Ecological Indicators 121 (2021) 107047

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ecological Indicators
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecolind

Empirical characterization factors to be used in LCA and assessing the

effects of hydropower on fish richness
Katrine Turgeon a, b, *, Gabrielle Trottier c, d, Christian Turpin b, Cécile Bulle c, e,
Manuele Margni c, d
a
Institut de recherche sur la Forêt Tempérée - Université du Québec en Outaouais, 58 Rue Principale, Ripon, QC J0V 1V0, Canada
b
Hydro-Québec, Environment and Corporate Affairs, 75 René-Lévesque, Montréal, QC H2Z 1A4, Canada
c
CIRAIG, 3333 Chemin Queen-Mary, Montréal, QC H3V 1A2, Canada
d
Mathematical and Industrial Engineering Department, Polytechnique Montreal, 2900, boul. Édouard-Montpetit, 2500, chemin de Polytechnique, Montréal, QC H3T
1J4, Canada
e
ESG UQAM, Department of Strategy and Corporate Social Responsibility, C.P. 8888, succ. Centre-ville, Montréal, QC H3C 3P8, Canada

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Hydropower is often presented as a clean, reliable, and renewable energy source, but is also recognized for its
Life cycle assessment potential impacts on aquatic ecosystem biodiversity. We used direct empirical data of change in fish species
Hydroelectricity richness following impoundment to develop ecological indicators to be used in Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), and
Biodiversity
accounting for hydropower impacts on aquatic ecosystems. Data were collected on 89 sampling stations (63
Fish
Richness
stations located upstream, and 26 located downstream of a dam) distributed in 26 reservoirs from three biomes
Biomes (boreal, temperate and tropical). Overall, the impact of hydropower on fish species richness was significant in the
tropics, of smaller amplitude in temperate biome and minimal in boreal biome, stressing the need for region­
alisation when developing indicators. The impact of hydropower was consistent across scales for a given biome
(same directionality and statistical significance across sampling stations and reservoirs). However, the indicators
were sensitive to the duration of the study (the period over which data have been collected after impoundment),
which can underestimate the impacts. This result highlights the need to account for the duration of the transient
dynamics to reach a steady state (rate of change in species richness = 0) before developing ecological indicators.
By using the LCA approach, our suggested indicators contribute to fill a major gap in assisting decision-makers
when evaluating the potential of alternative energy technologies, such as hydropower, to decarbonize the
worldwide economy, while minimizing the impacts on aquatic ecosystems.

1. Introduction particularly in developing economies that are mostly located in the

tropics (Grill et al., 2015; Winemiller et al., 2016).
One of the most important challenges we face as a society is the Despite its recognized advantages, hydropower can impact aquatic
increased demand for energy (SEforALL, 2016, p. 4). In response to this ecosystem functions and biodiversity through the regulation of the river
worldwide demand, hydropower is presented as a relatively clean, flow, by a drastic change in the hydrological regime, and by the frag­
reliable, and renewable energy source (Tahseen and Karney, 2017; mentation of rivers (Bunn and Arthington, 2002; Gracey and Verones,
Teodoru et al., 2012), and an interesting option to decarbonize our 2016; Renöfalt et al., 2010; Rosenberg et al., 2000). Dams constructed
global economy by reducing greenhouse gas emissions (GHG; Figueres for hydropower transform large rivers (lotic environment) and sur­
et al., 2017; Potvin et al., 2017). Hydropower supplies <3% of the pri­ rounding lakes into large reservoirs (lentic environment) or series of
mary energy worldwide but almost 75% of the world’s renewable reservoirs (sensu cascade reservoirs; Friedl and Wüest, 2002; Haxton and
electricity (International Energy Agency (IEA), 2019; International Hy­ Findlay, 2009). Upstream of the dam, reservoirs experience variation in
dropower association (IHA), 2020). These numbers will increase in the water levels far beyond their natural amplitude (e.g. drawdown; Kroger,
coming years as many large dams are being constructed worldwide, 1973; Zohary and Ostrovsky, 2011). Downstream of the dam, changes in

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (K. Turgeon).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.107047
Received 19 March 2020; Received in revised form 30 September 2020; Accepted 6 October 2020
1470-160X/© 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
K. Turgeon et al. Ecological Indicators 121 (2021) 107047

seasonal and inter-annual streamflow magnitude and variability are 2. Materials and methods
generally reduced (Friedman et al., 1998; Graf, 2006) but can be
increased (e.g., hydropeaking; Tonolla et al., 2017), and fish migration 2.1. General approach
can be altered (Pelicice et al., 2015). These modifications can impact the
abundance, distribution and population structure of many taxa in the Our novel approach to generate Characterization Factors (CF) and
aquatic community at all trophic levels and can ultimately affect the Impact Scores (IS) in LCA was based on the use of direct empirical
structure and functions of aquatic ecosystems (Furey et al., 2006; Nils­ patterns of change in fish richness in response to river impoundment
son and Berggren, 2000; Vörösmarty et al., 2010). from an extensive literature search. To calculate CF, we used the
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a multidisciplinary framework used to Potentially Disappeared Fraction of species (PDF) as the unit to express a
assess the environmental impacts of products, processes and services temporary change in fish richness in response to reservoir occupation
throughout their whole life cycle (from cradle-to-grave; Finnveden et al., and hydropower in time and space (i.e., the transformed state and
2009; ISO, 2006). LCA informs about sustainable and sound choices in steady-state; PDF⋅year⋅m2; Fig. 1; Jolliet et al., 2003). Theoretically, the
the context of decision-making and is based on strong scientific evi­ PDF is the difference between the observed richness before impound­
dence. In LCA, inventory flows related to all activities involved in the life ment (R0) and the richness observed when the fish community reached a
cycle (e.g., emissions, resource extraction, change in land use) are first steady-state (i.e., change in richness due to impoundment = 0) in the
inventoried and then characterized into potential environmental im­ reservoirs or downstream of the dams (R2 in Fig. 1). Fish can disappear
pacts called Characterization Factors (CF; Curran et al., 2011). When due to altered flow regimes, change in habitat quality, barrier to
compared to other energy production technologies, hydropower scored migration or change in trophic interactions upstream and downstream
favorably in LCA studies regarding GHG emissions, air pollution, health of the dam. Mitigation measures (e.g., fish ladder, creating and restoring
risk, acidification and eutrophication of ecosystems (CIRAIG, 2014; spawning and rearing habitats, minimization of hydropeaking effects;
Hertwich, 2013; Sathaye et al., 2011). However, the impacts of hydro­ Person et al., 2014; Tonolla et al., 2017) can reduce PDF (smaller ΔR;
power on ecosystem quality and biodiversity are still not successfully Fig. 1).
integrated into LCA. PDF has the advantage to be compatible with other damage oriented
Including the impacts of hydropower on aquatic ecosystems quality impact assessment methods addressing ecosystems quality in LCA such
in LCA has been proven to be challenging. It is challenging because of as IMPACT 2002+ (Jolliet et al., 2003) and Impact World + (Bulle et al.,
large data requirement, unclear causational effects (i.e., incapacity to 2019), and has been recommended by the UNEP-SETAC Life Cycle
clearly describe physical, chemical or biological mechanisms of an Initiative as an adequate and consistent biodiversity attribute (Verones
impact pathway linking a specific inventory flow with an impact et al., 2017). In this study, we adapted the framework for change in land
endpoint), incomplete coverage of ecological impacts, and spatial and occupation proposed by de Baan et al. (2013) and Chaudhary et al.
temporal scaling issues that can hinder its application and validity (2015) to assess the occupation of a water body (occupation of a
(Gracey and Verones, 2016; McManamay et al., 2015; Milà i Canals riverbed measured in surface-time units, m2⋅year). In our study, the CF is
et al., 2009; Teixeira et al., 2016). Different metrics have been proposed expressed in PDF units, or implicitly PDF⋅m2⋅year/m2⋅year of water
to measure the impacts of a product, process or service on ecosystems body occupied.
quality in LCA such as the difference in the number of species (i.e., Because no reliable data were available to evaluate the biodiversity
richness), ecosystem scarcity and vulnerability, functional diversity and recovery when powerplants are decommissioned and dam are removed,
habitat suitability curve (Curran et al., 2011; Damiani et al., 2019; Souza we were not able to address the recovery phase in the LCA and therefore
et al., 2013). Experts agreed – without a clear consensus – that change in focused our efforts on the impacts during the occupation phase (i.e.,
species richness, which is represented as a Potentially Disappeared period covering the construction of the dam until decommission; Fig. 1).
Fraction of species (PDF) in LCA, was a good and simple starting point to For each reservoir, we calculated two impact scores: one for the
assess biodiversity impacts (Teixeira et al., 2016). reservoir creation and occupation due to the construction of the dam
When a change in species richness is used in LCA, it is essential to (impact score of the Reservoir (ISR); where CFs were multiplied by the
consider the adequate spatial and temporal scale of impacts. Patterns inventory flow which is the area-time (m2⋅year) of the rivers and lakes
observed locally (e.g., in a reservoir) cannot always be extrapolated before impoundment and then occupied by the reservoir (hereafter
within or across regions. It is also important to evaluate the impact at the called the annually affected area; see Fig. A) and one for the hydropower
steady state (i.e., the time at which change in biodiversity stabilize after generation (IS; where ISR was divided by the annual kWh produced for a
impoundment). In LCA, very little studies examined the impacts of hy­ given powerplant). We also took a multi-scale approach to examine if
dropower on ecosystems quality, or examined if patterns can be patterns observed at the sampling station, reservoir and biome scale
extrapolated across spatial and temporal scales (but see de Baan et al., were consistent.
(2013) for a multiple spatial scales LCA study). Yet, no study uses
empirical data to derive CF and Impact Score (IS) to quantify the impacts 2.2. Richness data extraction and literature search
of hydropower on aquatic ecosystems.
Here, we used empirically derived rate of change in fish species The literature search for this paper has been performed previously
richness over time after impoundment, across 89 sampling stations, for another companion meta-analysis examining the global effect of
belonging to 26 storage reservoirs from boreal, temperate and tropical dams on fish biodiversity (Turgeon et al., 2019b). In a nutshell, the
biomes. The focus of this study was on storage reservoirs because lon­ search for the meta-analysis resulted in 67 references that met our
gitudinal data (i.e., data collected over time, before and after damming) research criteria. See Turgeon et al. (2019b) for a detailed methodology
were lacking from the other technologies (e.g., run of the river and about the literature search, and data extraction.
pumping stations). Our goals were to 1) develop robust empirical CFs For this paper, we refined our selection criteria to include only ref­
(based on PDF) across three spatial scales (sampling station, reservoir erences that had unbiased quantitative data on the fish community
and biome), 2) calculate the impact score of impoundment, i.e., trans­ before and after impoundment (i.e., longitudinal data), and where the
forming a river into a reservoir and its subsequent occupation by the main purpose of the dam was to produce hydropower. A total of 30
reservoir (ISR; PDF⋅m2⋅year of affected area, accounting for the affected references met our selection criteria (Databases A and B). The raw data
surface and time of occupation), and relate the Impact Score to hydro­ used to calculate the rate of change in richness are presented in Database
power generation (IS; PDF⋅m2⋅year of affected area/kWh), and 3) to test B, as well as some potential bias and confounding factors (artisanal
the need for regionalisation by examining if the observed patterns were fisheries, stocking, water quality) that can affect the estimated richness
consistent across the three biomes. in the different studies. The sampling effort and fishing gears varied

