Philippine State College of Aeronautics

Associate in Aviation Electronics Technology

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Philippine State College of Aeronautics
Associate in Aviation Electronics Technology

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

• 8: Introduce by looking at the essential characteristics of analog and digital signals and the
canonical quantization principle.

CLO
• 9: Identify and properly apply technical concepts and practical terms used in the avionics field.
• 10: Comprehend and explain the proper procedures to resolve digital electronic circuits.

• 1: Demonstrate the fundamental theory and operating principles of analog and digital signals in
aircraft.
• 2: Solve problem on how an analog signal is converted into digital form vice versa.
MLO • 3: Demonstrate and properly explore the practical applications of Data signals in digital electronics
display.

• 5: Show how digital quantities are represented by the voltage levels.

• 6: Discuss the devices capable of converting signals in analog form to their digital equivalent, and
vice versa.
TLO • 7: Discuss different parameters which involve pulse waveforms.

Weeks Topics/Activity Allotted Hours

Analog signal
Digital signal
Digital to analog converter 1.7 Hrs
Basic converter theory
Binary weighted ladder
Activity No. 1 30 min.
R/R2 digital to analog converter
3
Wave generator
Programmable gain amplifier 1.7 Hrs
Analog to digital converters
Counter ramp analog to digital converter
Successive approximation analog to digital conversion
Activity No 2 30 mins

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Philippine State College of Aeronautics
Associate in Aviation Electronics Technology

CONTENTS

Introduction.......................................................................................................................................4
1.0 Analog signal..............................................................................................................................4
1.1 Digital signal...............................................................................................................................5
1.2 Digital analog representation......................................................................................................5
1.3 Digital to analog converter .........................................................................................................6
1.3.1 Basic converter theory.........................................................................................................6
1.3.2 Binary weighted ladder........................................................................................................7
1.3.3 R/R2 digital to analog converter..........................................................................................8
1.3.4 Wave generator...................................................................................................................9
1.3.5 Programmable gain amplifier...............................................................................................9
1.3.6 Analog to digital converters................................................................................................10
1.3.7 Counter ramp analog to digital converter...........................................................................12
1.3.8 Successive approximation analog to digital conversion.....................................................13
1.4 Comparison of analog and digital signals..................................................................................14
1.5 Summary ..................................................................................................................................15
1.11 Key Points ..............................................................................................................................15
Activity ............................................................................................................................................15
Honesty Clause...............................................................................................................................16
Rubrics............................................................................................................................................17
References......................................................................................................................................18

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Philippine State College of Aeronautics
Associate in Aviation Electronics Technology

INTRODUCTION

The physical quantities that most naturally occur in our world are similar in nature. An analog is an
electrical or physical quantity that is continually variable. An analog is an electrical or physical
quantity that is continually variable. The speed and force with which a musician touches a piano
key is analogous in nature. The resulting piano-string vibration is an analog sinusoidal vibration.

In aviation technology, analog voltage signals are feedback from control surfaces, or pressure
signals from static ports or pitot tubes that are used to obtain aircraft altitude and airspeed
information. For all of the analog signals that we deal with on an aircraft or anywhere in the world,
these are just a few examples.

So why, in a world that is naturally analog, do we need to use digital representations? The answer
is that if we want to interpret, communicate, and store analog information on an electronic
machine, it is much easier for the machine to handle it if we first convert the data to a digital
format. A digital value is represented by a mix of voltage levels of ON and OFF, written as a string
of 1's and 0's.

For example, an analog thermometer that registers 26º can be represented in a Digital circuit as a
series of ON and OFF voltage levels. We have learnt in a previous Module that the number 26
converted to digital levels is 0001 1010.

1.0 ANALOG SIGNAL

 Analog signals have any level or maximum value of voltage. Changes in level or amplitude
are slow or rapid but always smooth and constant.

Source: Digital Technique Electronics Instrument System

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Philippine State College of Aeronautics
Associate in Aviation Electronics Technology

1.1 DIGITAL SIGNAL

 There are only two possible levels for digital signals. The level changes of digital signals in
Logic 1 (High) and Logic 0 (Low) are very fast. In a split second, they change from High to
Low and from Low to High.

