 and application of chemicals was done when fruits
Hyb 07 showed the best emergency rates, with were at bean-seed size and second application
outstanding results for the hybrids 02, 03 and 2 weeks prior to harvest. Pre-harvest application
06, which were among the best considering the of 4 % boric acid resulted in higher TSS and
seedling height and colon diameter besides fresh lower acidity content in fruits during storage
weight of shoot. The different spacing’s did not (5–7 ı C). Total sugars (15.92 %) and reducing
influence the plant development or the physiolog- sugars (11.94 %) were also enhanced with a 4 %
ical quality of the fruit of the genotypes assessed. boric acid pre-harvest application. The physical
Means of transportation, packaging, harvesting parameters of fruits (weight and diameter of fruit
procedures, maturation at harvest, climatic condi- and pulp weight) were found to be positively
tions and many other variables affect the quality influenced with the application of calcium nitrate
and post-harvest life of agricultural products. at 1.5 % as pre-harvest spray (Alila and Achumi,
In Brazil, tomatoes are still packaged in the 2012).
wooden box type ‘k’, first used to transport fuel Danaee et al. (2012) reported that GA3
in World War II. In this type of package, the 50 mg l1 and BA 50 mg l1 were the most effec-
fruits are placed randomly and the boxes are tive treatments based on vase life, fresh weight,
stacked during harvest, transport and distribution solution uptake, membrane stability and total
to the consumer. This handling leads to quan- soluble solids of gerbera cut flowers. Cytokinins
titative and qualitative losses. Better handling and gibberelins have potential to enhance post-
is needed to decrease mechanical damage and harvest quality of cut gerbera flowers.
maintain the quality and price of tomatoes. The Sadaf et al. (2012) reported that all
present work aimed to evaluate some quality potassium treatments significantly increased
characteristics of tomato fruits (‘Pizzadoro’) sub- yield characteristics as well as post-harvest
mitted to an induced compression, simulating the quality of tomato fruit compared with untreated
wooden boxes stacked up during transportation. one (control). Potassium application significantly
A specific weight per unit area of the original increased number of flowers plant1 , fruit setting
wooden box ‘k’ was determined (12.5 g cm2 ) rate, number of truss plant1 , fruits plant1
and used to obtain the weight needed (5 kg) and yield ha1 . Moreover, increased potassium
to compress fifteen fruits inside small wooden levels also had positive effect on post-harvest
boxes of 23  20  20 cm during 48 h. After this life attributes of tomato fruit. In addition, the
treatment, these fruits and control fruits (without shelf life, quality of general appearance and taste
treatment) were stored at 15 or 25 ı C. The fol- were significantly influenced as potassium levels
lowing variables were measured during 18 days increased to 375 kg K2 O ha1 but decreased at
of storage: colour, lycopene, total soluble solids 450 Kg K2 O ha1 . On the other hand, while
and pH. It was concluded that the compression increased potassium levels decreased all the
treatment significantly altered all variables stud- undesired parameters, wilting and drying of
ied, except for pH and total soluble solids of fruits calyx, physiological weight loss percentage and
stored at 15 ı C (Oliveira et al. 2012). percentage of non-marketable yield. Therefore,
Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) is an economi- when potassium was applied at 450 kg K2 O
cally important fruit crop with great potential in ha1 , it increased the yield and decreased the
the international market due to its characteristic adverse effect on marketable yield, wilting and
flavour and exotic taste. Quality and safety are the drying of calyx and weight retention of tomato
12 Post-harvest Technology for Reducing Stress on Bioresource: Recent Advances and Future. . . 247

fruit. In conclusion, 375–400 Kg K2 O ha1 Campos et al. (2011a)) concluded that high
is recommended as it produced better quality doses of irradiation promoted a negative effect
tomatoes with longer postharvest life. on physical-chemical characteristics of guava
Sarmento et al. (2012) recommended the uti- ‘Pedro Sato’, verifying that only the lowest dose
lization of the organic cultivation that produces associated with modified atmosphere provided
banana of good quality free of residues of chemi- fruits with higher quality and acceptability, due
cal products and avoids damage to the environ- to higher maturation rate and soluble solids
ment. Singh et al. (2012) concluded that ethrel obtained.
750 ppm was found to be the most suitable Chen et al. (2011) studied the changes of
treatment in improving physico-chemical traits nutritional quality and physiological biochem-
i.e. ripening, storage, quality and shelf-life for istry of the spinach treated by brine in different
commercial purpose in mango. ‘Williams’ pear concentrations at room temperature to explore the
(Pyrus communis L.) is the most important cul- green and safe storage method of post-harvest
tivar grown in Alto Valle of Rio Negro, Argen- spinach. The results showed that the respiratory
tine. 1-Methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) proved to peak was delayed and the evaporation and decay
be highly effective in inhibiting ethylene action of spinach were slowed down with the treatment
and maintaining postharvest quality. However, of appropriate concentration of brine. In addition,
due to logistical problems, the commercial ap- the kind of brine had certain inhibitory effects not
plication of 1-MCP is often delayed, which may only on the degradation of protein and organic
reduce the efficiency of this treatment. A study acid but also on the activities of PPO, POD and
was undertaken to determine the influence of CAT. The storage life of spinach was prolonged
0.3 and 0.6 ml L1 of 1-MCP applied after 0, for 1–2 days, and the best treating concentration
3, 7 and 10 days at 0 ı C on the post-harvest of brine for the storage of spinach was 0.9 %.
quality of early and late harvested ‘Williams’ Kwon et al. (2011) elucidated the effects of
pears. Untreated fruit was used as control. After mulching materials and removing time of the
60 and 90 days of storage at 0.5 ı C, ethylene transparent polyethylene (PE) film on the growth
production and maturity indexes (flesh firmness, of garlic at Uiseong experimental field, Korea.
soluble solids, acidity, starch degradation, epider- The experimental mulching materials comprised
mis colour) were measured. The results showed of transparent polyethylene film (0.025 mm) and
that all 1-MCP treatments significantly reduced net polyethylene (NPE). Plant height and leaf
ethylene production and fruit ripening irrespec- number of garlic were highest at PE treatment
tive of the delay period. The ethylene produc- when the PE removing date was March 18
tion of fruits was undetectable during the delay and the treatment also promoted the number
period at 0 ı C, meaning that ethylene was not of cloves. Length of leaf sheath and bolting
affected by time at 0 ı C. Moreover, no differences rate were highest and bulb weight loss rate
were observed between 1-MCP concentrations, was lowest at PE C NPE treatment when the PE
with 0.3 ml L1 sufficient to reduce ethylene removing date was March 18. But clove number
production and ripening even in late harvested was the lowest in this treatment compared to
fruits. It was hypothesized that the temperature conventional PE film treatment. Conventional
during the delay period plays a key role on the mulching method accelerated secondary growth
maintenance or reduction of 1-MCP efficacy. It rate but bulb weight loss was vice versa. There
is important to emphasize that the results ob- were statistically no differences in bulb diameter
tained under experimental conditions may not among treatments but conventional treatment
be directly extrapolated to a commercial scale, positively focused on bulb diameter. PE film
since there are other factors that could reduce suppressed the weeds compared to no mulching
the effectiveness of 1-MCP treatments (Calvo and treatment. The dry weight of weeds has shown
Candan, 2012). increasing trends with the delay on removal
248 S. Sharma et al.

dates of PE film. Transparent PE or PE C NPE 12.9 Marketing

treatments can be recommended to grow best
quality garlic. Jan et al. (2011) analyzed the process and is-
Wang et al. (2011) reported that the treat- sues of regional agriculture product brand estab-
ment of 1-MCP was found to delay the peak lishment for Taiwan farmers’ associations. The
time of respiration rate, inhibit decomposition research focused on farmers’ associations with
of chlorophyll, decrease the superoxide anion ‘The Brand Fruit Certification System’. Accord-
(O2 -. ) content and membrane permeability and in- ing to the quantitative survey, from the average
crease protein content and antioxidative enzyme score of the establishment process of regional
activities. However, it also inhibited the increase agriculture product’s brand, the ranking orders
in titrable acidity and VC content. The effects of the basis stage were ‘the producing area’,
of second time application of 1-MCP treatment ‘regional resources and brand establishment’ and
were more pronounced. Two times application of ‘cooperative marketing’. The ranking orders of
1-MCP (1 mg l1 ) was found to enhance the post- the formative stage were ‘the major producing
harvest quality of papaya fruits during its long area’, ‘promotion of regional brand establish-
term storage. ment’ and ‘organization marketing’. The ranking
Singh and Solomon (2011) reported that dete- orders of the established stage were ‘manage-
rioration of harvested cane could be minimized to ment of regional brand equity’, ‘the high major
a considerable extent by spraying of electrolyzed producing area’ and ‘integrated marketing’. Fur-
water and trash covering. A new deterioration ther, according to the analysis of the case data,
indicator i.e. mannitol formation was also found the farmers’ associations constructed process of
to be reduced in EW treated cane. Chang et al. regional agriculture’s brand partly achieved the
(2011) reported the lower incidence of Fusarium condition of the major producing area but did not
wilt in the organic system was considered to be reach the level of a major producing area. For
associated with a positive change in the properties the brand construction dimension, the farmers’
of the soil. Horticultural parameters at shoot- associations interviewed also apply the mark of
ing did not show significant differences between the regional brand. The consumers are aware of
organic and conventional banana, except for a the regional brand from the knowledge of the pro-
lower number of healthy leaves in the organic ducing area. Due to the lack of human resources,
banana. No differences in the post-harvest quality the farmers’ associations could not effectively
could be found between organic and conventional manage the marketing channels of the produc-
banana. A smaller bunch weight was recorded ing area and could not become the marketing
for the organic banana; however, more harvested integrator. Therefore, the farmers’ associations
bunches resulted in a higher overall yield in were still in the initial stage for the regional
the organic farming system. Promotion of the brand. The study shows the farmers’ associations
organic farming system for adoption by more have to improve the condition of the producing
banana growers could enhance the sustainability area diversify the marketing and strengthen the
of the Chinese Taipei banana industry. Bautista equity of the regional brand. Export of agriculture
and Yang (2012) recommended moisture efficient products has an important role in non-petroleum
clamshell as a better storage or packaging method export and has specific significance among the
for prolonging fresh blueberry’s shelf life and agriculture product of pistachio, its export from
maintaining good berry quality. Iran going to parts of the world since 2500 years
The coating cassava starch C chitosan ago. Pistachio figures prominently among other
provided the best results, with less than 6 % nuts due to its nutritious value. Pistachio trees are
of loss in fruit mass, lower counts of yeast the second plant (after date) that can be alive for a
and psychrophilic microorganisms and the best long time without water. Until 1979, Iran was the
appearance according to the sensory analysis only unique exporter of pistachio that entered into
(Campos et al. 2011b) the world market through offering the pistachios
12 Post-harvest Technology for Reducing Stress on Bioresource: Recent Advances and Future. . . 249