2
K. Turgeon et al. Ecological Indicators 121 (2021) 107047

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of an area-time

framework representing the rate of change in rich­
ness experienced in a reservoir. R0 represents the
richness before impoundment, Ri represents
different richness during the transformed state of
the reservoir and where the fish community respond
to environmental change following impoundment.
The ΔRs represent the steady state where fish
community should have reached a new equilibrium
and where the rate of change in fish species should
stabilize. The recovery state should start when the
reservoir and dam will be decommissioned. This
study addresses the period between the before
impoundment to the reach of the steady state.

across references, and sometimes varied among years in some refer­ 2.4. Calculation of the rate of change in richness over time
ences. The sampling effort was provided in 48% of the sampling station
and varied from 1 to 137 gillnets per year (mean ± SD = 7.8 ± 10.0 2.4.1. Sampling station scale
gillnets per year). About 40% of the references did not have similar ef­ For each sampling station i, located either upstream or downstream
forts across years. Most of the studies used gill nets, which can under­ of the dam for reservoir j, we calculated the rate of change in richness
estimate small littoral and pelagic species. The duration of the study also over time. Because some studies observed non-linear patterns in richness
varied among references (mean ± SD = 14.2 ± 9.2 years) and was much over time following impoundment (Agostinho et al., 1994; Lima et al.,
shorter in the tropics. Rarefied richness (i.e., controlling for the number 2016), we first tested if a linear function can approximate the rate of
of samples) was reported in 13% of the references. change in richness over time with Generalized Additive Models (GAM)
with a Gaussian error structure (Wood, 2014, 2006). GAM allow to
2.3. Extracting the area affected by the dam and reservoir model non-linear relationships between the response variable (richness)
and the explanatory variable (time). All analyses were performed using
To extract the area affected by the construction of the dam and R v.3.6.3 (R Core Team, 2020). To test for non-linearity of the patterns,
reservoir, we extracted the area occupied by the rivers and lakes before we only used the time series with more than four observations (46.2% of
impoundment both upstream and downstream of the dam (Fig. A). the time series; Database A). From those 42 times series, only seven
Change in land use from terrestrial to reservoir (inundated land area) is (16.6%) showed a significant non-linear pattern (Database A) with
out of the scope of this study, but see Dorber et al. (2018) for a suggested limited curvature (estimated degrees of freedom (edf) < 3). The other
approach to model the net land occupation of hydropower reservoirs in time series showed either a linear decreasing, a linear increasing trend
LCA. To get the affected area of each reservoir, we used various sources. or no trend in time (Database A). In light of these results, the rate of
For recent reservoirs, we used Google Earth Pro with the historical change in richness will be approximated by a linear model. See discus­
satellite imagery tool (Landsat/Copernicus images). Other sources of sion for potential limitations and biased interpretation associated with
historical maps consisted in the USGS historical topographic maps for this assumption.
most of the United States reservoirs (https://viewer.nationalmap.gov/ At the sampling station scale, the rate of change in richness was
basic/), the Old Maps Online website for old reservoirs in Africa and extracted using the estimated slope of the regression between richness
South America (http://www.oldmapsonline.org/). A representative and time (Equation 1) from a general linear model (LM) and we used the
image of the riverbed before impoundment was exported as a raster standard error of the estimate to calculate the 95% Confidence Interval
image in QGIS (v.2.18.16; http://www.qgis.org). The affected area was (CI; Database A). A positive rate of change in richness represented a gain
hand drawn as a polygon in a vector layer, and the area of the polygon in species, and a negative rate of change represented a loss in species.
was extracted. Two polygons of the riverbed before impoundment were
extracted per reservoir, one upstream and one downstream of the dam 2.4.2. Reservoir and biome scales
(Fig. A; the dark blue area represent the affected area). Upstream, we When more than one station were sampled per reservoir, we used
assumed that the impacts of the reservoir and the dam on fish commu­ generalized linear mixed effect models (GLMM; lmer function in lme4
nity did not go beyond the impounded area and thus, used the upper end package v.1.1–13; Bates et al., 2018). GLMM is an extension to the
of the reservoir as the upper limit of the affected area. For downstream generalized linear model (GLM) and where the explanatory variables
stations, we extracted the area of the polygon for five different distances contain random effects in addition to the usual fixed effects. GLMM were
from the dam (5, 10, 15, 20, 25 km), as well as the distance at which the used to calculate the rate of change in richness over time at the reservoir,
fish communities were sampled (Database A; mean ± SD; 75.9 km ± biome and global scales while controlling for the spatial non-
125.3 km; median; 9.4 km). The affected areas calculated with the five independence of the data (pseudoreplication) by using random-effects
different distances and the distance at which fish were sampled all (random effect = stations at the reservoir scale). We ran separate
strongly correlate (matrix of Pearson correlation r greater than 0.80; models for upstream and downstream locations at the reservoir and
unpublished analysis), suggesting that the impact is strongly dependent of biome scales. At the reservoir scale, we controlled for spatial non-
the river width. We used 10 km downstream of the dam to set the lower independence by using sampling stations as a random factor. At the
limit of the polygon (based on the median value of 9.4 km). biome scale, we controlled for spatial non-independence by nesting each
sampling station i into their respective reservoir j. Globally, to compare
if the rate of change in richness following impoundment differed across
biomes (interaction; years*biomes), we also controlled for spatial non-