1.2 DIGITAL ANALOG REPRESENTATION

 A good example of using an analog-quantity digital representation is music recording.

Compact disk (CD) and digital audio tapes are becoming increasingly common and prove to
be superior means of recording and playing back music. The musical instrument and the
human ear react to analog signals naturally. So where does it fit into the digital format?
Although the process requires that it appears to be extra work, analog signals are converted
to a digital format by the recording industries and then stored on a CD or DAT. Then the CD
or DAT player converts the digital levels back to their corresponding analog signals, before
returning to the human ear.

 Although digital computers process data faster and more efficiently than analog circuits,
they have the disadvantage that only 1s and 0s are understood. Therefore, the Digital to
Analog (D/A) converters and the Analog to Digital (A/D) converters refer to an interface.

Source: Digital Technique Electronics Instrument System

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Philippine State College of Aeronautics
Associate in Aviation Electronics Technology

 DIGITAL/ANALOG converters change the digital data words as either a voltage or a current
source from a digital computer to an equivalent analog signals. These analog voltages, or
currents, are then used within a system for further activation.

 The analog signals from sensors to digital data that can be understood by the digital
computer are changed by ANALOG/DIGITAL converters. There are many different types of
A/D converters; the type of converter used depends on the analog input types and what the
digital computer needs to know about the analog signal.

1.3 DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTER

 Each D/A circuit has a specific purpose based on its use within the system, but all D/A
converters have the general purpose of providing an analog signal output based on the
digital value represented on the digital computer. This analog signal is either a voltage or a
current output, but it is essentially the same as the principles involved.

1.3.1 BASIC CONVERTER THEORY

 A D/A converter have the basic principle of dividing the analog output into a series of small
steps. The number of steps depends on how many bits are used in the data to be
converted. If the data is 8 bits then the output is split into 256 (28) steps. The step size
depends on the converter’s range. Each step will be 0.0195 volts (5V/256 steps) for a
converter with a range of 0-5 volts. If a simple counter is driven by an 8 bit, 5 volt converter,
the output of the converter would be a series of 0.0195 volts in 256 steps.

 As the counter advances from 0 to 255, the output of the converter increases from 0 to 4.98
volts. When the counter rolls over, it then drops to 0 Also, note that 5 volts is not the
maximum output voltage.

 This is due to the fact that every digital input bit is weighted within the binary input according
to their position.
Source: Digital Technique Electronics Instrument System

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Philippine State College of Aeronautics
Associate in Aviation Electronics Technology

 The least important bit (LSB) has a weight of 5 volts/256=0.0195 volts, the next most
important bit has a weight of 5v/128=0.039 volts, the next one has a weight of 5v/64=0.078
volts, and so on, with a weight of 5v/2=2.25 volts for the most significant bit (MSB). If you
add all the individual bit weights, you get a 4.98 volt maximum output when the D/A inputs is
1111 1111.

1.3.2 BINARY WEIGHTED LADDER

 The network of binary weighted ladders is among the simplest D/A converters. Each bit of a
binary input controls a solid state switch (D0-D3) that either connects a reference voltage
Vref (5V in Figure below) or ground to the respective weighted binary resistor. The output
voltage (Vout) is proportional to the resistance of the feedback to the resistance connected to
the Vref.

Binary Weighted Ladder

Source: Digital Technique Electronics Instrument System

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Philippine State College of Aeronautics
Associate in Aviation Electronics Technology

 If we scale the input resistors with a binary weighting factor, each input can be made to
provide a weighted binary amount of current, and the output voltage will represent a sum of
all the weighted binary input current.

 The resistor for D4 would be half 12.5 K, which is 6.25 KΩ, if we were to explain in Figure on
page 8, to an 8 bit D/ converter. Each successive resistor is half as much as the previous.
The resistor for D7 would be 0.78125 KΩ using this procedure; it is very difficult to get
accurate resistance over such a wide range of values.

