S 7.

1 All living organisms are com-

posed of cells, from just one to
many trillions, whose details usual-
ly are visible only through a micro-
scope. As a basis for understanding
this concept:
a. Students know cells function
similarly in all living organisms.
b. Students know the characteris-
tics that distinguish plant cells
from animal cells, including
chloroplasts and cell walls.
c. Students know that the nucle-
us is the repository for genetic
information in plant and
animal cells.
S 7.7 Scientific progress is made by
asking meaningful questions and
conducting careful investigations.
As a basis for understanding this
concept and addressing the con-
tent in the other three strands,
students should develop their own
questions and perform investiga-
tions. Students will:
a. Select and use appropriate
tools and technology (including
calculators, computers, balanc-
es, spring scales, microscopes,
and binoculars) to perform
tests, collect data, and display
data.
d. Construct scale models, maps,
and appropriately labeled dia-
grams to communicate scientific
knowledge (e.g., motion of
Earth's plates and cell structure).
 Video Preview
Discoverv Channel School
Cell Structure and Function

What is the
structure of a cell?

Check What You Know

You hear that a pinch of soil may
contain millions of organ isms.
What optical tools would you
use to see these organisms and
to study their structure?

Chapter 3 + 75
The images shown here represent some of the Key Terms in this
chapter. You can use this vocabulary skill to help you understand
the meaning of some Key Terms in this chapter.

Words can sometimes be divided into parts. A root is the part of

the word that carries the basic meaning. A prefix is a word part
that is placed in front of the root to change the word•s meaning.
In the word multicellular, for example, -cellular is the root and
multi- is the prefix. The prefix multi- means "many." Multicellular
means "having many cells."

The prefixes below will help you understand some Key Terms.

Prefix I Meaning I Example Word

chlor- green chloroplast
A cellular structure that captures energy from sunlight

cyto- cell cytoskeleton

The framework inside a cell
multi- many multicellular
Having many cells
uni- one unicellular
Having one cell

Apply It!
1. A chloroplast is a structure in plant cells. What color do you
think a chloroplast is?
2. What clue within the word cytoplasm lets you know that the
word has something to do with cells?
Section 1 (page 80)

cell tissue
cell theory organ
unicellular organ system
multicellular

Section 2 (page 88)

organelle endoplasmic
cell wall reticulum
cytoskeleton ribosome
cell membrane Golgi body
nucleus chloroplast
cytoplasm vacuole
mitochondria lysosome

Section 3 (page 97)

element enzyme
compound lipid
carbohydrate nucleic acid
protein DNA
amino acid RNA

Section 4 (page 102)

selectively permeable
diffusion
osmosis
passive transport
active transport

• ""
(~.!~~~!ILC~~'!~e)
~
Build Science Vocabulary
Online
Visit: PHSchool.com
Web Code: cvj-1 030

Chapter 3 + 77
 Identify Main Ideas
The main idea in a section or paragraph is the most important-or
biggest-idea. Sometimes the main idea is stated directly. Other
times you have to figure it out on your own. Be sure to look at any
headings. Headings can help you identify main ideas.
The details in a paragraph or section support the main idea.
Details are often specific facts and examples.

Look for the main idea and details in the paragraph below.

What Are Cells? Cells are the basic units of structure

and function in living things. Cells form the parts of an
organism. The structure of a living thing is determined
by the variety of ways in which its cells are put together.
Cells carry out all the basic functions or processess of life
in an organism, such as getting oxygen and food and
getting rid of wastes.

Apply It!
Copy the graphic organizer below in your notebook. Complete it
by writing the main idea of the paragraph in the box at the top.
Then add two important details.

Cells form the parts

of an organism.
Egg-speriment With a Cell
In this chapter, you'll learn that all living things are made of cells-
sometimes just one cell, sometimes trillions! You can study an
everyday object that can serve as a model of a cell: an uncooked egg.

Your Goal
To observe how various materials enter or leave the cells of
organisms, using an egg as a model of a typical cell
To complete this investigation, you will
• observe what happens when you soak an uncooked egg in
vinegar, then in water, food coloring, salt water, and finally
in a liquid of your choice
• measure the circumference of the egg every day, and graph
your results
• explain the changes that you observe in your egg
• follow the safety guidelines in Appendix A

Plan It!
Predict what might happen when you
put an uncooked egg in vinegar for
two days. How might other liquids
affect an egg? Find a place where
you can leave your egg undisturbed.
Then begin your egg-speriment!
 Discovering Cells
~

S 7.1 All living organisms are com- Is Seeing Believing?

posed of cells, from just one to 1. ~ Cut a black-and-white
many trillions, whose details
~ photograph out of a page in
usually are visible only through
a newspaper. With only your eyes,
a microscope. ~
closely examine the photo. Record
What are cells? · your observations.
How did the invention of the 2. Examine the same photo with a hand
microscope contribute to lens. Again, record your observations.
knowledge about living things? 3. Place the photo on the stage of a
What is the cell theory? microscope. Use the clips to hold the photo in place. Shine a
How are the cells of multicellular light down on the photo. Focus the microscope on part of the ~
organisms organized? photo. (See Appendix 8 for instructions on using the
microscope.) Record your observations.
Key Terms Think It Over
• cell Observing What did you see in the photo with the hand lens
• cell theory and microscope that you could not see with only your eyes?
•
•
•
unicellular
multicellular
tissue
Which tool is a better choice for studying a tiny object?
•
• organ
• organ system A forest is filled with an amazing variety of living things. Some
are easy to see, but you have to look closely to find others. If
you look carefully at the floor of a forest, you can often find
spots of bright color. A beautiful pink coral fungus grows .....
beneath tall trees. Beside the pink fungus, a tiny red newt
perches on a fallen leaf.
What do you think a fungus, a tree, and a red newt have in
common? They are all living things, or organisms. And, like all
organisms, they are made of cells.
•
fiGURE 1
Newt and Coral Fungus
All living things are made of cells,
including this pink fungus and the
red newt that perches next to it.
•

80. -..4
 An Overview of Cells
~ Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living
things. This means that cells form the parts of an organism
and carry out all of an organism's processes, or functions.
FIGURE 2
~
Skin Cells
Cells and Structure When you describe the structure of an Your skin is made of cells such as
object, you describe what it is made of and how its parts are put these. Applying Concepts What
together. The structures of many buildings, for example, are are cells?
determined by the way in which bricks, steel beams, and other
materials are arranged. The structures of living things are
determined by the amazing variety of ways in which cells are
put together. A red newt's cells, for example, form a body with
a head and four legs.

Cells and Function The functions of an organism include

obtaining oxygen, getting rid of wastes, obtaining food, and
growing. Cells are involved in all these functions. For example,
~
cells in your digestive system absorb food. The food provides
your body with energy and materials needed for growth.
Cells function similarly in all organisms. Regardless of the
organism they are a part of, cells carry out the basic processes
of life in similar ways.

Size of Cells Cells are so small that they are measured

in units call micrometers (JAm). One micrometer is one
millionth of a meter. Each one of your red blood cells is
about 7 micrometers across. Figure 2 shows human skin
cells. To give you an idea of their size, one square centimeter
__. of your skin's surface contains more than 100,000 cells. No
matter how closely you look with your eyes alone, you won't be
able to see the individual cells in your skin. Cells are usually
visible only through a microscope.
What are some functions that cells
perform in living things?

First Observations of Cells

Until the late 1600s, no one knew cells existed because there
was no way to see them. Around 1590, the invention of the
microscope enabled people to look at very small objects.
~ The invention of the microscope made it possible for
people to discover and learn about cells. As people built
more advanced microscopes, it was possible to discover more
about cells. Two early ·contributors to the understanding of
cells were Robert Hooke and Anton van Leeuwenhoek (LAY
vun hook). Both built their own microscopes.

