CREATIVE & CRITICAL THINKING

CREATIVE THINKING

Refers to the formation of possible solutions to a problem/or possible explanations of a phenomenon.

It entails bringing into being of something which did not exist there before, whether as a product,
process or thought, or working on the old with the view to produce a harmonized new.

How creativity is exhibited/evidence

Invent something new—which has never been in existence

Invent something existing somewhere BUT unbeknownst to you

Invent a new process for doing something

Reapply an existing process or product into a new/different market

Develop a new way of looking at something. In other words bringing a new idea into existence

Change someone else’s perspective i.e. their way of looking at something

NB

1. In a way it can be said that all of us are creative in some sort, because we are constantly
changing the ideas/views we hold over certain things, whether our own personal views of
ourselves, others, or the world around us.
2. Creativity does not have to be about developing or bringing something new to the world, like
creating a new product. Rather, it is more to do with developing something new to ourselves
with a view of making our situations better; when we change ourselves, the world changes with
us both in the way it affects us and how it is changed by our new ideas/actions

Creativity, it is expected, will help us as individuals, institutions, organizations, and globally, thus leading
to an improvement in the quality of our thinking output.

EXAMPLE

We engage in creative thinking when we come up with new, constructive ideas; as well as the merging
of ideas not merged before.

Brainstorming is a good form of creative thinking. This is seen when we merge someone else’s ideas
with our own to create a new one—in this case the idea(s) of others become stimuli for our own mental
growth.

TYPES OF CREATIVE THINKING

 1. Accidental—this is when one does not use any special techniques for enhancing creative
thinking, thus accidental, a chance happening where you think about something in a certain way
and then realizing there is a beneficial change as a result. It is non-intentional
2. Deliberate/intentional—this is where change occurs through pure use of intelligence and logical
progression.

Unlike the former which is accidental, the latter will produce the desired products to develop and
improve upon.

WHAT IS CRITICAL THINKING?

According to Diane Halpern (1996). Thought and Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking, Diane
says that CT is the use of those cognitive skills/strategies that increase the probability of a desired
outcome. Thus it describes thinking that is (i) purposeful (ii) reasoned and (iii) goal-directed. It is the kind
of thinking involved in solving problems, formulating inferences, calculating likelihoods (scenarios), and
making decisions when the thinker is using/employing skills that are thoughtful and effective for the
particular context and type of thinking task (iv) it also involves evaluating the thinking process—the
reasoning that went into the conclusion we have arrived at. CT is sometimes called directed thinking
because it focuses on a directed outcome.

Daniel Kurland (1995). I Know What It Says…What does it Mean?: CT is concerned with reason,
intellectual honesty, and open-mindedness, as opposed to emotionalism, intellectual laziness, and
closed-mindedness.

CT involves: following evidence where it leads; considering all possibilities; relying on reason rather than
emotion; being precise; considering a variety of possible view points and explanations; weighing the
effects of motives and biases; being concerned more with finding the truth than with being right; not
rejecting unpopular views out rightly; being aware of one’s own prejudices and biases, and yet not
allowing them to sway one’s judgment.

IN sum(based on the above): critical thinking can be said to be the intellectually disciplined process of
actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information
gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning or communication, as a
guide to belief and action.

In its exemplary form, it is based on universal intellectual values such as clarity, accuracy, precision,
consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, and fairness, among others.

It entails the examination of those structures/elements of thought implicit in all reasoning: purpose,
problem, or question-at-issue, assumptions, concepts, empirical grounding, reasoning leading to
conclusions, implications and consequences, objections from alternative viewpoints, and frame of
reference.
CT can be incorporated in a family of interwoven modes of thinking, among them: scientific thinking,
mathematical thinking, dialectical thinking, anthropological thinking, economic thinking, moral thinking,
and philosophical thinking.

BACKGROUND HISTORY OF CREATIVE & CRITICAL THINKING

The intellectual roots of CCT are traceable, ultimately, to the teaching practice and vision of Socrates,
almost 2500 years ago.

Socrates discovered that by a method of systematic probing questionings, people could not rationally
justify their claims to knowledge and/or beliefs.

Confused meanings, inadequate evidence, self-contradictory beliefs all seemed to lurk beneath smooth
but largely empty rhetoric. He also established that one cannot depend on those in authority for sound
knowledge and insight. One could have power and status and still be deeply irrational and confused.

What he found to be important:

-asking deep questions that probe our thinking—only then is an idea worthy of belief.

-seeking evidence

-closely examining reasoning and assumptions

-analyzing basic concepts

-tracing out implications not only of what is said, but what’s done as well

-his method: Socratic questioning is the best known CCT teaching strategy.

In the Socratic mode of Questioning, Socrates highlights the need in thinking for: clarity of thought,
precision, consistency.

Therefore Socrates set the agenda for the tradition of CCT, namely, to reflectively question common
beliefs and explanations; carefully distinguish those beliefs that are reasonable and logical from those
which lack adequate evidence/rational foundation.

From Socrates we come to Plato. He followed closely his master’s footsteps. Plato was followed by
Aristotle, who was followed by the Greek skeptics. The Greek skeptics emphasized the distinction
between appearance and reality. Things are not always as they appear to us.

-only a trained mind can see through the way things look to us on the surface (delusive appearance) to
the way they really are beneath the surface (the deeper reality).

From this ancient Greek tradition emerged the need for anyone who wanted to understand the deeper
realities: to think systematically, to trace implications broadly and deeply, comprehensively.

In the Middle/Medieval Ages (5-15th century), the tradition of systematic CCT was embodied in the
writings and teachings of thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas (Summa Theologica).
In the Renaissance (15th, 16th century)—flood of scholars in Europe began to think critically about
religion, art, society, human nature, law, freedom, etc.

EXAMPLES: Francis Bacon (England). He talked about the misuse of the mind in search of knowledge;
Rene Descartes (France)—developed a method of critical thought based on the principle of systematic
doubt. Every part of thinking, he argued, should be questioned, doubted, tested. In Italy, we had
Machiavelli, in his work, The Prince. Others include Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Copernicus, Galileo,
Robert Boyle, Sir Isaac Newton, French enlightenment—Montesquieu, Voltaire; Adam Smith—Wealth
of Nations; Immanuel Kant (Critique of Pure Reason), 19th century Karl Marx, Darwin and the Descent of
Man; Sigmund Freud (Oedipus complex); 20th century—William Graham Sumner, John Dewey
(pragmatism).

TRAITS OF CRITICAL & CREATIVE THINKING

-asking questions—intelligent questions

-defining a problem

-examining evidence

-analyzing assumptions and biases

-avoiding emotional reasoning

-considering other interpretations

-tolerating ambiguity

ESSENTIAL ASPECTS OF CCT

1. Dispositions—critical & c thinkers are skeptical, open-minded. They value fair-mindedness,

respect for evidence and reasoning, respect for clarity and precision; they look at different
points of view; will change positions when reason persuades them to do so..
2. Criteria—cct requires a criteria, e.g., conditions to be met for something to be judged as worth
believing—such a belief must be based on relevant, accurate facts; credible sources; unbiased,
free from logical fallacies; logically consistent, strong reasoning
3. Arguments—a statement/proposition with supporting evidence. CCT involves identifying,
evaluating and constructing arguments
4. Reasoning—the ability to infer conclusions from one or multiple premises. Doing so requires
examining logical relationships among statements or data.
5. Point of view—the way one views the world; which shapes one’s construction of meaning. In
search for understanding, CCthinkers view phenomena from many different points of view.
6. Procedures for applying criteria—while other types of thinking use a general procedure, CCT has
many procedures, including:-asking questions, making judgments, identifying assumptions
VALUE, IMPORTANCE OF CCT

1. Inculcates habits of thought—the ability to think outside the box and use reason as the
locomotive to existence
2. Encourages breadth of vision—the ability to see things from different points of view
3. Gives a sense of self-perspective in our activities and lives. The ability to examine alternatives
and choose those relevant to ensure we live an examined life worth living
4. Its concerns are very abstract but with immense practical value: the ability to translate ideas
(theory) into practice through action
5. Enhances one’s ability to question deeply one’s own framework of thought
6. Its grasp can greatly enhance one’s ability to express oneself clearly and to formulate and
respond to arguments effectively both in speech and writing
7. Provides one with general problem-solving skills, skills in analyzing concepts, definitions,
arguments, and problems
8. Equips one with the ability to reconstruct sympathetically and imaginatively the strongest
versions of points of view and frameworks of thought opposed to one’s own
9. Encourages one to synthesize/bring together a range of different views into one more
comprehensive and coherent position
10. Enables one to organize ideas and issues, and to extract what’s central to an issue from a mass
of information
11. It helps us in uncovering biases and prejudices
12. It is a path to freedom from half-truths and deceptions as it opens up one’s mind in seeing
things independent of emotions, native biases and the different perspectives
13. Role in social change—institutions in any society—courts, schools, businesses, political parties,
etc, are products of a certain way of thinking
14. Aids one in recognizing when and in what respect one’s own views may be incorrect, and what
must be revised or discarded, and what to be retained
15. Improves one’s communication skills through improving one’s ability to present ideas in well-
constructed, systematic arguments, to express what’s unique about one’s views, and to explain
difficult material.