product of California with competitive qualifica- year, did not compete in pricing. They had no
tion and use of facilities. According to the latest bargaining power to negotiate about product price
statistics released by the World Food and Agricul- with the merchant. Except for farmers that sell
ture Organization (FAO) affiliated to the United their products wholly, they can negotiate with
Nations, the pistachio production in the world wholesale traders. In addition, it was found that
stood at 548,759 metric tons (MTs) in 2002, Iran farmers did not gather into a group to sell their
ranking first with a production of 300,000 MTs. products. Longan traders did not compete in pric-
The pistachio gardens in Iran’s rival country, the ing against one another, except for middleman
US occupies a total area of 44,000 hectares vs. that buy longan. They did not gather into a group
280,000 hectares in Iran. Aflatoxin is one of the to sell the products among traders. The result on
serious problems in pistachio industries; some marketing conduct due to government’s longan
pistachios have suitable conditions for growth of marketing policy, it was found that most farmers
fungus within the fruit, which are the basis of and traders never participated in longan purchas-
aflatoxin, because of different reasons, the most ing project according to the government’s longan
important of them being splitting of the external marketing project in 2004–2008. They were af-
green layer of the fruit and maybe with aflatoxin. fected by the government’s policy but not much.
Therefore maximum levels for aflatoxin should In 2009–2010, all three groups of longan pro-
be determined. In this study, weather conditions ducing farmers did not participate in the project
for pistachio planting, provinces that are plant- and did not sell their products to any institute.
ing pistachio in Iran and statistics of pistachio Therefore, they did not receive the benefit from
production in these provinces, kinds of pistachio government’s longan marketing policy. Sweet
existing in Iran, statistic study of Iran pistachio cherry (Prunus avium L.) is a model specialty
export during a few years using valid resources crop – high potential returns per hectare, high
and strategies to increase Iran pistachio export costs of production and ephemeral in its supply.
in global markets are discussed (Nejad, 2012). Faced with increasing competition and imminent
Yakam et al. (2012) investigated the informa- shortages of harvest labour, the US sweet cherry
tion of longan production and marketing and industry must improve harvest efficiency without
studied the market conduct of longan in Chiang compromising consumer appeal of the fruit. Fur-
Mai and Lamphun provinces. From the survey ther, for research to have meaningful and sustain-
among 200 farmers, it was found that there were able impact on industry, innovation, discovery
small size longan orchards 67.5 %. The next was and outreach must integrate the total value chain,
medium size longan orchards 22.5 % and large from genetics and breeding to processing and
size longan orchard 10.0 %. In the study of longan marketing, while partnering with stakeholders
production, it was found that 87.5 % of farm- and end users. This presentation describes an
ers were producing in season longan and 6.5 % innovative, multi-disciplinary research program
were producing off season. Both group mostly funded through the USDA’s Specialty Crop Re-
had small size orchards with some medium size search Initiative. The program’s long-term goal
orchards. The study on longan market conduct is improving the sustainability of the US sweet
found that longan producing farmers did not set cherry industry by developing a highly efficient,
their price. Longan product pricing depends on production, processing and marketing system for
trading means. The traders, who come to buy, fresh market quality sweet cherries. Project direc-
will offer the price according to product grade. tors address these issues this with an integrative
Longan product price offered by the traders is project built around the development of mechan-
referred from the middleman, who buys longan ical, mechanical-assisted and novel hybrid har-
in the country, and middleman in China. About vest technologies. In this presentation, research
competitive conduct, it was found that farmers, results and a model, total systems approach in-
who produced in season, off season and both tegrating critical elements of a profitable, sus-
in season and off season longan throughout the tainable cherry industry are presented including:
250 S. Sharma et al.

*Genetics and genomics research to establish areas where government should give due atten-
the genetic bases for abscission in cherry; uti- tion to strengthen vegetable supply channels in
lizing marker-assisted breeding strategy to accel- the state.
erate the generation of new cultivars amenable Sarukhanyan et al. (2011) showed that in
to mechanization and with high consumer ap- 2007–2009 the specific weight of legume in
peal. * Development of high efficiency fruiting overall crop land was approximately 94 %,
wall orchard management systems, novel com- and about the 96 % of the gross harvest. Local
postable packaging, retail markets for mechan- production needs appropriate marketing strategy.
ically harvested cherries and models of system The research of local market showed that more
profitability to facilitate adoption. * Engineering attention should be paid to the consumption
research to develop and deploy innovative me- of goods produced by the farmer households,
chanical and/or mechanical-assist cherry harvest as well as to offer them to various consumer
technologies and consumer or packaging research groups. Yakam et al. (2012) found that there were
to extend the shelf life and improve consumer small size longan orchards 67.5 %. The next was
appeal of fruit (Whiting et al. 2012). medium size longan orchards 22.5 % and large
Modern retail marketing of high-value agricul- size longan orchard 10.0 %. In the study of longan
tural commodities is of inevitable importance in production, it was found that 87.5 % of farmers
the developing countries like India (Aparna and were producing in season longan and 6.5 % were
Hanumanthaiah 2012). The supply of vegetables producing off season. Both group mostly had
by farmers to modern retail outlets has brought small size orchards with some medium size
in a new form of organized marketing based on orchards. The study on longan market conduct
consumer demand. The study has assessed the found that longan producing farmers did not set
marketing system by comparing marketing cost, their price. Longan product pricing depends on
marketing margins, price spread and producer’s trading means. The traders, who come to buy,
share in consumer’s rupee, marketing efficiency will offer the price according to product grade.
and marketing constraints of supermarket chan- Longan product price offered by the traders is
nels and two traditional marketing channels in referred from the middleman, who buys longan
the Rangareddy district of Andhra Pradesh. Two in the country, and middleman in China. About
vegetables, viz., brinjal and bhendi, have been competitive conduct, it was found that farmers,
selected for the study. It has been revealed that who produced in season, off season and both
the net price received by the farmers and pro- in season and off season longan throughout the
ducer’s share in consumer’s rupee are higher in year, did not compete in pricing. They had no
supermarket channel than in traditional channels. bargaining power to negotiate about product
The supermarket channel has been found more price with the merchant. Except for farmers that
efficient than the traditional channels. Rejections sell their products wholly, they can negotiate
of low grade produce, procurement according to with wholesale traders. In addition, it was found
indent and lack of knowledge of grading have that farmers did not gather into a group to sell
been identified as the major constraints of su- their products. Longan traders did not compete
permarket supply farmers. The major constraints in pricing against one another, except for mid-
expressed by the traditional market supply farm- dleman that buy longan. They did not gather into
ers include middlemen menace, higher distance a group to sell the products among traders. The
to the market and high market charges. The study result on marketing conduct, due to government’s
has observed that government intervention is re- longan marketing policy, it was found that most
quired to create a policy environment that may farmers and traders never participated in longan
ensure a mutually beneficial relationship between purchasing project according to the government’s
the farmers and the organized sector. Investment longan marketing project in 2004–2008. They
in infrastructure, development of extension activ- were affected by the government’s policy but
ities and linkages with farmers are the important not much. In 2009–2010, all three groups of
12 Post-harvest Technology for Reducing Stress on Bioresource: Recent Advances and Future. . . 251