't-' Chapter 3 + 81
 J
Robert Hooke One of the first people to observe cells was
the English scientist and inventor Robert Hooke. Hooke built
his own compound microscope, which was one of the best
microscopes of his time. In 1663, Hooke used his microscope
to observe the structure of a thin slice of cork. Cork, the bark of
the cork oak tree, is made up of cells that are no longer alive.
To Hooke, the empty spaces in the cork looked like tiny rectan-
gular rooms. Therefore, Hooke called the empty spaces cells,
which is a word meaning ''small rooms."
Hooke described his observations this way: "These pores,-
or cells, were not very deep, but consisted of a great many little
boxes ...." What most amazed Hooke was how many cells the
cork ~ontained. He calculated that in a cubic inch there were
about twelve hundred million cells-a number he described as
"almost incredible."

• Tech & Design in History •

The Microscope:
Improvements Over Time \.

The microscope made the discovery of ce lls possi bl e.

Microscopes have improved in many ways over the
-4-~
last 400 years.

1590 First
Compound
Microscope
Dutch eyeglass
1674 Leeuwenhoek's _.
Simple Microscope
makers Zacharias Although Anton van
and Hans Janssen Leeuwenhoek's simple
made one of the microscope used only
first compound one tiny lens, it could
microscopes. It magnify a specimen
was a tube with up to 266 times.
a lens at each
end.

1660 Hooke's Compound Microscope

Robert Hooke's compound mia oscope included
an oil lamp for lighting. A lens focuses light
from the flame onto t he specimen. -,._

1500 1600 1700 .

82 • -.Al
 Anton van Leeuwenhoek At about the same time that
Robert Hooke made his discovery, Anton van Leeuwenhoek
also began to observe tiny objects with microscopes. Leeuwen-
hoek was a Dutch businessman who sold cloth. In his spare
. time, he built simple microscopes.
~
Leeuwenhoek looked at drops of lake water, scrapings from
teeth and gums, and water from rain gutters. In many materials,
, ,Leeuwenhoek was surprised to find a variety of tiny organisms.
Leeuwenhoek noted that many of these tiny organisms moved. Writing jn Science
Some whirled, some hopped, and some shot through water like
Research and Writ e Find
~
fqst fish. He called these moving organisms animalcules (an ih out more about one of the
MAL kyoolz), meaning ((little animals." ·· microscopes. Then w rite an
Reading Which type of microscope-simple or compound- advertisement for it t hat
Checkpoint did Leeuwenhoek make and use? mig ht appear in a popular
science magazine. Be
creative. Emphasize the
./ microscope's usefulness or
describe the wonders that
can be seen with it.

1981
~ ; Scanning Tunneling
Microscope {STM)
An STM measures
electrons that leak, or
"tunnel," from the
surface of a specimen.

... STMs can magnify a

specimen up to
1,000,000 times.

1933
Transmission Electron
Microscope {TEM)
German physicist Ernst
' Ruska created the first
electron microscope.
'_.../
TEMs send electrons
through a very thinly
sliced specimen. TEMs
can magnify a specimen
up to 500,000 times.
~

1800 1900 2000

Chapter 3 + 83
I >
 fiGURE 3
Monarch and Milkweed
The monarch butterfly
caterpillar and the milkweed
leaf that the caterpillar nibbles
on are both made of cells. ..._
Applying Concepts Where do
the cells of the caterpillar and
leaf come from?

Development of the Cell Theory ~

Leeuwenhoek's exciting discoveries caught the attention of
other researchers. Many other people began to use microscopes
to discover what secrets they could learn about cells.

Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow Three German scien-

tists made especially important contributions to knowledge 'f-
about cells. These scientists were Matthias Schleiden (SHLY dun),
Theodor Schwann, and Rudolf Virchow (FUR koh). In 1838,
Schleiden concluded that all plants are made of cells. He based
this conclusion on his own research and on the research of oth-
ers before him. The next year, Theodor Schwann concluded that
all animals are also made up of cells. Thus, stated Schwann, all -J--
living things are made up of cells.
Schleiden and Schwann had made an important discovery
about living things. However, they didn't explain where cells
came from. Until their time, most people thought that living
things could come from nonliving matter. In 1855, Virchow
proposed that new cells are formed only from cells that already .._
exist. '~1 cells come from cells;' wrote Virchow.
Animal Cells
What the Cell Theory Says Schleiden, Schwann, Virchow,
and others helped develop the cell theory. The cell theory is a
widely accepted explanation of the relationship between cells
and living things. ~ The cell theory.states the following:
• All living things are composed of cells.
•
• Cells are the basic units of structure and function in
living things.
• All cells are produced from other cells.
eGo nline
scz· C~Ns=-rA=---:::> The cell theory holds true for all living things, no matter how -~

INKST.
big or how small. Since cells are common to all living things,
For: Links on cell theory they can provide information about the functions that living
Visit: www.Scilinks.org
Web Code: scn-0311 things perform. Because all cells come from other cells, scientists
can study cells to learn about growth and reproduction.

84. 1(
 Unicellular and
Multicellular
Organisms may be composed of only one
cell or many trillions of cells. Unicellular, or
~
single-celled, organisms include bacteria
(bak TIHR ee uh), the most numerous
organisms on Earth. Multicellular organ- Unicellular
isms are composed of many cells.
In multicellular organisms, cells are often organized
into tissues, organs, and organ systems. A tissue is a group
~
of similar cells that work together to perform a specific func-
tion. For example, your brain is mostly made up of nervous
tissue, which consists of nerve cells. An organ, such as
your brain, is made up of different kinds of tissues that work
together. In addition to nervous tissue, your brain contains
.,. other kinds of tissue that support and protect it. Your brain
is part of your nervous system, an organ system that directs fiGURE 4
Multicellular

body activities and processes. An organ system is a group of Cellular Organization

organs that work together to perform a major function. This dog is multicellular. The
bacteria that live naturally on its
Reading teeth are unicellular. Each green
Checkpoint What is an organ?
sphere is a bacterial cell.
~

section 1 Assessment ' S 7.1 E-LA: Reading 7.1.2,

Writing 7 .2.4

~
Vocabulary Skill Prefixes Complete the 3. a. Listing What does the cell theory state?
following sentences with Key Terms. b. Explaining What did Virchow contribute to
_._ Because bacteria each have only one cell, they are the cell theory?
____ organisms. c. Applying Concepts Use Virchow's ideas to
Animals have many cells. Therefore, animals are explain why plastic plants are not alive.
_ _ _ _ _ organisms. 4. a. Reviewing How do multicellular organisms
differ from unicellular organisms?
Reviewing Key Concepts
b. Explaining What is the relationship among
1. a. Defining Define structure and function. cells, tissues, and organs?
b. Explaining Explain this statement: Cells are c. Inferring Would a tissue or an organ have
the basic un"its of structure and function
. . more kinds of specialized cells? Explain.
In organisms.
c. Applying Concepts In what important
function are the cells in your eyes involved? Writing in Science
2. a. Reviewing What does a microscope enable
people to do? Writing an Award Speech Suppose you are a
· ·~ member of a scientific society that is giving an
b. Summarizing Summarize Hooke's
award to one of the early cell scientists. Choose
observations of cork under a microscope.
the scientist, and write a speech that you might
c. Relating Cause and Effect Why would
give at the award ceremony. Be sure to
Hooke's discovery have been impossible
describe the scientist's accomplishments.
without a microscope?

Chapter 3 + 85
Design and Build a Microscope ~

Problem
How can you design and build a compound 5. Once the image is in focus, experiment with
microscope? raising and lowering both lenses. Your goal is
to produce the highest magnification while ~
Design Skills keeping the image in clear focus.
building a prototype, evaluating design 6. When the image is in focus at the position of
constraints highest magnification, have your lab partner
measure and record the distance between
Materials the book and the high-power lens. Your lab
partner should also measure and record the
• book
• 2 dual magnifying glasses, each with one high-
distance between the two lenses. ~
power and one low-power lens 7. Write a description of how the magnified
• metric ruler words viewed through two lenses compares
• 2 cardboard tubes from paper towels, or black with the words seen without magnification.
construction paper
• tape
~
Procedure ~
l:t!1;JII Research and Investigate
1. Work with a partner. Using only your eyes,
examine words in a book. Then use the high-
power lens to examine the same words. In
your notebook, contrast what you saw with
and without the magnifying lens.
...
2. Hold the high-power lens about 5-6 em
above the words in the book. When you look
at the words through the lens, they will look
blurry.
3. Keep the high-power lens about 5-6 em
above the words. Hold the low-power lens
above the high-power lens, as shown in the
.
photograph on the right.
4. Move the low-power lens up and down
until the image is in focus and upside down.
(Hint: You may have to move the high-
power lens up or down slightly too.)