CREATIVE CRITICAL THINKING AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH PHILOSOPHY

CCT is a subset of the larger discipline called philosophy. Philosophy is a practically relevant subject
because much of what is learnt in philosophy can be applied in just about any domain of human life.
Reason? (i) Because philosophy touches on many subjects (Unlimited in its subject matter); (ii) the
methods of philosophy are not restricted to philosophy—they can be used in any field
GENERAL USES OF PHILOSOPHY

1. General problem solving—like CCT, philosophy enhances one’s problem solving capacities; and it
does it unlike any other human activity

EGS

ANALYSING of Concepts

DEFINING of Concepts/Ideas

ARGUMENTS and Problems

IMPROVES one’s capacity to organize ideas and issues; enables one both distinguish fine differences
between views and to discover common ground between opposing positions

2. Communication skills—like CCT, PHL contributes uniquely to the development of expressive and
communicative powers. It does this by providing some of the basic tools of self-expression. This
include: skills in presenting ideas through well-constructed, systematic arguments—style that
other fields hardly use, or they do, then less extensively
-it helps one to express what is distinctive of one’s view; enhances one’s ability to explain
difficult material; helps one eliminate ambiguities and vagueness from one’s writing and speech

3. Persuasive Powers—PHL is a training ground in the construction of clear formulation, good

arguments, and appropriate examples
-enables one develop the ability to be convincing—where you learn to build, then defend your
own views
-enables one appreciate competing opinions, and to indicate forcefully why one considers one’s
own views preferable to alternatives
-these capacities can be developed through: reading & writing philosophy, and through
philosophical dialogue, which is so much a part of a thoroughgoing philosophical education

4. Writing Skills—good writing is part and parcel of any philosophy course and exercise. Many
assigned texts are good literary essays

-philosophers examine, challenge texts

 i. There is comparative writing—here the emphasis is on fairness to the alternative
positions
ii. There is argumentative writing—comes about by developing student’s ability to
establish their own views
iii. There’s Descriptive writing—comes as a result of detailed portrayal of concrete
examples
iv. There is Originality of thought—here students are encouraged to use their own
imaginations and develop their own ideas
5. Sound Methods of Research & Analysis—emphasizes clear formulation of ideas and problems;
selection of relevant data, objective methods for assessing ideas and proposals
-It also emphasizes development of a sense of the new directions suggested by the hypotheses
and questions one encounters in doing research
-philosophers regularly build on both the successes and failures of others
-a person of philosophical training can excel in any given field

6. Philosophy helps in the understanding of other disciplines—many important/fundamental

questions about a discipline, such as the nature of its concepts and its relation to other
disciplines, do not belong to that discipline, are not usually pursued in it, and are philosophical
in nature
-understanding the Arts—PHL of Literature and PHL of History are crucial
-in education, we have PHL of education
-in addition, philosophy helps in assessing the various standards of evidence used by other
disciplines
-since all fields of knowledge employ reasoning and must set standards of evidence, logic and
epistemology have a general bearing on all these standards

7. Studies have also shown that Employers want, and reward many of the capacities which the
study of philosophy develops and enhances: e.g., ability to solve problems, effective
communication, organizing of ideas/issues, to see two sides of the coin, breaking down of
complex data
-these capacities are transferable in nature—can be transferred from PHL to non-PHL areas, and
from non-PHL field to another non-PHL field
-hence people trained in PHL can do many tasks, can cope with change, move into new careers
with ease

8. Philosophical training provides a good background for dealing with the ethical issues of our
day---like family, professional, faith, corruption, etc.
9. Very useful in careers such as the legal profession, the business world, journalism, science,
medical profession
In law, there is the prominent role played by arguments and the application of the general rules
of logic is obvious in a field such as law. Most law schools are very receptive to students with a
background in philosophy; many businesses have a strong desire for employees who have
 developed their thinking and communication skills. Business people must formulate, clarify
problem, analyse potential solutions, defend positions in a clear, rational way
-Journalists can also benefit by being able to present clear and rational analyses of various
situations.
-by developing philosophical thought, students develop the intellectual skills essential to
meeting the challenges of their chosen professions, their immediate society, and the general
society as a whole.

TOOLS/STANDARDS OF CCT

The Lecture seeks to help students understand the relevant instruments used in CCT when it comes to
analyzing, evaluation of arguments and the formulation of rational statements.

3 things to learn out of this lecture

1. Tools of Analysis—Dimensions of thinking

2. Tools of Evaluation—Universal Intellectual Standards
3. Tools of Transformation—valuable Intellectual traits

Our focus, first, will be on Tools of Analysis.

INRODUCTION

We can now acknowledge as true fact that CCT by its very nature requires a systematic monitoring of
thought, and that for anything to be critical/creative, it must not be accepted at face value but must be
analyzed and assessed for clarity, accuracy, relevance, depth, breadth, and logicalness. Also, it is now
true that by its very nature CCT requires, for example, the recognition that all reasoning occurs within
points of view and frames of reference, that all reasoning proceeds from some goals and objectives, has
an informational base, that all data when used in reasoning must be interpreted, that interpretation
involves concepts, that concepts entails assumptions, and that all basic inferences in thought have
implications, and that each of these dimensions of thinking must be monitored, and that problems of
thinking can easily occur in any of them.

This realization necessitates the need to comprehend various tools used in CCT to make our reasoning
clear and explicit.

The CCT Tools of Analysis are also referred to as Dimensions of thinking. These entail those essential
components that must be taken into consideration when confronted with issues that beg for an answer.

The Tools of Analysis deal with the informational basis to which we can proceed in determining a
solution based on inclusive and conclusive knowledge. Among these tools include
1. Purpose—all reasoning has a purpose. Thus one should take time to state your purpose clearly.
Distinguish your purpose from other related purposes
Check periodically to be sure you are still on target
Choose significant and realistic purposes

2. Issue, Problem, Question at hand—all reasoning is an attempt to figure out something, settle
some question, solve a problem
--thus one should take time to clearly and precisely state the question at issue
-express the question in several ways to clarify its meaning and purpose
-break the question into sub-qtns
-identify if the question has one right answer, is a matter of opinion, or requires reasoning from
more than one point of view

3. Assumptions—all reasoning is based on assumptions. For this to happen, one must clearly
identify his/her assumptions and determine whether they are justifiable or not
Consider how these assumptions are shaping his/her point of view

4. Point of View—all reasoning is done from some point of view. As a CCTker, identify your point of
view; seek other points of view and identify their strengths and weaknesses; strive to be fair
minded in evaluating all points of view
5. Data, Information, Evidence—all reasoning is based on data, information, and Evidence. Hence
one should ensure the following:
-restrict your claims to those supported by the data one has
-search for information that opposes your position as well as information that support it
-make sure that all information used is clear, accurate and relevant to the question at issue
-make sure you have gathered sufficient information

6. Concepts, Ideas—all reasoning is expressed through, shaped by ideas, Concepts. Thus one
should:
-identify key concepts, explain them clearly
-consider alternative concepts or alternative definitions to concepts
-make sure you are using concepts with care and precision

7. Inferences, Interpretations—all reasoning contains inferences or interpretations by which we

draw conclusions and give meaning to data. Thus one should ensure:
-infer only what the evidence implies
-check inference for their consistency with each other
-identify assumptions which lead you to think inferences

8. Implications, Consequences—all reasoning lead somewhere, or has implications and

consequences. Therefore one should:
 -trace the implications and consequences that follow from your reasoning
-search for the negative as well as positive consequences/implications
-consider all possible consequences.

With these in mind, we can now look at some intellectual stds which constitute a necessary condition to
proper and clear thinking—the CCT Tools of Evaluation.

How do you know you are critical & creative thinker? By using or evaluating yourself using the CCT tools
of evaluation—they are the intellectual standards constituting necessary condition for proper, clear
thinking. The CCT tools of evaluation are also called Universal Intellectual Standards. They are the
standards which must be applied to thinking whenever one is interested in checking the quality of
reasoning about a problem, issue, or situation.

To think critically & creatively entails having command of these standards:

1. Clarity—consider the following questions: could you elaborate further on that point? Could you
express that point in another way? Could you give me an illustration? Could you give me an
example? They are all pointing us to clarity. Clarity is the gateway standard. If a statement is
unclear, we can’t determine whether it is accurate, relevant or not.
In fact we can’t tell anything about it because we don’t yet know what it is sayng

Consider the following qtn: what is thinking? This QTN seems unclear. To address the QTN
adequately, we need to have a clearer understanding of what the person asking the question is
considering the “problem” to be. A clearer/better qtn might be: what can the lecturers of CCT
do to ensure that the process both succeeds and answers to the needs of different disciplines
and across the curriculum?

2. Accuracy—is that really true? How could we check that? How could we find out if that’s true? A
statement can be clear but not accurate
3. Precision—could you give more details? Could you be more specific? A statement can be both
clear and accurate, but lacking in being precise
EG Saddam supports terrorism
We don’t know how he did this—whether by training, arming, etc.

4. Relevance—how is that connected to the question? How does that bear on the issue? Is your
reasoning addressing what you set out to achieve? A statement can be clear, accurate, precise,
but lacking relevance to the question at issue
5. Depth—how does your answer address the complexities in the question? How are you taking
into account the problems in the question? Is that dealing with the most significant factors? A
statement can be clear, accurate, precise, and relevant, but superficial (lacking in depth).
EG. the statement: “Just Say NO”—often used to discourage kids/teens from using drugs is clear,
accurate, precise and relevant, but lacking in depth because it treats a complex issue superficially, failing
to deal with the complexities of the issue.

6. Breadth—do we need to consider another point of view? Is there another way to look at this
question? What would this look like from a conservative standpoint? How about from a liberal
standpoint? What would this look like from the point of view of ….?
--a line of reasoning may be clear, accurate, precise, relevant, and deep, but lacking breadth.

7. Logic—does this really make sense? Does that follow from what you said? But before you
implied this and now you are saying something different, how can both be true?

THE CREATIVE PROCESS

The human mind usually has two phases

1. Produces ideas—CCT is about production of ideas, some original and profound, others not so
profound
2. Judges ideas—CCT involves a critical examination of those ideas, the refining of the best ones so
as to improve on them.