longan producing farmers did not participate in gery producers conducted during 2013–2014 in
the project and did not sell their products to any Andhra Pradesh state of India. Multistage sam-
institute. Therefore, they did not receive the ben- pling technique was adopted in selecting the sam-
efit from government’s longan marketing policy. pling units. Averages, benefit cost ratio (BCR),
Bhandari et al. (2012) describes the collection break even output (BEO), pay back period (PBP)
and marketing of C. sinensis [Ophiocordyceps and response priority index (RPI) were employed
sinensis], a highly priced medicinal plant in Hi- as analytical tools. The prime factor in jaggery
malayas, as a good source of income for locals. production was cost of sugarcane (74.55 %). The
However, its over-exploitation is alarming. It was cost of cultivation of sugarcane per hectare was
suggested that the collection of keera jari should INR1,88,014 with the variable cost (Cost A)
be done in alternate years, and that the Govern- INR1,37,817 and fixed cost INR 50,197 they
ment of Uttarakhand should take stringent steps accounts for 73.30 % and 26.70 %, respectively.
to curb illegal collection and supply. Price spread The benefit cost ratio was 1.12 in jaggery mak-
refers to the difference between the price paid ing and the breakeven output is 50.37 tonnes.
by the consumer and the price received by the The major constraints in jaggery production and
producer for an equivalent quality of product. The marketing are lack of infrastructural facilities and
study of price spread involves ascertainment of insufficient market price information dissemina-
the actual price at various stages of the marketing tion, respectively. These constraints should be ad-
and the costs incurred in the process of the man- dressed as quickly as possible to make sugarcane
agement of cut flower from farm to the consumer cultivation profitable.
and the margin of the various intermediaries. The
study was based on primary data for the year
2009 collected from different flower markets in 12.10 Summary
Akola district. The transaction of cut flowers and
loose flowers takes place in an open condition Post-harvest technology is one of the important
on the road side. The business transaction takes branches in handling of cash crops. As in context
place between 4 pm and 6 pm. Large varieties to India, lot of cash crops are produced, and
of flowers such as rose, chrysanthemum, gladi- India is the second largest producer of fruits
olus, gerbera, carnation, lilies and marigold area and vegetables. But, if we look at the losses
mainly brought to the market from Patur, Barshi- data in fruits and vegetables about 30–40 % goes
takali, Akot tahsils of Akola districts. The Indian waste and if that can be prevented we can feed
Government realized the value of horticulture and whole Europe. Further, the processing capacity
provided a major thrust to same by raising the is also very low that is to the tune of 2 %. To
budgetary allocation from a meagre amount of reduce the losses, one must understand the bio-
INR24 crores in the seventh five year plan to logical and environmental factors involved in the
more than INR 2000 crores in the eleventh five deterioration of agricultural commodities. Since
year plant, besides providing a large no of con- the land resources are inelastic, the potential of
cessions, subsides and incentives to the growers. increasing the area under cultivation is limited
During the last 10 years, taking advantage of the but still there is scope to increase the availability
incentives offered by the government, a number of food crops by applying or using recent post-
of floriculture units were established in India for harvest technologies. Hence, to increase further
producing exportable flowers to the developed the agriculture GDP of the country post-harvest
countries. Exporting centres for flowers are lo- technology can play a very important role.
cated near Mumbai, Bangalore, Pune and Delhi Indian economy is agricultural based and we
(Tayade et al. 2015). are the leading producers of various food crops.
Rao et al. (2015) studied to workout various But then too loses are also on higher side and
facets of economics involved in production and that due to various reasons such as mainly due to
marketing of jaggery, constraints faced by jag- lack of infrastructural facility needed for the post-
252 S. Sharma et al.

harvest management of the perishable and poor of various scientists and technologist are only
utilization of these important resources. Post- meaningful if effective post-harvest technology
harvest technology plays an important role in is developed and be communicated among the
the reduction of post-harvest losses, value addi- farmers of the nation.
tion, an important contributor to the economy,
making availability of agriculture commodities
throughout the year or in off seasons, a tool 12.11 Conclusion
for employment generation, besides adding taste,
variety, nutrition, waste utilization, etc. To achieve a significant breakthrough in post-
There is imperative need to strengthen need harvest technology and management of agricul-
based research in the areas like novel food pack- tural commodities and ultimately to give farmers
aging and user friendly post-harvest techniques. proper returns, we must concentrate on well-
The country is witnessing a boom in fruit and planned strategies. The agricultural commodities
vegetable sector but the connectivity between are the living entities so it is very important to
the producers and the consumers at the end of handle them with lot of care. It is important
supply chain is yet to guarantee a fair price for that once the commodity is matured on the plant
the producer. Very often distress sale of agri- it should be harvested at the proper stage of
culture commodities due to lack of proper post- maturity. After harvest, proper precooling treat-
harvest techniques, connectivity and marketing ments should be adopted to increase its shelf
facilities to the urban centres, compel farmers life. Not only this, these should be stored under
to sell at the production point at unbelievably proper storage conditions. Further, to reduce the
low rates. So there is need in future that more transportation quality these should be packed in
emphasis on problem oriented research with in- proper packaging material. The novel packaging
tegrated approach can alone solve the problems techniques as antimicrobial films, biodegradable
faced in the post-harvest technology of agricul- packaging material, temperature time indicators
tural crops. Development of techniques causing should also be tried and technology be transferred
minimum wastage needs active attention of the to the ultimate users. Not only this, the processing
post-harvest technologist or scientists. Another sector should also be strengthened so that during
important component is the quality and safety of glut season these valuable sources be converted
the products should continue to receive greater into valuable products. This will not only reduce
attention in the near future. It is also important the losses of the agricultural commodities but
that adequate inputs for developing infrastructure also increase the income of farmers to some
for post-harvest handling of agricultural com- extent.
modities be provided. The dominance of middle
man and traders in marketing of agricultural com-
modities should be eliminated. Further, the reduc-
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uary 2015 CRC, New York, p 1
Thamaraiselvi SP, Jwaharlal M, Ganga M et al (2010) Zhang ZK, Gao ZY, Li M et al (2012) Hot water
Packaging technology for long term storage of jasmine treatment maintains normal ripening and cell wall
(Jasminum sambac Ait.) flowers. J Ornamental Hortic metabolism in mango (Mangifera indica L.) fruit.
13(3):171–181 HortSci 47(10):1466–1471
 Recent Trends in Seed Science
and Technology 13
Ashok Kumar Thakur and Ratikanta Maiti

Abstract
Improvement of ovule to seed and seed to plant ratios remains the
ultimate aim of all research and developmental efforts of seed science
and technology. Being a connecting link between two generations of
plants or crops, seed is a carrier of new technology or new improvements
made by the breeders. The seed production protocols then need to be
efficient enough to produce seeds that possess desired quality traits in
terms of genetic, physical, physiological and health quality. Hence, the
implementation of improved seed production technology of various crops
will improve the ovule to seed ratio in the mother crop and seed to plant
ratio in the subsequent crop raised from the seed. Additionally, the seed
to plant ratio can be maintained or improved by adopting accurate and
adequate seed enhancement and storage strategies. The available literature
has been segregated in different heads: seed production, genetic quality,
physiological quality, seed health, seed enhancement and seed storage.

quality of seed is directly and positively corre-

13.1 Introduction lated to quality and productivity of the produce.
Seed quality is, therefore, one of the cheapest and
Seed is the vital component not only of agri- most essential inputs for improving the agricul-
culture but reproduction of most plants and bio- tural economy of the country. The seed quality,
resource conservation as well. Seed is crucial, according to Thomson (1979), is a complex of
critical, vital and basic input in agriculture. The several components and their relative importance
in different sets of production systems. He cate-
A.K. Thakur ()
Department of Seed Science and Technology, Dr Y S gorised these components as (1) analytical qual-
Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan, ity, (2) species purity, (3) freedom from weeds,
Himachal Pradesh, India (4) cultivar purity, (5) germination capacity, (6)
e-mail: [email protected] vigour, (7) size, (8) uniformity, (9) health and
R.K. Maiti (10) moisture content. These components were
Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Autónoma categorised in more systematic manner by Nema
de Nuevo León, Carr. No 85, km 145, NL 67700 Linares,
Mexico (1988) into four major components: (1) genetic
e-mail: [email protected] quality, (2) physical quality, (3) physiological

© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 257

R.K. Maiti et al. (eds.), Bioresource and Stress Management, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-0995-2_13
258 A.K. Thakur and R.K. Maiti