86.
~

High-power lens 1{;1;jll Evaluate and Redesign

10. Test your microscope by examining printed
words or a printed photograph. Then, exam-
ine other objects such as a leaf or your skin.
Record your observations. Did your micro-
Low-power lens scope meet the criteria listed in Step 8?
11. Examine microscopes made by other stu-
Rolled-up black
dents. Based on your tests and you r examina-
construction paper
..,.
. tion of other microscopes, list ways you could
improve your microscope.

Analyze and Conclude

1. Observing Compare the images you observed
using one lens with the image from two
lenses.
~
2. Evaluating When you used two lenses, how
did moving the top lens up and down affect
the image? What was the effect of moving
the bottom lens up and down?
l@;jfj Design and Build
3. Building a Prototype Describe how you built
8. Based on what you learned in Part 1, work
... with a partner to design your own two-lens
(compound) microscope. Your microscope
your microscope and explain why you built it
that way.
4. Evaluating the Impact on Society Describe
should
some of the ways that microscopes have
• consist of one high-power lens and one
aided scientists in their work.
low-power lens, each attached to a tube of
paper or rolled-up cardboard 5. Making Judgments Suppose you had to
• allow one tube to fit snugly inside the observe the movement of an ant's legs as the
other tube so the distance between the ant moved across the ground. You can use a
two lenses can be easily adjusted single magnifying glass or the tool you just
• focus to produce a clear, enlarged, upside- constructed. Which would you select? Why?
down image of the object
• be made from dual magnifying glasses, Communicate

..
cardboard tubes, and tape Imagine_it is 1675. Write an explanation that
9. Sketch your design on a sheet of paper. will convince scientists to use your new micro-
Obtain your teacher's approval for your scope rather than the single-lens variety used by
design. Then construct your microscope. Leeuwenhoek. Describe how your microscope
makes the details of organisms more visible.

Chapter 3 + 87
 Looking Inside Cells
~

S 7 .1.b Students know the charac- How Large Are Cells?

teristics that distinguish plant
cells from animal cells, including
1. Look at the organism in the photo. The
chloroplasts and cell walls. organism is an amoeba (uh MEE buh), a large
single-celled organism. This type of amoeba ~
S 7 .1.c Students know that the
nucleus is the repository for genetic is about 1 mm long.
information in plant and animal 2. Multiply your height in meters by 1,000 to
cells. get your height in millimeters. How many
amoebas would you have to stack end-to-end
What role do the cell wall and cell to equal your height?
membrane play in the cell? 3. Many of the cells in your body are about 0.01 mm long-
AI
What is the role of the nucleus in one hundredth the size of an amoeba. How many body cells
the cell? would you have to stack end-to-end to equal your height?
What organelles are found in the
Think It Over
cytoplasm and what are their
functions?
Inferring Look at a metric ruler to see how small 1 mm is. Now
imagine a distance one one-hundredth as long, or 0.01 mm.
How do cells differ?
Why can't you see your body's cells without a microscope?
...___
Key Terms
• organelle
• cell wall Nasturtiums brighten up many gardens with green leaves and
• cytoskeleton colorful flowers. How do nasturtiums carry out all the func-
• cell membrane tions necessary to stay alive? To answer this question, you will
• nucleus
• cytoplasm
take an imaginary journey into the cell of a nasturtium leaf.
You will observe some of the structures found in plant cells. You
._
• mitochondria
• endoplasmic reticulum will also learn some differences between plant and animal cells.
• ribosome As you will discover on your journey, there are even smaller
• Golgi body structures inside a cell, called organelles. Organelles carry out
• chloroplast specific functions within the cell. Just as your stomach, lungs,
• vacuole and heart have different functions in your body, each organelle
• lysosome
has a different function within the cell. Now, hop aboard your •
imaginary ship and sail into a typical plant cell. As you travel
through the plant cell,' refer to Figure 6. And be sure to note the
differences between plant and animal cells.

•
Nasturtiums ~

88.
1-

~ Onion root cells

.. Enter the Cell

Your ship doesn't have an easy time getting inside the plant
fiGURE 5
Cell Wall and Cell Membrane
The onion root cells have both a
cell wall and a cell membrane. The
cell. It has to pass through the cell wall and the cell membrane. single-celled paramecium has only
a cell membrane, but it is dense
Cell Wall The cell wall is a rigid layer of nonliving material and tough.
Interpreting Photographs What
that surrounds the cells of plants and some other organisms. shape do the cell walls give to the
A cell wall helps to protect and support the cell. In plants, onion root cells?
the cell wall is made mostly of a strong material called cellu-
lose. Although the cell wall is tough, many materials, including
water and oxygen, can pass through easily.
Unlike plant cells, the cells of animals and many single-
celled organisms do not have cell walls. Instead, a protein
...... ((framework" inside the cell called a cytoskeleton gives the cells
their shape.

Cell Membrane After passing through the cell wall, the next
barrier you must cross is the cell membrane. All cells have cell
membranes. The cell membrane forms the outside boundary
that separates the cell from its environment. In cells with cell
--- walls, the cell membrane is located just inside the cell wall. In
other cells, the cell membrane forms the outside boundary that
separates the cell from its environment.
The cell membrane controls what substances come into
and out of a cell. Everything the cell needs, from food to oxy-
gen, enters the cell through the cell membrane. For a cell to
survive, the cell membrane must allow these materials to pass
in and out. Harmful waste products leave the cell through the
cell membrane. The cell membrane also prevents harmful
materials from entering the cell. In a sense, the cell membrane
is like a window screen. The screen allows air to enter and leave Video Field Trip
-~ a room, but it keeps insects out. Fortunately, on this trip, your Dlscoverv Channel School
ship can slip through. Cell Structure and Function
Reading
Checkpoint Do animal cells contain cell walls?

Chapter 3 + 89
 fiGURE 6
Plant and Animal Cells
These illustrations show typical structures found in plant
Nucleus ~
and animal cells. Comparing and Contrasting Identify
one structure found in plant cells but not animal cells. The nucleus directs all
of the cell's activities,
including reproduction.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
This network of passageways
carries materials from one
~
part of the cell to another.

--1
Cell Wall
In a plant cell, a stiff
wall surrounds the
membrane, giving
the cell a rigid,
boxlike shape.
~

.._

Chloroplasts
These organelles
capture energy
from sunlight and
Vacuole The cell membrane protects
..
use it to produce the cell and regulates what
Most mature p'fant cells
food for the cell. substances enter and leave
have one large vacuole.
This sac within the the cell.
cytoplasm stores water,
food, waste products,
and other materials.
-..-

Plant Cell

90. ...~
 For: Plant and Animal Cells activity
)r Ribosomes Visit: PHSchool.com
These small structures Web Code: cep-3012
function as factories to
produce proteins. Ribosomes
Cytoplasm
may be attached to the
The cytoplasm includes endoplasmic reticulum, Nucleus
a gel-like fluid in which The nucleus directs all
or they may float in
many different organelles of the cell's activities,
the cytoplasm.
are found. including reproduction.

Mitochondria
Most of the
cell's energy
is produced
within these
rod-shaped
organelles.