Example:
In Binary Weighted Resistor in Figure illustrated in pages 8, determine the voltage at Vout if the
binary 1010 equivalent is input on switches D3 to D0.

1.3.3 R/R2 DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTER

 The most commonly used method for D/A conversion in integrated circuit D/A converters is
known as the R/2R ladder circuit, requiring only two resistor values that make it easy to
manufacture IC's with 8, 10, or 12-bit resolution and higher.

R/R2 Digital to Analog Converter

Source: Digital Technique Electronics Instrument System

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Philippine State College of Aeronautics
Associate in Aviation Electronics Technology

 On the D0 to D3 switches, the 4-bit digital information to be converted to analog is entered in

Figure above. The arrangement of the circuit is such as the switches move to the 1
position; they cause a current to flow through the summing resistor, Rs, which is
proportional to their binary equivalent value. (These switches would be transistor switches
in an actual IC.)

1.3.4 WAVE GENERATOR

 The analog output required from a digital computer is not always a steady output level.
Sometimes a particular wave from is required, such as a sawtooth or ramp. A ramp or
sawtooth wave can be easily implemented by using a simple R-2R ladder and a counter.

 A binary counter used to drive an R-2R ladder cause the ladder to output a sequence of
steps of different voltage levels. As the counter reaches its maximum value, it returns to
zero or is said to rollover. The output also goes back to zero when the input word rolls over
to zero. While this output is not a pure ramp due to the fact that the binary words generate
steps, most analog systems are slow enough to react the same as if the signal were
continuous in their reaction times. R-2R ladders of high quality have relatively short
response times (typical of 2 microseconds). This makes the time of rise from 0 to 10 volts in
the order of 0.5 microseconds or a frequency of 2 MHz for an 8 bit device.

Waveform Generator

1.3.5 PROGRAMMABLE GAIN AMPLIFIER

 Also, D/A converters can be used to provide analog signal gain control. For example,
this arrangement may be necessary to control the speed of an AC motor by varying
the level of input voltage to that of the motor. By applying an AC voltage like Vref to a
ladder network, this can be achieved quite simply.

Source: Digital Technique Electronics Instrument System

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Philippine State College of Aeronautics
Associate in Aviation Electronics Technology

 There is a simple motor controller displayed shown on page 10. To an 8 bit D/A
converter, a 5 volt AC reference signal is applied as Vref. The data word is generated
by the computer by setting output level to select the desired motor speed. Remember
this output can be divided into 256 steps for an 8-bit device, so this simple method
can be used to establish very fine control.

Programmable Gain Amplifier

 The fact that the computer does not know if the motor speed is correct is one minor issue
with this simple motor control. There needs to be a feedback from the motor to check this.
This would be analog feedback, so we need an analog to digital converter.

1.3.6 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTERS

 In several ways, the process of taking an analog voltage and converting it to a digital signal
can be done. One simple way that is easy to visualize is through parallel encoding (also
known as simultaneous, multiple comparator, or flash converting) in this method, several
comparators are set up, each at a different voltage reference level with its outputs driving a
priority encoder as shown in Figure below.

 In Figure on page 11 the voltage-divider network is designed to drop 1V across each

resistor. This establishes a reference voltage in 1V steps at each comparator input. The +
input in all seven comparators will be higher than the input when V in is 0V, so they will all
output a HIGH output. In this case, the only active-LOW input that is enabled is I0, so the
7418 and active-LOW binary 0 (111) outputs. Comparator 1 will output a LOW, now I0 and
I1 when Vin exceeds 1.0V; both are enabled, but because it is a priority encoder, the output
will be a binary 1 (110).

Source: Digital Technique Electronics Instrument System

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Philippine State College of Aeronautics
Associate in Aviation Electronics Technology

Three-bit parallel-encode A/D converter

 In Figure above the voltage-divider network is designed to drop 1V across each resistor.
This establishes a reference voltage in 1V steps at each comparator input. The + input in all
seven comparators will be higher than the input when V in is 0V, so they will all output a
HIGH output. In this case, the only active-LOW input that is enabled is I0, so the 7418 and
active-LOW binary 0 (111) outputs. Comparator 1 will output a LOW, now I0 and I1 when
Vin exceeds 1.0V; both are enabled, but because it is a priority encoder, the output will be a
binary 1 (110).