quality and (4) health quality. These components and development on seed science and technology
independently and their interaction at all levels has been compiled hereunder:
sum up to constitute the seed quality. The quality
of seed means that the seed is superior and pure in
terms of its genetic composition, physiologically 13.2 Seed Production
strong enough to produce a plant of desired kind,
free from physical impurities and biotic stress- 13.2.1 Planting Time
causing agents. The importance of quality seed
is well recognised round the globe. In India, the Planting time is crucial factor for the growth,
need for quality seed was felt with the introduc- development and yield of any crop. In cucumber,
tion of high-yielding varieties of bajra, sorghum crop sown in the third week of January (20th
and wheat in the 1960s. It is very much evident January) gave higher seed yield per hectare
from the history of grain production in India and (63.13 kg) with good germination (81.38 %),
other developing countries that the availability while crop sown on 31st July and 7th August gave
of quality seed was one of the keys to Green higher seed yield per hectare (31st July, 41.58 kg,
Revolution. The introduction of dwarf and high- and 7th Aug, 39.37 kg) and germination (31st
yielding varieties of wheat resulted in three to July, 93.31 %, and 7th Aug, 87.31 %) (Kishor
four times increase in the productivity of wheat et al. 2010).
in the country. This sudden and intense enhance- In marigold cv. Pusa Narangi Gainda, Pramila
ment in productivity of wheat is termed as Green et al. (2012) reported that number of seeds
Revolution. In fact, it is not the development of per plant (165), seed yield per plant (14.51 g)
high-yielding varieties alone that brought Green and test weight (2.63 g) were higher in kharif
Revolution, but the production and availability of season, whereas germination (88.40 %) and seed
quality seeds of these novel cultivars are equally vigour (vigour index I and vigour index II,
important. 1102 and 88, respectively) were recorded in rabi
In a crop production system, the quality of season.
seed is the basic input to which the other inputs
are applied to have the desired output. It en-
sures other agro-production and protection inputs 13.2.2 Plant Population
to be productive and cost-effective. Feistritzer and Geometry
(1975) has mentioned that in a production sys-
tem, the good quality seed is when combined Plant population and geometry is a key factor
with other complementary agro-inputs such as in deciding the canopy dimensions that directly
better nutrition, irrigation, plant protection mea- affect the seed yield. In cucumber, seed yield and
sures, etc. that resulted in rapid and substan- number of seeds per fruit increased with decrease
tial increase in productivity. Well-planned eval- in spacing up to 1.25  0.30 m (Kishor et al.
uation and release of new varieties; systematic 2010).
seed production and distribution, seed testing and Ade et al. (2015) reported that seed cotton
certification; and enforcement of seed legisla- yield was significantly higher with closer plant
tion, in toto, are essential to exploit the tech- spacing of 90  45 cm than wider spacing of
nological breakthroughs in any crop production 90  60 cm. The fertiliser application at 150 %
system. RDF recorded significantly higher seed cotton
The sole and ultimate aim of seed science and yield.
technology is to bring down the ovule to seed Cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.)
ratio in the seed crop and seed to plant ratio in planted at 45  15 cm spacing produced a higher
the commercial crop raised from the seed. The graded seed yield (9.80 and 10.80 q ha1 ) in com-
lower these ratios are, the lower will be the stress parison to 45  30 cm (8.19 and 9.30 q ha1 ) and
on the bio-resource. The recent work on research 60  30 cm (6.83 and 7.90 q ha1 ) during kharif
13 Recent Trends in Seed Science and Technology 259

and summer season, respectively (Siddaraju et al. The rabi rice gave the highest yield when
2010a, b). raised from 24-day-old seedlings under machine
Among the three planting methods, transplant- transplanting and gradual reduction in yield ob-
ing of 25-day-old seedling with the spacing of served with age of seedling transplanted (Reddy
180  75 cm recorded higher seed yields (23.5 q et al. 2015).
ha1 ) and net returns (INR 62,922 ha1 ) over dib- The seed quality in tomato in terms of ger-
bling and farmer method of sowing (Sujathamma mination (92 %) and vigour was obtained in the
et al. 2015). seeds harvested from the crop raised from 30-
The highest seed setting and seed dry weight day-old transplants and was followed by 27- and
(106.84 g) in faba bean is obtained in the highest 33-day-old transplants, respectively (Singh et al.
plant density (06 plants pot1 ) for all varieties; 2015b).
however, genetic differences also existed. Geno-
typic differences in the growth rate were also
evident (Thalji 2010). 13.2.4 Growth Regulators

The seed yield and quality are directly influ-

13.2.3 Planting Material enced by the growth and development of mother
plant especially during reproductive phase. In
The quality of the mother seed or planting ma- bitter gourd, three sprays of GA3 at 50 ppm
terial is the deciding factor in the final quality at four leaves, flower and fruit initiation stage
of the harvest. Shukla et al. (2010) concluded improved the vine length (Hilli et al. 2010). NAA
that among the treatments, extra large size curd at 50 ppm sprayed between 85 and 100 DAS
of cauliflower cv. Pusa Snowball K-1 showed in bitter gourd (Momordica charantia) cv. Pusa
maximum potential for seed yield, while extra Vishesh produced higher number of fruits per
large and medium curd size were promising for vine (14.94), fruit yield (119.68 q ha1 ), high-
seed quality parameters. est seed germination (83.25 %), seedling vigour
Khulbe et al. (2010) concluded that extra large index I (1757) and lowest electrical conductivity
curd size showed maximum potential for seed (0.316 dSm1 ), whereas boron at 4 ppm pro-
yield, while extra large and medium curd size duced highest number of seeds per fruit (29.00),
were promising for seed quality parameters of seed yield (6.84 q ha1 ), test weight (185.11 g),
cauliflower cv. PSBK-1. seedling length (21.16 cm), seedling dry weight
Transfer of Amaranthus seeds during the early (129.51 mg), seedling vigour index II (10749)
imbibitional period from 25 to 45 ı C for 4, 8, and dehydrogenase enzyme activity (0.352 OD
12 and 16 h resulted in the leakage of UV- value) (Arvindkumar et al. 2012).
absorbing substances and electrolytes up to 72 h. While, in pumpkin, Das and Das (1995)
High-temperature treatment caused greater mem- reported that GA3 tends to increase the
brane damage by membrane lipid peroxidation staminate/pistillate flower ratio, NAA and Ethrel
and decreased ethylene formation in germinating decreases. A staminate/pistillate flower ratio of
seeds. Reduced activities of free radical scav- 6.61:1.00 was achieved by treating plants with
engers like peroxidase, catalase and superox- 200 ppm Ethrel.
ide dismutase, with a concomitant rise in free The foliar spray of 200 ppm ethephon signif-
H2 O2 level, are also observed (Bhattacharjee and icantly increased pistillate flower plant1 (24.7)
Mukherjee 1998). and fruit plant1 (4.9) in cucumber cv. Pickling-
The medium seed size variety JS 335 per- ham (Sitaram et al. 1989). Foliar application of
formed better than all small (NRC 37 and JS 200 ppm ethephon on the crop sown on 30th
97 52) and bold seed variety (TAMS 98 21 and January brought a remarkable increase in fruit
TAMS 38) in respect of seed yield and yield yield (899 g plant1 ) and seed yield (13.76 g
contributing characters (Lakhote et al. 2015). plant1 ) of cucumber cv. Picklingham; however,
260 A.K. Thakur and R.K. Maiti

the germination was generally higher in the seeds however, the speed of germination is fastest in
produced on December sown crop (Sitaram et al. the seeds extracted from the fruits harvested at
1989). red ripe stage. Delay in harvest beyond red ripe
Kallihal et al. (2013) sprayed Planofix at stage, in general, led to deterioration in seed
0.5 ml L1 at flower initiation stage in pigeon pea quality (Valdes and Gray 1998).
which reduced flower drop (77.6 %), increased The marigold seeds harvested at 120 and 125
seed yield (17.4 %) and enhanced seed quality in DAT recorded better seed quality in terms of
terms of germination and vigour. germination (81.60 % and 83.2 %), 1000-seed
Foliar application of GA3 at 300 ppm and at weight (2.87 and 2.90 g) and seed vigour, i.e.
20 and 40 DAT significantly increased the seed vigour index I (995 and 994) and vigour index II
yield and quality in Tagetes erecta (Rohith et (83 and 84), compared to earlier and later stages
al. 2015). In another study on chrysanthemum of harvest (Pramila et al. 2012).
(Chrysanthemum coronarium L.), application of
GA3 at 200 ppm increased number of seeds
(265.33 flower1 ) and seed yield (500.00 kg 13.2.6 Irrigation and Nutrition
ha1 ). The seed quality parameters like thou-
sand seeds weight (2.14 g); germination %age Irrigation and nutrition of seed crop plays an
(67.67%); seedling length (10.60 cm); vigour important role in determining the seed yield and
index (717) and dry weight (36.37 mg) were also physiology. Irrigation increased the seed yield of
higher in treatment of GA3 @ 200 ppm (Sainath mustard (Brassica juncea L.) by 44–57 % com-
et al. 2012). pared to rain-fed crop (Majid and Simpson 1999).
Application of sulphur at 45 kg ha1 signif-
icantly improved the seed yield and 1000-seed
13.2.5 Harvesting weight of jute (Singh et al. 2015a).
Moklyachuk et al. (2013) recommended the
The harvesting and threshing or extraction of implementation of zeolites, impregnated with
seeds is important operation as it determines zinc and copper ammoniates for improving the
the physical, physiological and health quality soil quality and micronutrients level in seed oat
of seeds as well. Natural fermentation is more and barley. Application of zinc in the form of
appropriate for better seed quality in cucum- ZnSO4 at 10 kg Zn ha1 was more effective
ber than alkali and acid extractions (Chethan and remunerative for seed production of cereal
et al. 2013) as it gave increased germination legumes (Naaiik et al. 2015).
(94.50 %): vigour index I (SVI-I and SVI-II of
2671 and 1183, respectively), field emergence
(92 %) and low electrical conductivity (341  13.2.7 Economics
Sm1 ) (Chethan et al. 2013).
The delayed harvesting and after-ripening Direct seeding of rice required two irrigations
improves the seed yield and quality. Kortse and lesser than the transplanting as maturity time is
Oladiran (2013) reported that the best longevity reduced by 7–10 days before when compared to
of ‘egusi itoo’ melon (Cucumeropsis mannii transplanting rice (Rao et al. 2015). This technol-
Naudin.) seeds were obtained from the 20 days ogy considerably reduced the cost of cultivation
after ripened fruits were harvested when all by INR 10,000 ha1 and improved cost-benefit
leaves dried. ratio of kharif crop to 1.00: 2.94 and rabi crop
The maximum germination and normal to 1.00: 2.00 (Rao et al. 2015). It will be more
seedlings in tomato is attained from the seeds suitable for dry land farmers.
extracted from the fruits harvested at breaker Bellundagi et al. (2015) stated that the net
stage. The seed quality did not change if fruits return obtained from Bt cotton seed production
are harvested there after until red ripe stage; was found to be higher in the case of Monsanto
13 Recent Trends in Seed Science and Technology 261

