LECTURE NOTE ON

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION

(AED 605)

BY

PROF. NICODEMUS OCHANI AGBULU

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE, MAKURDI.

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Course Concept
Curriculum Development in Education
What is Curriculum Planning?
The actual classroom procedures
Harbitan class model
Robert Grasan teaching methods
Acquisition of relevant skills in agric education
The place of school farm
Structuring agric modules
Application of skills in solving
Perplexing problems in Agric Education.

1a. A teacher should bring cheer and sunshine into the classroom each
morning, then he can off infect his pupils with them.
1b. Even if he is ill, unhappy or sad he should not let his physical or emotional
state become apparent and so ruin/spoil the day for his pupils. He must
take care of his problems with maturity.
2a. A teacher must bring humour and humanity into every dealing with his
pupils in and out of his class.
b. He should never forget that humour including laughing at himself eases
many intense situations.
3a. A teacher should get to the class properly dressed, modestly simply yet
comfortable. He must be an example in good taste.
b. A teacher should never be over dressed in class as if he were going for a
fashion parade or some other entertainment show. Nor should he be under
dressed as if going to work on the farm.
4a. A teacher should make friends with his pupils as one human being with
another not as a horse rider and his horse.
b. He should never exploit his pupils in any way. His relationships with them
should be clean with no strings attached.
5a. A teacher should always b kind, considerate and reassuring in his dealings
with his pupils at the same time, he must be fair, direct and to the pint in
discipline. No conflict is involved in this respect.
5b. A teacher should be meticulous in the matter of fairness to all. Children
and young people are quick to detect any suggestions of favouritism.
6. A teacher should never show favour to some children to the exclusion of
others, unless he can explain and justify his action.
7a. A teacher should be judicious in his use of authority and power. There is
no need to exhibit or dissipate them unless he does not trust himself in the
proper use of them. He should be democratic.

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b. A teacher should not be authoritarian. Authoritarian teachers usually incur
the displeasure of their pupils. Consequently, the wholesome relationship
which is a condition for effective teaching becomes unattainable.
Moreover, and this is perhaps a more serious obstacle to learning. Pupils
handled by such teachers tend to be deficient. When this is the case, they
lost self respect.

Some Suggested Method of Teaching:

1. Lecture method or expository method
2. the method of learning by doing
3. The discovery method
4. The play method
5. The Socratic method
6. Co-operative method
7. The project method
8. the problem method
9. The Dalton method
10. The remedial method

Lecture Method:
The traditional view of teaching is that the teachers know everything and
that the learner is almost blank. Accordingly, it is the teachers’ role to impact his
knowledge mainly by telling his pupils. The lecture method derives from a
commonly held notion that in the teacher-pupil relationship, the teacher as an
embodiment of knowledge, dishes out what he knows to his pupils. The teacher
transmits his knowledge to his pupils. That is to say that, the pupils who are
usually supposed to be ignorant and bare acquire the knowledge from the
teacher.

Criticisms:
The teacher teaches or addresses his pupils by means of reading his
notes, primarily, it is he who talks while the pupils listen and sometimes take
down notes. Too often, this method is abused hence the after heard criticism that
the teacher did no real teaching but spent all his time in lecturing his pupils, this
usually means that the used words on the head or rather over the head of the
passive children.

Advantage:
The lecture method is by far the commonest method, while it is not very
adequate, it must be admitted that, there are situations in which it appears to be
inevitable. In using this method, the teacher must use ideas and words which are
familiar to the pupils. He has to present the matter or deliver his good

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systematically adopting a suitable order. He must not present his materials,
especially new ones, in a rush. The teacher should always repeat and emphasize
important points. He must be clear and distinct and when possible, make use of
illustrations.

The Method of Learning by Doing (Activity):

In the early experiences of children, they learn both to do and to know
better by doing things. Through practice, learners’ movement in the case of
psychomotor activities becomes more skillful. At the same time, their knowledge
grows and develops certain attitudes. The skill, knowledge and attitude so
acquired go together. They are inseparable. Since skill is necessary to the
growth of knowledge, the learner must continually undertake some activities in
connection with the subject matter in school. To the African, this method is noting
new, for indigenous education was and is still carried on through participation in
concrete situations. Emphasis is practical experience. There is hardly a subject
without abundant opportunities for practice in schools today. Therefore, every
teacher should assist his own teaching by encouraging activities on the part of
the pupils’.

Discovery Method:
One of the criticisms against the lecture method is that, it spoon-feeds
learners. It does not challenge them. The tendency is for the learners to forget
much of what is told them by the teacher. So, ultimately, the teacher wastes his
time as it were meaningless information into the children mind. Although difficult,
it is adviceable, to where possible, to provide learners with opportunities to
discover new truth, new rules, new methods of tackling problems, as well as new
values for themselves. Undoubtedly, it is time consuming but the time so spent is
more than compensated by the joy of discovery. Besides, it is natural. Human
beings especially young ones are adventurous. Mental adventures are very
rewarding. If we substitute finding out for discovery, it will be realized that, there
is no part of the teaching work in which this method cannot be usefully employed
in some way or other. Almost every subject, hygiene, language work, history,
Geo, Maths, manual work and religious knowledge has opportunities for learners
to discover new facts and values for themselves.