 Each successive comparator gives out a LOW when Vin increases further. A LOW is
encoded into its binary equivalent output by the highest input received. The A/D converter
illustrated above is configured to convert analog voltages in the 0 to 7 volt range.
Depending on the levels of input voltages expected, the range can be scaled or lowered.

 This converter’s resolution is only 3 bits, so it can only distinguish between eight different
levels of analog input. Eight more comparators are required to differentiate the 16 different
voltage levels in order to expand to a 4-bit resolution. As you can see, 256 comparators
would be necessary to expand to 8-bit resolution; circuit complexity becomes a real issue
when using parallel encoding for high resolution conversion.
Source: Digital Technique Electronics Instrument System

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Philippine State College of Aeronautics
Associate in Aviation Electronics Technology

A big advantage of using parallel encoding though is its high speed. The conversion speed
is limited only by the comparator and encoder (less than 20 ns total) propagation delays.

1.3.7 COUNTER RAMP ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER

 In conjunction with a D/A converter (DAC), the counter-ramp method of A/D conversion
(ADC) uses a counter to determine a digital output which is equivalent to the unknown
analog input voltage. Figure below clears the counter outputs to 0, which sets the DAC
output to 0V, by pressing the start conversion push button.

Counter Ramp Analog to Digital Converter

 The negative (-) input to the comparator is now 0V, which at the positive (+) input is less
than the positive analog input voltage. The comparator thus outputs a HIGH which allows
the AND gate to start counting. As the binary output of the counters increases, so does the
output voltage of the DAC in the form of an escalator.

 The comparator output goes LOW when the staircase voltage reaches and then exceeds
the analog input voltage, disabling the clock and stopping the counter. At that point, the
counter input is equal to the binary number that causes the DAC to output a voltage slightly
greater than the voltage of the analog input. Thus, we've got the binary analog voltage
equivalent.

 The comparator's HIGH-to - LOW transition is also used to trigger the D flip-flop at that
moment to latch onto the binary number. The start push button is again depressed to
perform another conversion, and the process repeals. The result from the previous
conversion remains in the D flip-flop until the next HIGH-to-LOW edge end-of-conversion
comes along.

 The end of the conversion line could be tied back to the counter’s clear input to change the
circuit to perform continuous conversions. In this new line, however, a short delay needs to
Source: Digital Technique Electronics Instrument System

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Philippine State College of Aeronautics
Associate in Aviation Electronics Technology

 be inserted to allow the D flip-flop to read the binary number before the counter is reset. A
sufficient delay will result in two inverters placed end to end in the line.

 The principal drawbacks of the conversion counter ramp method are its slow conversion
speed. When the counter has to count all 255 steps before the DAC output voltage matches
the analog input voltage, the worst-case maximum conversion time will occur.

1.3.8 SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION

 Other A/D conversion methods use up/down counters and integrated slope converters to
monitor the analog input, but the method used is called successive approximation in most
modern integrated circuit A/DC.

 This converter circuit is similar to the counter-ramp ADC circuit except that the method of
narrowing in on the unknown analog input voltage is much improved. Instead of counting up
from 0 and comparing the DAC output each step of the way a successive-approximation
register (SAR) is used in place of the counter.

 In Figure below the conversion is started by dropping the STRT line LOW. Then the SAR
first tries a HIGH on the MSB (D7) line to the DAC. (Remember, D7 will cause the DAC to
output half of its full-scale output) if the DAC output is then higher than the unknown analog
input voltage, the SAR returns the MSB LOW. If the DAC output was still lower than the
unknown analog input voltage, the SAR leaves the MSB HIGH.

Successive Approximation Analog to digital Conversion

Source: Digital Technique Electronics Instrument System

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Philippine State College of Aeronautics
Associate in Aviation Electronics Technology

 Now, the next lower bit (D6) is tried. Id a HIGH on D6 causes the DCA output to the higher
than the analog Vin it is returned LOW. If not it is left HIGH. The process continues until all 8
bits, down to the LSB, have been tried.