Seed Company contract farmering (INR 46387), and socially responsible approach. It works at
followed by Kaveri Seed Company contract farm- grass-root level, preserving the reproductive and
ing (INR 33076). While, returns to rupee invest- regenerative capacity of the soil, good plant nutri-
ment was found to be higher (1.48) in the case tion and sound soil management, and producing
of Monsanto Seed Company contract farming, nutritious food rich in vitality that has resistance
followed by JK Seed Company (1.36) contract to diseases. Organically grown food products
farming. offer the following advantages:
• Safe for the environment
13.2.8 Productivity • Sustains and enriches the soil
• Safe for the growers and producers
Mandal and Mohanta (2015) reported that the • Safe for the consumer
lateritic belt of West Bengal is highly suitable for • More nutritious food
quality seed production of kharif onion with an • Better flavour and aroma
average seed yield of 10.4 q ha1 , while among The organic seed attains a more focused view
the cultivars, Indam Marshal (14.8 q ha1 ) pro- to increase the acceptability of organic farming
duced the highest seed yield followed by Agri- and organic produce as well. The organic pro-
found Dark Red (12.6 q ha1 ). duction system is incomplete without the organic
Patta et al. (2015) reported that higher tomato seed. Organic seed production is the need of
hybrid seed productivity (>80 % fruit set) of Pusa the hour to meet out the seed needs of farming
Hybrid-4 (Pusa Selection 120  Chikoo) was communities (Sripathy et al. 2012). As per the
achieved when the same stigma was pollinated standards of National Programme for Organic
twice for two consecutive days even up to 4 days Production, ‘All seeds and plant material should
after emasculation. Maximum fruit and seed set be certified organic’. The standards are further
were observed even with 3-day stored pollen extended as ‘When organic seed and plant ma-
(Patta et al. 2015). terials are available, they shall be used. The
certification programme shall set time limits for
13.2.9 Organic Seed Production the requirement of certified organic seed and
other plant materials. When certified organic seed
The commercial agrochemical-based agriculture and plant materials are not available, chemically
resulted in an ecological imbalance over the past untreated conventional materials shall be used’.
few decades. One of the options to mitigate this This relaxation is for a certain period of time
imbalance is organic farming. Organic agricul- because today the organic seed is not readily
ture is a production system, which excludes the available. In times to come, the principle shall be
use of synthetically compounded fertilisers, pes- strictly implemented and full compliance shall be
ticides and growth regulators. Organic agricul- required for the certification.
ture is based on principles of self-sufficiency, Organic seed is commercially not available for
biodiversity, crop rotation and recycling. It re- most of the crops or varieties, and if available, it
lies on organic manures produced from farm is usually significantly more expensive than the
wastes and other biomasses. It also encompasses same conventionally grown varieties. At present,
a conglomeration of various techniques and prac- seed companies producing certified organic seeds
tices like crop rotation, intercropping, mulching, are limited and are often producing only region-
cover cropping, trap cropping, etc. Organic farm- ally adapted varieties. Some organic producers
ing also employs various biological pest control have been disappointed with the seed vigour and
methods, which eliminates the use of synthetic quality of organic seed and have invested into on-
chemicals even at the storage levels. In other farm seed propagation.
words, organic products are grown under a sys- Traditionally, farmers saved a portion of their
tem of agriculture without the use of chemical crops for their own seeds and occasionally to
fertilisers and pesticides with an environmentally sell to neighbours. If the drafted regulations do
262 A.K. Thakur and R.K. Maiti

pass, this practice will invariably increase and • Cropping history of the field
potentially become a viable source of additional • Seed source
income to many organic farmers. In the past, • Isolation
organic farmers have often relied on fields in
transition to produce ‘organic’ seed, not only as
13.3.1 Rouging and Weeding
a means towards self-sufficiency but an easy way
of documenting that the transitional crop was
The genetic purity can be tested by many posthar-
separate from the organic crop. But, under current
vest tests ranging from the basic grow out test
wording of the regulation, this practice would
based on morphological markers to the applica-
be prohibited, if a readily available organic seed
tions of modern techniques like biochemical and
source is present.
molecular markers, DNA finger printing, ELISA,
As of now, the work done on organic seed pro-
etc. The recent trends in research and develop-
duction is just of what is actually needed to cope
ment in this regard are summarised below.
with the emerging demand of organic agriculture
in India. Many studies have been carried out on
various aspects of organic production world over.
13.3.2 Morphological Markers
Peacock (1990) suggested that the avoidance of
disease and insect attack in organic crops could
In a study on the heterogeneity in a blend of two
be achieved by crop rotation, adjustment of plant-
Medicago sativa, lots and a lawn grass seed mix-
ing and harvesting time and transplanting and
ture (Festuca rubra subsp. rubra, F. trachyphylla,
avoiding high pest areas on the farm.
Poa pratensis and Lolium perenne), Niffenegger
Fernandez et al. (1998) reported that certified
(1991) described procedure for determining het-
organic growers in the USA relied primarily on
erogeneity in batch-mixed commercial seed lots.
traditional organic practices such as crop rota-
The steps followed for testing heterogeneity are:
tion, animal manuring, composting, cultural or
biological control of diseases or pests, water • Determining the amount of indicator seed
management techniques, adjustment of planting needed
and harvesting dates and beneficial organisms. • Obtaining and marking the indicator seeds and
mixing the seed lot
In a comparison of conventional vegetable
• Incorporating the indicator seeds as additional
production system with organic system, D’Ercole
components of the lot
and Cembalo (1999) found that a premium of
• Sampling and recording numbers of indicator
at least 20 % over conventional produce was the
seeds in samples
minimum price point to make organic farming
• Analysing the results
profitable.
The test requires no specialised equipment and
can be especially useful for testing the effective-
13.3 Genetic Quality ness of seed mixing systems.
Pramila et al. (2011) differentiated marigold
The genetic quality is the set of parameters that (Tagetes erecta L.) cultivars based on flower and
the seed must possess to produce a plant with seedling characteristics like anthocyanin pigmen-
essential characteristics to confirm to be called tation, colour and incision of margin of flower.
as a particular variety or cultivar. In strict genetic The hybridity or genetic purity of eggplant
terms, it must possess genetic constitution as that (Solanum melongena L.) hybrid No. 1461734 is
of the variety or cultivar of which the seed is improved from 85.76 to 95.97 % by seed condi-
being produced. In general, in a seed production tioning using top screen aperture, size 4.0 mm
process, the genetic quality is controlled by con- (round); middle, 3.5 mm (Round) and bottom,
trolling the following factors: 0.9 mm (slotted) (Vasudevan et al. 2012).
13 Recent Trends in Seed Science and Technology 263

13.3.3 Molecular Markers 13.4 Physiological Quality

Esterase isoenzyme analysis using polyacry- 13.4.1 Seed Viability

lamide electrophoresis is an effective tool to
assess the genetic purity of bent grass species Phosphatidyl choline and phosphatidyl ethanol-
or various cultivars within each species in amine showed a consistent decline with ageing,
combination with visual seed analysis or grow resulting in the loss of viability in pigeon pea
out tests (Freeman and Yoder 1998). The test is (Kalpana and Rao 1996). Free radical-induced
based on esterase banding profiles that segregate lipid peroxidation did not seem to play a role in
Agrostis palustris, A. tenuis and A. canina. The the rapid ageing of pigeon pea seeds. Superox-
A. tenuis cultivars are characterised by prominent ide dismutase activity tended to increase, while
bands at Rf 0.55–0.59, whereas A. palustris catalase and peroxidase activities decreased to
cultivars were characterised by Rf 0.50–0.60 various degrees depending on cultivar, indicating
and A. canina by bands at Rf 0.57–0.66. The the probable role of hydrogen peroxide in the
cultivars within species are characterised by accelerated ageing process (Kalpana and Rao
minor banding pattern variations. 1994).
Livneh et al. (1990) observed that polymor- The interaction between the PEG treatment
phism is inherited as a simple codominant al- (1.2 MPa) and the light treatment only delayed
lelic marker, enabling the distinction between the germination process but neither inhibited
the parents themselves and between parents of the germination nor induced the secondary
the pepper (Capsicum annuum) hybrid cultivar dormancy. High temperatures of 35 ı C, 40 ı C
Maccabi and progenies (Livneh et al. 1990). and 45 ı C with duration of heating for 24 and
Noli et al. (1999) reported 22 polymorphic bands 48 h did not induce the dormancy even though the
within cultivated Lycopersicon esculentum using radical emergence percentage decreased and the
RAPD analysis. Hybrid purity in heading Chi- delayed germination value increased. However,
nese cabbage (Brassica pekinensis) hybrid Re- these did not affect the viability of Amaranthus
newed Qingza 3 is determined by DNA extraction tricolor seed (Fatimawati and Ilyas 1996).
and RAPD analysis (Meng et al. 1998).
There exist abundant polymorphic SRAPs and
SSRs among closely related cultivars of Allium 13.4.2 Seed Germination
fistulosum L. However, in conformity with the
morphological traits analysis, SRAP is more ac- The inhibitory compounds were present in
curate in analysing genetic diversity, and SSR the pericarp and seed coat of Nyctanthes
should be preferred for genetic purity test and arbor-tristis and cause poor germination.
identification of cultivars in Allium fistulosum L. These phenolic compounds, leached out of
(Li et al. 2008). imbibed seeds, interfered in germination. The
The molecular markers (two dominant RAPD removal of pericarp and seed coat increased
primers and two codominant SSR primers) are germination from 24 % (intact seeds) to 94 %
highly efficient and reproducible for genetic pu- (Bhattacharyya et al. 1999). Leaching of the
rity testing of seed genetic purity of a hybrid germination inhibitors was restricted by treating
tomato ‘Hezuo906’ (Liu et al. 2008). seeds prior to germination with solutions of
Mishra et al. (2005) suggested that analysis antioxidants like polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)
of tuber protein using SDS-PAGE is a good tool and polyvinylpolypyrrolidone (PVPP), resulting
for testing of genetic purity in potato (Solanum in better germination (Bhattacharyya et al.
tuberosum L.). 1999).
264 A.K. Thakur and R.K. Maiti