Co-operative Methods:
All educational efforts is to enable learners to acquire socially desirable
knowledge, attitudes, and skills. Indeed, the success or failure of any school is
judged by the different it makes in the life of its immediate neighbourhood. The
school must endeavour to forge a strong and worthwhile link with the home of its
pupils, and its clientele. To this end, teachers must deliberately foster co-
operation by providing the pupils with opportunities for co-operative actions, both
in and outside of the school. It is expedient that individuals must continually bear

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the interest of the group in mind. The expected team spirit can be developed by
the way teachers present their lessons. Co-operative activities can be developed
through frequent class discussions as well as where teachers allows pupils to
assist one another. Pupils who have the opportunities of discussing and solving
problems together develop more team spirit than those who always work on their
own as individuals.

Project Method:
The project is a purposeful activity or a meaningful whole or unit of
experience which proceeds in a social organisation environment. Hence, it is
another application of the unit idea. There are four types of projects and are
distinguished according to the purpose of each.
i. The purpose is to embody some ideas or plan in external form e.g.
building a boat, writing a letter, presenting a play.
ii. In type two, the purpose is to enjoy some experience i.e. aesthetic
appreciation, listening to a story, hearing a choir or siphoning,
appreciating a picture are example of this type.
iii. The purpose of type three is to strengthen out some intellectual
difficulty or to solve some problems. This type may include finding out
whether or not dew falls, ascertaining the development and growth of
cities, verifying the notation of the earth, capipay action on different
soils or biography of local personage.
iv. The primary role of the 4th type is to obtain some item of knowledge as
learning the irregular verbs in some foreign language or swimming,
playing some musical instruments.
The project method is the process which enables pupils to acquire whole-
hearted purposes and to pursue them to a satisfactory end. By this method,
pupils learn to work together on selected plans. They clearly see the purpose
of whatever task they undertake. Under the project method, both teachers and
pupils have common purposes; the stress is on commonality of purpose and
on the cooperative effort of both the teacher and pupils. The project method is
an excellent means of fostering co-operation amongst pupils, for they engage
themselves in the process of problem solving and rational thinking. Members
of the groups subordinate themselves in planning i.e. in the collection
reconstruction and selection of data for the solution of the problem. They
investigate problems, issues and conditions together. They survey actual
situations, collect data and prepare their reports, conclusions and
recommendations in groups. The project method is a more promising attempt
at unifying various subjects. So it offers opportunities for learners to relate
instruction in different subjects. In other words, they can see the relationship
of different aspects of life. Thus in one project, it is possible to incorporate
instruction in building, handicraft, carpentry, hygiene, language work,

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 economics, science work, practical Geo, Maths, History as well as dramatic
work in literature. The use of project method makes school work real. By this
method, school work comes into close contact with actual life and the dividing
lines between different subjects disappear.
The project method uses pupils’ experiences. At every stage, the teacher
encourages pupils to draw upon their past experiences which will contribute
towards achievement of new purposes. In this way, the pupils become a
valuable source of reference. This act of contributing from their own
experience further motivates them. No method encourages freedom of
expression more than project method. It emphasizes creativeness.
Under this method, teachers attempt to carter for the individual differences
of the pupils. It minimizes the chances of waste of time.

Demerits of Project Method:

This method has obvious draw backs. It may be more time consuming than
the orthodox methods of delivering lessons. It has been argued that, by this
method, learners do not acquire as much facts as in the traditional classroom
teaching. Although, it unifies subjects, it leads into a number of by-paths. School
work under this method tend to be chaotic. There seems to be distinct lack of
organisation, if work is not well guided, it becomes whimsical.
Yet, if guided much, the work losses the assent project elements.
Problem method
Dalton method
Remedial method

Assignment
Prepare a proposition infusion of vocational agriculture into the past
curriculum in Benue State.

Outline –
Executive summary – abstract
Objectives of the proposal follows
Rationale – significance of the paper
Design i.e. working plan. The task to be achieved and how it will be carried
out and the cost.
Conclusive (in summary before conclusion)

NB: The 1st type of project method is to err body some idea or plan in external
form e.g. building a boat.

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The 2nd type is to enjoy some experience i.e. aesthetic appreciation e.g.
listening to a story.
The 3rd type is to strengthen out some intellectual difficulty or solve some
problems e.g. finding out whether dews fall, verifying the rotation of the
earth etc.
The 4th type is to obtain some items of knowledge e.g. learning the
irregular verbs in a foreign language.
The four types may be referred to as objective, the aesthetic, the problem
and the skill projects.

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 AED 603
Concept of Admin
Concept of Supervision
Concept of management and supervision of vocational education – manpower
development constraints and strategies.
Present programmes and facilities for vocational technical education
This is an applied course because these are every day terminologies
Admin – Admin is a concept of management and management encompasses the
production functions like, planning and financing, initiating and supervising,
decision making etc.

Theories of Vocational Education

Concept of Administration in Education
Administration in the context of education refers to one of the functions set
up in an educational system to help the system achieve its objectives. It is a
complex set of interrelated helping functions, serving activities, carrying
responsibilities and/or facilitating operations (Knezevich, 1984).
Thus, the administrator helps an organisation to achieve its objectives,
serve the clientele of the organisation, cares for the materials and fiscal
resources of the organisation as well as facilitates the performances of personnel
employed. This view of administration as a serving or helping function appears
different from the popular image of administration as being concerned with
controlling resources, disciplining people, and enforcing rules and regulations.
The latter view unfortunately is held by many administrators, teachers and State
alike. The danger of this misconception is that it obscures the more desirable
attributes of administration and administrators of education. The result is often a
general poor performance of the system of education from top to bottom.