 At the end of this eight step conversion processes, the SAR contains a valid 8 bit binary
output code that represents the unknown analog input. The DR output now goes LOW,
indicating that the conversion is complete and the data are ready. The HIGH-to-LOW edge
on DR clocks the D) to D7 data into the octal D flip-flop to make the digital output results
available at the Qo to Q7 lines.

 The main advantages of the SAR ADC methods are its high speed. The ADC takes only
eight clocks periods to complete a conversion, which is a vast improvement over the
counter-ramp method shown below.

1.4 COMPARISON OF ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNAL

ANALOG DIGITAL
Analog system operates on continuous time and Digital systems operate on discrete time and
continuous value signal. discrete value signals generally represented in
binary.
Analog systems are difficult to design Digital systems are easy to design as most of
the components are in form of integrated
circuits.
Analog systems are mostly custom made and Digital systems have high degree of flexibility.
lack flexibility.
Less efficient in storage of information More efficient in storage of information
Analog signal processed by this systems are Digital signal are more noise-immune compared
affected by noise very easy. to analog signals
Relatively costly compared to digital system. Low cost due to mass production of
components.
Analog systems are more sensitive to Digital system are less sensitive to parameter
parameter variation. variation
No conversion of input signal s is required Input signals are converted from analog to
before processing. digital form before it is processes
As no conversion of input signal is required Due to processes of sampling and quantization
there no loss of information. there is loss of information.
Analog systems are more efficient for real time. Digital systems may offer limitations for real
time processing.

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Philippine State College of Aeronautics
Associate in Aviation Electronics Technology

1.5 Summary

Analog-to - digital converters (ADCs) are electronic devices for converting an analog signal, which is
a continuously varying voltage, to digital data, which are "1s" and "0s" patterns. These converters
allow digital devices, such as digital signal processors (DSPs) and computers, to understand the
analog outputs of different devices such as sensors, accelerometers, and gyros.

1.6 Key Points

The ADC's task is to identify a digital output number which is the equivalent of its input voltage. Such
circuit design is a complicated function. A lot of very different ADC circuits were developed, targeted
at different applications.

Activity No. 2 (30 minutes to answer this Activity)

1. Explain some of the reason why ADC systems are used in aircraft.
2. What is the advantage of R/2r ladder DAC over the DAC that uses binary weighted resistor?
3. Discuss some of the DCA applications.
4. What function does a DAC performs?
5. A 5 bit D/A converter produces Vout = 5V for a digital input of 0001. Find the value of Vout for
an input of 11111.

After your class schedule your appropriate response to these activity woks through
the Google Classroom platform. (Deadline of Submission to be discuss)

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Philippine State College of Aeronautics
Associate in Aviation Electronics Technology

Honesty Clause

This honesty clause establishes a fundamental social contract within which the College community
agrees to live. This contract relies on the conviction that the personal and academic integrity of each
individual member strengthens and improves the quality of life for the entire community. It recognizes
the importance of honesty, trust, fairness, respect, and responsibility and wishes these principles to
be a defining part of Philippine State College of Aeronautics

The Institute of Engineering and Technology values and fosters an environment of academic and
personal integrity, supporting the ethical standards of the engineering profession, where we design
and build for the benefit and safety of society and our environment.

I agree that the submission of any academic work shall constitute a representation on my part both
that such work has been done, and its submission is being made, in compliance with honesty and
integrity. Furthermore, my responsibility includes taking action when I have witnessed or am aware of
another’s act of academic dishonesty.

_________________________
Students Name over Signature

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Philippine State College of Aeronautics
Associate in Aviation Electronics Technology

Rubrics serve as a basis for evaluating the activities provided.