Combined heat desiccation pulsing (scarifi- the EC of water; however, cultivar cv. MTU-1010
cation) of the exo- and endotestas resulted in performed well on an average of all the EC levels
strongly increased germination compared with of water ranging from 0 to 20 dS m1 .
controls; however, the exotesta appears to act as
the primary barrier to oxygen diffusion to the
embryo (Brits et al. 1999). In natural fynbos, 13.5 Seed Health
desiccation-mediated scarification of the testal
layers is the main means of regulating oxygena- 13.5.1 Seed Treatment
tion and thus synchronous germination of dor-
mant Leucospermum seeds after fire. One of the most important research focuses in
The duration of ageing required to reach a ger- seed science and technology nowadays is looking
mination percentage around 75 % was identified for new methods to improve seed health quality.
as 5 days for black gram and 3 days for cowpea Seed treatment with plant-based ethereal oils is
and red gram (Sujatha et al. 2012). one option. Chen and Houbowicz (2010) reported
The bold seeds possess better seed quality that 5 % alcoholic solution of camphor tree (Cin-
parameters. The size group of 5.00 mm and namomum camphora L.) ethereal oil and nine
4.75 mm in French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) different treatments of 5 % alcoholic solution
cv. Arka Suvidha possessed better seed quality of patchouli plant (Pogostemon cablin Benth.)
than the bulk seed lot (Raj et al. 2012). ethereal oil lowered the amount of identified Al-
ternaria alternata and Cladosporium sphaeros-
permum fungi on the seeds and percentage of
13.4.3 Seed Vigour dead seeds with no effect on the germination of
lettuce seeds; however, the length of seedling is
The poor field establishment problems associated lowered.
with the African yam bean [Sphenostylis steno- Khusro et al. (2013) reported that the aqueous
carpa (Hochst. ex A. Rich) Harms] and pigeon extracts of Allium sativum is a potential spice
pea (Cajanus cajan) is low seed vigour and not for controlling Bacillus licheniformis strain 018
viability (Olisa et al. 2010). compared to Bacillus tequilensis strain ARMATI.
Bael [Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr.] fruits were Clonostachys spp. and grapefruit extract signifi-
categorised based on the colour into three differ- cantly reduced seed infestation with A. radicina
ent groups as green, greenish yellow and yellow. and improved seed germination capacity in carrot
The recovery of yellow and greenish yellow fruits (Szopinska et al. 2010).
were 41 % and 33 %, respectively, from bulk. The Seed treatment with methyl jasmonate (MeJA)
seeds extracted from yellow fruits produced vig- or benzothiadiazole (BTH) can induce plant de-
orous seedlings (Venudevan and Srimathi 2013). fence against insect pests and bacterial diseases in
The seed quality of dill (Anethum graveolens flowering Chinese cabbage (Brassica campestris
L.) depends on the position where it is borne L. ssp. chinensis), owing to elevated expression
on the umbel or inflorescence. The lower its of the PDF1.2, PR1 and WRKY33 genes (for
position on the seed stalk, the lower the seed insect pests, Phyllotreta striolata resistance) and
yield and germination capacity. The best seeds, upregulation of PDF1.2 (for postharvest stem
in terms of their 1000 seed weight, came from decay) (Zhang et al. 2013).
the external part of the main umbel. The recorded Beneficial bacteria and fungi provide promis-
seed embryo length from the internal part of ing alternatives or supplements to chemicals as
the primary umbel was smaller than its values seed treatments against soil-borne pathogens.
from the middle and external parts of that umbel Early results also suggest variable levels of BCA
(Holubowicz and Morozowska 2011). compatibility with chemical seed treatments
Sreenivas et al. (2015) reported that response and other microbial applications. Progress in
of seeds of different cultivars of paddy varied to storability, ease of application and economy of
13 Recent Trends in Seed Science and Technology 265

biological control agent’s production will be age was 1.20 KGy for Vr-708, Vr-900, saptagiri
needed to move biologicals beyond their niche and kalyani; 1.40 KGy for Vr-762, Vr-847 and
position in the seed treatment market (Bennett padmavati; and 1.60 KGy for Vr-(w)-936 (Gali
1998). and Maheshwari 2015).

13.5.2 Seed Health Testing 13.6.2 Seed Scarification

Introduction of ELISA in place of chloroplast Solanum viarum seeds scarified for 10 min us-
agglutination test in plants reduced the incidence ing commercial sulphuric acid at 25 ml kg1
of mosaics, resulting in corresponding increase in of seed recorded the highest germination per-
yield (Sharma and Venkatasalam 2011). centage (80 %), followed by those scarified for
Agar plate method was found to be suitable, 15 min (60 %). The root and shoot length (4.3
as even under lesser incubation, there was higher and 4.5 cm, respectively), dry matter produc-
observed incidence of seed mycoflora. The other tion (0.034 mg) and vigour index values (704)
finding depicted that the most common fungi in were also the highest with 10 min scarification.
all crop seed as well as in treated and untreated Sulphuric acid scarification beyond 15 min was
seeds were observed were A. niger, A. flavus, injurious and caused reduction in germination
P. rubrum and P. citrinum. In all stored seed, and seedling growth (Ramamoorthy et al. 2010).
R. stolonifer was also observed as a common Treatment with H2 SO4 for 60 and 120 s
fungus (Singh et al. 2015c). and scarification with sandpaper gave ger-
mination percentages of 86.46, 86.0 and
80.78, respectively, compared with 28.76 % on
13.6 Seed Enhancement controls (Tomer and Kumari 1991). In a further
experiment, the percentage of hard seeds declined
13.6.1 Irradiation Seed Treatments from 50 % immediately after harvest to 7 % after
12 weeks of storage under ambient conditions
The germination and vigour of common bean (Tomer and Kumari 1991).
(Phaseolus vulgaris) seeds were improved by Takaki and Gama (1998) reported that the
exposure to microwaves in a microwave oven seeds of lettuce cv. Grand Rapids scarified
(650 W, 2450 MHz) for 15, 30, 45, 60, 90 and with sodium hypochlorite germinated in both
120 s. Microwaves diminished the presence of dark and continuous light. The scarified seeds
Penicillium spp., both on the seed surface and pre-incubated at 36 ı C behaved similar to
in the inner seed tissues, but were not effective non-scarified seeds. The chemical scarification
in controlling A. alternata and Fusarium spp. changed the control of seed germination from low
(Tylkowska et al. 2010). fluence response to the very low fluence response,
Nargis et al. (1998) reported that tomato cv. and pre-incubation at 36 ı C returned the control
PKM-1 seeds exposed to 10 and 20 Kr of gamma to the low fluence response of phytochrome
radiation showed an increased speed of germi- action.
nation and vigour but did not show significant
increase at 30 Kr. However, seeds treated with
vitamin C or vitamin E resulted in increased 13.6.3 Seed Priming
seedling length even at 30 Kr. No damage was
observed on the seed coat due to gamma radia- Osmopriming of kohlrabi seeds improved the
tions. seed germination and vigour despite the presence
The finger millet cultivars had different re- of A. brassicola; however, it is conducive to
sponse to gamma ray irradiation. The LD50 val- penetration of A. brassicola into kohlrabi seeds.
ues determined based on the germination percent- The osmopriming is of limited usefulness for
266 A.K. Thakur and R.K. Maiti