The Administrative Functions and Process

At the state and zonal levels, the task of administration is shouldered by
the commissioner for Education and designated Administrative process.
1. Planning – The activity of generating the goals and objectives of the
organization or defining the direction to be fed in pursuing his goals and
objectives.

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2. Organizing – Includes determining the structure of the administrative
machinery necessary for goal achievement and assembling resources,
human and material for pursuing the stated objectives.
3. Directing – The process of decision making, i.e. issuing directives as well
as demonstrating the leadership necessary to keep the institution moving
towards its objectives.
4. Co-ordinating – Unifying individual efforts to ensure that everyone is
working towards the same objectives and the individuals’ effort does not
conflict.
5. Controlling – The process of monitoring the progress and determining the
extent to which the objectives have been achieved.
6. Lead – The ability to lead, direct, the programme and supervise so that the
stated goals and objectives can be achieved.
7. Communication – Process of communicating with the staff about the
progress and needs (improvement of the programme).
8. Initiating – Ability to develop and device initiatives capable of increasing
effective admin for the achievement of the stated goals.
9. Decision Making – One of the most important administrative functions. In
any organization, the administrator must make decisions on matters
affecting the organisation including the personnel and other resources
necessary for the achievement of the objectives. PODC Ltd (POD-c3-LID).
What is important is not the number of processes identified, but how
each of these processes is employed at one time or he other in the
administrative function. Perhaps more important is that the essential job of
the administrator is to pull together human and material resources
efficiently and effectively so that educational objectives can be successfully
achieved.

The Administrator as an Instructional Leader

Providing instructional leadership has been identified as one of the vital
roles of an educational administrator (1983) defines instructional leadership as
those activities engaged in by one or more individuals which have as their main
purpose the improvement of person, group or program”. All the level of the
institution, an administrator is usually involved in a variety of situation that call for
leadership in planning, organizing, directing, coordinating, controlling and
decision making. However, if we consider the first objective of educational
fostering student learning then probably, the most important area for
administrator has leadership responsibilities is the instructional programme.
Many school administration recognize and fully expose the instructional
leadership role of the principal ship. Unfortunately, however, research evidence
(Bredo, 1979) shows that teachers - the main recipient of the principals
leadership do not always recognize him/her as the instructional leader of the
school. Some teachers feel that no administrator can recognize what goes on in

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the classroom as well as the classroom teacher himself. These teachers believe
that the classroom teacher is in the best position to judge what teaching practices
are best suited to him or her particular students. This attitude may pose a serious
problem for the administrator who tries to exercise instructional leadership over
professionals but does not posses the required instructional expertise. In fact,
there is evidence that those administrators who are perceived by teachers as
possessing instructional expertise will be sought after by teachers whenever the
latter have instructional problems (Gordon, 1971).
While the problem of limited acceptance by an administrators’ role as an
instructional leader is a serious one for many administrators, there are other
factors which may further limit the administrators’ ability to perform this role.
These are:
a. The pressure of their duties – Exercising instructional leadership takes
energy over and above that which must be spent on administering an
educational institution. Other responsibilities than instructional leadership
will frequently tax an administrator’s time and energy leaving little room for
the instructional role.
b. Nature of the situation – some school situations may be faced with
instructional problems and crises which call for the frequent involvement of
the administrator. An administrator in a less troubled may not have the
opportunity to perform the instructional leadership role.
c. Availability of Resources – A lack of financial, physical or human resources
will definitely pose a serious limitation on the exercise of instructional
leadership.
d. Personal qualities of the Administrator the personality, vision, extent of
commitment, the human relation skills of the administrator can exert
considerable influence on his exercise of instructional leadership. An
insensitive, uncommitted, or short-sighted administrator is not likely to be
effective instructional leader.
Factors Affecting Effective Performance of Vocational Administrators an
Instructional Leader.
1. The pressure/nature of their duties
2. Nature of the situation/events
3. Availability of resources
4. Personal qualities of the administrator
5. Existing co-operation between co-staff and the administrators (PANP or
P2NA).
From the foregoing, it is apparent that for any reason or the other, an
administrator may fail to effectively carry out his or her role as an instructional
leader with the result that instruction and students learning will suffer. It is
important therefore, that the gap created by an administrator’s inability to perform
be bridged in order that education may be responsive to the needs of the society.
It is that gap that instructional supervision attempt to fill.

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The place of Supervision in the Administration of Education
The concept of supervision is common to nearly all organisations and/or
occupations. Supervision in education refers to that aspect of school
administration which focuses primarily upon the improvement of instruction
(Mgbodile, 1986). It is a service activity aimed at helping teachers to observe
their job and better several factors. Lack of vision, inexperience, community
pressure, poor human relations, lack of evaluation skills etc prevent teachers
from utilizing all their skills and abilities. The role off supervision is to help teacher
release these potentials (Wiles, 1967).
Factors influencing Teachers to utilize the potentials skills and abilities to
the fullest.
1. Lack of vision
2. Inexperience
Helping teachers to improve their instructional effectiveness is described as
supervision. How true is this statement? Justify your stand.
3. Community pressure
4. Poor human relations
5. Lack of evaluation skills etc.
Organisation of instruction, equipment, staff relations and teachers welfare are
important concerns of supervision to the extent that they are devices for
improving opportunities for students’ supervision therefore includes all those
activities of designated school officials which are related to staff make, human
relations, in-service education, curriculum development and which lead to the
improvement of instruction.