__._ Golgi Body

The Golgi bodies
receive materials
from the endoplasmic
reticulum and send
them to other parts
of the cell. They also
release materials
Lysosomes outside the cell.
These small organelles
contain chemicals
Vacuole Cell Membrane
that break down food
Some animal cells have The cell membrane protects
particles and worn-out
vacuoles that store food, the cell and regulates what
cell parts.
water, waste, and other substances enter and leave
materials. the cell.

Animal Cell
Chapter 3 ·+ ·91
 Chromatin

fiGURE 7 Pores
The Nucleus
The photo (left) and diagram ~
(right) both show the nucleus,
which is the cell's control
center. The chromatin in the
Nuclear envelope
nucleus contains instructions
· for carrying out the cell's
activities.
Sail on to the Nucleus --1
As you sail inside the cell, a large, oval structure comes into
view. This structure, called the nucleus (NOO klee us), acts
as the control center of the cell. ~ The nucleus is the cell's
control center, directing all of the cell's activities.
~
Nuclear Envelope Notice in Figure 7 that the nucleus is
surrounded by a membrane called the nuclear envelope. Just as
Gelatin Cell a mailing envelope protects the letter inside it, the nuclear
Make your own model of envelope protects the nucleus. Materials pass in and out of the
a cell.
nucleus through pores in the nuclear envelope. So aim for that
1. Dissolve a packet of pore just ahead and carefully glide into the nucleus.
colorless gelatin in warm
water. Pour the gelatin Chromatin You might wonder how the nucleus "knows" how
•
into a rectangular pan (for to direct the cell. The answer lies in those thin strands floating
a plant cell) or a round pan
directly ahead in the nucleus. These strands, called chromatin,
(for an animal cell).
contain genetic material, the instructions for directing the cell's
2. Choose different materials
that resemble each of the functions. For example, the instructions in the chromatin
cell structures found in the
cell you are modeling.
ensure that leaf cells grow and divide to form more leaf cells.
You can think of the nucleus as a repository for genetic infor-
•
Insert these materials into mation in cells. A repository is a storage area.
the gelatin before it
begins to solidify. Nucleolus As you prepare to leave the nucleus, you spot a
Making Models On a sheet small object floating by. This structure, a nucleolus, is where
of paper, develop a key that
identifies each cell structure
ribosomes are made. Ribosomes are the organelles where pro- .-
teins are produced. Proteins are important chemicals in cells.
in your model. Describe the
function of each structure. Reading } Wh . t he nuc1eus .1s genet1c
. material found?
Checkpoint ere m

92 • ....
..
FIGURE 8
Mitochondrion
The mitochondria release most of the
cell's energy. Inferring In ·w hat types
of cells would you expect to find a lot
of mitochondria?
~

Organelles in the Cytoplasm

As you leave the nucleus, you find yourself in the cytoplasm,
the region between the cell membrane and the nucleus. Your
ship floats in a clear, thick, gel-like fluid. The fluid in the cyto-
plasm is constantly moving, so your ship does not need to pro-
pel itself. ~ In the cytoplasm are many organelles, including
mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi
bodies, chloroplasts, vacuoles, and lysosomes. Each of these
organelles has specific functions in the cell.

Mitochondria Suddenly, rod-shaped structures loom ahead.

These organelles are mitochondria (my tuh KAHN dree uh)
(singular mitochondrion). Mitochondria are known as the
((powerhouses" of the cell because they convert energy in food
molecules to energy the cell can use to carry out its functions.
Figure 8 shows a mitochondrion up close.

Endoplasmic Reticulum As you sail farther into the cyto-

plasm, you find yourself in a maze of passageways called the
endoplasmic reticulum (en duh PLAZ mik rih TIK yuh lum).
The endoplasmic reticulum's passageways help form proteins
and other materials. They also carry material throughout the cell. I FIGURE 9
Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Ribosomes Attached to some surfaces of the endoplasmic
reticulum are small, grainlike bodies called ribosomes. Other
The endoplasmic reticu lum is
similar to the system of hallways
in a building. Proteins and other
ribosomes float in the cytoplasm. Ribosomes function as materials move throughout the
factories to produce proteins. Some newly made proteins are cell by way of the endoplasmic
released through the wall of the endoplasmic reticulum. From reticulum. The spots on this
organelle are ribosomes,
the interior of the endoplasmic reticulum, the proteins will be which produce proteins.
transported to the Golgi bodies.
 1,.

FIGURE 10
A Golgi Body
Golgi bodies are organelles that ~
transport materials.

Golgi Bodies As you leave the endoplasmic reticulum, you

see the structure shown in Figure 10. It looks like flattened sacs
and tubes. This structure, called a Golgi body, can be thought
of as the cell's mail room. Golgi bodies receive proteins and
other newly formed materials from the endoplasmic reticu-
lum. They then package and distribute materials to other parts f
of the cell. Golgi bodies also release materials outside the cell.

Chloroplasts Have you noticed the many large green struc-

tures floating in the cytoplasm? Only the cells of plants and
some other organisms have these green organelles called
~
chloroplasts (KLAWR uh plasts). Chloroplasts capture energy
from sunlight and use it to produce food. Chloroplasts make
leaves green.

Vacuoles Steer past the chloroplasts and head for that large,
water-filled sac, called a vacuole (VAK yoo ohl), floating in the
Comparing Cells
cytoplasm. Vacuoles are the storage areas of cells. Most plant .__
Observe the characteristics of
plant and animal cells.
cells have one large, central vacuole. Vacuoles store food and
other materials needed by the cell. Vacuoles can also store
1. 1::. Obtain a prepared waste products. Animal cells do not have central vacuoles.
ILJ slide of plant cells
from your teacher. However, some animal cells have smaller storage organelles.
Examine these cells under
the low-power and high-
power lenses of a
Lysosomes Your journey through the cell is almost over.
Before you leave, take another look around you. If you carefully
•
microscope. swing your ship around the vacuole, you may be lucky enough to
2. Draw a picture of what see a lysosome. Lysosomes (LY suh sohms) are small, round
you see. structures containing chemicals that break down certain mate-
3. Repeat Steps 1 and 2 with rials in the cell. Some chemicals break down large food particles
a prepared slide of animal
cells.
into smaller ones. Lysosomes also break down old cell parts and
release the substances so they can be used again. In this sense, you
...
Observing How are plant
can think oflysosomes as the cell's cleanup crew.
and animal cells alike? How
are they different? Reading What organelle captures the energy of sunlight
Checkpoint and uses it to make food for the cell?

94.
~
 Cell Diversity
You just had a tour of a typical leaf cell. But actually, there's a
lot of variety in cells-both within individual organisms and
across different organisms. ~ The variety of structure in cells
reflects differences in cell function.
Cells come in many shapes. Look at the nerve cell and red
blood cells in Figure 11. Notice the long, fingerlike extensions
of the nerve cell. These extensions help transmit information
from one part of your body to another. Red blood cells carry
Red blood cells
oxygen throughout your body. Their flattened shape enables in a blood
them to fit through tiny blood vessels. vessel T
Some cells contain certain organelles but not others. For
example, not all plant cells have chloroplasts. Since root cells
grow underground away from sunlight, they have no need for
chloroplasts. Cells may also have more of a particular kind of
organelle. For example, cells that actively produce proteins, such
as liver cells, contain many ribosomes. Each human liver cell
has millions of ribosomes.

FIGURE 11 Specialized Cells

Nerve cells carry information throughout the
human body. Red blood cells carry oxygen.
Developing Hypotheses How do the shapes of
these cells help them function?