MISCONCEPTIONS

There are some misconceptions/false impressions about the creative process. We will look at a few
major ones

1. Doing your own thing—this is not always a mark of creativity—having to do with releasing
impulses, relaxing tensions, being alone somewhere just chilling as you mind your own business.
Creativity is about the willingness to break away from established patterns, try new things.
However, this does not mean being different for the heck of it or as an act of self-
indulgence/absorption.
 Ignoring accumulated knowledge of the past and being limited to knowledge of the present are
both wrong—creativity is none of these—it is to combine knowledge with imagination. Has
nothing to do with locking yourself out from the rest of the world. Not a monastery lifestyle.

2. Specific intellectual talent or high IQ required—it is not true that only few exceptional people
are creative.
Research has shown that creativity is not about having special talents, but the use of talents that
virtually all of us have except we never get to fully utilize them
The IQ test, research has shown, was never meant to measure creativity. Hence high IQ is not a
measure of creative ability, neither low score an absence.
Most of achievers have low IQs

3. Use of drugs and its role in creativity—drugs harm creativity only because they compromise our
judgment; also, they provoke hallucinatory activities, not the intellectual and stimulating ones.
We don’t need artificial stimulation of the mind, but controlled rational direction.
Drugs and liquor as stimulants is a misconception that draws its roots from bohemian mystique
philosophy—that dissipated lifestyle somehow is liberating, casts off restraints, and opens the
mind to new ideas: narrow streets, shaggy hair, undisciplined lifestyle, etc; these have little to
do with being creative.

4. Creativity an expression of mental health—creative people are not lunatics, weird, crazy people.
Creative person is one who has sound mental health; associated with wholeness, honesty,
integrity, enthusiasm, high motivation, etc.

TRAITS OF CREATIVE PEOPLE

These are among the most common traits

1. DYNAMIC—creative people are dynamic—they don’t allow the mind to become dull, passive,
accepting the norms, unquestioning.
They keep their curiosity burning, or rekindle it. One of the ways this manifests is playfulness.
They are like children playing toys & building blocks—creative people toy with ideas, arranging
them in new combinations; looking at ideas from different perspectives.

ISAAC NEWTON: “I don’t know what I may appear to the world; but to myself I seem to have
been only like a boy playing on the seashore, and diverting myself in now and then finding….a
smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary whilst the great ocean of truth lay all
undiscovered before me.”
 Thus playfulness, and the dynamism it is a part of, provide people with a richer and varied
assortments of ideas than the average person enjoys.

2. DARING—creative people are daring. For a creative person, thinking is an adventure. They are
open to new ideas, experiences. They are not tied to preconceived notions and prejudices; are
less inclined to accept prevailing views, less narrow in their perspectives; unlikely to conform
with the thinking of those around them. Bold conceptions—they see big things, are not afraid to
toy with unpopular ideas, even outrageous possibilities.
Like Galileo, Columbus, the Wright brothers, Edison, they are open to new ideas.
The daring attribute can be an asset—are less susceptible to face saving than most people;
willing to face unpleasant experiences, they apply their curiosity, learn from experiences, e.g.,
mistakes, thus less likely to repeat some of them.

3. RESOURSEFULNESS—creative people have the ability to act effectively, being able to

conceptualize the approach that solves the problem, even when it looks scary to others, even
when the resources are scarce.
This ability can’t be captured by an IQ test yet practical intelligence needs it.

4. HARD WORK—creative people are hardworking:

William Gordon: “all problems present themselves to the mind as threats of failure.”
“Only those who are unwilling to be intimidated by the prospect of failure, and who are
determined to succeed no matter what effort is required, have a chance to succeed.”
Creative people are prepared to make/put the required effort/commitment to make things
work.

Thomas Edison: Genius is 99% perspiration and 1% inspiration”

George Bernard Shaws: “when I was a young man I observed that 9 out of 10 things I did were
failures. I didn’t want to be a failure, so I did 10 times more work.”

Part of this has to do with being absorbed in a problem thoroughly, giving it undivided attention.
Their competitiveness is also insane. They don’t compete with others but with the idea.

5. INDEPENDENCE—creative people are independent. Every new idea we think of separates us

from other people; every new idea we express separates us from others 10 times more.
Those who are dependent on others (esp. for identity) are frightened by new ideas, because
new ideas, especially those expressed separates you from others.
Non-independent people don’t entertain, let alone express new ideas—the fear of rejection
scares them stiff.
Creative people enjoy acceptance, company, friendship, support. But they don’t need them as
much as others do. Instead of looking to others for approval and affirmation, they look within
themselves. This means they are less afraid looking odd, awkward; they are self-confident, free
to speak and act independently.

STAGES IN THE CREATIVE PROCESS

Being creative requires that one behaves/acts creatively. But what does this mean? It means
addressing the challenges we face with imagination and originality. Briefly stated, it is
demonstrating skill in applying the creative process.

There are 4 std stages

Searching for challenges, expressing the particular problem/issue, investigating it, producing a
range of ideas.

STAGE 1: searching for challenges

Creativity is about meeting challenges, imaginatively, effectively, and with originality.

Challenges are everywhere—obvious problems, issues etc

EGs. Unruly roommate, controversial abortion debate. But not all problems are obvious, some
are subtle, unnoticeable. Some are simply opportunities to be improved, not problems.

The significance of this stage: developing a habit of searching for challenges as one’s practice.
NB: we can be creative only in response to the challenges that we perceive.

STAGE 2: expressing the problem/issue. The objective here is to find the best expression of the
problem/issue, i.e., one that yields the most helpful ideas
HENRY HAZLITT: “a problem, properly stated is partly solved.”

Be open/consider as many expressions as possible; expressions are the avenue of thought. Don’t
see problems from one perspective, you risk closing off other avenues of thought.

STAGE 3: investigating the problem/issue

QTN: what are you trying to achieve? To obtain information necessary to deal with a
problem/issue. In some cases this involves going into the archives of the past experiences,
observations for the right raw materials, and ‘importing’ them into the current situation.
While in some cases new information may be needed, fresh experiences and observation, like
talking to different people, who are knowledgeable, experienced, doing library research etc.
 STAGE 4: producing ideas. This is coming up with ideas enough to solve the problem/the action
to take or way forward. There are 2 common obstacles here:

a. Tendency, sometimes unconscious, to limit your ideas to common, familiar, habitual

responses, blocking uncommon, unfamiliar ones
b. Temptation not to produce ideas too soon—research has shown that good ideas come as
work on the current one

How do you know that you have a creative idea? Creative idea, is imaginative and effective

APPLYING CREATIVITY TO PROBLEMS AND ISSUES

Solving problems and resolving issues are the 2 broad ways creativity can be applied.

a. Inventing new products—the hammer, the fork, clock, electric blanket etc. virtually every
product we see around, first occurred as an idea in a creative mind
New ideas are occurring everyday

b. Finding new uses for existing things—no matter how old something is, there is always a new use
for it. Recycling of plastics, bottles, papers, etc
Robots can do telemarketing, ATM machine, drive, fly jets

c. Improving things—nothing of human invention is perfect—everything can be improved, made

better.
EGs., the development of light from prehistoric torch to the latest flashlight, the development of
the bed, camera, phones, cars, computers
Money transfer systems: Money Gram, Mpesa, Western Union

d. Inventing or redefining a concept—concepts are not fixed or eternal. They are invented, just like
products or services, concepts of taxation, like tax returns, tax evations, PO BOX, all these are
new concepts, mobile banking,

SEARCHING FOR CHALLENGES: CURIOSITY

CUSRIOSITY: Active response to life or experiences

People fail to be creative because they are mentally reactive, rather than active/proactive. That is, they
go through each day unimaginatively, oblivious of problems and issues until someone else solves them
or draws their attention to them; we are unaware of the opportunities around us until someone else
makes a great achievement out of them. When this happens, we become jealous of others and attribute
it to luck. Well, luck, according to Robert Crawford: “is often simply a sensing of an opportunity—an
opportunity that is there for all of us to see.”

-it is one thing to possess thinking skills; but it is quite another to use them in our everyday situations. By
the end of this course, no doubt you will have mastered the various skills of CCT. However, this will not
mean much if you haven’t developed the desire to use those skills, coupled by heightened sensitivity to
the challenges & opportunities around you. This discussion will help in meeting this need.

IMPORTANCE OF CURIOSITY

Curiosity is useful in every stage of CCT, actually indispensable. Curiosity is not a quality reserved for a
gifted few. Virtually every child is boundlessly curious.

List down some of the questions you asked your mom when you were between 4-5 years old, this will
help you recall your own childhood and state of mind you felt comfortable with at that time. Research
has shown that children are impressively curious.

HOW CURIOSITY IS LOST

QUESTION: How come the level of curiosity gets lost? Where does it usually go? What happens?

Children who would usually bombard parents with questions often lose the curiosity by the time they
turn 14. How does this happen? A number of explanations

1. Parents grow weary of answering, begin to discourage, caution, reprimand them: “don’t ask too
many questions.” Warned: “curiosity killed the cat.”
2. School: as kids enter school, they encounter the teacher: has little time to answer questions;
there are too many boys/girls in the room; too many things to be done with a structured
schedule to be followed, lots of material to be covered.
3. Media—TV programs are geared towards entertaining, not inform, educate, enlighten the
audience. They are not there to help explain complex issues. Thereby they foster a passive
spectator mentality.
4. Publishing industry does the same.,e.g., popular magazines and TV programs promote sensual
curiosity about intimate details of celebrities rather than healthy curiosity about the challenges
of life. Book publishers like to talk about fiction rather than non-fiction, the physical rather than
intellectual development.
5. Diet & body-building books are marketed with enthusiasm, and offer more on dressing, office
politics, romance.
6. Religion—little room for questions; thrives on passivity.
In the end, the suppression of curiosity begins in childhood, continues indefinitely. The end result: most
people lose the habit of raising meaningful questions about the world around them.