Who is a Supervisor?
Supervisor has been described as “an in-service teacher of teachers
whose function is to help teachers in the way of their teaching approach”.
(Mgbochile, 1986, p 214) this suggests that any one who is involved in guiding
and helping teachers in a professional way with the intent of improving their
instructional effectiveness can be regarded as a supervisor. Thus, individuals,
community organisations, parents, the state education commission etc. can all
play supervisory roles even when they are not designated as supervisors.
Persons or groups who make contact with the classroom teacher in an indirect
manner such as parents and community members constitute one broad category
of supervisors, persons or groups who are in direct contact with teachers are
officially designed supervisors and constitute another broad category of
supervisors. It is this latter category that is of concern to this presentation.
Designated supervisors include those external to the school. (mostly from the
state or zonal headquarters) and those internal to the school. (including
principals and head masters/head mistresses)

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Summary
2 types of designated supervisors
1 external and internal
External e.g. those personnel from the ministry of education to the school.
Internal e.g. those personnel already in the school organisation e.g. principal,
head masters.
2 types of supervisors
1 Designated (2) undesignated supervisors i.e. officially designed supervisors
and unofficially designed supervisors.

The Instructional Supervisors whether internal or external to the school

exercises various roles in three major domains; instructional, curriculum and staff
development. We shall now examine the role of the supervisor in each of the
domains to see how he/she fits into the total picture of administration of
education.
1. The supervisor as an instructional/leader: The supervisor is first and
foremost the instructional group leader. As a group leader, the supervisor works
continuously to release the potential of the gap members as they seek to improve
instruction, the curriculum or themselves.
Creation of an atmosphere in which all members of the group contributes their
best thinking must be one of the major efforts of the supervisor. To perform this
role, the supervisor must be knowledgeable about group dynamics. He/she must
also demonstrate skill in instructional problem identification, since problem
identification is the first step in the improvement of instruction. The leader guides
the group through the establishment of common goals and purposes. Knowledge
about the different aspects of the instructional programme and skill in introducing
change in that programme are key elements in the expertise the supervisor will
need to function as an effective instructional leader.
Another important factor in the leadership of a supervisor is his/her
commitment to the improvement of instruction. We noted in relation summary;
supervisor as an instructional leader for a supervisor to execute this particular
functions effectively, he/she has to:
a. Be knowledgeable about the group dynamics i.e. ability to lead groups
effectively who conflicts at achieving the stated objectives of the
programme.
b. Ability to identify instructional problems.
c. Ability to initiate improvement measures of the instructional problems
consistent with the objectives of the programme.
To administrators that certain obstacle may constrain the exercise of instructional
leadership. Designated supervisors are not insulated from these obstacles.
However, these impediments can be more easily overcome by a supervisor who

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has a strong commitment to improving instructional and the total educational
programme.
Role of the Supervisor in Curriculum Improvement:
We live in a changing world. Changes in science and technology as well as
in human, social, cultural and political relations demands corresponding changes
in what we teach children at school. As Jrump and Hhiller (1973) aptly noted;
“curriculum that does not keep pace (with changes in the society) can result in
pointless waste of school funds and order of disillusioned pupils. That is, the
dynamic nature of the society requires that the curriculum should be continuously
improved to be relevant. But like most activities that involve changing human
behaviour, curriculum improvement, necessary as it may seem, often meets with
opposition. Such opposition may range from resistance by textbook writers who
have parallel financial state in the curriculum to skeptics who find it no good in
any proposal they did not originate. It is in the face of these constraints that the
supervisor must operate. Again, it is the supervisor possesses vision and an
understanding of the dynamics of change that is most likely to make a
meaningful contribution to the development of the curriculum.

Summary
In curriculum improvement, the supervisor has the responsibility to;
(a) Plan
(b) Organise
(c) Direct
(d) Co-ordinate
(e) Control
(f) Evaluate the programme (PODCCE)

Among the specific responsibilities of the supervisor in curriculum improvement

are the ff:
1. To identify needed improvement and to develop a programme of action.
2. To provide leadership in the development OLLCP of short term plan for
curriculum improvement e.g. seminar, workshop.
3. To provide leadership in the selection, preparation, interpretation and
dissemination of appropriate curricula materials as well as to evaluate the
effectiveness of such materials.
4. To co-ordinate and conduct in-service, pre-service and continuing
education programmes and workshops for teachers and administrators.
5. To plan facilities including identification of resources, materials, supplies,
equipment, tools and audio visual aids.
Curriculum improvement at the building level should be comparatively carried out
by the teacher, the principal and the pupils. The role of the supervisor is that of a
facilitator and advisor. The crucial question is, how can teachers be helped to
have a sound curriculum vision?