3
K. Turgeon et al. Ecological Indicators 121 (2021) 107047

independence by nesting each sampling station i into their respective CF for a given reservoir j was calculated only if data from upstream and
reservoir j, and we used the boreal biome as the contrast. downstream stations were available. To do so, we added the mean up­
stream CF to the mean downstream CF. To calculate the CF at the biome
scale, we used CFj as units (calculated at the reservoir scale) instead of
2.5. Calculation of Characterization Factors (CF) CFi (calculated at the sampling station scale). We only used the reser­
voirs for which we had both upstream and downstream stations.
2.5.1. Sampling station scale
To calculate CFs, which are calculated as a Potentially Disappeared 2.6. Calculation of impact scores (ISR and IS)
Fraction of species (PDF), we multiplied the observed rate of change in
richness (ΔR/Δt; where ΔR stands as the difference in richness and Δt We were also interested to evaluate the annual impact of creating
stands for the duration of the study) by the time it takes to reach a and operating a specific reservoir (ISR; i.e., evaluating PDF of the area
defined steady-state tss (time horizon at which we considered that the affected upstream and downstream of the dam during one year), and to
rate of change in richness = 0; Fig. 1) as per Equation 1, and divided the relate it to the annual hydropower production or generation (IS;
result by the average richness observed before impoundment for a given elementary flow = kWh produced for a given reservoir). To do so, we
sampling station (R0ij). By definition, in LCA, the CF is positive if we multiplied the CF by the area affected (i.e., area occupied by the river
observe a loss in species and negative when we observe a gain in species, and lakes before impoundment; Fig. A). Because we expect different
so we multiplied the equation by minus 1 (Equation 1). We did this for impacts upstream and downstream of the dam, we calculated the annual
each sampling station i. impact score of creating and operating a reservoir (ISR; PDF⋅m2⋅year) as
The duration at which fish richness has been sampled for a given the sum of downstream (ISRdj) and upstream impacts (ISRuj; Fig. A).
study (Δt) varied greatly across studies and biomes (e.g., from less than Impact scores were calculated at the reservoir and biome scales.
five years to 40 years; Databases A and B). This can be problematic when Equation 2: Annual impact score (ISR) of a reservoir j
comparing short duration studies with longer ones, because the longer (( ) ( ))
the time after impoundment (Δt), the bigger the ΔR will be and the more ISRj = (ISRdj + ISRuj ) = CF dj *Adj + CFuj *Auj *1 year
likely the steady-state will be reached. Short duration studies are,
therefore, likely to underestimate PDF (Fig. 1; see R1 vs. R2). To make where A stands for the area affected upstream (uj) or downstream (dj) of
studies comparable, we tested how PDFs extrapolated at different times the dam for reservoir j (Fig. A).
to reach the steady-state (tss = 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 years after To calculate the impact score per unit of hydropower produced by a
impoundment; Equation 1) were plausible, and compared the scenarios powerplant, the annual impact score of a dam ISRj was divided by the
with the Observed duration for longer time series with a sensitivity annual electricity production, Pj (kWh/year).
analysis. Equation 3: Impact score per kWh of an operating power plant
To calculate the uncertainty associated with the CFs, we used the associated with reservoir j
standard error (SE) from the estimate of the rate of change in richness ISRj
( )
CF dj *Adj ) + (CFuj *Auj *1 year
(from the GLMM) and multiplied it by the different scenarios of time to ISj = =
Pj Pj
reach the steady-state, and then divided it by the average richness
observed before impoundment. From this scaled SE, we calculated the
3. Results
95% CI.
Equation 1: Characterization Factors at the sampling station scale
3.1. Rate of change in fish richness across scales and biomes
⎛( ) ⎞
*tss
ΔRij
⎜ Δtij ⎟ Upstream and downstream of the dam, the rate of change in fish
CF ij = − ⎜ ⎟
⎝ R0ij ⎠ richness over time varied across sampling stations, reservoirs and bi­
omes (Fig. 2). Overall, when biomes, reservoirs and sampling stations
( ) were combined in a GLMM, richness significantly decreased over time at
CFij =
R0,ij − Rss,ij a rate of 0.29 species per year upstream of the dam (estimate ± SD =
R0ij − 0.293 ± 0.074; 95% CI = − 0.439 to − 0.148) and at a comparable rate
downstream of the dam (0.26 species per year; estimate ± SD = − 0.264
where (ΔRij /Δtij) is the observed rate of change in richness extracted in ± 0.082; 95% CI = − 0.424 to − 0.104). The rate of change in richness
sampling station i in reservoir j using the slope of the regression between decreased much faster in the tropic than in temperate and boreal res­
the observed change in richness (ΔR) for a given period of time (Δt), and ervoirs (estimate ± SD of the interaction terms between the rate of
tss are the different scenarios of time until reaching the steady state (5, change and biomes (boreal vs. tropical) = − 1.380 ± 0.202; 95% CI =
10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 years after impoundment). − 1.777 to − 0.984).
In the boreal biome, there was no significant change in richness over
2.5.2. Reservoir and biome scales time at all scales (sampling station, reservoir and biome; Fig. 2a, b), and
To test if the CFs were valid and robust across scales (sampling sta­ locations (upstream and downstream; GLMM; 95% CI overlapped with
tion, reservoir and biome), we also computed CFs at the reservoir and zero; Fig. 2a, b). In temperate and tropical regions, the patterns were less
biome scales. At the reservoir scale, we calculated a mean upstream CF consistent, and more variation was observed than in the boreal region.
(if more than one sampling station was available), a mean downstream Some sampling stations and reservoirs showed either a significant
CF, as well as a Total CF (upstream CF + downstream CF when both decrease or an increase in richness over time following impoundment
upstream and downstream stations were available). For the upstream (Fig. 2c–f). In these two biomes, we observed a significant decrease in
CF, we averaged the CFs calculated for each upstream station in reser­ richness over time at the biome scale for upstream stations (glmm; loss
voir j. We then squared the SE associated with the coefficient of of 0.26 in temperate and 1.6 species per year in tropical reservoirs;
regression (slope of the observed change in richness for a given period) Fig. 2c, e). Downstream of the dam, we observed a significant decrease
for each upstream sampling station of reservoir j added them together to in richness in the temperate region (loss of 0.34 species per year) but not
get the total variance for reservoir j. We then divided this variance by the in the tropics (Fig. 2d, f).
number of sampling stations in reservoir j raised to the power of 2, and
square rooted that variance to get the SE of the CF, and then calculated
the 95% CI. We did the same procedure for downstream stations. A total

4
K. Turgeon et al. Ecological Indicators 121 (2021) 107047

Fig. 2. Empirically derived rates of change in richness and their 95% CI in upstream (left panels) and downstream sampling stations (right panels), and reservoirs
from three biomes: boreal (23 sampling stations, 5 reservoirs), temperate (26 sampling stations, 7 reservoirs) and tropical (41 sampling stations, 15 reservoirs). Each
circle represents a sampling stations (sampling station ID on the y-axis) that belongs to a reservoir (the name of the reservoirs are provided on the left of each panel).
The size of the circles represents the number of observations in the time series used to derive the rate of change in richness with a linear regression. The size of the
circles and x-axes differ between the six panels. A positive value means a gain in species, a negative value means a loss in species. Information about the sampling
station (number on the y-axis) can be found in Database A.

5
K. Turgeon et al. Ecological Indicators 121 (2021) 107047

3.2. Characterization Factors (CF) was strongly correlated with biome, where tropical reservoirs had a
much higher richness before impoundment than boreal reservoirs (p <
The magnitude of CFs was sensitive to the assumption of reaching the 0.001). In boreal reservoirs, there was no significant CF upstream and
steady-state (tSS), and differed across biomes and scales (Fig. 3 and downstream of the dam (Fig. B.1) for all steady-state scenarios. When
Table 1; see also Figs. B.1, B.2 and B.3 in Supplemental Information). At data were combined at the reservoir scale (Fig. 3a), no significant CFs
the sampling station scale, when all sampling stations were combined, were observed (upstream, downstream and total CF; Fig. 3b and Table 1)
CFs (PDF) were higher with higher richness before impoundment (es­ and the Total CF at the biome scale was also not significant (Table 1).
timate ± SE = 0.17 ± 0.05; p = 0.005). Richness before impoundment At the sampling station scale, in temperate and tropical ecosystems,

Fig. 3. Characterization factor estimates (CFs) and their 95% CI at the reservoir scale for three biomes, a) upstream and b) downstream of the dam, for the observed
duration of the study (Obs.), and the three extrapolated most plausible scenarios of time until reaching the steady state (5y, 10y, 15y). Extrapolated CF values in the
grey area means that 100% (or more) of the species were lost, which is not possible. Stars beside the CF values indicate a statistically significant CF (where the 95% CI
does not overlap with zero). A positive value means a loss in species, a negative value means a gain in species.