....__ Vocabulary Skill Prefixes The Key Term 3. a. Identifying Identify the functions of
endoplasmic reticulum begins with the prefix endo-, ribosomes and Golgi bodies.
which means ''in" or "within." Within what part b. Describing Describe the characteristics of
of a cell is the endoplasmic reticulum located? the endoplasmic reticulum.
c. Applying Concepts How are the functions
Reviewing Key Concepts of ribosomes, Golgi bodies, and the
1. a. Comparing and Contrasting Compare the endoplasmic reticulum related?
functions of the cell wall and the cell 4. a. Listing What are two ways cells can differ?
membrane in plant and animal cells. b. Applying Concepts Which organelles might
b. Inferring How does cellulose help with the you expect to see in large quantities in cells
function of the cell wall? that actively release proteins outside the cell?
2. a. Identifying What is the key function of the
nucleus?
b. Describing Which structure inside the
Writing in Science
nucleus is involved in this function? Writing a Description Write a paragraph
c. Predicting Suppose a dye for staining cells describing a typical animal cell. Your paragraph
stains the region where ribosomes are made. should include all the structures generally
What would you expect to see inside the found in animal cells and a brief explanation of
stained cell's nucleus? the functions of those structures.

Chapt er 3 + 95
Sizing Up a Cell
~
Problem
How can you build a scale model showing the 5. With your lab partner, choose four cell struc;:-
relative sizes of plant cell organelles? tures that would be practical to model. Dis-
cuss the possible materials you can use.
Skills Focus 6. Sketch your design on a sheet of paper.
calculating, making models Obtain your teacher's approval for your ~
design. Then construct your model.
Materials
• various materials provided by your teacher Analyze and Conclude
1. Calculating A plant cell model has been built
Procedure using the scale one meter to one micrometer.
1. The table below gives the approximate sizes How large would a ribosome with a diameter
of structures in a typical plant cell. Copy the of 0.02 micrometer be in this model? ~
table into your notebook. 2. Making Models What scale did you choose
2. Convert the size of each structure using the to use for your model? Why? What problems
scale one centimeter to one micrometer did you encounter in building your model?
(1 em : 1 pm). For example, at this scale, 3. Drawing Conclusions Based on your calcula-
a model of a plant cell that is 150 pm long tions in this lab, why would it be difficult to
would be 150 em long. include all the structures of a cell in a scale +
model the size of a shoebox?
Length of model = 150 JLm x 1 em = 150 em
1JLm 4. Communicating You are designing a giant
Record your calculations in the third column. scale model of a cell for a museum exhibit.
The museum is able to provide unlimited
3. Then, calculate the size of each structure at a space and construction materials for your
scale of 10 em : 1 pm. Fill in your calculations
in the correct column.
project. Write a memo to your construction
team explaining what factors to keep in mind
._
4. Now select a scale you would like to use for while building a giant cell to scale.
your model. Calculate the sizes of structures
for a cell model built according to the scale
you selected. Record your calculations.

Cell Structure

Plant cell
Actual Size

150 pm (length); 100 pm (width)

1 em : 1 pm

150 em ; 100 em
10 em : 1 pm

1,500 em ; 1,000 em
Your Scale
(_:_) --
I•

Nucleus 6.5-10 pm (diameter)

Vacuole 130 pm (length); 80 pm (width)

Chloroplast 5-10 pm (length); 2-3 pm (width) '

Mitochondrion 3--5 pm (length); 0. 5-1 pm (width)

Ribosome 0.017-0.023 pm (diameter)

---- - ..... -,, "i7

- ~

--- -· tCt. -
"
.....-...
J:' '7~
i

96.
... .
 Chemical Compounds
)/r--
in Cells ·

S 7 .1.a Students know cells What Is a Compound?

function similarly in all living
organisms. 1. Your teacher will provide you with
containers filled with various
What are elements and substances. All of the substances are
compounds? chemical compounds.
How is water important to the 2. Examine each substance. Read the
function of cells? label on each container to learn what
What are the functions of each substance is made of.
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,
Think It Over
and nucleic acids?
Forming Operational Definitions Chemical compounds are
important to the structure and function of all cells. Write a
Key Terms definition of what you think a chemical compound is.
• element
• compound
• carbohydrate
•lipid Cells and organelles are very small, but you are surrounded by
• protein particles even smaller than cells! Air is made up of trillions of
• amino acid these tiny particles. They bump into your skin, hide in the
• enzyme
folds of your clothes, and whoosh into your nose every time
• nucleic acid
• DNA
your take a breath. In fact, you and the world around you,
...... • RNA including the cells in your body and all other organisms, are
composed of tiny particles. Some of these particles are ele-
ments, and others are compounds. One reason why cells func-
tion similarly in all organisms is that cells consists of, use, and
produce many identical compounds.

Elements and Compounds

You may not realize it, but air is a mixture of gases. These gases
include both elements and compounds. Three gases in the air
are oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide.

Elements Oxygen and nitrogen are examples of elements.

An element is any substance that cannot be broken down
into simpler substances. The smallest unit of an element is
called an atom. An element is made up of only one kind of
atom. The elements found in living things include carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur.

Chapter 3 + 97
 Compounds Carbon dioxide is a compound made up of the
nline elements carbon and oxygen. ~ When two or more elements
scz• c----N---ST-A-::::> combine chemically, they form a compound. Most elements
INKS,M in living things occur in the form of compounds. The smallest
For: Links on proteins unit of many compounds is a molecule. A molecule of carbon ~
Visit: www.Scilinks.org
Web Code: scn-0313 dioxide consists of one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms.

The Compound Called Water Like carbon dioxide, water

is a compound. Each water molecule is made up of two hydro-
gen atoms and one oxygen atom. Water makes up about two
thirds of your body. Water plays many important roles in cells. ~
Water dissolves chemicals that cells need. ~ Most chemical
reactions within cells could not take place without water. For
example, without water, plants would not be able to convert
the energy captured by chloroplasts into food. Water also helps
cells keep their size and shape. In fact, a cell without water
would be like a balloon without air. In addition, because water f
changes temperature so slowly, it helps keep the temperature of
cells from changing rapidly.

Inorganic and Organic Compounds Water is an exam-

ple of an inorganic compound. An inorganic compound does
not contain the element carbon. Sodium chloride, or table salt,
~
is another inorganic compound.
fiGURE 12
Many compounds in living things contain the element car-
Molecules and Compounds bon. Most compounds that contain carbon are called organic
Water is a chemical compound. So compounds. ~ Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic
is carbon dioxide, which is found acids are important groups of organic compounds in living
in the gas bubbles.
Applying Concepts What is a
things. These organic compounds play important roles in the .._
compound? function of cells.

A water molecule is made up

of one atom of oxygen and
two atoms of
hydrogen.
~"';>...;~.,,1".~.~ Carbon Dioxide Molecule
The air bubbles contain carbon
dioxide. A carbon dioxide molecule
has one atom of carbon and two
atoms of oxygen.
 Carbohydrates
A carbohydrate is an energy-rich organic compound
made of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
,_ Sugars and starches are examples of carbohydrates.
Sugars are produced during the food-making pro-
cess that takes place in plants. Foods such as fruits and
some vegetables have a high sugar content. Sugar mol-
ecules can combine, forming large molecules called
starches, or complex carbohydrates. Plant cells store
excess energy in molecules of starch. Many foods that
come from plants contain starch. These foods include
potatoes, pasta, rice, and bread. When you eat these
foods, your body breaks down the starch into glucose,
a sugar that your cells can use for energy.
In addition to providing energy for the cell,
carbohydrates are important components of some
cell parts. For example, the cellulose found in the cell
walls of plants is a type of carbohydrate. Carbohy-
drates are also found in cell membranes. FIGURE 13
Starch
These potatoes contain a large
Lipids amount of starch. Starch is a
Have you ever seen a cook trim the fat from a piece of meat carbohydrate. The blue grains in
I- the close-up are starch granules
before cooking it? The cook is trimming away a lipid. Fats, oils, in a potato. The grains have been
r and waxes are all lipids. Like carbohydrates, lipids are energy- colored blue to make them easier
~ rich organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxy- to see.
gen. Lipids contain even more energy than carbohydrates.
Cells store energy in lipids for later use. For example, during
+- winter, a dormant bear lives on the energy stored in fat within
its cells. ~ In addition to their function as an energy source,
lipids also make up most of the cell membrane.
Reading
Checkpoint What are the kinds of lipids?