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Supervisor and Curriculum Evaluation
Evaluation is an integral part of the curriculum improvement process and
infact forms its core. It is difficult to determine certain deficiencies in the
curriculum and we cannot, therefore improve the curriculum, unless it is
subjected to proper evaluation procedures. Evaluation is useful only to the
extent that its results have a positive impact on instruction, teachers, pupils,
materials and facilities.
The role of the supervisor in instructional and curriculum evaluation is to
help the teacher to master the fundamental techniques and procedures in
evaluating standards performance. The supervisor guides the teacher through
practices in the preparation and use of teacher made tests-test item
development, test administration, scoring and interpretation of test scores.
In addition to developing his or her tests, the supervisor guides the teacher
in the selection, use and scoring of standards tests.
Pre-assessment of pupils, prior to instruction is an important aspect of the
evaluation process. It enables the teacher to determine:
1. whether pupils have already mastered the skills or knowledge for which
instruction have been designed and
2. Whether the standards posses the requisite skills and knowledge to begin
learning the new materials (Oliva 1984). As continuous assessment has
become an integral aspect of curriculum evaluation in Nigeria schools, the
supervisor has the responsibility to help the teachers evaluate standards
on the cognitive, psychomotor and affective domains on an on-going basis
as consistent with the objectives and content of each unit of instruction.

Summary: In instructional evaluation, the supervisor helps, guides and directs

teachers in understanding the fundamental techniques involved in evaluating
standards performances. He also evaluates the effectiveness of the programme
itself using appropriate evaluation techniques.

Role of the Supervisor in Staff Development:

It has often been assumed that the in-service education of teachers and
curriculum development are separate educational function. As teachers work on
identifying inadequacies in the present programme, on preparing change in
policy and for curriculum content, or in devising operational procedures, they
grow in insight and teaching skills. They end up improving themselves as they
strive to improve the instructional programme.
In addition to the unplanned and incidental teacher improvement process
described above, there is need for a planned and systematic programme of
professional development for classroom teacher. Staff development must not be
haphazard. The first task of the supervisor is to determine the nature of in-service
education that is needed by each teacher. Some dues will be obtained from
evaluation. The supervisor then establishes activities, procedures and

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environment that assist classroom teachers in acquiring knowledge, skills and
attitudes required for effective professional performance e.g. seminar works.
A programme of staff development is of the greatest benefit to the teacher
if it is focus on improving the instructional programme (Wilen and Lovell, 1975)
specific areas around which such a programme could be built include:-
a. Examination of recent theories of learning and child development and how
instruction could be adopted in new and useful approaches. Should
encourage teachers to seek outside specialized services like computer
courses or other short-term courses that will sharpen the teacher’s
competence in his or her subject area. Cost may be the major constraint
there.
In an ideal situation, teachers are highly competitive and ambitious,
struggling to gear local, regional and national reputation where possible. It is part
of the overall responsibility of instructional supervision to help teachers make
their dreams come true and in the process improve the curriculum offerings of
the school.

Summary and conclusion

In the proceeding passage, I have been able to refresh our minds about
some basic concept in the administration of education. Among other things, we
have been able to dismiss the misconception that administration is concerned
with controlling, disciplining and enforcing. It is rather a helping and service
function. Also, that the principal is an instructional leader but that certain
obstacles prevent him from performing this vital role. In order to ensure that the
curriculum and instruction do not suffer because of lack of leadership on the part
of the administrator, the place of supervision in the administration of education
lies in the need for continuous instructional improvement. The main function of
supervision is the continuous renewal and improvement of curriculum and
instruction with a view to enhancing students learning. Apart from curriculum
improvement, the supervisory function is concerned with curriculum evaluation as
well as the professional development of teachers. It is also the responsibility of
the supervisor to help teachers seek and realize their personal goals since these
in turn help to promote the realization of the purpose of education, namely,
helping individuals to become what they are capable of being.

Assignment:
Write on effective strategy for the supervision of vocational teachers.

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 AED 610

- Outline
- Concept of Economic Evaluation
- Need for Economic Evaluation
- The farmer and his management function
- The farmer and management skills
- Environmental factors and forecasting

Micro-Economic Concept
- Opportunity cost
- Demand and supply
- Perfect and imperfect competition
- Comparative advantage of opportunity cost
- Records and accounts for farm management.

The first thing to do when you want to advice a farmer is to embark on a

feasibility study in order to decide on what to produce, when to produce and
where to produce, also to be able to assess the demand and the cost of the
goods.

The application of economics to farm management:

There are number of general economics principles which are directly
relevant to the successful operation of a farm business. First and foremost, it is
generally assumed that farm businesses are planned for the maximum profit
consistent with good husbandry. However, when objectives other than profit
maximization are considered e.g. the satisfaction of family interest, leisure
activities or livestock showing and judging. The cost (i.e. reduction in potential
profit should be taken into account).
Economic principles can be used to indicate the best allocation of
resources for attaining the chosen objectives. Within limits the organisation of a
farm business is decided by the natural and physical conditions of the farm. The
final choice to be made by a famer will depend upon his objectives, and will take
account of his personal preferences, skills and expectations of the returns he can
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get from the land, labour and capital available to him. His decision on an
appropriate system will be influenced by a certain economic criteria which are;
1. How much of each commodity to produce
2. Resources to be used in producing each commodity
3. Selection and combination of enterprises.

In considering these criteria, the farmer will of course be influenced by many

factors such as, the maintenance of soil fertility or personal aptitude for cow
keeping rather than egg production.