6
K. Turgeon et al. Ecological Indicators 121 (2021) 107047

Table 1 patterns were more heterogeneous. There were some significant PDFs,
Estimates ± Standard Error (SE) for Characterization Factors (CF), Impact Scores but also gain in species upstream (Fig. B.2a and Fig. B.3a) and down­
for the creation of the reservoir (ISR) and Impact Scores to produce hydropower stream of the dam in some stations (Fig. B.2b and Fig. B.3b). When data
(IS) at the reservoir and biome scales using the steady-state scenario of 10 years. were combined at the biome scale for temperate reservoirs, the total CF,
Values in italics represent significant CF, ISR and IS. *SE of 0.000 are presented which is not significant, diverged from the reservoir and sampling sta­
when there were only two data points in the time series (before and after
tion scale patterns (i.e., significant loss or gain in richness; Fig. 3, Fig. B.2
impoundment).
and Table 1). Because we need upstream and downstream stations to
Reservoirs/ Biome U, CF ISR IS generate the total CF at the reservoir and biome scales, we used a subset
biome D, (PDF*y) (PDF*km2*y) (PDF*km2*y/
of reservoirs. Two reservoirs in this subset experienced an increase in
or Estimate × 1.0E + 08 kwh)
U ± SE Estimate ± SE Estimate ± SE richness (Fig. 3 and Table 1). We also observed significant gains and
+D losses of species at the sampling station and reservoir scales (Fig. 3 and
BOREAL B U 0.159 ± 0.604 ± 12.30 ¡0.061 ± Table 1), and a significant PDF at the biome scale in the tropics
þ 0.204 0.012 (Table 1).
D Sensitivity analysis (Fig. C) suggested that simulated CFs beyond the
Ste- B U 0.069 ± 0.240 ± 1.397 0.009 ± 0.051 10 years scenario (10SS) to reach the steady-state after impoundment
Marguerite 0.401
was unlikely because many reservoirs lost 100% of the original richness,
Rybinsk B U − 0.021 − 0.890 ± − 0.138 ±
± 0.027 1.183 0.184 which was never observed in any reservoirs (Fig. 3). The 5y time sce­
Robert B U 0.243 ± 3.360 ± 4.758 0.009 ± 0.013 nario until reaching the steady-state scenario underestimated species
Bourassa +D 0.247 loss compared to the observed duration (Fig. 3 and Fig. C). For these
Opinaca B U 0.148 ± 3.084 ± 15.77 0.008 ± 0.042
reasons, we considered a 10y steady-state scenario as being the most
+D 0.813
Caniapiscau B U − 0.085 − 4.630 ± − 0.201 ±
plausible to compare the impact of dams and impoundment across bi­
+D ± 0.850 33.02 1.436 omes and reservoirs and to compute ISR and IS.
TEMPERATE T U ¡0.524 ¡0.028 ± ¡0.102 ±
þ ± 0.442 0.029 0.350 3.3. Impact Scores for the creation of the reservoir (ISR) and
D
Three Gorges T U 0.109 ± 5.152 ± 0.000 0.005 ± 0.000
hydroelectricity production (IS)
*0.000
Texoma T U − 0.026 − 0.032 ± − 0.013 ± Annual Impact Scores of reservoirs (ISR) and for the corresponding
± 0.007 0.008 0.003 hydropower production (IS) differed across reservoirs and biomes
Kenney T U − 1.974 − 0.067 ± − 0.559 ±
(Fig. 4, Table 1). In boreal and temperate reservoirs, ISRs were not
+D ± 2.351 0.042 0.350
Jeziorsko T U 0.468 ± 0.048 ± 0.075 0.288 ± 0.440 significant for the observed duration of the study (O; Fig. 4a, b), nor for
+D 0.575 the steady-state scenario of 10 y (SS10; Fig. 4a, b). Four tropical reser­
Dalesice T D 0.093 ± − 0.064 ± – voirs showed significant ISRs (Fig. 4c). When the ISR and IS were
0.244 0.068 calculated at the biome scale, we observed small and non-significant ISR
Beaver Lake T U − 0.068 − 0.064 ± − 0.035 ±
+D ± 0.103 0.018 0.010
for boreal and temperate biomes, and a significant ISR for the tropics
TROPICAL TR U 0.781 ± 2.620 ± 0.721 0.056 ± 0.010 (Fig. 4). The directionality and significance of IS were comparable to ISR
þ 0.148 for both the reservoirs and biome scales (Table 1).
D
Xiaowan TR U 1.853 ± 0.024 ± 1.906 − 0.000 ±
4. Discussion
+D 0.987 0.010
Tucurui TR U 0.421 ± − 10.35 ± 0.048 ± 0.012
+D 0.164 2.603 4.1. Regionalisation is needed
Tocantins TR U 0.747 ± 2.210 ± 1.552 0.093 ± 0.065
+D 1.011 Based on available empirical data, we demonstrated that region­
Samuel TR U 0.069 ± 0.737 ± 0.194 0.081 ± 0.021
+D 0.144
alisation is needed to evaluate the impacts of hydropower in LCA
Salto Caxias TR U 1.065 ± 2.057 ± 0.403 0.038 ± 0.007 because the observed rate of change in fish richness in reservoirs varied
+D 0.192 across biomes, being minimal in boreal, marginal in temperate ecosys­
Porto TR D − 0.381 − 0.891 ± − 0.008 ± tems, and significant in the tropics. This result suggests that hydropower
Primavera ± 0.111 0.259 0.002
in northern countries (e.g., Canada, Russia, Norway, Sweden, Finland,
Petit Saut TR U 0.532 ± 0.350 ± 0.085 0.075 ± 0.018
+D 0.174 Iceland), accounting for 14% of the worldwide installed hydropower
Manwan TR U − 0.608 − 0.518 ± − 0.007 ± capacity in 2019 (IHA, 2020), may have limited impacts on fish richness.
± 0.000 0.000 0.000 On the other hand, our dataset demonstrated that hydropower in the
Lajeado TR U 0.619 ± 5.120 ± 2.604 0.116 ± 0.058 tropics has significant impacts on fish richness at all scales. Recently,
0.310
Kpong TR U 0.042 ± 0.008 ± 0.009 0.001 ± 0.001
rivers of species-rich tropical regions located in Brazil (installed capacity
0.046 of 100.2 GW, 64% of the generated electricity in Brazil, 8% globally;
Kainji TR U 0.192 ± 2.298 ± 0.000 0.165 ± 0.000 IHA, 2020) and China (installed capacity of 352.3 GW, 17% of the
0.000 generated energy in China, 27% globally; IHA, 2020), have been
Itezhi-Tezhi TR U 0.501 ± 0.481 ± 0.076 0.076 ± 0.012
extensively harnessed for hydropower (Stickler et al., 2013; Winemiller
0.078
Itaipu TR U − 0.243 − 1.872 ± − 0.002 ± et al., 2016; Ziv et al., 2012). Future hydropower development (planned
± 0.129 0.996 0.001 and currently in construction) is concentrated in China, the Mekong
Corumba TR U 0.518 ± 0.390 ± 0.000 0.027 ± 0.000 region, Latin America and Africa, and the largest potential for future
0.000 development is in Asia (IHA, 2020). These regions have a high fish
Brokopondo TR U 0.124 ± 0.510 ± 0.451 0.057 ± 0.050
richness and endemic species, some of these regions are recognized as
0.109
aquatic biodiversity hotspots, and they will be particularly impacted by
climate change due to a loss in water availability and increased tem­
perature (Xenopoulos and Lodge, 2006). In a collective effort to decar­
bonize the worldwide economy and reduce GHG emissions, we urgently
need appropriate supporting decision tools that consider long-term

7
K. Turgeon et al. Ecological Indicators 121 (2021) 107047

Fig. 4. Total Impact Score for hydropower a) boreal, b) temperate and c) tropical reservoirs for the Observed duration of the study (O) and for the steady state
scenario of 10 y (SS10) at the reservoir and biome (ALL) scales. RB = Robert-Bourassa, OP = Opinaca, CA = Caniapiscau, BL = Beaver Lake, KE = Kenney, JZ =
Jeziorsko, XW = Xiaowan, TC = Tucurui, TO = Tocantins, SA = Samuel, SC = Salto Caxias, PS = Petit-Saut. The star in each panel indicates a statistically sig­
nificant IS.