FIGURE 14
Lipids
Olive oil, which comes from
olives such as those shown
here, is made mostly of lipids.
Making Generalizations
What elements are lipids
composed of?

Chapter 3 + 99
 \.
Reviewing Math: Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability 7 .1.1

100
Compounds in Bacteria ...., I I ~
.J:
and Mammals en • Bacterial cell
"Qj 80
Do all cells contain the same amounts of 3: • Mammal cell
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids? Qj
The graph compares the percentages of different u 60
compounds in a bacterial cell and a mammal cell. iU
....,
1. Reading Graphs What do the red bars ~ 40
'+-
represent? What do the blue bars represent? 0
...., 1- I I ~
c
2. Interpreting Data Which kind of compound- cv
v 20
a..
proteins or nucleic acids-makes up the larger cv
Q.
percentage of a mammal cell?
0
3. Drawing Conclusions In general, how do a Water Proteins Nucleic Lipids Other
bacterial cell and a mammal cell compare Acids
in their chemical composition? Type of Compound I
~

Proteins
What do a bird's feathers, a spider's web, and your fingernails
have in common? All of these substances are made mainly of
proteins. Proteins are large organic molecules made of carbon,
_..,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and, in some cases, sulfur. Foods
that are high in protein include meat, eggs, fish, nuts, and beans.

Structure of Proteins Protein molecules are made up of

smaller molecules called amino acids. Although there are only
20 common amino acids, cells can combine them in different
ways to form thousands of different proteins. The kinds of
•
amino acids and the order in which they link together deter-
mine the type of protein that forms. You can think of the
20 amino acids as being like the 26 letters of the alphabet.
Those 26 letters can form thousands of words. The letters you
use and their order determine the words you form.

Functions of Proteins Much of the structure of cells is

made up of proteins. Proteins form parts of cell membranes.
Proteins also make up many of the organelles within the cell.
~ The proteins known as enzymes perform important
functions in the chemical reactions that take place in cells.
An enzyme is a type of protein that speeds up a chemical reac-
tion in a living thing. Without enzymes, many chemical reactions
that are necessary for life would either take too long or not occur
at all. For example, enzymes in your saliva speed l:lP the digestion
of food by breaking down starches into sugars in your mouth. ~
100 •
J
 Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are very long organic molecules made of
carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and phosphorus.
Nucleic acids contain the instructions that cells
~ need to carry out all the functions of life.
There are two kinds of nucleic acids. Deoxyribonu-
cleic acid (dee ahk see ry boh noo KLEE ik), or DNA, is
the genetic material that carries information about an
organism and is passed from parent to offspring. The
information in DNA is also used to direct all of the cell's
functions. Most of the DNA in a cell is found in the
chromatin in the nucleus.
Ribonucleic acid (ry boh noo KLEE ik), or RNA, plays
an important role in the production of proteins. RNA is
found in the cytoplasm as well as in the nucleus.
Reading What are the two kinds of nucleic acids?
Checkpoint What are their functions? fiGURE 15
DNA in the Nucleus
A cell's nucleus (colored purple)
contains most of the cell's DNA in its
chromatin (colored red and yellow).

5 7 .1.a, E-LA: Reading 7 .2.0

Target Reading Skill Identify Main Ideas Reread the

text following the heading Structure of Proteins. What
.... sentence expresses the main idea of this paragraph?
Reviewing Key Concepts
1. a. Defining What is a compound? Compounds in Food With family
members, look at the "Nutrition
b. Classifying What is one inorganic compound vital
Facts" labels on a variety of food
for chemical reactions in cells? What are four groups
of organic compounds important to living things? products. Identify foods that
contain large amounts of the
2. a. Reviewing What three important functions does
• water perform in cells?
b. Relating Cause and Effect Suppose a cell is seriously
following organic compounds:
carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
Discuss with your family what
deprived of water. How might this lack of water affect
elements make up each of these
the cell's enzymes? Explain.
compounds and what roles they
3. a. Reviewing Which of the four types of organic
play in cells and in your body.
compounds serve as an energy source for cells?
b. Classifying Which of the four types of organic
molecules contain the element nitrogen?
c. Inferring An organic compound contains only the
elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Could this
compound be a carbohydrate? Could it be a protein?
Explain.

Chapter 3 + 19'
 The Cell in Its
Environment
~

S 7 .1.a Students know cells func-

.
tion similarly in all living organisms.
1. Stand with your classmates in locations that are evenly spaced
How do most small molecules throughout the classroom.
cross the cell membrane? 2. Your teacher will spray an air freshener into the room. When
Why is osmosis important to cells? you first smell the air freshener, raise your hand.
What is the difference between 3. Note how long it takes for other students to smell the scent.
passive transport and active Think It Over
transport?
Developing Hypotheses How was each student's distance from
the teacher related to when he or she smelled the air freshener?
Key Terms Develop a hypothesis about why this pattern occurred. f
• selectively permeable
• diffusion
• osmosis
• passive transport As darkness fell, the knight urged his horse toward the castle.
• active transport The weary knight longed for the safety of the castle, with its
thick walls of stone and strong metal gates. The castle's gate-
keeper opened the gates and slowly lowered the drawbridge.
_.,
The horse clopped across the bridge, and the knight sighed
with relief. Home at last!
Like ancient castles, cells have structures that protect their
contents from the world outside. All cells are surrounded by
a cell membrane that separates the cell from the outside envi-
ronment. The cell membrane is selectively permeable, which ...
means that some substances can pass through the membrane
while others cannot.
 Cells, like castles, must let things enter and leave. All cells
must let in needed materials, such as oxygen and food mole-
cules. In contrast, waste materials must move out of cells.
Oxygen, food molecules, waste products, and many useful cell Ratios
,_ products must pass through the cell membrane. The concentration of a
solution can be expressed as
a ratio. A ratio compares two
Diffusion numbers. It tells you how
Substances that can move into and out of a cell do so by one much you have of one item
of three methods: diffusion, osmosis, or active transport. in comparison to another.
For example, suppose you
Diffusion is the main method by which small molecules dissolve 5 g of sugar in 1 L of
move across the cell membrane. Diffusion(dih FYOO zhun) water. You can express the
is the process by which molecules move from an area of concentration of the solution
higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. The in ratio form as
concentration of a substance is the amount of the substance 5 g: 1 L
in a given volume. For example, suppose you dissolve 1 gram This can also be written
of sugar in 1 liter of water. The concentration of the sugar
5 g/L
solution is 1 gram per liter.
If you did the Standards Warm-Up activity, you observed Practice Problem Suppose
diffusion in action. The area where the air freshener was you dissolve 7 g of salt in 1 L
of water. Express the concen-
sprayed had many molecules of freshener. The molecules grad- tration of the solution as
ually moved from this area of higher concentration to the a ratio.
other parts of the classroom, where there were fewer molecules
I- of freshener-and thus a lower concentration.

What Causes Diffusion? Molecules are always moving. As

they move, the molecules bump into one another. The more
molecules there are in an area, the more collisions there will be.
Collisions cause molecules to push away from one another.
Over time, the molecules of a substance will continue to spread
out. Eventually, they will be spread evenly throughout the area.

fiGURE 16
A Selective Barrier
The walls of a castle protected t he
inhabitants within, and the castle
gatekeeper allowed only certain people
to pass through. Similarly, the cell
membrane protects the contents of the
cell and helps control the materials that
enter and leave.

Protected contents of cell

Chapter 3 + 103
 -1l.

Before Diffusion After Diffusion •

There is a higher concentration of oxygen The concentration of oxygen molecules
molecules outside the cell than inside the cell. is the same outside and inside the cell.

fiGURE 17
Diffusion in Action
Molecules move by diffusion from
an area of higher concentration to
an area of lower concentration.
Diffusion of Oxygen Have you ever used a microscope to
observe one-celled organisms in pond water? These organisms •
Predicting What would happen obtain the oxygen they need to survive from the water around
if the concentration of oxygen them. Luckily for them, there are many more molecules of oxy-
molecules outside the cell was gen in the water outside the cell than there are inside the cell.
lower than inside the cell? In other words, there is a higher concentration of oxygen
molecules in the water than inside the cell. Remember that the ~--
cell membrane is permeable to oxygen molecules. The oxygen
molecules diffuse from the area of higher concentration-the
pond water-through the cell membrane to the area of lower
concentration-the inside of the cell.
Reading ) .
Checkpoint By what process do small molecules move mto cells?