How much of each commodity to produce:

The answer to this question is concerned essentially with the well known
law of diminishing returns. This law is applicable to all types of crops and
livestock production. Basically, the problem is to decide how much of a particular
input or resource should be used. For these to be determined, it will be
necessary to estimate the effects of successive increments of these inputs upon
the total output of the product. In diary farming e.g. this will be the relevant
problem in deciding how much concentrate to feed; with pig fattening it will be to
choose the optimum slaughter weight, having regard to quantities of food fed;
and in crop production, to decide on the most economic levels of fertilizer
application. The particular point is determined by consideration of both physical
input-output relationship and the relative price levels.

Resources to be used in producing each commodity:

Other things being equal, the cheapest combination of resources should
be used to produce a given level of output. Thus, in deciding between a number
of alternative inputs or practices, the main consideration is that, the least cost
combination of inputs should be chosen. An example of this problem will be
method of harvesting arable crops. A beet grower example could decide on a
comparative cost basis whether it will be cheaper to hire a contractor beet
harvester or own his own harvester; the corn grower would like wise choose
between buying a combined and employing a contractor. Also, for two on feeding
strife which substitute for each other, at a constant rate, the feast cost situation
occurs when the one with the lower cost per unit of out put is used exclusively.
These examples are relatively straight forward. In other cases, the choice of a
least cost combination of inputs is more complicated particularly where a
combination of inputs, other than two direct substitutes is involved example a
diary cow may be fed various combinations of hay and concentrates or a pig can
be fattened on various proportions of gains and protein supplement. When there
is a diminishing rate of substitution between various inputs, the least cost
combination which involves both physical relationship and relative prices rarely
leads to the exclusive use of one or other of the ingredients. In these

17
circumstances, the cheapest combination of resources to produce a given level
of output will be found when the cost of any resources introduced.

Selection and Combination of Enterprises:

The farmer will first have to consider any comparative advantage which he
may enjoin for particular lines for production. To exploit such comparative
advantage, he should concentrate on those enterprises where the relative net
returns are greatest, having regard to yields and prevailing cost and price
conditions. For most farmers, the availability of land, labour and capital is limited
and having selected the enterprises for which he is best suited, the farmer will
need to consider allocating his scare resources among the various enterprises in
order to produce the greatest profit from the farm as a whole. This is determined
by the principle of equi-marginal returns. Profit will be greatest when the last
amount invested in an enterprise will earn the same as if investing in any of the
other selected enterprises; then if he allocates his resources in any other way his
profits will fall. Inter-relationships between the various farm enterprises in terms
of their use of resources and possible benefits to one another will also have to be
considered. These are referred to as the complementary and supplementary
aspects.

Risks and Uncertainties:

Farmers like all other business men do not have perfect knowledge about
the future and have to formulate their plans under conditions of risk and
uncertainties. In decision making, no one can say that a decision is right or wrong
at time it is made only time can provide this. What the business man is trying to
do is to make a good decision as opposed to a bad one in the light of all the facts
available to him at the time.
Budgeted plans or forecast of the future aim to give a good indication of
the likely outcome of a project or of the business as a whole, but the decision
maker does not know how often he will obtain this result, or how often he will be
above or below the budgeted outcome. In a situation of certainty, the farmer
would have perfect knowledge about the relevant facts and could forecast with
certainty. In practice, such certainty rarely occurs and so he must try to assess
the degree of risks and uncertainty.
There is in his plans, the distance between risks and uncertainty is one of
degree. Risks is defined as the situation characterized by the fact that a farmer
can ensure against it example fire, ant diseases or death, where through past
experience it is possible to asses the probabilities of these happenings occurring.
Insurance companies through their actuarian department are concerned with
establishing the probability of the situation arising by reference to their
considerable amounts of experience in past histories. Uncertainty is
characterized by the fact that very little certain knowledge exist and it would not

18
be possible from previous experience to set any mathematical probability about
the likely occurrence of the outcome.
In farming, it may be possible from previous records to arrive at a
probability that three years out of ten will be bad, although of course, it is
uncertain when these bad ones will occur. The future is uncertain too in the
situation where the farmer is applying new technology in the early days, or when
he moves into a new enterprise which has not previously been under taken in his
area, also as regards prices and cost which could rise or fall. The formulation of
plans to meet these various types of risks and uncertainty constitutes perhaps
the principal function of the farmer as a manager. The deferring attitudes of
individuals to the acceptance of risks largely accounts for varying management
decisions under a similar environment. Risks involved in variable crop yields, e.g.
may be countered by diversification but the exact choice of enterprises will be
largely influenced by the individual own predictions. Several stages can be
distinguished in this decision making process namely; the formulation of
predictions, the making of plans and putting them into effect and bearing the
likely consequence of the actions. An estimation of the later stage has great
significance and to deal with it, he farmer will obtain as much background
information as possible about the possibilities and likely consequences of a given
procedure and take precautions accordingly. Such precautions against risks and
uncertainty may include the diversification of crop and livestock enterprises
having regard to the available resources and the use of insurance against the
various personal and farm contingencies.

Micro-economic concept:
- Opportunity cost
- Demand and supply
- comparative advantage
- Planning a farm business

Farm Budget
The farm budget is the physical and financial plan for the operation of the farm
for some period of time.
Three types of farm business are;
1. Total farm budget
2. Partial farm budget
3. The cash-flow budget

Total Farm Budget

The total farm budget is prepared as an aid in organizing the entire farm
business.