economic, environmental and social costs (Fearnside, 2016; Kahn et al., linear rate of change in richness over time since impoundment because
2014). Using our developed indicators in the LCA framework, ac­ of data limitation to test for non-linear patterns (see the GAM analysis
counting for potential impacts of hydropower on aquatic ecosystems results; Database A). This assumption would not be too problematic if
biodiversity, could help in this respect. the duration of the study was long enough to reach the steady-state
convincingly (i.e., new species assemblage equilibrium, where the
4.2. First empirically derived indicators in LCA change in richness stabilizes after impoundment; Fig. 1) or if the dura­
tion of study was comparable across studies. However, the observed
Apart from few unpublished attempts (Humbert and Maendly, duration of the studies varied greatly (from only one year after
2008), this contribution is the first to empirically and directly address impoundment, to 54 years after impoundment; Database A) and the
the impacts of reservoir creation (change in land use) and hydropower steady-state was likely not reached in many reservoirs, especially in the
generation on one aspect of biodiversity in LCA. Recent methods and tropics where time series were shorter. This implies that CFs and ISs
contributions in LCA indirectly addressed the impact of water shortages developed from short-duration studies will be underestimated (Fig. 1; R1
or water consumption (sometimes used as a surrogate for hydropower) vs. R2 resulting in two ΔRs). This pattern will be exacerbated if the
on biodiversity using Species-Discharge Relationships (SDR; Dorber relationship is non-linear (sigmoid, a rise and fall, or a non-linear
et al., 2019b; Hanafiah et al., 2011; Tendall et al., 2014) or Species-Area accelerating decreasing rate; Fig. 1; R4 vs. R2; Agostinho et al., 1994;
Relationships (SAR; de Baan et al., 2013; Verones et al., 2013). It is quite Lima et al., 2016). CFs and ISs could also be overestimated if the rela­
risky to relate potential change in water discharge attributed to water tionship is non-linear at a decelerating decreasing rate (Fig. 1; R3 vs. R1).
consumption to change in species richness using SDR because these We also do not have the data to test if the time it takes to reach the
curves reflect evolutionary and ecological outcomes roughly in equi­ steady-state is similar across latitudes (e.g., processes and patterns are
librium with natural discharge (Rosenberg et al., 2000; Xenopoulos and suggested to be faster in the tropics than in boreal regions; Monaghan
Lodge, 2006). Data limitations to build SDR curves are severe, especially et al., 2020; Turgeon et al., 2016). To circumvent these problems, and to
for change in biodiversity. Species richness numbers are not readily compare CFs and ISs across studies, we tested the sensitivity of different
available for most rivers of the world, and temporal sequences spanning scenarios of time until reaching the steady-state and concluded that
changes in discharge are extremely rare. Data limitations thus make using 10y after impoundment for all studies was the most plausible
difficult any rigorous tests of SDR or SAR models (Xenopoulos and scenario. We demonstrated that the impacts changed in magnitude
Lodge, 2006). Moreover, we still do not know the impact pathways and depending on the duration of the studies and a standardization must be
the main drivers of potential changes in biodiversity in reservoirs and considered in LCA.
regulated rivers. The impacts of damming a river go well beyond Some patterns observed in upstream stations were not corroborated
changes in water discharge. Dams and reservoirs drastically change the by patterns observed in downstream stations, suggesting that potentially
hydrological regime and the riverscape connectivity and may change the different impact pathways affect the fish community upstream and
strength of trophic interactions upstream and downstream of the dam downstream of the dam. The impacts upstream of the dams might be
(Gracey and Verones, 2016; Renöfalt et al., 2010; Turgeon et al., 2019b, more closely related to the transformation of a lotic (river characteris­
2019a). These alterations may be more important than a change in tics) into a lentic environment (lake characteristics) and to water levels
discharge in affecting change in richness. Unless the impact pathway is fluctuations (e.g., drawdown in the reservoir; Carmignani and Roy,
convincingly understood, or SDR strongly validated with empirical data 2017; Paller, 1997). Whereas downstream impacts might be related to
of true impacts, we must be extremely careful in choosing fate and ef­ variation in water discharge and flow (hydropeaking, residual flow;
fects factors in LCA. Holzapfel et al., 2017; Tonolla et al., 2017), limited sediment transport
(Ibàñez et al., 1996; Schmitt et al., 2019), and dam acting as a barrier to
4.3. Importance of temporal and spatial scaling in LCA fish migration (Pelicice et al., 2015; Porto et al., 1999). In this study, we
used the area affected (upstream and downstream of the dam), and we
Great insights are achieved when multiple spatial and temporal assumed that the extent of the impacts of damming the river was limited
scales are considered and/or compared because patterns observed at one to the reservoir (upstream of the dam) or to 10 km downstream of the
scale are often not transferable to another scale (upscaling, downscaling dam. We have very limited information on the spatial extent to which
issues; Levin, 1992). In this study, the calculation of CF was strongly the impacts of impoundment can be detected in fish community. Some
sensitive to the duration of the study but not so much to the spatial scale studies detected significant changes in fish community and richness
examined (i.e., sampling station, reservoir and biome). We assumed a after impoundment upstream of the reservoir (Araújo et al., 2013; Lima

8
K. Turgeon et al. Ecological Indicators 121 (2021) 107047

et al., 2016; Penczak and Kruk, 2005) and as far as 25 km downstream of will respond to impoundment differently. Most importantly we must
the dam (de Mérona et al., 2005). However, the impacts on fish com­ deal with the incommensurable challenge of developing CFs locally or
munity are likely to be site-specific because they will depend on how the regionally but apply them globally with the same rigour and criteria.
dam and reservoir are managed (e.g., hydropeaking, magnitude of the Finally, our developed CFs and ISs evaluated the impacts of hydro­
drawdown, mitigation measures such as fish ladder) and the connec­ power on fish richness in storage reservoirs on the aquatic affected area
tivity to tributaries to the impounded river. Some reservoirs were also (i.e., former riverbed and existing lakes that were transformed into
part of a cascading complex (39% of the reservoirs; Database B). In this reservoirs upstream of the dam, and the regulated river downstream of
situation, some impacts can be additive but will depend on the distance the dam) and not on the terrestrial area flooded following impoundment
between reservoirs in the complex. More studies are needed to deter­ (Fig. A). On the flooded area, a simplistic assumption could consider a
mine the spatial and temporal extents, the impact pathways, and the loss of 100% of the impounded terrestrial habitat and a gain of 100%
factors contributing to changes in fish community upstream and aquatic habitat. The biodiversity impact on the flooded area is a relevant
downstream of the dam. and timing issue, and some promising work has been done in this respect
In this study, the observed empirical changes in richness from 89 to model net land occupation of reservoir and the impact of land inun­
sampling stations (upstream and downstream of the dam) were trans­ dation on terrestrial biodiversity (Dorber et al., 2019a, 2018).
ferable to the 26 reservoirs studied and were also transferable, but to a
lesser extent, to the biomes. Our spatial coverage is global, but the 5. Conclusions
resolution (grain) of the CFs and ISs was coarse given the limited amount
of empirical data available. As empirical data and evidences will accu­ By using empirical data on the rate of change in fish richness over
mulate, the next steps would be to refine the resolution of our indicators time, this study is the first to propose robust and empirically developed
to the scale of major habitat types (MHTs) or freshwater ecoregions of CF and IS (ISR; PDF⋅m2⋅y and ISs; PDF⋅m2⋅y / kWh) of the effects of
the world (FEOW; Abell et al., 2008), and to consider other taxonomic hydropower on aquatic biodiversity to be used in LCA. Our results
groups (macroinvertebrates, aquatic and riparian vegetation). suggest that the impact of hydroelectricity production on fish richness is
significant in tropical reservoirs, marginal in temperate and not signif­
4.4. Limitations of developed CFs using species richness icant in boreal reservoirs, which calls for regionalisation in LCA. A
sensitivity analysis also demonstrated that the simulated CFs and ISs
Even though experts agreed on using species richness as a good were sensitive to the time it takes to reach the steady-state for fish
starting point to model biodiversity loss in LCA (Teixeira et al., 2016), communities after impoundment. A 10 years time frame after
the use of PDF can be problematic for several reasons. First, it is impoundment was judged to be the most plausible scenario. Finally, CFs
imprudent to interpret a pattern of increased species richness (or no and ISs were relatively robust to upscaling and downscaling issues (i.e.,
change in richness) as an indication of no impact of hydropower on patterns were consistent in their directionality across sampling stations,
biodiversity, if the pattern results from an increase in non-native species reservoirs and biomes). Hydropower can be part of the solution to
(i.e., not from the initial regional pool of species, including exotic). We decarbonize our global economy but will come at substantially higher
used the change in fish richness but did not discriminate between native ecological cost to the tropics.
and non-native species because this information was not provided for all
studies, but see Kuipers et al., (2019) for converting local PDF into Funding
global PDF accounting for threatened and endemic species. In boreal
reservoirs, no non-native species have been observed, so the developed The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for
CFs are considered robust (Tereshchenko and Strel’nikov, 1997; Tur­ the research: This work was supported by a MITACS Elevate grant to KT
geon et al., 2019a). In temperate reservoirs, the observed increase in [Funding Request Ref. FR09321-FR09323].
richness after impoundment in Beaver lake, Kenney and Texoma reser­
voirs (Figs. 2 and 3), was actually due to an increase in non-native CRediT authorship contribution statement
species (Gido et al., 2000; Martinez et al., 1994; Rainwater and Hous­
er, 1982). In tropical reservoirs, an increase in non-native species has Katrine Turgeon: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal anal­
also been observed in Itaipu, Manwan and Xiaowan reservoirs, all ysis, Data curation, Writing - original draft, Visualization, Funding
showing an increase in richness over time (Li et al., 2013; Lima et al., acquisition. Gabrielle Trottier: Methodology, Writing - review & edit­
2016; Xiaoyan et al., 2010). A companion study (Turgeon et al., 2019b), ing. Christian Turpin: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing - re­
looking at a larger dataset and including reservoirs used for other pur­ view & editing, Funding acquisition. Cécile Bulle: Conceptualization,
poses (e.g., irrigation and flood control), found a gradient of impact on Methodology, Writing - review & editing, Supervision. Manuele
fish biodiversity from being minimal in boreal, intermediate in Margni: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing - review & editing,
temperate and important in tropical reservoirs. Small CF and IS calcu­ Supervision.
lated in this study in temperate reservoirs may be underestimated and
should thus be interpreted with caution. Future studies should look Declaration of Competing Interest
separately at the change in richness of native species and non-native
species to estimate PDF and thus CFs. The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
Second, looking at PDF do not account for a potential change in fish interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
assemblages (Potentially Affected Fraction of species; PAF in the LCA the work reported in this paper.
nomenclature), nor in species that are more vulnerable (endemic and/or
threatened). In addition, many species are rare species, and they are not Reference Data
as easily detected by using the common selective fishing gear, which can
underestimate richness if the sampling effort is insufficient (MacKenzie Data available in data at doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.13085111,
et al., 2005). The use of eDNA could be a promising approach to reduce doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.13085150.
bias related to species detectability (Rees et al., 2014). Several alter­
native indicators and models have been suggested and used to account Appendix A. Supplementary data
for loss in biodiversity in LCA (e.g., functional diversity and ecosystem
scarcity; Souza et al., 2015) but data requirement is tremendous, species Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
have different adaptive capacity in different regions of the world and org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.107047.