seeds heavily infected with A. brassicola as it trol where it was 9.5 days (Mauromicale and
leads to increased infected seedlings (Dorna et al. Cavallaro 1995).
2010). Seed priming, particularly hydro-priming, is
Three successive soaking-draining cycles a low-cost technology in which controlled hy-
(soaking for 24 h then draining) of carrot cv. dration of seeds followed by re-drying is done
Zino seeds increased germination from 30 to to break dormancy, improve seed germination
63 % and also enhanced the speed of germination and stand establishment. Sowmya et al. (2013a)
and vigour (Sundaralingam et al. 1998). reported that hydro-priming at 25 ˙ 1 ı C for
Priming of cantaloupe (Cucumis melo) seed 48 h was found to be optimum for priming in
sample with 20 % of infestation of fungi (Al- cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.).
ternaria, Cladosporium, Epicoccum and Stem- Priming is one of the most common methods
phylium spp.) for 6 days in darkness at 25 ı C of improving seed quality, which many a time
in a KNO3 C KH2 PO4 (1.5 C 1.5 %) aerated significantly affecting their storability. Dorna et
solution increased the microorganism incidence al. (2013) found that for maximal seed viabil-
to 60 % on Captan 50 WP (3 g kg1 seeds) treated ity and germination rate after 6 and 12 months
seeds and 94 % on non-treated seeds; however, in storage, both hydro- and osmoprimed seeds of
non-primed seeds, fungicide treatment eliminated onion should to be stored at 4 ı C rather than
microorganism incidence (Nascimento and West 20 ı C. Osmopriming significantly increased seed
1998). infestation with Penicillium spp., which remained
Black gram (cv. GOBG 282/1) and cowpea stable up to 12 months of storage. The number
(cv. CO 6) seeds can be soaked up to 5 h and of seeds infested with Botrytis spp. significantly
3 h in 33 or 50 % volume of water (V/V of seed), decreased after priming and storage, especially at
respectively, without any soaking injury (Vijaya 20 ı C.
and Ponnuswamy 1997b). Solid matrix priming offers an effective means
Germination of PEG-primed seeds of carrot, of raising seed performance in sweet corn (Zea
leek, and onion was not affected by drying mays) carrying the shrunken-2 (sh-2) gene. Nev-
and storage; however, the number of abnormal ertheless, the storability of primed sh-2 seeds
seedlings increased with storage duration. The is still unknown. The priming effects on sh-2
slow-germinating seed lots benefited more from sweet corn seeds can be maintained after storage
priming than faster ones (Drew et al. 1997). for 6months at less than 10 ı C. However, the
Priming is a tool to improve the performance primed sh-2 seeds deteriorated more rapidly than
of chilli seed, known to have poor germination in non-primed sh-2 seeds when stored at 25 ı C for
the field at temperatures near 15 ı C. Priming in 6 months (Chang and Sung 1998).
solutions of 0.3 M NaCl and 0.3 M NaCl C 4 g Seed moisturization by increasing moisture up
ProGibb T g1 seed for 5 days at 23 ı C improved to 14–16 % of Phaseolus vulgaris seed improved
the germination rate of seeds of chilli cvs. Tam emergence, while seedling dry weight continued
Veracruz and Early Jalapeno. Under these condi- to increase until 18 % (Demir et al. 1998).
tions, ProGibb T cannot be used alone as 70 % Grzesik and Nowak (1998) stated that ma-
of the seeds germinated during priming process triconditioning of seeds for 6 days with Micro-
(Carter 1997). Cel E in the presence of kinetin (20 mg L1 ),
At 0.7 MPa, the increase in germination per- Busz (15,000 mg L1 a mixture of N, P and K),
centage, compared with the control, determined ethephon (1500 mg L1 ) and GA3 (300 mg L1 )
by osmopriming ranged between 13 % (priming improved seed performance and seedling emer-
in PEG6000 for 8 days) and 40 % (priming in gence. Such treatment also increased seedling
KNO3 C K3 PO4 for 8 days). The most effective frost resistance and decreased the harmful effect
treatment (KNO3 C K3 PO4 for 8 days) reduced of water stress on seed performance of Helichry-
MTG by about 4 days compared with the con- sum bracteatum.
13 Recent Trends in Seed Science and Technology 267

Seed quality enhancement of cucumber (Cu- osmotic solution, equilibration with a matric po-
cumis sativus L.) shall be done at 25 ˙ 1 ı C tential control surface, intermixture with a porous
temperature by priming with 100 ppm ethrel or matrix material and moisture addition to seed
1 % KNO3 , followed by 100 ppm GA3 (Sowmya water content less than required for germination.
et al. 2013b). Welbaum et al. (1998) emphasised that priming
P. fluorescens is an effective antagonist for treatments must be determined empirically. The
G. lucidum with 85.91 % inhibition and 10 mm optimal water potential for priming varies with
of inhibition zone in oil palm (Elaeis guineensis the species in question and so is the effect of
Jacq.). In the bio-priming pot culture experi- priming.
ment, combination of P. fluorescens C T. viride Priming of chick pea seeds with custard apple
proved effective with 23.56 PDI as compared leaf extract at 3 % improved the seed quality with
to control with 100 PDI. The same treatment respect to germination, vigour, dehydrogenase
took 8 weeks of incubation period for onset of and ’-amylase activity irrespective of containers,
symptoms (Deepthi and Rao 2015). at the end of tenth months of storage period
The primary seed priming of red bean (Phase- (Shakuntala et al. 2015).
olus calcaratus) with water followed by drying Soaking of okra seeds in solution of GA3
and complementary priming with GA3 signifi- at 100 ppm and foliar sprays Cycocel at 750
cantly increased dry matter (53.06 g) and grain and 1000 ppm at 30 and 45 DAS, respectively,
yield (Rastin et al. 2013). were found to be beneficial in terms of early
The germination index, mean germination rate germination (2.75 days); the highest germination
and total fresh weight significantly increased in percentage (99.5); reduced height of plant (86.65
primed tomato seeds compared with unprimed cm) and length of internodes (5.10 cm); and
seeds under salinity stress (100 mM NaCl increased number of leaves (43), number of in-
conditions). Seed priming improves tomato seed ternodes (15.90), number of branches (3.15) and
vigour under stress conditions associated with a leaf area (1249.5 cm2). It also resulted in early
decrease in seed lipid peroxidation (Zhang et al. flowering (34 days); increased number of flow-
2012). ers (23.40), fruit set (87.54 %), number of fruits
Onion seeds hydro-primed with 80 % sand for (20.46) and yield per plant (201.30 g plant1 ) of
24 h improved the seed quality characteristics okra (Bhagure and Tambe 2015).
throughout the period of storage up to 4 months Seed priming is a pre-sowing strategy
(Selvarani et al. 2011). that influences the seedling development by
In order to harness maximum potential of modulating pregermination metabolic activity
seed priming, the most suitable method and the prior to emergence of the radical and generally
methodology should be adopted, specific to each germinates more rapidly leading to better crop
crop species. For onion, sand matric priming performance.
(24 h in 80 % WHC of sand) recorded the highest Among the organics used for seed treatment,
improvement in term of percent and speed of custard apple leaf extract at 3 % concentration
germination. For carrot, hydro-priming (24 h in recorded significant improvement in seed germi-
water at double the volume of seed) recorded nation and vigour of sorghum (Vasudevan et al.
the highest improvement (Selvarani and Umarani 2015). The genotypic response to various organic
2011). priming treatments varied and the sorghum culti-
Priming is a treatment that partially hydrates var M 35 1 responded very well followed by the
seeds so that germination processes begin, but cultivars Muguti and BJV 44 (Vasudevan et al.
radical emergence does not occur. Experimen- 2015).
tally, priming treatments are limited only to con- Pre-sowing treatments of mango (Mangifera
ditions that do not result in premature radical indica L.) stones of GA3 at 100 ppm increased the
extension and may include equilibration under germination and enhanced the vigour (Kolekar
conditions of high humidity, soaking in water or et al. 2015).
268 A.K. Thakur and R.K. Maiti

Vaddinakatti et al. (2015) reported that sun- 13.6.5 Seed Upgradation

flower seeds priming with custard apple leaf ex-
tract at 3 % and stored in polyethylene bag (700 Carrot cv. Zino seeds air blown for 2 min and
gauge) increased the germination and vigour. retained on a 12  12 BSS sieve after removing
However, various genotypes responded variably the bristles increased the germination (71 %),
to the priming and storage treatments. Seeds of 1000-seed weight and vigour index; however, the
cultivar KBSH-44 primed with custard apple leaf seed recovery was 52.2 % (Sundaralingam and
extract at 3 % and stored in polyethylene bag Karivaratharaju 1998).
(700 gauge) recorded significantly highest seed Taylor et al. (1991) developed a system to
quality parameters than KBSH-53 and KBSH-41 effectively upgrade Brassica seed (cabbage cvs.
genotypes at the end of tenth month of storage Danish Ballhead, King Cole, cauliflower cv.
period. Snowball, broccoli cv. Citation F1 , oilseed rape
Organic seed treatment with beejamruta at cv. Westar and the ornamental species Erysimum
50 % (Shankrayya et al. 2015) and panchagavya hieraciifolium cv. Orange Bedder) quality by
at 3 % (Nagarajaiah et al. 2015) improved quality exploiting sinapine leakage. Seeds were first
in terms of higher germination, vigour, dehy- hydrated and then coated with an absorbent (10 %
drogenase enzyme activity and lower electrical Pelgel) to trap the leaking sinapine. The coated
conductivity of seed leachate in paddy seeds. seeds were dried and sorted into fluorescent and
Cucumber seeds primed with PEG 6000 nonfluorescent categories using UV light.
1.5 MPa for 24 h exhibited improvement in In paddy, grain discolouration is considered as
quality in terms of speed of germination, total one of the important problem affecting quality of
germination and vigour, up to 6 months of the paddy seed used for planting. Field experi-
storage; however, after 6 months of storage, there ment on discoloured seed at different levels with
was a sharp decline in germination and vigour of quintal (iprodione C carbendazim) and carben-
primed seeds (Shukla et al. 2015). dazim has resulted in increased seedling growth
rate and speed of germination (Durga et al. 2015).