19
Inventory: In total farm budget, the first thing to be done is to make an inventory
of the resources available to the farmer. Capital, labour, land and management
are the resources that the farmer must transform into a marketable product. List
the capital available and the form in which it occurs in detail. Capital may be
inform of land, machinery and livestock, and cash or other liquid capital.

AED 602
The concept of vocational education
Vocation theories – traditional theories – Smith Hudges
Financing issues
Issues in skill development and man-power development.

The concept of vocational education in Nigeria

- Historical development of vocational education in Nigeria
- Need for vocational education in Nigeria
- Objectives
- Organisation of vocational technical education in Nigeria
- The structure of vocational technical education in Nigeria
- Administration of vocational technical education in Nigeria
- Vocational technical Education curriculum
- Man-power production
- Vocational education and skill development
- Funding of vocational technical education in Nigeria
- Management of vocational technical education

What is Vocational Technical Education?

Vocational technical education is that type of education that is
systematically designed and systematically disseminated to recipients who know
it, need it and can profit by it. It is that type of education that sermonizes zero
reflection and 100% acceptances of recipients. It is that type of education that
avert semantic obscurantism i.e. it averts psycophrenic dissemination of
information (something that is not coherent). It is that type of education that is
better given by the master of the trade. It is an utilitarian education, it is
productive education, it cares for all and sundry, it corrects the ills in our society
and one becomes skilled in various facets of the occupation and averts one
becoming a liability.

20
Historical Background:
Inherent vocational theories
- Environmental theory
- Instructional theory
- Per sonata theory
- Economic theory

Policy Issues
- Financing and funding
- Human development
- Curriculum development

Environment must be a replica of working environment. It is an Integra of habit

theory.

Process Theory

What is Agricultural Education for young older adults?

Agricultural education for young and older adults may be of many types. A
partial list follows;
1. Vocational
a. Course for young farmers becoming established in farming.
b. Courses for young adults preparing for off-farm occupations requiring
knowledge and skills in agriculture.
c. Courses for young persons living on farms who do not have crystallized
agricultural objectives.
d. Courses for older adult farmers.
e. Courses for adults employed in off-farm occupations requiring knowledge
and skills in agriculture.
f. Courses for older adults preparing for off-farm occupation requiring
knowledge and skills in agriculture.
2. Non-Vocational
a. A vocational courses in agriculture
b. Practical arts courses in agriculture
c. Citizenship and consumed education courses in agriculture.

Bell and Cushman have classified adult education courses in agriculture

into three models. The models are:
i. The business management model
ii. The employed training model
iii. The self fulfillment model

21
 The purpose of the courses following the business management model will
be to assist owner operators or managers of agricultural business and farmers in
becoming established successfully or in improving their operators. The purpose
of the courses following the employer model would be to teach present and
prospective employees to perform the operations their present and prospective
jobs required. The purpose of the courses following the self fulfillment model
would be to assist the enrollees in pursuing the interest in agriculture which they
believe will add meaning to their lives.
These interests may help the learners to advance culturally, occupationally,
physically, politically and spiritually. In several states, the farm business
management type course has been very successful. Some schools have
employed teachers full time to teach farm business management courses. These
courses enroll all persons involved in the operation of farms. This includes
husbands, wives and farm partners, group and individual instruction is provided
throughout the year. The first stage of the instruction is the keeping of farm
records and accounts. The second state is the analysis of farm goals and family
goals. The third stage is the analysis and interpretation of the farm business
records and accounts. The fourth stage is the planning, re-planning and
reorganizing of the farm business using the analysis of the farm business records
and accounts. Support services for summarizing the farm business records and
accounts are important in making this type of course successful.
Courses for young and older adults may be provided for persons who wish
to school full time or part time. These may be short courses or there may be a
semester or a year long. They may be provided by high school agriculture
department, community colleges or area volatimalt technical schools. The
content of the courses may involve any phase of agriculture.

History and Development:

Adult education in agriculture did not result from the smith Hughes and
smith Livers act. In this country, it has had a long historical development. In
1785, the Philadelphia society for promoting agriculture was organized to
encourage a greater increase of the products of land within the American states
and for this purpose, the society would print memos, offer prices for experiment,
improvement and agricultural essays and encourage the establishment of other
societies through the country. By 1860, there were 941 active agricultural
societies in the US, fairs for the sale of agricultural products have been held
since colonial time as one educational procedure in 1826, the Lyceum movement
was originated by Joscia Holbrook. The Lyceum was an organisation of adults
which sponsored meetings, instituted regular courses, procured books and
apparatus and established institutions for applying the sciences to agriculture. By
1831, about 900 towns had lyceums.
Farmer institutes were beginning about 1870 and developed into a regular
system of meetings under public control. In 1874, the Chautauqua movement

22
started. It provided lectures and entertainment. In 1894, extension work was
begun in New York State. True points that by 1902, there were 29,792 persons
enrolled in the farmers reading course and 9500 in the farmers wives reading
course in New York states.
The agricultural high school of Baltimon country at sparts station Maryland
was opened in 1902 and was among the first public high school to introduce
instruction in agriculture. This school provided for adult farmers a ten (10)
meeting course, with an average attendance of 125 men and women. Monthly
meetings were held on Saturday afternoons for the farmers wives with an
average attendance of 85 women. They studied Home economics, carpentry,
home crafts or modern literature, vocational education in agriculture for adults
provided by the public schools and stimulated by smith Hughes act as a natural
development in the long process of adult education in agriculture. Why provide
agriculture education for.