9
K. Turgeon et al. Ecological Indicators 121 (2021) 107047

References Gracey, E.O., Verones, F., 2016. Impacts from hydropower production on biodiversity in
an LCA framework—review and recommendations. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 21,
412–428. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-016-1039-3.
Abell, R., Thieme, M.L., Revenga, C., Bryer, M., Kottelat, M., Bogutskaya, N., Coad, B.,
Graf, W.L., 2006. Downstream hydrologic and geomorphic effects of large dams on
Mandrak, N., Balderas, S.C., Bussing, W., Stiassny, M.L.J., Skelton, P., Allen, G.R.,
American rivers. Geomorphology, in: 37th Binghamton Geomorphology Symposium
Unmack, P., Naseka, A., Ng, R., Sindorf, N., Robertson, J., Armijo, E., Higgins, J.V.,
The Human Role in Changing Fluvial Systems 79, 336–360. https://doi.org/
Heibel, T.J., Wikramanayake, E., Olson, D., López, H.L., Reis, R.E., Lundberg, J.G.,
10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.06.022.
Sabaj Pérez, M.H., Petry, P., 2008. Freshwater ecoregions of the world: a new map of
Grill, G., Lehner, B., Lumsdon, A.E., MacDonald, G.K., Zarfl, C., Liermann, C.R., 2015. An
biogeographic units for freshwater biodiversity conservation. BioScience 58,
index-based framework for assessing patterns and trends in river fragmentation and
403–414. https://doi.org/10.1641/B580507.
flow regulation by global dams at multiple scales. Environ. Res. Lett. 10, 015001.
Agostinho, A.A., Julio Jr, H.F., Petrere Jr., M., 1994. Itaipu Reservoir (Brazil): impacts of
https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/10/1/015001.
the impoundment on the fish fauna and fisheries, in: rehabilitation of freshwater
Hanafiah, M.M., Xenopoulos, M.A., Pfister, S., Leuven, R.S.E.W., Huijbregts, M.A.J.,
fisheries, by I.G. Cowx. Fishing news Books, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Osney
2011. Characterization factors for water consumption and greenhouse gas emissions
Mead, Oxford, UK, pp. 171–184.
based on freshwater fish species extinction. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45, 5272–5278.
Araújo, E.S., Marques, E.E., Freitas, I.S., Neuberger, A.L., Fernandes, R., Pelicice, F.M.,
https://doi.org/10.1021/es1039634.
2013. Changes in distance decay relationships after river regulation: similarity
Haxton, T.J., Findlay, C.S., 2009. Variation in large-bodied fish-community structure and
among fish assemblages in a large Amazonian river. Ecol. Freshw. Fish 22, 543–552.
abundance in relation to water-management regime in a large regulated river. J. Fish
https://doi.org/10.1111/eff.12054.
Biol. 74, 2216–2238. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8649.2009.02226.x.
Bates, D., Maechler, M., Bolker, B., Walker, S., Christensen, R.H.B., Singmann, H., Dai, B.,
Hertwich, E.G., 2013. Addressing biogenic greenhouse gas emissions from hydropower in
Scheipl, F., Grothendieck, G., Green, P., 2018. lme4: Linear Mixed-Effects Models
LCA. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47, 9604–9611. https://doi.org/10.1021/es401820p.
using “Eigen” and S4.
Holzapfel, P., Leitner, P., Habersack, H., Graf, W., Hauer, C., 2017. Evaluation of
Bulle, C., Margni, M., Patouillard, L., Boulay, A.-M., Bourgault, G., De Bruille, V., Cao, V.,
hydropeaking impacts on the food web in alpine streams based on modelling of fish-
Hauschild, M., Henderson, A., Humbert, S., Kashef-Haghighi, S., Kounina, A.,
and macroinvertebrate habitats. Sci. Total Environ. 575, 1489–1502. https://doi.
Laurent, A., Levasseur, A., Liard, G., Rosenbaum, R.K., Roy, P.-O., Shaked, S., Fantke,
org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.10.016.
P., Jolliet, O., 2019. IMPACT World+: a globally regionalized life cycle impact
Humbert, S., Maendly, R., 2008. Characterization factors for damage to aquatic
assessment method. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-019-
biodiversity caused by water use especially from dams used for hydropower.
01583-0.
Presented at the 35th LCA forum, Zurich.
Bunn, S.E., Arthington, A.H., 2002. Basic principles and ecological consequences of
Ibàñez, C., Prat, N., Canicio, A., 1996. Changes in the hydrology and sediment transport
altered flow regimes for aquatic biodiversity. Environ. Manage. 30, 492–507.
produced by large dams on the lower Ebro river and its estuary. Regul. Rivers Res.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-002-2737-0.
Manag. 12, 51–62. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1646(199601)12:1<51::
Carmignani, J.R., Roy, A.H., 2017. Ecological impacts of winter water level drawdowns
AID-RRR376>3.0.CO;2-I.
on lake littoral zones: a review. Aquat. Sci. 1–22 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00027-
International Energy Agency (IEA), 2019. World Energy Statistics 2019. Paris.
017-0549-9.
International Hydropower association (IHA), 2020. 2020 Hydropower Satus Report.
Chaudhary, A., Verones, F., de Baan, L., Hellweg, S., 2015. Quantifying land use impacts
Sectors trends and insights.
on biodiversity: combining species-area models and vulnerability indicators.
ISO, 2006. ISO 14040:2006 - Environmental management - Life cycle assessment -
Environ. Sci. Technol. 49, 9987–9995. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b02507.
Principles and framework [WWW Document]. accessed 2.7.18. https://www.iso.
CIRAIG, 2014. Comparing power generation options and electricity mixes (Technical
org/standard/37456.html.
report prepared for Hydro-Québec, Envrionment and sustainable development unit).
Jolliet, O., Margni, M., Charles, R., Humbert, S., Payet, J., Rebitzer, G., Rosenbaum, R.,
International Life Cycle Chair, Polytechnique Montreal, Montreal, Canada.
2003. IMPACT 2002+: a new life cycle impact assessment methodology. Int. J. Life
Curran, M., de Baan, L., De Schryver, A.M., van Zelm, R., Hellweg, S., Koellner, T.,
Cycle Assess. 8, 324. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02978505.
Sonnemann, G., Huijbregts, M.A.J., 2011. Toward meaningful end points of
Kahn, J.R., Freitas, C.E., Petrere, M., 2014. False shades of green: the case of Brazilian
biodiversity in life cycle assessment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45, 70–79. https://doi.
Amazonian hydropower. Energies 7, 6063–6082. https://doi.org/10.3390/
org/10.1021/es101444k.
en7096063.
Damiani, M., Lamouroux, N., Pella, H., Roux, P., Loiseau, E., Rosenbaum, R.K., 2019.