Osmosis
Like oxygen, water passes easily into and out of cells through
the cell membrane. Osmosis is the diffusion of water mole-
cules through a selectively permeable membrane. ~ Because
cells cannot function properly without adequate water, many
cellular processes depend on osmosis.

eGo ~·!:~~!~!:m Osmosis and Diffusion Remember that molecules tend to

move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
For: More on cellular transport
Visit: PHSchool.com
concentration. In osmosis, water molecules move by diffusion
Web Code: ced-3014 from an area where they are highly concentrated through the
cell membrane to an area where they are less concentrated.

·r1 04 + ~
 Effects of Osmosis Osmosis can have important conse-
quences for the cell. Look at Figure 18 to see the effect of
osmosis on cells. In Figure 18A, a red blood cell is bathed in a .
Osmosis in Action
solution in which the concentration of water is the same as it is
1. 1::. Use water to prepare
,.._. inside the cell. This is the normal shape of a red blood cell. ILl a wet-mount slide of
Contrast this shape to the cell in Figure 18B. The red blood Elodea (a freshwater
cell is floating in water that contains a lot of salt. The concen- plant).
tration of water molecules outside the cell is lower than the 2. Observe the leaf cells at
concentration of water molecules inside the cell. This differ- low magnification and
ence in concentration occurs because the salt takes up space in record your observations.
the salt water. Therefore, there are fewer water molecules in the 3. Increase the magnification
and record what you see.
salt water outside the cell compared to the water inside the cell.
As a result, water moves out of the cell by osmosis. When water 4. Place a drop of 1Oo/o salt
solution on one edge of
moves out, the cell shrinks. the coverslip.
In Figure 18C, the red blood cell is floating in water that 5. Place a small piece of
contains a very small amount of salt. The water inside the cell paper towel on the
contains more salt than the solution outside the cell. Thus, the opposite edge of the
concentration of water outside the cell is greater than it is inside coverslip to draw the salt
the cell. The water moves into the cell, causing it to swell. solution under the
coverslip.
Reading
Checkpoint How is osmosis related to diffusion? 6. Repeat steps 2 and 3.
Inferring What role did
osmosis play in the changes
you observed?
fiGURE 18
Effects of Osmosis on Cells
In osmosis, water diffuses through a
selectively permeable membrane .

• • •
.... ----_ Water
~ molecules
• Cell membrane ••
•••
••• •
(t
• • •• • ••
• •
.... - . ··-
High Water Concentration
Outside Cell
During osmosis, water
0 Normal Red Blood Cell moves into the cell.
Concentration of water
inside the cell is the
•
same as outside.
•
0 Low Water Concentration
• Outside Cell
Water moves out of
the cell during osmosis.

Chapter 3 + 105
 Active Transport
If you have ever ridden a bicycle down a long
hill, you know that it doesn't take any of your
energy to go fast. But you do have to use
Passive Transport
some of your energy to pedal back up the ~
In passive transport, materials pass
through the cell membrane without hill. For a cell, moving materials through the
requiring the cell's energy. cell membrane by diffusion and osmosis is
like cycling downhill. These processes do not

.
require the cell to use its own energy. The
movement of dissolved materials through a
cell membrane without using cellular energy
is called passive transport.
What if a cell needs to take in a substance
Low
concentration
that is present in a higher concentration
inside the cell than outside? The cell would
have to move the molecules in the opposite
direction than they naturally move by diffu- K

sion. Cells can do this, but they have to use

energy-just as you would use energy to
pedal back up the hill. Active transport is
Inside Outside the movement of materials through a cell
of Cell of Cell membrane using cellular energy. ~ Active
transport requires the cell to use its own -*'
energy, while passive transport does not.

Adive Transport
Transport Proteins Cells have several ways
Active transport requires the cell's of moving materials by active transport. In
energy. Transport proteins move
materials across the cell membrane.
one method, transport proteins in the cell
membrane "pick up" molecules outside the
cell and carry them in, using energy.
...
Figure 19 illustrates this process. Transport
proteins also carry molecules out of cells in a
similar way. Some substances that are car-
ried into and out of cells in this way include I
Low
concentration
calcium, potassium, and sodium. .- I
A cell membrane may contain many
transport proteins. Each transport protein
can carry a specific substance.

Energy FIGURE 19
Passive and Active Transport
~Cell membrane Passive and active transport are two
processes by which materials pass
through the cell membrane.
Interpreting Diagrams What is the
function of a transport protein?
 Transport by Engulfing Figure 20 shows another method
of active transport. First, the cell membrane surrounds
and engulfs, or encloses, a particle. Once the particle is
engulfed, the cell membrane wraps around the parti-
)~»--· de and forms a vacuole within the cell. The cell must
use energy in this process.

Why Cells Are Small As you know, most cells are

so small that you cannot see them without a micro-
scope. Have you ever wondered why cells are so small? One
reason is related to how materials move into and out of cells. FIGURE 20
As a cell's size increases, more of its cytoplasm is located far- Amoeba Engulfing Food
ther from the cell membrane. Once a molecule enters a cell, it is This single-celled amoeba is
carried to its destination by a stream of moving cytoplasm, some- surrounding a smaller organism.
The amoeba will engulf the
what like the way currents in the ocean move a raft. But in a very organism and use it for food.
large cell, the streams of cytoplasm must travel farther to bring Engulfing is a form of active
materials to all parts of the cell. It would take much longer for a transport.
"'
molecule to reach the center of a very large cell than it would in a
small cell. Likewise, it would take a long time for wastes to be
removed. If a cell grew too large, it could not function well
enough to survive.
Reading
Checkpoint J What prevents cells from growing very large?

5 7.1.a, E-LA: Reading 7.2.0

• Target Reading Skill Identify Main Ideas

Reread the text following the heading Osmosis.
3. a. Comparing and Contrasting How is active
transport different from passive transport?
What is the main idea of the text under this b. Reviewing What are transport proteins?
heading? c. Explaining Explain why transport proteins
Reviewing Key Concepts require energy to function in active
transport.
1. a. Defining What is diffusion?
b. Relating Cause and Effect Use diffusion to
explain what happens when you drop a
sugar cube into a mug of hot tea.
2. a. Defining What is osmosis?
b. Describing Describe how water molecules A scientist dissolves 60 g of sugar in 3 L of
move through the cell membrane during water.
osmosis.
c. Applying Concepts A selectively permeable 4. Calculating a Concentration Calculate the
membrane separates solutions A and B. The concentration of the solution in grams
concentration of water molecules in Solution per liter.
B is higher than that in Solution A. Describe 5. Ratios Express the concentration as a ratio.
how the water molecules will move.