REGAINING CURIOSITY

There are a number of approaches that can be used to regain curiosity

1. Be observant—don’t be oblivious to what’s happening around you. Don’t be over consumed

with your personal matters to the extent you lose sight/sense of other things. To test how
observant you are, consider the following questions:
a. Does the lecturer wear ties every class?
b. What color are your mother/dad’s eyes?
c. How many petrol stations are in your neighborhood?
d. How many steps/stairs are there at the RU Admin. Block?
e. How many churches are there in your neighborhood?
f. What color are the RU buses?
g. What does the RU logo say?

Most people are surprised how little they know about supposedly familiar people, places, things. You
have heard people who have lived all their lives in NBI but cant give directions to a stranger. It is because
they travel same root in a daze, just like robts.

Begin looking, listening more closely at people, places, things. Pick up details you would usually miss.
Next time you are in the cafeteria, watch how people behave. Watch how people with company and
those without behave. Do they seem more/less relaxed? What clues do they give about their feelings?

When in a group, are there speech patterns that are repeated? Do certain people tend to dominate? Is
there a gender trend? NB remember to observe yourself as well, not just other people.

2. Look for Imperfections—remember your parents: don’t expect things to be perfect; learn to
accept things as they are—they could have been worse; but there is no real contradiction here.
Seeking imperfections doesn’t mean one is perpetually dissatisfied, is a complainer about life. It
means noting the areas that may need improvement.
Research has shown that productive thinkers & creative people have a keen sense of
imperfection and that this becomes a key factor that drives/pushes them towards the pursuit to
want to improve. They recognize that all ideas, systems, processes, concepts, tools, are all
inventions, therefore open to improvement. In some cases, they go out of their way to find the
imperfections
Look around you at any manufactured object: the classroom board, projector, chairs, bed,
clothes, car, library’s cataloguing systems, rules governing your favorite sports, student’s clubs,
devolved system of gov’t, etc; all of these in their present form evolved from earlier inventions.
Every step in their evolution was an attempt to overcome imperfection
3. Note your own and others’ Dissatisfactions—each day comes with its share of disappointments,
frustrations. We can’t avoid them. But we can work with them. Common response to such
happenings: anger, frustration, resentment, anxiety. Though this is probably human, thus
normal, many people tend to want to dwell on them.
From today, take note of the dissatisfactions you feel, like when your professor’s quiz catch you
unawares, or when your younger sister orders you around so she can look important, or the
disgust felt when your car refuses to start at the most inappropriate moment, the impatience of
having to stand at the line at the cafeteria; also, as you converse with people, listen to the
expressions of dissatisfactions, including ones mentioned only in passing.

Instead of wallowing, and surrendering to these feelings of dissatisfactions, pose, remind

yourself that when they are viewed positively, every dissatisfaction is an indication that there is
a need which is not being met, take it as a challenge, consider how the situation can best be
improved, to creative a positive idea.

4. Search for Causes—people who make breakthroughs, and achieve insights are those who are
filled with a sense of wonder; their wondering extends to the causes of things, how things got to
be the way they are, how they work, etc. great discoveries come as a result of wonder—gravity
is a very good example. What made Isaac Newton curious? Key to finding a cause is to be alert
to any significant situation or event you can’t explain satisfactorily. Practice this alertness:
watching TV, you see news that crime of passion has occurred. Someone has killed a lover or
spouse they were about to reveal his/her secret life. Why would someone do such a thing to
someone they love? What does this tell you about human nature?
5. Be sensitive to Implications—do you recall throwing little stones at a still pond and watch the
ripples reach out farther and farther until they touch the shore, the other end? Same thing with
ideas. Every discovery, investigation, new perspective or interpretation makes an impact whose
extent is seldom realized at first glance. But good thinkers usually recognize the impact before
others, they are sensitive to implications. EG Do you think some people have a disposition to
commit crime, thus biological? What do you think? Measuring brain waves, heart rates, skin
electrical properties, can these predict a future criminal behavior, say 10 years prior? If you are a
prisoner, do you have a right to hunger strike? What’s the implication? Is suicide legal? Can you
be tried for murder in the event that it fails?

6. Recognize the Opportunity in Controversy—many people do nothing than rant and rave when a
controversial issue is mentioned, rambling about the wisdom on their side and demonizing their
opponents. They miss the real opportunity in the controversy: the opportunity to be
adventurous, to be able to explore new perspectives, enrich one’s understanding. What is a
controversial issue?—a matter about which informed people disagree. This means there is a
basis for the disagreement. Either because the facts are open to more than one interpretation,
there are competing values each side is appealing, etc. This means neither side possesses all the
truth, each side has a part of it? What does the latest evidence suggest? There is a challenge and
opportunity—what is the shape of the earth? Circle? How old is the universe? Until recently,
most scientists agreed the age of the universe was 20 million years. Data available at the time
supported this view. Most people considered it a closed chapter. In 1982, however a team of
 astrologers produced some new evidence suggesting the universe is about 10 billion years old.
This means the controversy is alive again, and with it the opportunities for discoveries.

THE ROLE OF QUESTIONS & CRITICISM IN GOOD THINKING

Questions play important role in thinking. Best thinkers ask questions. Today we want to learn the role
of questions in thinking.

Importance of Questions in Thinking

Good thinkers are good at questioning

1. Thinking is driven by questions, not answers. It is the questions that lead thinkers to start
looking for answers. Every intellectual field is born out of a cluster of questions—physics,
biology, communication, diplomacy/IR, education, nursing/medicine etc.
2. Every field of knowledge stays alive to the extent that fresh questions are generated and taken
seriously as the driving force in thinking. So once a new idea is generated, we’ve got to keep it
alive and fresh by asking new questions to improve and make it better. Any field that won’t
pursue new answers because of questions risks become obsolete.

3. Questions define tasks, they express problems, and delineate issues. Answers, on the other
hand, signifies the end to a thought process, unless it is an answer that generates further
questions that makes thought continue in its life.

4. Thinking and learning occur because we have questions. Questions cause us to think and learn.
Where there are no questions the pursuit of thinking and answers is muted.

For instance biologists ask these questions: what are we made of? How do the human body
work? What is life? What are proteins? Enzymes, what are these? How do vitamins interact with
chemistry in the body to produce healthier body functions? How do cancer cells differ from
normal cells? What kinds of foods interact with the body’s chemistry to lessen the likelihood of
the dev’t of cancerous cells?

5. Quality of questions determine quality of thinking & answers. Good questions equals good
thinking and answers or solutions.
6. If you are a teacher, trainer, or instructor of some sort, then there is an important relationship
between learning and asking questions. It helps to bring clarity, being able to communicate well.

QUESTIONING OUR QUESTIONS

When you meet a person for the first time, what information do you seek about them? What are the
things you want to know?
What do these questions, and the information sought tell you about your values and concerns? In
addition, what do they tell you about the nature of the relationship you intend to form?

Consider the following types of questions from our previous discussions about analytical & evaluative,
intellectual standards of reasoning

Questions of purpose—force us to define our task

Questions of information—force us to look at our sources of information as well as qlty of information

Questions of interpretation—force us to examine how we give meaning to information and to consider

alternative ways of giving meaning

Questions of assumption—force us to examine what we are taking for granted

Questions of implication—force us to follow where our thinking is leading us

Questions of point of view—force us to examine our point of view, and to consider other relevant points
of view

Questions of accuracy—force us to evaluate and test for truth and correctness of our information

Questions of precision—force us to give details and be specific

Questions of consistency—force us to examine our thinking for any contradictions

Questions of logic—force us to make sure our thinking is all adding up and making sense

ACTIVITY 1

What are your purposes and goals in life? Write them down

To what extent are you questioning your purpose and goals in life?

Are any of the questions you are focused on in your life deep questions?

What is your view on abortion?

Do you ever question your point of view above?

Do you ever wonder whether your point of view is keeping you from seeing things from an opposing
perspective?

Do you ever question the logicalness of your thinking? When?

What did answering the above questions, and your reflection on them, tell you about yourself and about
your habits of questioning and thinking?

DEAD QUESTIONS
The best thinkers ask live questions—questions that lead to knowledge and further questions that lead
to knowledge and yet further questions.

Isaac Newton at age 19 drew up a list of questions under 45 headings. His goal was to constantly
question the nature of matter, place, time, and motion.

NB Most students ask virtually none of the thought-stimulating or provoking types of questions. Most
tend to stick to dead questions such as: is this going to be on the test? This sort of question usually
implies the desire not to think at all.

The following are true

No questions (asked)=no understanding (achieved)

Superficial questions=superficial understanding

Unclear questions=unclear understanding

If you want to learn better and study better, then strive to ask questions that stimulate your thinking
because this leads to further questions

ACTIVITY 2: go read a book in the library for the purpose of generating questions. Only if you ask
questions while you read are you reading critically. Critical reading and passive reading are very
different. Read a paragraph, then list down the questions you come up with. Look back into the
paragraph and see if you can get answers from the text, from imagination, or even class discussion with
the lecturer.

ACTIVITY 3: would you consider yourself a skilled or deep questioner? How would you rate the overall
quality of the questions you ask (those that you share with others and the ones you keep to yourself).
Do you know anyone who you consider a deep questioner? If so, what makes you think this person is a
deep questioner?

CATEGORIES OF QUESTIONS

Categorization of questions helps us understand the kind of reasoning, direction a question is pointing
us to.

1. Questions of fact—factual questions are questions with one right answer

What is the boiling point of water?
What is the size of this room?
How does the hard drive in a computer operate?
How far is it from here to NY?

Whenever you approach a question, it is important to figure out what type it is. Is it a question
with one definite answer?

2. Questions of preference—these are questions with as many answers as there are different
human preferences (a category where mere subjective opinion rules). These are questions that
ask you to express a preference.
 Which of these do you prefer: a Christmas vacation in Mombasa or Kisumu?