Kroger, R.L., 1973. Biological effects of fluctuating water levels in the snake river, Grand
Spatialized freshwater ecosystem life cycle impact assessment of water consumption
Teton National Park. Wyoming. Am. Midl. Nat. 89, 478–481. https://doi.org/
based on instream habitat change modeling. Water Res. 163, 114884. https://doi.
10.2307/2424055.
org/10.1016/j.watres.2019.114884.
Kuipers, K.J.J., Hellweg, S., Verones, F., 2019. Potential consequences of regional species
de Baan, L., Mutel, C.L., Curran, M., Hellweg, S., Koellner, T., 2013. Land use in life cycle
loss for global species richness: a quantitative approach for estimating global
assessment: global characterization factors based on regional and global potential
extinction probabilities. Environ. Sci. Technol. 53, 4728–4738. https://doi.org/
species extinction. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47, 9281–9290. https://doi.org/10.1021/
10.1021/acs.est.8b06173.
es400592q.
Levin, S.A., 1992. The problem of pattern and scale in ecology: the Robert H. MacArthur
de Mérona, B. de, Vigouroux, R., Tejerina-Garro, F.L., 2005. Alteration of fish diversity
award lecture. Ecology 73, 1943–1967. https://doi.org/10.2307/1941447.
downstream from petit-saut dam in French Guiana. Implication of ecological
Li, J., Dong, S., Peng, M., Yang, Z., Liu, S., Li, X., Zhao, C., 2013. Effects of damming on
strategies of fish species. Hydrobiologia 551, 33–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/
the biological integrity of fish assemblages in the middle Lancang-Mekong River
s10750-005-4448-z.
basin. Ecol. Indic. 34, 94–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2013.04.016.
Dorber, M., Kuipers, K., Verones, F., 2019a. Global characterization factors for terrestrial
Lima, A.C., Agostinho, C.S., Sayanda, D., Pelicice, F.M., Soares, A.M.V.M., Monaghan, K.
biodiversity impacts of future land inundation in Life Cycle Assessment. Sci. Total
A., 2016. The rise and fall of fish diversity in a neotropical river after impoundment.
Environ. 134582 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134582.
Hydrobiologia 763, 207–221. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-015-2377-z.
Dorber, M., Mattson, K.R., Sandlund, O.T., May, R., Verones, F., 2019b. Quantifying net
MacKenzie, D.I., Nichols, J.D., Sutton, N., Kawanishi, K., Bailey, L.L., 2005. Improving
water consumption of Norwegian hydropower reservoirs and related aquatic
inferences in population studies of rare species that are detected imperfectly.
biodiversity impacts in Life Cycle Assessment. Environ. Impact Assess. Rev. 76,
Ecology 86, 1101–1113. https://doi.org/10.1890/04-1060.
36–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2018.12.002.
Martinez, P.J., Chart, T.E., Trammell, M.A., Wullschleger, J.G., Bergersen, E.P., 1994.
Dorber, M., May, R., Verones, F., 2018. Modeling net land occupation of hydropower
Fish species composition before and after construction of a main stem reservoir on
reservoirs in Norway for use in life cycle assessment. Environ. Sci. Technol. https://
the White River, Colorado. Environ. Biol. Fishes 40, 227–239. https://doi.org/
doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b05125.
10.1007/BF00002509.
Fearnside, P.M., 2016. Tropical dams: to build or not to build? Science 351, 456–457.
McManamay, R.A., Samu, N., Kao, S.-C., Bevelhimer, M.S., Hetrick, S.C., 2015. A Multi-
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.351.6272.456-b.
scale spatial approach to address environmental effects of small hydropower
Figueres, C., Schellnhuber, H.J., Whiteman, G., Rockström, J., Hobley, A., Rahmstorf, S.,
development. Environ. Manage. 55, 217–243. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-014-
2017. Three years to safeguard our climate. Nat. News 546, 593. https://doi.org/
0371-2.
10.1038/546593a.
Milà i Canals, L., Chenoweth, J., Chapagain, A., Orr, S., Antón, A., Clift, R., 2009.
Finnveden, G., Hauschild, M.Z., Ekvall, T., Guinée, J., Heijungs, R., Hellweg, S.,
Assessing freshwater use impacts in LCA: Part I—inventory modelling and
Koehler, A., Pennington, D., Suh, S., 2009. Recent developments in Life Cycle
characterisation factors for the main impact pathways. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 14,
Assessment. J. Environ. Manage. 91, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
28–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-008-0030-z.
jenvman.2009.06.018.
Monaghan, K.A., Agostinho, C.S., Pelicice, F.M., Soares, A.M.V.M., 2020. The impact of a
Friedl, G., Wüest, A., 2002. Disrupting biogeochemical cycles - consequences of
hydroelectric dam on Neotropical fish communities: a spatio-temporal analysis of the
damming. Aquat. Sci. 64, 55–65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00027-002-8054-0.
Trophic Upsurge Hypothesis. Ecol. Freshw. Fish 29, 384–397. https://doi.org/
Friedman, Osterkamp, W.R., Scott, M.L., Auble, G.T., 1998. Downstream effects of dams
10.1111/eff.12522.
on channel geometry and bottomland vegetation: regional patterns in the great
Nilsson, C., Berggren, K., 2000. Alterations of Riparian Ecosystems Caused by River
plains. Wetlands 18, 619–633. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03161677.
Regulation Dam operations have caused global-scale ecological changes in riparian
Furey, P.C., Nordin, R.N., Mazumder, A., 2006. Littoral benthic macroinvertebrates
ecosystems. How to protect river environments and human needs of rivers remains
under contrasting drawdown in a reservoir and a natural lake. J. North Am. Benthol.
one of the most important questions of our time. BioScience 50, 783–792. https://
Soc. 25, 19–31. https://doi.org/10.1899/0887-3593(2006)25[19:LBMUCD]2.0.CO;
doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568(2000)050[0783:AORECB]2.0.CO;2.
2.
Paller, M.H., 1997. Recovery of a reservoir fish community from drawdown related
Gido, K.B., Matthews, W.J., Wolfinbarger, W.C., 2000. Long-term changes in a reservoir
impacts. North Am. J. Fish. Manag. 17, 726–733. https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-
fish assemblage: stability in an unpredictable environment. Ecol. Appl. 10,
8675(1997)017<0726:ROARFC>2.3.CO;2.
1517–1529. https://doi.org/10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[1517:LTCIAR]2.0.CO;
2.