Chapter 3 + 107
 Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. All cells
have similar structures and carry out similar functions.
~

(1) Discovering Cells (3) Chemical Compounds in Cells

Key Concepts s 7.1 Key Concepts S 7.1.a
• Cells are the basic units of structure and • An element is any substance that cannot be
function in living things. broken down into simpler substances. When
• The invention of the microscope enabled
people to discover and learn about cells.
two or more elements combine chemically,
they form a compound. ...
• The cell theory states the following: All living • Most chemical reactions within cells could not
things are composed of cells. Cells are the basic take place without water.
units of structure and function in living things. • Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic
All cells are produced from other cells. acids are important groups of organic
• In multicellular organisms, cells are often compounds in living things. Carbohydrates
organized into tissues, organs, and organ provide energy for the cell and are important ¥
systems. components of some cell parts.
• Lipids function as an energy source and make
Key Terms
up most of the cell membrane.
cell tissue
cell theory organ • The proteins known as enzymes perform
unicellular organ system important functions in the chemical reactions
multicellular that take place in cells. _....
• Nucleic acids contain the instructions that cells
need to carry out all the functions of life.
~ Looking Inside Cells
Key Concepts 's 7.1.b, 7.1.c
Key Terms

..
• A cell wall helps to protect and support a plant element enzyme
cell. compound lipid
carbohydrate nucleic acid
• The cell membrane controls what substances protein DNA
come into and out of a cell. amino acid RNA
• The nucleus directs the cell's activities.
• In the cytoplasm are many organelles, including @.) The Cell in Its Environment
mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum,
ribosomes, Golgi bodies, chloroplasts, vacuoles, Key Concepts " s 7 .1.a
and lysosomes. Each of these organelles has • Diffusion is the main method by which small
specific functions in the cell. molecules move across the cell membrane.
• The variety among cells reflects differences in • Osmosis is important because cells cannot
structure and function. function properly without adequate water.
• Active transport requires the cell to use energy,
Key Terms endoplasmic
while passive transport does not.
organelle reticulum
cell wall ribosome Key Terms
cytoskeleton Golgi body selectively permeable passive transport
cell membrane chloroplast diffusion active transport
nucleus vacuole osmosis
cytoplasm lysosome
mitochondria

108 • ~
 For: Self-Assessment
Visit: PHSchool.com
Web Code: cva-1 030

~
Main Idea
Target Reading Skill
Identifying Main Ideas To review part of Most chemical reactions within cells could not take place
without water.
Section 3, reread the text following the heading
The Compound Called Water. Copy the Detail Detail Detail
graphic organizer at right. Complete the
graphic organizer by supplying details that
support the main idea.
~· t=J ~· ! :J ~· ! J
. . ·- ----------~-------·-·-·--

Reviewing Key Terms

Choose the letter of the best answer. Complete the following sentences so that
1. All living things are composed of your answers clearly explain the Key Terms.
a. blood. 6. The nucleus can direct the cell's activities
b. chloroplasts. because it contains - - - -
c. vacuoles. 7. Mitochondria are <<powerhouses" of the cell
d. cells. because - - - -
2. In plant and animal cells, the control center of 8. Water is an example of a compound, which
the cell is the is - - - - -
a. chloroplast.
b. cytoplasm. 9. Saliva in your mouth is an example of an
c. nucleus. enzyme because _ _ __
d. Golgi body. 10. Oxygen molecules enter a cell by diffusion,

• 3. A storage compartment of the cell is the

a. cell wall.
which is - - - -

b. lysosome.
c. endoplasmic reticulum. Writing in Science
d. vacuole.
4. Starch is an example of a Dialogue A dialogue is a conversation.
a. nucleic acid. Write a dialogue that might have taken place
b. protein. between Schleiden and Schwann. The
scientists should discuss their observations
c. lipid.
and conclusions.
d. carbohydrate.
5. The process by which water moves across a
cell membrane is called Video Assessment
a. osmosis. Discovery Channel School
b. active transport. Cell Structure and Function
c. organelle.
d. resolution.

Chapter 3 + 109
 Checking Concepts Math Practice _._
11. What role did the microscope play in the 23. Ratios A solution consists of 24 g of table salt
development of the cell theory? dissolved in 2 L of water. Express the
concentration of salt in the form of a ratio.
12. Describe the function of the cell wall.
24. Ratios What is the concentration of a sugar

..
13. Explain the difference between elements and
solution that contains 8 g sugar dissolved in
compounds.
500 mL of water? Express your answer in the
14. How are enzymes important to living things? form of a ratio.
15. What are the functions of DNA and RNA?
16. Why is water important in the cell? Applying Skills
17. What is diffusion? What function does Use the diagrams to answer Questions 25-27.
diffusion have in the cell? A scientist watered the plant in Figure A with salt
18. Explain the relationship between cell size and
the movement of materials into and out of cells.
water. After 30 minutes, the plant looked as you see
it in Figure B.
.--
Thinking Critically
19. Applying Concepts Do the cells below come
from a plant or an animal? Explain your answer. _..._
·:1111[' ··.;;::;:;; -~ • . :~
,:: ~ ··· ' · fl*'ii
:~ ~
~·~· -_<. ~-
• ,./:p: __ __ .·
...!'
~ lf~:.
,f..:·~~~
l
-· ·.. (.l~.
ra
,., ':";· .
a.~{-. . ....~ ;...._. . . ~~- Cto
·,)'.x
11-' ....'..·
!:-,.;- .: .· :. -·~.'-~~
j; .. .:~TW.·'
~ L "·· 1- ·~t>L.··F
·.·~
. A \~}#·§... t.~ '* }WI ·:,,_-!_~
~-.- ~- ~P'Jr~ll~~~ . Af!'·~ r.~. ,:)
t; ··:~;.l(;~:;r.!~ ~~:·~
~-~~P.~ .>· ;.. r;• -: 1:: .:" ~;~
•;.> •

·- ;.~~
25. Observing How did the plant cells change
after the plant was watered?
...
~~,;::~ -'~'"~- .·.'• flilf ~~"' ·~!! \!'• ~ .;•
~~~!~:r;l~~,~~;~_
~;:"'q•~')_~;
{•
- #
,_: f J..• .·•
~)((:~·- ~-~· ~~~ ~
=,;.•. 26. Inferring Describe a process that would lead
to the changes in the plant cells.
27. Developing Hypotheses Suppose the
scientist were to water the plant in B with
20. Problem Solving A cell is actively producing fresh (unsalted) water. Develop a hypothesis
a protein to be released outside the cell. about what would happen to the plant.
Sequence the following organelles in the order Explain your hypothesis.
that the protein will travel: Golgi bodies,
ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum.
21. Predicting Suppose a cell did not have a
supply of amino acids and could not produce
them. What effect might this have on the cell? Performance Assessment Bring in your egg,
22. Comparing and Contrasting Explain how graph, and any diagrams you made. As a class,
active transport is different from osmosis. discuss your results and conclusions. Then, as a
group, try to answer these questions: What
happened to the eggshell? What process took place
at each stage of the experiment?

1.1 0. k
 ~\;
Standards Practice Success ')" tr Trocker
Online at PHSchool.com

Choose the letter of the best answer.

1. A reasonable estimate for the size of a cell's 5. A tissue in an animal produces and releases
nucleus is chemicals that are used by cells throughout the
A 0.006mm. animal's body. Cells in that tissue probably
B 6mm. have a larger than normal number of
C 0.006 m. A lysosomes.
D 6m. S 7.1.a B mitochondria.
C Golgi bodies.
2. Which of the following statements is not true
D nuclei. S 7.1.b
according to the cell theory?
A All plants and animals are made of cells. Use the diagram below and your knowledge
B Cells are the basic unit of structure in of science to answer Questions 6 and 7.
organisms.
C Only some cells come from other cells.
D All cells come from other cells. s 7.1
Use the table below and your knowledge of
science to answer Question 3 .
.
Comparing the Cells of Three Organisms

Cell Cell
Organism Chloroplasts
Wall Membrane 6. Which organelle contains instructions for
directing the cell's functions?
1 No Yes Yes
AA
2 Yes Yes No B B
3 No Yes No c c
D D S 7.1.c
3. Which organism is most likely an animal? 7. In which organelle is food energy converted to
A Organism 1 energy that the cell can use?
B Organism 2 AA
C Organism 3 B B
D None of the organisms is an animal. s 7 .1.b c c
4. Which of the following statements about a D D s 7.1.d
cell's membrane is true?
A Only small molecules can pass through the
membrane.
B Only water molecules can pass through the
membrane. 8. How are plant and animal cells similar? How
C Only food molecules can pass through the are they different? Make a list of the different
membrane. organelles in each cell. Explain how each
D Some substances can pass through the organelle is vital to the life and function of a
membrane while others cannot. s 7.5 plant or animal. S 7.5

Chapter 3 "+ .111