What kind of hairstyle do you like?

Do you like to go to the movies?

What is your favorite type of food?

3. Questions of judgment—questions requiring reasoning, but with more than one defensible
answer. Are questions that make sense to debate; are questions with better or worse answers
(well reasoned or poorly reasoned answers). Here we seek for the best possible answer given a
wide range of possibilities

What is the best thing we can do to stop global warming?

Is abortion morally justifiable?
Should we abolish capital punishment?
What do you think of castrating rapists to stem rape crimes?
What can be done to significantly reduce the number of people who become addicted to illegal
drugs?
How can we best address the problem of corruption in Kenya today?

NB

Only the second category of qtns (qtn of preference) calls for sheer subjective opinion. The third kind is
a matter of reasoned judgment. We should rationally evaluate answers to the question using universal
intellectual stsd—eg., clarity, consistency, depth, logicalness, etc. Some people think of all judgments as
either fact or subjective preference. They ask questions that elicit either a factual response or an
opinion. Yet, the kind of judgment most important for educated people—and the kind we most want to
be good at, falls into the third, now almost totally ignored category: reasoned judgment.

As a judge in a court of law, you are expected to engage in reasoned judgment. As a judge, you are
expected to render a judgment and also to base that judgment on sound, relevant evidence and valid
legal reasoning. A judge is under the ethical and legal obligation not to base his/her judgment on
subjective preferences, on her/his personal opinions.

Judgment based on sound reasoning goes beyond, and is never to be equated with, fact alone or mere
opinion alone. Facts are typically used in reasoning, but good reasoning does more than state facts.
Furthermore, a position that is well-reasoned is not to be described as simply “opinion.” Even when we
call a judge’s verdict an opinion, however, we expect and demand that it be based on sound, relevant
reasoning.

When qtns that require reasoned judgment are treated as matters of preference, counterfeit critical
thinking occurs. In that case, some people come to uncritically assume that everyone’s subjective
opinion is of equal value. This means their capacity to appreciate the importance of intellectual stds
diminishes. They ask questions such as these:
What if I don’t like these standards or rules? Why shouldn’t I use my own standards/rules?

Don’t I have a right to my own standards?

What if I am just an emotional person?

What if I like to follow my intuition?

What if I think spirituality is more important than reason?

What if I don’t believe in being “rational”?

When people reject qtns that call for reasoned judgment and deep thought, they fail to see the
difference between offering legitimate reasons and evidence in support of a view and simply asserting
the view as true.

However, intellectually responsible people recognize questions of judgment as those questions that
require the consideration of alternative ways of reasoning

SUM

Qtns call on us to do one of the following

a. To express a subjective preference

b. Establish an objective fact (within a well defined system)
c. Come up with the best of competing answers (generated by competing systems)

ACTIVITY 4

Make a random list of clear and precise questions (12-20). Then decide which questions are a matter of
fact, which ones are matters of subjective preference, and which questions require reasoning and
judgment.

THE ROLE OF CRITICISM

CCTkers have been described as “people with their heads in the clouds and their feet on the ground.”

The role of criticism in problem solving is important

1. We are never perfect in our solutions to problems. There is always room for improvement no
matter how creative the solution might be. Plus, even the best of ideas seldom occur in refined
form. Thus must be cleaned, cut, polished before their potential worth is realized.
2. In many cases, it takes procedures for solutions to be effected or implemented, for example the
approval of superiors, employers, peers, etc, or the potential beneficiaries. This means the best
ideas in the world are of little value until others are persuaded of its worth and buy into it.
3. It is important in resolving issues—a view point may seem eminently reasonable, yet contain
subtle flaws. Sometimes the flaws become evident once the idea has been acted upon. This is
 the reason we should subject our ideas to criticism before making a judgment. Criticism reduces
chances of error.

WHY ARE WE AVERSE TO SELF-CRITICISM

We are good at criticizing or finding fault with others. But we are never as hard or critical of ourselves.
We are prone to make mistakes, just like everyone else, the more reason we should be open to self-
criticism. We believe lies or inaccurate information; we believe the media, we are prone to
misunderstand accurate information, we believe rumors sometimes, carried by emotions, suffer lapses
in logic, etc.

1. Ego is inclined against self-criticism—once we are settled on an idea, we own it, it becomes “my
idea,” therefore must be good. In such a frame of mind, we are prepared to defend the idea
against all attacks, both internally and externally. The situation is like that of a dog with a dry
bone. The dog will fight to keep the bone even though it is worthless
2. Familiarity with the problem—makes it difficult to see where there is a problem. The longer one
works on a problem, we become accustomed to in its details, thus difficult to distance ourselves
from it, to take a step back and look at the situation more objectively.

OVERCOMING THESE OBSTACLES

1. Forcing yourself to examine things critically in disregard of the natural reaction or tendency to
see no flaws in one’s work or ideas
2. Turning your ego into an advantage—here we should try make the ego motivate, not
demotivate. Imagine how it would feel to have a serious flaw pointed out by someone else,
imagine this person is someone you don’t have high regard for. How would you feel having to
save face, the embarrassment and the shame? Such a mental picture ought to be good enough
motivation to continue evaluating your idea

THE IRRATIONAL TENDENCIES OF THE HUMAN MIND/BARRIERS TO CCT

The human mind is a very complex thing, plus, it’s usually faced with too many challenges as it seeks to
think clearly, distinctly, and critically. For example, the human mind is prone to confusion, lack of clarity
in mental processing, and often being stuck in the valley of indecision. These, among others are some of
the factors that affect and inhibit the proper functioning of the mind.

We are going to discuss some of these impediments and hopefully, help us identify these pitfalls within
us and the environment, and how to overcome them.

Classification of these barriers

The common barriers to CCT can be divided into 3

1. The commonly understood and philosophically accepted classification of fallacies
2. The commonly known cognitive biases that exploit the blind spots of our mental composition
3. Common and deceptive conversational cheap-shots and gimmicks which appear to be true,
convincing, and yet are irrational, i.,e., errors of unreasonableness
Some of these errors generally fall under the category of: individual mental laxity, lack of
exposure, paternalism, indoctrination, religious dogmas and influence, peer group and social
influence, schooling environment, paternalistic/authoritative systems, etc.

Francis Bacon, a British philosopher, refers to these barriers as idols.

Understanding the Human: Nature & Characteristics

We want, briefly, to understand how the human mind works, the influences over the mind, and
how these influences impede on clear, distinct, critical thinking.
Humans are no doubt born with innate ideas—we are innately curious about everything (e.g.,
curious about ourselves and the environment, we have a sense of wonder). However, this quest
—the desire to seek, discover, unearth the essence underneath knowledge is soon destroyed
not there long after, by the time a child is of school going age this faculty is eroded.

To understand the nature of the problem we are dealing with, or trying to articulate, we will
introduce a new term, namely, the Paradoxical Dichotomy of the human being. That is, the idea
that on one hand, humans are rational beings; meaning that their actions, by and large, are the
product(s) of reason. This is a fundamental feature distinguishing humans and other creatures.
However, on the other hand, humans actually do self-destruct—their actions often times leave a
lot to be desired as to the objectivity of their mental states.

Barnes, a philosopher captures the mood of this paradox by observing that the human being is
the only animal that uses meanings—ideas, concepts, metaphors, analogies, arguments,
theories, explanations as a way of trying to make sense of things and to understand, predict, and
control them.
But again, to the contrary, Barnes adds, human is the only creature that uses meanings to
negate, contradict, and deceive himself, through misconceptions, distortions, and stereotypes,
to be dogmatic, prejudiced, and narrow-mindedness.

Further, while humans are the only creatures whose thinking can be characterized as clear,
precise, accurate, relevant, consistent, profound, fair, etc.; at the same time, interestingly, they
are also the only animals/creatures whose thinking is often plagued by imprecision, vagueness,
inaccuracies, irrelevance, superficiality, triviality, and biasness.
In short he says, humans are thinking beings whose thinking at times constitutes unthinking.
According to Richard Paul and Linda Elder (Critical Thinking: Tools for Taking Charge of Your
Learning and Your Life), “humans often engage in irrational behavior. We fight. We start wars.
We kill. We are self-destructive. We are petty and vindictive. We act out when we don’t get our
way. We abuse our mates. We neglect our children. We rationalize, project, and stereotype. We
act inconsistently, ignore relevant evidence, jump to conclusions, and say and believe things
 that don’t make good sense. We deceive ourselves in many ways. We are our own worst
enemy.”

So, clear, distinct, CCT operates within this paradoxical setting and/or dichotomy.

Lessons from this human predicament? (PRECAUTIONS)

i) One should not blindly, always rely or trust their instinct and sense derived knowledge.
ii) We should not unquestioningly believe what spontaneously occurs to us
iii) Not everything taught or passed on to us (esp. by those in authority) is true—
questioning is also a virtue
iv) One should be aware or alive to the subjectivity of individual
opinions/experiences/ideas/views by not assuming that their opinions are not
susceptible to biasness.
v) The need to formulate intellectually sound standards for belief, truth, and validity.
These are not habits that naturally come to us. They must be cultivated, worked on and
developed.
vi) We should be intentional about seeking/proactively seeking to integrate these
standards into daily lives to help eliminate barriers to clear, distinct, CCT.

IMPLICATIONS OF THIS DICHOTOMY

It has implications on how we learn and acquire knowledge.

i) One can learn through the rational capacities of the mind and the irrational propensities at
the same time.
ii) We can cultivate the human capacity by committing ourselves to certain high intellectual
standards, e.g., by focusing on the rational capacities of the learner’s mind, designing clear
instructions for the learner to explicitly see or grasp the sense/logic of what they are
learning. This also has the side benefit of making learning easier.
iii) The higher order learning (high intellectual standards) multiplies comprehension, insight; it
is stimulating and empowering to the mind.
iv) In the end, enables us to effectively and promptly address these barriers/obstacles to clear,
distinct CCT since we have good grasp of these challenges to begin with.