10
K. Turgeon et al. Ecological Indicators 121 (2021) 107047

Pelicice, F.M., Pompeu, P.S., Agostinho, A.A., 2015. Large reservoirs as ecological contributions. J. Clean. Prod. 112 (Part 5), 4283–4287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
barriers to downstream movements of Neotropical migratory fish. Fish Fish. 16, jclepro.2015.07.118.
697–715. https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12089. Tendall, D.M., Hellweg, S., Pfister, S., Huijbregts, M.A.J., Gaillard, G., 2014. Impacts of
Penczak, T., Kruk, A., 2005. Patternizing of impoundment impact (1985–2002) on fish river water consumption on aquatic biodiversity in life cycle assessment—a
assemblages in a lowland river using the Kohonen algorithm. J. Appl. Ichthyol. 21, proposed method, and a case study for Europe. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48,
169–177. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0426.2005.00649.x. 3236–3244. https://doi.org/10.1021/es4048686.
Person, E., Bieri, M., Peter, A., Schleiss, A.J., 2014. Mitigation measures for fish habitat Teodoru, C.R., Bastien, J., Bonneville, M.-C., del Giorgio, P.A., Demarty, M., Garneau, M.,
improvement in Alpine rivers affected by hydropower operations. Ecohydrology 7, Hélie, J.-F., Pelletier, L., Prairie, Y.T., Roulet, N.T., Strachan, I.B., Tremblay, A.,
580–599. https://doi.org/10.1002/eco.1380. 2012. The net carbon footprint of a newly created boreal hydroelectric reservoir.
Porto, L.M., McLaughlin, R.L., Noakes, D.L.G., 1999. Low-head barrier dams restrict the Glob. Biogeochem. Cycles 26, GB2016. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GB004187.
movements of fishes in two Lake Ontario Streams. North Am. J. Fish. Manag. 19, Tereshchenko, V.G., Strel’nikov, A.S., 1997. Analysis of long-term changes in the fish
1028–1036. https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8675(1999)019<1028:LHBDRT>2.0. community in Rybinsk reservoir. J. Ichthyol. 37, 590–598.
CO;2. Tonolla, D., Bruder, A., Schweizer, S., 2017. Evaluation of mitigation measures to reduce
Potvin, C., Burch, S., Layzell, D., Meadowcroft, J., Mousseau, N., Dale, A., Henriques, I., hydropeaking impacts on river ecosystems – a case study from the Swiss Alps. Sci.
Margolis, L., Matthew, H.D., Paquin, D., Ramos, H., Divya, S., Sheppard, S., Total Environ. 574, 594–604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.09.101.
Slawinski, N., 2017. Re-energizing Canada. Pathways to a low-carbon future (No. Turgeon, K., Turpin, Christian, Gregory-Eaves, I., 2019a. Boreal river impoundments
NRCan Energy Consultation Report). caused nearshore fish community assemblage shifts but little change in diversity: a
R Core Team, 2020. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R multiscale analysis. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 76, 740–752. https://doi.org/10.1139/
Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria https://www.R-project.org/. cjfas-2017-0561.
Rainwater, W.C., Houser, A., 1982. Species composition and biomass of fish in selected Turgeon, K., Solomon, C.T., Nozais, C., Gregory-Eaves, I., 2016. Do novel ecosystems
Coves in Beaver Lake, Arkansas, during the First 18 Years of Impoundment follow predictable trajectories? Testing the trophic surge hypothesis in reservoirs
(1963–1980). North Am. J. Fish. Manag. 2, 316–325. https://doi.org/10.1577/ using fish. Ecosphere 7 (ecs2), 1617. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.1617.
1548-8659(1982)2<316:SCABOF>2.0.CO;2. Turgeon, K., Turpin, C., Gregory-Eaves, I., 2019b. Dams have varying impacts on fish
Rees, H.C., Maddison, B.C., Middleditch, D.J., Patmore, J.R.M., Gough, K.C., 2014. communities across latitudes: a quantitative synthesis. Ecol. Lett. Accepted by 22:
REVIEW: The detection of aquatic animal species using environmental DNA – a 1501-1516, https://doi/full/10.1111/ele.13283.
review of eDNA as a survey tool in ecology. J. Appl. Ecol. 51, 1450–1459. https:// Verones, F., Bare, J., Bulle, C., Frischknecht, R., Hauschild, M., Hellweg, S.,
doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12306. Henderson, A., Jolliet, O., Laurent, A., Liao, X., Lindner, J.P., Maia de Souza, D.,
Renöfalt, B.M., Jansson, R., Nilsson, C., 2010. Effects of hydropower generation and Michelsen, O., Patouillard, L., Pfister, S., Posthuma, L., Prado, V., Ridoutt, B.,
opportunities for environmental flow management in Swedish riverine ecosystems: Rosenbaum, R.K., Sala, S., Ugaya, C., Vieira, M., Fantke, P., 2017. LCIA framework
hydropower and environmental flow management. Freshw. Biol. 55, 49–67. https:// and cross-cutting issues guidance within the UNEP-SETAC Life Cycle Initiative.
doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2427.2009.02241.x. J. Clean. Prod. 161, 957–967. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.05.206.
Rosenberg, D.M., McCully, P., Pringle, C.M., 2000. Global-scale environmental effects of Verones, F., Saner, D., Pfister, S., Baisero, D., Rondinini, C., Hellweg, S., 2013. Effects of
hydrological alterations: introduction. BioScience 50, 746–751. https://doi.org/ consumptive water use on biodiversity in wetlands of international importance.
10.1641/0006-3568(2000)050[0746:GSEEOH]2.0.CO;2. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47, 12248–12257. https://doi.org/10.1021/es403635j.
Sathaye, J., Lucon, O., Rahman, A., Christensen, J., Denton, F., Fujino, J., Heath, G., Vörösmarty, C.J., McIntyre, P.B., Gessner, M.O., Dudgeon, D., Prusevich, A., Green, P.,
Mirza, M., Rudnick, H., Schlaepfer, A., Shmakin, A., Angerer, G., Bauer, C., Bazilian, Glidden, S., Bunn, S.E., Sullivan, C.A., Liermann, C.R., Davies, P.M., 2010. Global
M., Brecha, R., Burgherr, P., Clarke, L., Creutzig, F., Edmonds, J., Hagelüken, C., threats to human water security and river biodiversity. Nature 467, 555–561.
Hansen, G., Hultman, N., Jakob, M., Kadner, S., Lenzen, M., Macknick, J., Masanet, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09440.
E., Nagai, Y., Olhoff, A., Olsen, K., Pahle, M., Rabl, A., Richels, R., Roy, J., Schei, T., Winemiller, K.O., McIntyre, P.B., Castello, L., Fluet-Chouinard, E., Giarrizzo, T., Nam, S.,
Stechow, C. von, Steckel, J., Warner, E., Wilbanks, T., Zhang, Y., 2011. Renewable Baird, I.G., Darwall, W., Lujan, N.K., Harrison, I., Stiassny, M.L.J., Silvano, R.a.M.,
energy in the context of sustainable development. Renew. Energy Sources Clim. Fitzgerald, D.B., Pelicice, F.M., Agostinho, A.A., Gomes, L.C., Albert, J.S., Baran, E.,
Change Mitig. Petrere, M., Zarfl, C., Mulligan, M., Sullivan, J.P., Arantes, C.C., Sousa, L.M.,
Schmitt, R.J.P., Bizzi, S., Castelletti, A., Opperman, J.J., Kondolf, G.M., 2019. Planning Koning, A.A., Hoeinghaus, D.J., Sabaj, M., Lundberg, J.G., Armbruster, J.,
dam portfolios for low sediment trapping shows limits for sustainable hydropower in Thieme, M.L., Petry, P., Zuanon, J., Vilara, G.T., Snoeks, J., Ou, C., Rainboth, W.,
the Mekong. Sci. Adv. 5, eaaw2175. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaw2175. Pavanelli, C.S., Akama, A., van Soesbergen, A., Sáenz, L., 2016. Balancing
SEforALL, 2016. Sustainable energy for all. Strategic framework for results 2016-2021. hydropower and biodiversity in the Amazon, Congo, and Mekong. Science 351,
Going further, faster - Together. 128–129. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aac7082.
de Souza, D.M., Flynn, D.F.B., DeClerck, F., Rosenbaum, R.K., de Lisboa, H. de M., Wood, S., 2014. Mixed GAM Computation Vehicle with GCV/AIC/REML smoothness
Koellner, T., 2013. Land use impacts on biodiversity in LCA: proposal of estimation. Package Mgcv Version 17–28.
characterization factors based on functional diversity. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 18, Wood, S.N., 2006. Generalized Additive Models: An Introduction with R. Chapman &
1231–1242. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-013-0578-0. Hall/CRC.
Souza, D.M., Teixeira, R.F.M., Ostermann, O.P., 2015. Assessing biodiversity loss due to Xenopoulos, M.A., Lodge, D.M., 2006. Going with the flow: Using species–discharge
land use with Life Cycle Assessment: are we there yet? Glob. Change Biol. 21, 32–47. relationships to forecast losses in fish biodiversity. Ecology 87, 1907–1914. https://
https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12709. doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(2006)87[1907:GWTFUS]2.0.CO;2.
Stickler, C.M., Coe, M.T., Costa, M.H., Nepstad, D.C., McGrath, D.G., Dias, L.C.P., Xiaoyan, L., Shikui, D., Qinghe, Z., Shiliang, L., 2010. Impacts of Manwan Dam
Rodrigues, H.O., Soares-Filho, B.S., 2013. Dependence of hydropower energy construction on aquatic habitat and community in Middle Reach of Lancang River.
generation on forests in the Amazon Basin at local and regional scales. Proc. Natl. Procedia Environ. Sci., International Conference on Ecological Informatics and
Acad. Sci. 110, 9601–9606. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1215331110. Ecosystem Conservation (ISEIS 2010) 2, 706–712. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Tahseen, S., Karney, B.W., 2017. Reviewing and critiquing published approaches to the proenv.2010.10.080.
sustainability assessment of hydropower. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 67, 225–234. Ziv, G., Baran, E., Nam, S., Rodríguez-Iturbe, I., Levin, S.A., 2012. Trading-off fish
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.09.031. biodiversity, food security, and hydropower in the Mekong River Basin. Proc. Natl.
Teixeira, R.F.M., Maia de Souza, D., Curran, M.P., Antón, A., Michelsen, O., Milà i Acad. Sci. 109, 5609–5614. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1201423109.
Canals, L., 2016. Towards consensus on land use impacts on biodiversity in LCA: Zohary, T., Ostrovsky, I., 2011. Ecological impacts of excessive water level fluctuations
UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative preliminary recommendations based on expert in stratified freshwater lakes. Inland Waters 1, 47–59. https://doi.org/10.5268/IW-
1.1.406.

11