Criteria Excellent Very Good Good Fair Poor

Content The content is The content is Content is not Content is an Incomplete content
Development comprehensive, precise comprehensive, comprehensive and incomplete the topic is not clearly pointed
and encouraging, precise and encouraging, even is not clearly out and not
clearly stated and well encouraging, clearly though the topic is not indicated and is not encouraging (1 out
supported by the stated and well well supported but encouraging (2 of the of 5 questions had
(50 pts) subject. The writing and supported by the addressed.) To have 5 questions been addressed
its purpose are very subject. The scripture the subject matter addressed) with)
clear (Exceptionally, all and its purpose are inconsistent with its
questions were clear. (4 of the 5 content and to clarify
addressed) questions were thoughts. (It
addressed in an addressed 3 out of 5
exceptional way) questions

(50-41 pts) (40-31 pts) (30-21 pts) (20-11 pts) (10-10 pts)
Organization & Paper structure and The paper structure The paper's Paper structure and Organization and
Structure organization are and organization is organization and organization is not structure are not
excellent easy to follow. very clear and easy to structure are clearly easy to follow. The suitable for the topic.
The transitions of follow. Paragraph easy to follow. transitions to Paragraph is
(20 pts) paragraphs are present transitions throughout Paragraph transitions paragraphs need confused and
and very logical and the paper are present throughout the paper improvement thought is lacking
maintain the thought and logical and are present and logical transition.
flow throughout the maintain the flow of and maintain the flow
paper. thought. of thought.

(20-17 pts) (16-13 pts) (12-9 pts) (08 -05 pts) (04 -01 pts)
Format and Paper follows the exact The paper follows Most of the guidelines Paper complies with Paper disorder
References designated guidelines most guidelines and go through paper. some guidelines. made of lacks of
and correctly includes includes incorrect Borderlines, size of Included are elements incorrect
complete references. spacing between text paper, inappropriate borderlines, paper formatting this
lines, using different ink used and 3 size, inappropriate include as such:
font sizes with 4 references are ink used and 2 borderlines, paper
(20 pts) references. included. references. size, improper ink
used, overlap text,
copied plagiarized or
prepared by another
person with 1
reference are
included.

(20-17 pts) (16-13 pts) (12-09 pts) (08 -05 pts) (04 -01 pts)
Grammar Grammar rules, usage Grammar rules, usage Grammar rules, usage Paper made few Language utilizes
Punctuation and are fully followed, is followed and is followed and mistakes in grammar misleading
Spelling spelling is correct. spelling is correct. The spelling is correct. and spelling, conversional tone,
Language is very clear language is very clear Language is clear and language lacks made of numerous
(10 pts) and precise; sentences and precise; the precise; sentences clarification or grammatical and
consistently display structure of phrases is display varied includes some spelling errors.
strong, varied structure. consistently strong structure consistently misleading The activity was
The activity was and varied. strong. conversional tone. submitted two
submitted on time. The activity was The activity was The activity was weeks late.
submitted two days submitted four days submitted one week
late. late. late.

(10-09 pts) (08-07 pts) (06-05 pts) (04-03 pts) (02-01 pts)

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Philippine State College of Aeronautics
Associate in Aviation Electronics Technology

REFERENCES

Digital Techniques Electronics Instruments Aviation Maintenance Technician Certificate

Series, retrieved from:
ttps://www.scribd.com/document/427718484/MODULE-5-Digital-Techniques-Electronic Instrument-
Systems

Electronic Flight Information Systems, retrieved from:

https://www.flight-mechanic.com/electronic-flight-information-systems/

Electronics Flight Instrument System, Retrieved from:

https://www.theairlinepilots.com/forumarchive/pilotslounge/efis.pdf

Electronics Flight Instrument System, Retrieved from:

https://www.theairlinepilots.com/forumarchive/pilotslounge/efis.pdf

(Mike Tooley 2013) Aircraft Digital Electronic and Computer Systems: Principle Operation
and Maintenance, retrieved from:
https://www.classicaviation.in/uploads/ebook/1539501241Mike_Tooley_Aircraft_Digital_Electronic_
and-_Computer_Systems.pdf

Part 66 Cat. B1 Module 5 Digital Techniques/Electronic Instrument System, Retrieved from:

https://www.ksu.lt/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/M5-Selected-pages.pdf

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