BUT what are these barriers?

1. Attitude of intellectual passivity/disengagement, and negative preconceptions about academic

disciplines and cultural integration. These 2 are tendencies or predispositions affecting largely
the younger folks, esp. high school and college students.
Students are often disengaged, with low level of interest; they have a lot of buggage from their
previous socialization and schooling environment.
 According to Carl Slogan: “I think everybody is born with wonder but society beats it out of you.
Youngsters who are slowly examining the world around them and wondering about it ask
perfectly good questions, like, “why is the grass green?” because they can envision it purple,
orange, etc. The adult who is answering the question is annoyed…and says, “Don’t ask stupid
questions. What color do you expect it to be?”

What Slogan is trying to tell us, is that culture on kids to remain silent, follow instructions, do as
you are told, and not ask too many questions. In the end, certain precious elements are lost—
esp. natural inquisitiveness, critical independent, creative thinking and replaced by passivity,
and tendency to want to be like others—the status quo, wanting to fit in.

EVIDENCE: kids learn pretty easily how to let go their own qtns and answers, instead, asking the
kinds of questions, and giving those answers they think teachers and adults want to hear. One
gets to the university when they are dispossessed of their inner sense of the self. They are more
prone to act the outer/other self than the inner self.
Therefore passivity and caution replaces inquisitivity and questioning. Taking notes from others
is preferred than thinking for oneself.

2. Other pressures from the public school system—these encourage intellectual caution, and
discourage reflective thinking. Usually the schedule is overcrowded. Too many things to be
accomplished (curriculum related), less time/room for questioning and developing critical
reflective thinking. Plus, the traditional system proceeds from the notion that you risk
questioning the authority of the teacher by asking too many questions. Questioning the
authority of the teacher, we are told, is a no go zone.
-the schooling system is constantly shuttling students back and forth between different activities
hour after another; e.g., the class format by high schools & universities doesn’t give students
enough time to settle down and seriously engage, reflect on a topic of interest. New topic, new
teacher or both are introduced at an interval of every hour, with little time in-between for
processing and reflection.

So how do students cope? Disengaging their intellectual capacities, no serious CCT going on.

3. Negative preconceptions that students bring with them in studying certain academic disciplines.
Some disciples are believed to be hard, with little economic value. Some of these attitudes may
come from a previous encounter with a poor teacher, bad class, while others come from the
individual student’s own idiosyncratic likes or dislikes, taste and distaste, for example tendency
to believe that good/bad teachers depends on gender. These are things the teacher/lecturer
have no control over.
Students always believe certain courses (general) in the university are a waste of time and
money. They ask: how will this help me in real life?
 A better approach in such situation is open it up for dialogue; find out what students are
thinking, challenge them to show the values they think a particular discipline has in the context
of their lives.
Opening it up for dialogue could be an opportunity to correct the often errorneous
misconceptions; also gives teachers opportunity to share the virtues of a particular discipline.

4. Rigidity, Authoritarian tendencies—certain philosophies/ideologies of a political establishment

have a tendency of interfering with people’s liberties, freedoms, even curriculums that inform
education; all these in the name of trying to keep the peace and preserve the dignity of the
state/nation.
Lack of freedom to freely express yourself, hold opinions, associate and make your own choices.
Such societies are actually self-destructive in the long run. Why? Because when people feel
harassed, detained, imprisoned over flimsy things, then their thinking gets curtailed, they tend
to conform and become thoughtless, not resourceful. They become submissive, naïve, lose
identity of the self.

Authoritarianism is bad—breeds a thoughtless individual, one that acts like a robot, with no
sense of individuality.

5. Peer and Social influence—the impact of our contemporaries, esp. when they have vested
interests in our lives and the direction our thinking takes tend to hugely impact us negatively or
positively. We are social beings, hence are affected by the environment, especially what others
think of us.
Cults, political groups, sectarian organizations, etc all tend to limit independent thought. The
fear of not belonging make others let go their independence of thought and sense of personal
freedom.
Others use blackmail, intimidation to silence others.

6. Propaganda—is a form of communication that’s aimed at influencing the attitude of a

community or group towards some cause or position so as to benefit the propagator or his/her
group.
Propaganda by its very nature is opposed to impartiality in the provision of information thus
propaganda presents information with the primary motive to influence an audience.

It is therefore by its very nature biased, where facts are selectively presented (thus lying by
omission) to encourage a particular hypothesis; it also uses loaded messages to produce an
emotional rather than rational response to the information presented.

In the end, the result desired by a propagandist is change of attitude towards the subject in the
target audience to advance a particular agenda.

By definition: a propaganda is the deliberate, well designed, systematic attempt to shape

perceptions, manipulate cognitions and direct/control behavior to achieve a response that
 furthers the desired intent of the propagandist in total disregard of the reasons they be
opposing his/her views.
Propaganda generally appeals to emotion, not intellect. It uses the same technique with
advertising and public relations, each of which can be thought of as propaganda that promotes a
commercial product or shapes the perception of an organization, person, or brand.
Result: propaganda impedes thinking.

7. Paternalism—the upbringing, family, community life, norms embraced and encoded in the life
string of a family, the kind of rigidity exercised within family set-up all determine whether an
individual grows up nurturing qualities of independence or naivety and passive surrender to the
whims of the environment or other strong currents.
Timidity (lack of self-confidence or self-trust) are the result of intimidating environment or
humiliating lifestyles and experiences.
Since personality is a product of environment, dead environments produce dead minds.

8. Religious Dogmas—religious set ups have rules, regulations, dogmas, and principles that govern
their activities.
EG some religions don’t allow and/or encourage the faithfuls to ask questions, question those in
authority; the word of the shepherd is law and any attempt to
question/dispute/challenge/interrogate the shepherd’s character easily leads to punishment,
like excommunication.

The rigidity that characterizes certain religious groupings is a major impediment to CCT.
In some religions, the role of women/men are clearly defined, dress code, procedure/protocol
during prayers, eating, times of prayer, are all clearly defined.

In such groupings, emphasis is placed on level/rate of one’s faith and commitment, not reason.

Buzzwords: loyalty, submission, obedience.

READ FRANCIS BACON AND OBSTACLES TO CLEAR THINKING

FALLACIES

To understand the human mind, understand self-deception

--Unknown
The word “fallacy” derives from two Latin words, fallax (deceptive) and fallere (to deceive). This is an
important concept in human life since much human thinking deceives itself while deceiving others as
well.

The human mind has no natural guide to the truth, nor does it naturally love the truth. What the human
mind loves is itself, what serves it, what flatters it, what gives it what it wants, and what strikes down
and destroys whatever threatens it.

Looking closely at human decisions and behavior, we can easily see that what counts in human life is not
who is right, but who is winning. Those who possess power in the form of wealth, property, and
weaponry are those who decide what truths will be trumpeted around the world and what truths will be
ridiculed, silenced, or suppressed.

The mass media around the world generate unending glut of messages that sacrifice truth for “spin.”
When we reach beneath the surface of things we find a world in which the word “communication” and
the word “manipulation” collapse into virtual synonyms.

Students need insights and intellectual tools that enable them to protect themselves from becoming
intellectual victims in a world of swarming media piranhas or, just as bad, from joining the swarm as a
junior piranha in training.

TRUTH & DECEPTION IN THE HUMAN MIND

The mind is a marvelous set of structures and systems. It is the center of consciousness and action. It
creates a view of the world. Rich experiences emerge from its interactions with the world. It thinks. It
feels. It wants. It apprehends truths and suppresses errors. It achieves insights and fabricates prejudices.
Useful truths and harmful misconceptions are its intermixed products. The mind can just as easily
believe what is false as what is true (“I am the most handsome man in the world” & “I am the ugliest
man in the world” all at the same time). It can see beauty in right conduct and justify what is flagrantly
unethical. It can love and hate. It can be kind and cruel. It can advance knowledge and error. Can be
intellectually humble and arrogant. Can be open and closed. It can be empathic or narrow-minded. But
how can humans create within their own minds such an inconsistent amalgam of the rational and
irrational. The answer is self-deception. The most accurate and useful definition of a human being is that
of a “self-deceiving animal.” Deception, duplicity, delusion, and hypocrisy are among the foundational
products of human nature in its natural, untutored state. Worse, most schooling and social influence,
rather than reduce these states, just redirect them, rendering them more sophisticated, artful, and
obscure.

Humans are not only instinctively self-deceptive, they are naturally socio-centric as well. Every culture
and society sees itself as special, justified in all of its basic beliefs and practices, values and taboos.

THREE TYPES OF THINKERS

Uncritical Persons (intellectually unskilled thinkers)

Overwhelming majority of people have not freely decided what to believe; rather, they have been
socially conditioned (indoctrinated) into their beliefs. They are unreflective thinkers. Their minds are
products of social and personal forces they don’t understand, control, or concern themselves with. Their
personal beliefs are often based on prejudices. Their thinking consists largely of stereotypes, caricatures,
sweeping generalizations, illusions, delusions, rationalizations, false dilemma, begged questions.

Their motivations? Traceable to irrational fears and attachments, personal vanity and envy, intellectual
arrogance and simple mindedness. This construct has become part of their identity.

FOCUS: what immediately affects them. They see the world through ethnocentric, nationalistic eyes,
thus stereotype those from other cultures. They get offended when their prejudice is questioned. They
resent correction, criticism. They want to be affirmed, flattered, and made to feel important. They want
to be presented with a simple minded black and white world. They have little or no understanding of
nuances, subtle points.