13.6.4 Magnetic Seed Treatment 13.6.6 Seed Hardening

The seeds treated with south pole of magnet ‘Hardening’ of seeds has been defined as ‘a
showed earlier flowering, a higher inflorescences treatment preliminary to sowing during which
plant1 and a higher reproductive efficiency seeds are moistened and dried back (once or a
index (RE) over north pole treated cauliflower number of times) to activate certain physiolog-
seeds (Samy 1998); however, the seeds treated ical mechanisms which will enable the result-
with both poles of magnet failed to give ing plants to withstand adverse environmental
significant increases in siliqua setting percentage conditions’. It can be done by using organic
and days to 50 % flowering from bolting. In and inorganic products. This technique is mainly
general, south pole treatments were better than followed for pulses, viz. chick pea, green gram,
north pole treatments. Samy (1998) further groundnut, etc. The pre-sowing seed hardening
observed that exposure for 8 h was most with chemicals, viz. hypertonic solutions of salts
beneficial, followed by spraying with south pole (e.g. KNO3 , MnSO4 ) or of osmotically active but
treated water and soaking in south pole treated chemically inert substances (e.g. polyethylene
water for 16 h. glycols of high molecular weight), is one of the
Gurusamy (1998) reported significant increase simple technique being employed to modify the
in curd diameter, length and yield from the plants morpho-physiological and biochemical nature of
raised from cauliflower cv. Kibo Giant seeds seed. It has been reported to induce drought
exposed to a south magnetic pole for 8 h. resistance capacity in plants and such seeds have
13 Recent Trends in Seed Science and Technology 269

the capacity to withstand moisture stress. Seed pre-inoculation was done by incorporating the
hardening induce the absorption of more water inoculums to the filler media of pellet. Liquid
due to the development of stronger and efficient inoculum of Rhizobium failed to produce the
root system and increased dry matter production. same effects (Jansen et al. 1994).
It is similar process of ‘advancing’ that has the Srimathi et al. (2013) reported that Jatropha
restricted aim of enabling seed to pass through seeds pelleted with pungam leaf powder recorded
the first stages of germination, short of radicle 169 % higher germination and P. pinnata seeds
emergence, before the seed is sown. It is possible pelleted with A. indica leaf powder registered
that these procedures might improve seed quality, 92 % higher germination than control after
because fully imbibed seeds have the capacity to 9 months of storage. The botanical leaf powder
repair damaged tissues (Janaki et al. 2015). seed pelleting not only improve the longevity
of seeds through protecting the seeds from
fungal and insect attack but also improve the
13.6.7 Seed Fortification
seed and soil relationships through enriching
the rhizosphere region of seed to produce better
The germination and field emergence of black
growth and development.
gram seeds was significantly increased with treat-
Pelleting of tomato cv. PKM-1 seeds with
ment of ZnSO4 at 100 mg kg1 seed; however,
ZnSO4 (300 mg kg1 ) showed improvement in
seed germination was not affected by the trace
seed emergence and subsequent plant growth and
elements, but field emergence was highest with
yield (Shashibhaskar et al. 2011).
the combined application of ZnSO4 , MnSO4 or
Na2 Mo4 at 100 mg kg1 seed (Vijaya and Pon-
nuswamy 1997a).
13.6.9 Electric Seed Treatments
Seed fortification is one of the important seed
invigoration treatments. Jayanthi et al. (2013)
Kumar et al. (1990) reported that bitter gourd
recommended seed fortification of rice (cv.
cv. Faizabadi seeds treated with electric current
Co.43) with 2 % horse gram sprout extracts at
250 mA for 3 min produced plants with a signifi-
seed moisture of 12 ˙ 1 % by soaking for 12 h for
cantly increased number of female flowers (from
enhancement in seedling quality characteristics.
10.5 to 39.0), female/male ratio (from 0.038 to
0.165), number of fruit plant1 (from 6.75 to
13.6.8 Seed Pelleting 20.5) and fruit yield plant1 (from 204.43 to
383.16 g).
Water activity measurements were a versatile
method of assessing water status of coated and
non-coated seeds on a routine basis. It provided 13.6.10 Seed Coating
accurate determinations of water status of pel-
leted and coated seeds of lettuce (Lactuca sativa) The seed quality parameters, viz. 100 seed
lot and one onion (Allium cepa) (from six pellet weight, germination percentage, seedling length,
sources and three film coating formulations) for seedling dry weight, vigour index and electrical
two crops. The seed moisture content could be conductivity, were found to be higher in pigeon
calculated from the water activity values with pea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp) seeds obtained
equations from the moisture isotherm for each and treated with deltamethrin 2.8 EC at 0.3 ml
crop (Taylor et al. 1997). kg1 seeds C vitavax powder at 3 g kg1 seed
Rhizobium phaseoli pre-inoculated pelleted C polymer seed coating at 5 ml kg1 seeds
seed of P. vulgaris cv. Contender contained compared to other treatments (Vinodkumar et al.
sufficient bacteria per seed for effective 2013).
nodulation after 56 day storage at 25 ı C in Tian et al. (2013) suggested that labelling
study conducted by Jansen et al. (1994). The with rhodamine B dye by coating at 1 Kg per
270 A.K. Thakur and R.K. Maiti

20–30 Kg pea seeds can be used as an anti- with GA3 was also useful for storage of somatic
counterfeiting technique in pea seeds. Moreover, embryos at 4 ı C for 1 month (Antonietta et al.
the vascular bundles of stem, roots and aerial 1998).
parts of seedlings treated with rhodamine B dye Supplementation of embryo production
emitted brilliant fluorescence for a long time, medium with 10 6 M abscisic acid (ABA) or
which could be used as a marker in seedlings. 1.0 mM proline improved desiccation tolerance
Polymer ‘Quick Roots’ seed treatment and survival in celery (Kim and Janick 1990).
increased the tolerance of cotton seed to both high
as well as low moisture content and improved
germination and seedling establishment (Deepika 13.8 Seed Storage
et al. 2015).
13.8.1 Prestorage Treatments
13.6.11 Seed Nanotechnology
The large-sized wheat seed are more suitable
as a planting material and prestorage aspirin,
Nanoparticles are small-size (between 1 and
and Trigonella seed powder treatments are very
100 nm) atoms having more surface area that
effective for improvement of storability of wheat
facilitate the plants to speed up the growth and
(De et al. 2012).
development process. Agronomic efficiency of
The prestorage dry treatment with bleaching
N, P and K was recorded highest with 80 %
powder at 2 g kg1 of seed of large-sized okra
recommended dose of fertiliser (RDF) plus TiO2
seed improved storability and field performance
nanoparticles (Kumar et al. 2015). Apparent
(Guha and Mandal 2011). Phostoxin had a
recovery efficiency of N and P was found highest
remarkable effect on germination (78.4 %) and
with RDF plus ZnO, whereas in the case of K, it
vigour (80.67 %) of okra seeds (Akintobi 2009).
was highest with RDF plus TiO2 nanoparticles.
Prestorage dry seed treatments with bleaching
From this experiment, it can be concluded that
powder at 2 g kg1 of seed and red chilli powder
seed treatment with ZnO and TiO2 nanoparticles
at 1 g kg1 of seed for high vigour seed and wet
are found best in terms of wheat yield and NUE
treatment (soaking for 2 h followed by drying)
(Kumar et al. 2015).
for medium vigour seed improve germinability
during storage of onion seeds (Biswas et al.
2011).
13.7 Synthetic Seed

Synthetic seeds are defined as somatic embryos

13.8.2 Mid-storage Treatments
engineered to be of use in commercial plant
production (Gray and Purohit 1991). Depending
The tomato and eggplant crop raised from seeds
on the crop, synthetic seeds:
treated with disodium phosphate showed the best
1. May or may not have a synthetic seed coat growth and yield (812 and 2163 g plant1 , for
2. May be hydrated or dehydrated tomato and eggplant, respectively, compared with
3. May be quiescent or not control values of 529 and 1192 g plant1 , respec-
tively) (Geetharani and Karivaratharaju 1996).
The first basal section of cotyledons results in
58 % embryogenic callus formation and five re-
generated plantlets in cucumbers cv. Poinsettia76
(Guedes and Jennings 1999). 13.8.3 Post-storage Treatments
The embryo encapsulated with an artificial
endosperm containing gibberellic acid (GA3 ) im- The germination and field performance of 16-
proved the recovery of plantlets from somatic em- month-old naturally aged seeds of okra cv. Pusa
bryos in Citrus reticulata Blanco. Encapsulation Sawani and Parbhani Kranti were increased by
13 Recent Trends in Seed Science and Technology 271

soaking in aqueous solutions of 50 or 100 ppm 13.10 Conclusion

GA3 , IBA or thiourea for 24 h at 25 ı C. GA3
which increased the seed yield by 18 % (Kumar Seed is the vital component of plant life cycle
et al. 1997). and so is for the agriculture. The performance of
plant or crop entirely revolves around the inherent
quality of seed from which it is raised. Seed even
13.9 Summary plays a pivotal role in the productivity of other
agricultural inputs. Moreover, improved seed is
The research and development is progressing the easiest way of transfer of technology in an ef-
continuously in all sheers of seed science and fective manner. The applications of modern tech-
technology. The emphasis among the seed pro- nologies like space breeding, nanotechnology,
duction technologies is on plant population and and physical treatments using magnet, plasma,
geometry, use of plant growth regulators and microwaves, etc. provide new avenues about seed
efficient methods of seed threshing or extraction to scientists and technologists. Though a tremen-
to improve seed yield and quality. The quality dous progress has been made in the field of
management, the other important aspect of seed seed science and technology to improve the per-
technology, records new methods and techniques formance of seed, however, the zenith will be
of testing seed quality in terms of genetic purity, achieved when every seed harvested will produce
germination and vigour and seed health. The new a healthy plant.
morphological markers using seed size variation
in parental and hybrid seed has been described.
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