Want to be told who is evil/good. They see themselves as good, their enemies as evil. They want all
problems to submit to a simple solution, and the solution to be one they are familiar with—EG punishing
those who are evil by use of force and violence. In their minds, visual images are more powerful than
abstract language. They are overly impressed by authority, power and celebrity. They are eminently
ready to be directed and controlled, as long as those doing the controlling flatter them, making them
believe their views are the best, most insightful.

The mass media are structured to appeal to this group of people: subtle, complex issues are reduced to
simplistic formulas: just say no to drugs! Get tough on crime! You are either for us or against us! Three
strikes and you are out!

Skilled Manipulators (weak-sense critical thinkers)

This is a much smaller group. They are skilled in the art of manipulation and control. Are focused
shrewdly on pursuing their own interest without regard to how that pursuit affects others. Though they
share many of the characteristics of uncritical thinkers, they have qualities that separate them from
uncritical persons. They have greater command of the rhetoric of persuasion. They are more
sophisticated, more verbal. Because they are fundamentally concerned not with advancing rational
values but with getting what they want, they are careful to present themselves as sharing the values of
those they manipulate.

On average, they are more schooled and successful than the uncritical persons. They typically acquire
more power and positions of authority. Are accustomed to playing the dominant role in a relationship.
Don’t use their intelligence for the public good—they use it to get what they want. They strive to appear
before others in a way that associate themselves with power, authority, and conventional morality. For
example when politicians appear before mass audiences with well-polished, but intellectually, empty
speeches.

Alternative labels can be applied to the role that manipulators paly, such as: spin master, con artist,
propagandist, indoctrinator, demagogue, and often, politician.

It should be noted that manipulators are often the victims of their own propaganda and devices. Many
business fail because of their inability to critique their own illusions. Nations often fail to act successfully
because their leaders are caught up in their own unrealistic descriptions of the world (and of their
enemies).

Fair-minded Critical Persons (strong-sense critical thinkers)

Finally, an even smaller group consists of people who, though intellectually skilled, do not want to
manipulate and control others. These are the people who combine critical thought, fair-mindedness,
self-insight, and a genuine desire to serve the public good. They are sophisticated enough to recognize
how self-serving people use their knowledge of human nature and command of rhetoric to pursue
selfish ends. They are aware of the phenomenon of mass society and of the machinery of mass
persuasion and social control. Hence are too insightful to be manipulated, too ethical to enjoy
manipulating others.

Have a vision of a better, more ethical world, which includes realistic knowledge of how far we are from
that world. They are practical in their effort to encourage bridging the gap between the ideal and the
real world. They gain this insight by struggling with their own egocentric and coming to see their own
involvement in irrational tendencies. No one becomes a fair minded thinker first and a selfish person
later. Selfish thinking is instinctive. It is inborn. We are focused initially on ourselves—our pain, desires,
concerns. In the first instance, we pay attention to the needs of others only to the extent we are forced
to do so. Through a commitment to our own intellectual and ethical development can we develop the
intellectual traits characteristic of fair-mindedness.

The key: fair-minded people consistently strive to achieve the widest, most informed viewpoint. They
want no point of view suppressed. They want public discussion to include equal coverage of dissenting
as well as dominant points of view. They want people to learn to detect when someone is trying to
manipulate them into believing or doing what they would not believe or do if they were to have access
to more information or further reasoning from dissenting points of view. They want everyone to see
through the dirty tricks of manipulative persuasions. They want to help people recognize how the
wealthy and powerful often prey on the gullibility, vulnerability, and innocence of the poor or poorly
schooled.

FALLACIES

They deal with the common errors of reasoning; especially the kinds of reasoning that if not subjected to
scrutiny, can be mistaken for proper reasoning. As common errors of reasoning, fallacies, at face value,
seems ok, but when subjected to the rigors of reason, one realizes the argument is actually flawed, or
has problems needing to be fixed.

These kinds of errors are common in the work place, politics, courts of law, and social interactions
among others.
They are committed especially when we resort to self defense mechanisms, utter populist sentiments,
try to coerce others to win their support or favor.

Understanding the nature of fallacies helps us guard against the pitfalls of those who perpetuate them.
We are able to also avoid deception.

EXAMPLES

1. Argumentum ad populum—appeal to the masses.

There is a fallacy here because the argument is directed in trying to make an emotional appeal
to “the people”, “the masses”, with a view of winning their assent to a conclusion/position that
is NOT supported by evidence, or where the conclusion being made is not supported, or arrived
at on the basis of evidence.

-thus this form of reasoning tries to win popular assent to a conclusion by arousing/stoking the
feelings and enthusiasms of the crowd, multitude, masses.

It is a favorite tool in the hands of propagandists, politicians, street preachers, demagogues, etc.

Faced with the task of mobilizing public sentiments for/against a particular position, the
propagandist or politician takes a short cut—thereby avoiding the long, tasking process of
collecting and presenting evidence and rational argument. Instead, he/she will use the short cut
method called argumentum ad populum.

-For instance, where the proposal/agenda is for change and he/she is against it, he will express
suspicion or reservations with the “viability or admissibility of the program,” and praise the
wisdom of the “existing order,” without providing evidence to support this position.

-On the other hand, if he is for change, he will be in favor “progress,” opposing
“antiquated/outdated prejudice.”

Either way, the point of the protagonist is to use emotional appeal of the public to support a
view/position lacking in evidence.

2. Argumentum ad Verecundiam—appeal to authority

This fallacy refers to appealing to authority to win assent to a conclusion. It appeals to the
feeling of respect people have for the institution or person in authority.

NB: this method of argument is not always fallacious—so we should proceed with caution. For
example reference to an admitted authority in the special field of his/her competence may carry
great weight and constitute relevant evidence. For instance, if lay men are disputing over a
problem in physical science and one appeals to the testimony of Einstein on the matter, then
the testimony is valid, i.e., holds water. While it may not prove the point, it certainly shows
some relevance, and may actually support the argument in question.
-However, when an authority is appealed to for a testimony in matters outside the province of
his/her special field, the appeal commits a fallacy of argumentum ad verecundiam.
 Consider the following examples

i. In an argument over religion, one of the disputants appeals to the opinions of Darwin
ii. Advertising testimonials: where we are urged to drink this or that brand of wine because
Michael Jordan affirms its superiority; or to eat a certain diet to cut weight because
Lupita Nyongo is using the same diet, though Ms. Nyongo as we know is not a dietician.

3. Argumentum ad Ignorantam—argument from ignorance

This fallacy is illustrated by the argument that something is true because no one has ever proved
that it is NOT.
For example the argument that there must be ghosts because no one has ever been able to
prove that there are not any. Or to argue that there are no ghosts because no one has ever
proved that there are any.

This kind of fallacy is committed whenever it is argued that a proposition is true simply on the
basis that it has not been proved otherwise (false), or that it is false because it has not been
proved otherwise (true).

The arguments of this nature are fallacious because our ignorance of how to prove or
disapprove a proposition clearly does not establish either the truth/falsity of that proposition.

The fallacy often arises in connection with such matters as psychic phenomena, telepathy—
where there is no clear-cut evidence for or against a certain view.

4. Argumentum ad Misericordian—Appeal to Pity

This is a fallacy committed when pity is appealed to in order to get a conclusion accepted.
This argument is frequently committed in courts of law, when for example, a defense attorney
disregards the facts of the case and seeks to win his client’s acquittal by arousing pity in the
presiding judge.

EG.
A young man being tried for the brutal murder of his father and mother. Confronted with
overwhelming proof of his guilt, he pleads for leniency on the ground that he is now an orphan.

5. Argumentum ad Baculum—Appeal to force

This fallacy is committed when one appeals to force or the threat of force to cause acceptance
of a conclusion. It is usually resorted to when evidence or rational arguments fail.

The fallacy is epitomized in the saying that “Might is Right.”

The use and threat of “strong-arm” methods to coerce political opponents provide a good
example of this fallacy.
 This threat can also be seen at the global level where super powers can threaten and coarse
small nations with invasion or whatever it is to get them to toe the line.

6. Argumentum ad hominem—Abusive
The fallacy translates literally as “argument directed to the person.”

It is fallacious, first because it is abusive. The fallacy is committed when, instead of trying to
disprove the truth of what is asserted, one attacks the person who made the assertion.

EG

i. When it is argued that tribe X in Kenya is naturally of thieves since a no. of people from it
are implicated with theft.
Argument fallacious because the personal character of particular individuals are is logically
irrelevant to the collective nature of the ethnic group called X.

Secondly, the argument can be fallacious in the following manner: we can argue that proposals
are good/bad because they are proposed or asserted by a particular community or individual.
Such an argument is sometimes said to commit the “genetic fallacy,” for obvious reasons. The
way in which this irrelevant argument may sometimes persuade is through the psychological
process of transference especially where an attitude of disapproval towards a
person/community is being evoked.

ii. Argumentum ad hominem—circumstantial

This is the other interpretation of the fallacy of argumentum ad hominem. This variety
pertains to the relationship between a person’s beliefs and his/her circumstances.

EG.
When 2 people are disputing, one may ignore the question whether his/her contention is
true/false and seek instead to prove that the opponent ought to accept it because of the
opponent’s special circumstances.

Such arguments are not really to the point; they don’t present good grounds for the truth
of their conclusions but are intended only to win assents to the conclusion from the
opponent because of their special circumstances.

Abortion debate: Stacy and Misty are involved in an argument over abortion with Stacy for
and Misty against. And, Misty seems to know a thing or two about Stacy’s personal
circumstances. So, in response to Stacy’s argument why abortion should be allowed if
continuing with the pregnancy is a danger to the mother, Misty responds by saying: I am
 not surprised of your stance on the matter. What else would you expect from someone
who has had 3 abortions.

7. Petitio Principii—Begging the Question

In an attempt to answer/establish the truth of a proposition, one might cast their net wide to
look for a premise that supports the conclusion.

If you assume as a premise for your argument the very conclusion you intend to prove, the
fallacy committed is that of petitio principii.
In other words the conclusion is a re-statement of the premise.

8. Ignoratio elenchi—irrelevant conclusion

The fallacy is committed when an argument purporting to establish a particular conclusion is
directed to providing a different conclusion. For example, on the debate whether the British can
show/prove their friendship with Kenya by accepting Miraa from Meru. A legislator in favor of
the bill might say that the British will demonstrate their true friendship with Kenya when they
open their markets to all Kenyan products.

9. Fallacy of Complex Question

Consider the following questions:

a. Have you given up your evil ways?

b. Have you stopped beating your husband/wife?
c. Have you stopped cheating on your spouse?
d. You are in boy/girlfriend number what now?

What do you make of such questions? Do you notice anything that stands out about them?

Something unique about them is that they are not simple questions, and as such, a straightforward
yes/no answer won’t suffice.

Such questions presuppose that a definite answer has already been given to a prior question that
was not even asked in the first place.

Lawyers, in cross examinations may ask a witness a complex question either to confuse or
incriminate them. For example, “where did you hide the evidence?” or “why did you kill your wife”

Pastor: “would you like to be a faithful member and give me some love offering?”
 In Complex Questions, there are more than one question involved; and one does not presuppose a
particular answer to the other. What’s wrong/error here is the assumption that one and the same
answer must be given to both of the questions.

10. Fallacy of Converse Accident/Hasty Generalization

In seeking to understand and characterize all cases of certain kind, one can usually pay attention to only
some of them. But those examined should be typical rather than atypical. If one considers only
exceptional cases and hastily generalizes to a rule that fits them alone, the fallacy of converse accident is
committed.

EG.

Considering the effect of alcohol only on those who indulge in it to excess, one may conclude that all
liquor is harmful and urge that its sale and use should be forbidden by law; or that the eating of too
much red meat is detrimental to one’s health, and one concludes that the sale and eating of red meat
should be banned.

And, all preachers/priests are fake, after one was caught in a compromising situation with a minor or
someone not their spouse.

DECISION MAKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING

Decision making requires thinking, and thinking is a process. Situations of difficulties and challenges are
part and parcel of the everyday life. Thus we need the skills/tools so that we can be equipped to handle
these situations soberly, even calmly.

Today we will cover the following topics

Definitions of Problem and Decision

Phases of decision making and problem solving

Types of decisions

How to use intuition in making good decisions

INTRODUCTION
Humans are faced with many important decisions to make in life. Often we are confronted with issues
but no immediate solutions. Minds are often bogged down, fatigued with the wants that are usually not
in our reach.

Questions, issues, problems, speculations are what occupies us, taking most of our time.

There are major decisions and minor ones:

Minor ones: should I eat muffins or toast for breakfast? (the inconsequential ones)

Major ones: what college/university should I attend? What car or house should I buy? What major
should I study? Should I get married, and when? Do I want to have kids, and when? How many?

In a world such as this one, (the one we have described above), a theory of practical reasoning is very
crucial, it adds value to, and helps us improve our decision making strategies or abilities.

PROBLEM

This word is used here in a very broad sense. We say that one has a problem when one has a need,
question, issue, but no obvious answer to it.

In this case, all mental in-satisfactions and the quest to grasp the essence of the unknown—be it
physical, psychological, fall within the domain of what is rightly defined as “PROBLEM.”

EXAMPLES

Need of money, job, issue of promotion, health matters, social—friendships/relationships, habits (e.g.,
bad habits such as alcohol & substance abuse), religious (conversions or search for truth), political,
among others.

DECISION MAKING

To live is to act. To act is to decide ……..” (Richard Paul & Linda Elder).

This can be defined as the mental process (es)[cognitive process] resulting in the selection of a course of
action among several alternative scenarios.

This process will require a rational deliberation. Every decision making process produces a definite
solution that characterize our actions, opinions, and choices.

Also, every decision, acted upon, produces certain results, whether intended/unintended, foreseen/
unforeseen, favorable/unfavorable, pleasant/unpleasant, the expected/unexpected

PHASES OF DECISION MAKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING

Here we are going to learn how to apply CCT in problem solving.

There are about 5 phases when it comes to decision making and problem solving process, usually seen in
the form of a cycle.

However, the cycle should not be seen as a rigid procedure in which each phase must be complete
before the next one. In fact, in real life, one may have to go back to the earlier phase or work on several
phases all at the same time.

But the real test/assurance one’s ultimate decision is sound comes when all the phases are complete.

Details of each phase also varies, this depends on the nature of the problem at stake.

PHASE ONE

i) Recognition and Definition of the issue at stake—overall, a typical process of decision-

making begins with the recognition of a problem
It is commonly true that many problems are never solved because they are not recognized
soon enough (at the right time) or not recognized at all.

EG. some freshmen students fail in their university exams because they don’t recognize
soon enough that their study habits are inadequate, or that they are not in the right
program, i.e., program not a good fit

BUT, RECOGNITION is the first step. Once recognized, it should be carefully DEFINED. Clear
definition gives a clear picture/idea what one is dealing with. Clear definition enhances
clarity of understanding, making it easy to explain it to explain it to somebody else.

Not obtaining clear definition of a problem results in arriving at unsuccessful solutions; or

one may end of solving a problem other than the one that was intended.
In many ways, defining a problem is usually the most difficult part or aspect of decision
making

3 RULES OF DEFINING A PROBLEM

a. Definition not too general—if definition is too broad, then it follows that the guideline
for a solution will be too broad too, hence investigation may not yield much
EG the problem of poverty in Kenya
QTN: why are Kenyans poor?
ANS: because it is a third world country

While large problems can be very real, however, their solution usually requires that we
break them down into smaller, clearly defined segments so as to solve them one at a
time.

b. Definition should not be too specific. A definition of a problem is said to be too specific
when it unnecessarily restricts alternative solutions
 EG: why has your company been declared bankrupt?
ANS: because we are temporarily out of cash
4
When definition of a problem is too specific, it will most likely lead to temporary
solutions because it will have ignored other significant aspects that lead to its
emergence.

c. Definition should not in itself constitute a “solution” to the problem.

Suppose you are the principal of a private school, and each year there is a problem of
teachers dropping out, transferring to other schools. And as the principal you define the
problem as due to lack of good pay by the school board. Your definition would in itself
have contained the “solution” that increase of pay be extended to the teachers; the
result of which rules out other solutions for consideration

PHASE TWO

ii) The gathering of information—once a problem is explicitly defined, one should begin to
gather information about it. Information may be of many kinds

EG
The detective my call his information “clues”, the doctor speaks of symptoms; the scientist
data; lay person or government leader “facts”, for a lawyer “evidence.”

Thus no doubt that adequate and accurate information is essential to sound decisions.

Overall, the more information you have on which to base your decision, the more likely it is
that the decision will be sound—a good one.

PHASE THREE

iii) The formation of tentative conclusions which represent solutions to the problem. This can
be done as soon as we have enough information to suggest some possible answers.
Solutions at this stage are only tentative and so we should not allow ourselves to be carried
away by them.

The objective in this phase is not to settle on one conclusion but rather to formulate as
many plausible tentative conclusions as possible. The more tentative conclusions we
produce the more likely we are to conclude a sound one.

Coming up with several tentative conclusions is the best safeguard against the dangers of
accepting or acting upon a proposed conclusion without adequate evidence. In this phase, it
is desirable to give attention to every idea that comes to the mind. Why is this important?
 Because ideas that are easily or quickly dismissed as wild or irrelevant turn out to be
solutions of problems or important clues to solutions.

PHASE FOUR

iv) Testing of Tentative Conclusions—the objective here is to “criticize” all tentative conclusions
by assessing their reliability. All tentative conclusions are reached through some kind of
inference, a process of reasoning by which they are derived from evidence or available facts.
EG

Suppose a young man of 17 reads the following statement in the Daily Nation Newspaper:
“all males must register for the draft when they reach the age of 17.” If the young man
concludes that he is about to be drafted and put in the army, his conclusion is the result of
an inference. He has combined 2 pieces of evidence (i) the statement in the newspaper (ii)
the fact that he is 17, and infers that he is soon to be drafted. If he immediately charges
down to the recruiting office in NBI to volunteer so that he can choose his branch of the
service, he has violated 2 cardinal rules of effective thinking

a. He has formed only one tentative conclusion (b) he has acted on it (tentative
conclusion) without testing it for reliability. Although his conclusion could be true, it is
unreliable.

Therefore a conclusion is completely reliable only when it is known to be true. In order

to know that a conclusion is true you must know that (i) the evidence used is in itself
completely reliable, i.e., known to be true and (ii) all inferences involved are logically
flawless

-in the case of the 17 year old, the conclusion fails to meet either test. He does not
know yet whether the statement in the newspaper is true; newspaper statements are
often false. Further, his inference is faulty: even though registration for the draft might
be required, it does not follow that any one is presently being drafted. His inference is
therefore not reliable at all; he has jumped to a conclusion. Although a completely
reliable conclusion that he was about to be drafted would be difficult, if not impossible,
to reach—even an order to report for induction could possibly be an error—he should
have investigated the situation more fully before acting so; he ought to have considered
all relevant evidence.

PHASE FIVE
v). Evaluation and decision—the objective here is to determine whether you have found
any workable solutions to your problem and, if so, to select the best of them.
This phase involves assessing the reliability of solutions based on the testing done in
phase four.
When you begin testing tentative conclusions by appropriating methods, you will soon
discover that completely reliable conclusions are rare. That is, usually, there will be
weaknesses either in the evidence or in the inferences or in both.

In practical matters, the best we can hope for is high degree of reliability. If we delayed
making a decision until we reached absolute reliability, we would dwell forever in the
limbo of decision by indecision.