Administrative Theories
The administration of vocational education will be efficient in proportion as
it is elastic and fluid rather than rigid and standardized.

irreducible cost states that;

While every reasonable effort should be made to reduce for capital cost, there is
a minimum below which effective vocational education cannot be given and if the
course does not permit of their minimum capital cost, vocational education
should not be alternpted.

The Theory of single or unit control

The way to secure the most effective vocational education is to place its
administration in the hands of the same authoritarian (federal, state and local) as
they have charge of general education.

The theory of dual control

In order to render its maximum services to the individual and state, it is
necessary that the federal, state and the local administrative authority in charge
of vocational education be distinct and separate from corresponding authority
dealing with general education.

23
 AED 606
- Concept
- Principles of practices of organising workshop
- content of workshop
- Relevance of workshop in vocational agriculture
- How to organize workshop for practice farmers (this is the practical aspect)

Introduction
Vocational agriculture is practically oriented. So in teaching it, emphasis is
placed much on psycho-productive than cognition and affection, although the 3
domains are pertinent for effective dissemination of information to students in the
workshop classes.
Attributes of students in the lab. i.e. entry qualifications.
For workshop activities, their previous learning experiences and their level of
performances. Bearing these in mind, the workshop instructor knows what to set
up for the workshop activities and approaches to be adopted. After addressing
the personata of these students, the next step for the workshop instructor is to
set up ground rules guiding the functionality of the workshop. The following factor
ground rules may be pertinent for effective functioning of workshop.
1. The space has to be acquired and the space should be spacious.
2. The sitting arrangement has to be done in such a way that there should be
free movement among standards.
3. Each table should have the desired and required no of instruments.
4. The arrangement should be done in such a way that damages to
equipment will be averted.
5. Each student should atleast have access to the most cherishable
instrument for the practical for effective learning for he ff reasons.
a. There will be no distraction
b. High concentration
c. High performance and
d. High attainability of objectives
6. The workshop content should be structured in a way the meat of the
practical is clearly defined and attainable in order words, it should be
structured to avert ambiguity.
7. The learning experiences should be structured in a way that the desirable
skills are easily attained e.g. skills needed by students to solve specific
problems in animal production programme include the following factors.
1. To prepare a broader house for the day old chicks; spread litter, set
feed and water troughs and lanterns.
2. To castrate goals using an elastrator; fix a strong elastic rubber band
firmly above the scrotal sac.
24
 3. Before extracting large quantities of milk from a diary cow; first feed it
on a well mixed pasture
4. To treat day old chicks before putting them in a broader house; feed
with growers mash.
5. In order to identify fertility and hatchable eggs in an incubator, candling
should be carried out.
6. The instructor should be well informed or learned on the subject matter.
7. The instructor should be able to set up a laboratory within the reach of
the school administrator in terms of financial implication. However,
vocational technical education workshop should not be operated on
managerial basis in other words, because vocational technical
education workshop requires a large amount of money, the workshop
should be set up within the reach of the school. Finances should
contain durable machines that can stand the test of time.
Finally, the instructor should set up the workshop in such a way that student is
not compromised.

NB: Other materials like sand bags and fire extinguishers should be in the
workshop. The gas cylinder should be placed outside the workshop with a long
nozzle.
Land laboratory (check the functional curriculum)
Embark on a pre-trip to the farm to ensure that those skills you want them to
acquire are there.
Principles or guidelines in setting up a laboratory:
1. Identify the environment
2. Take into consideration the recipients i.e. the 1.q of the standards
3. Consider the learning materials to be adequate with the students needs.
4. The space, arrangement of equipment, safety in the lab. and management
of the lab includes, preventing them from making unnecessary noise,
commitment and active participation by students.

How to conduct an Agriculture mechanics programme

Agriculture shop procedures shop dress – effective work in a shop is impossible
when students are worrying about protecting their clothes from paints, grease
and dirt. Adults students may be encouraged to wear clothes to their classes.
Cover-rays may be worn by high school students as a means of protecting their
school clothes. The appearance of high school agric mechanic classes is
improved if all students are dressed alike. Some school encourages all class
members to provide themselves with cover rails but school material has a
tendency to face on while clothing when a worker perspires. While cover rails
show very readily khaki or stripped cover rails seem to be the most desirable

25
type. Class members should place their names in small letters on their cover-rails
to prevent mix up and inplacement. A good place for name is under the collar.
Class members should be provided lockers or hooks for sharing or hanging their
over rails. In warm climates, shop aprons or cover rails may be most satisfactory
than cover rails. A light weight shop or lab coat about 50 inches in length is very
satisfactorily for a teacher to wear. Such coats protect the clothing, are
convenient and are reasonable in price. All class members should be
encouraged to wear caps as a safety measure. Shop caps are very inexpensive
and provide protection while working. Black or stripped caps are often preferred
since they do not show soil as readily as caps of a lighter colour.

Organizing Shop Work

At the beginning of shop classes may teachers assemble the class
members for a short period in a corner of the shop or in the classroom if it is near
the agricultural shop. This period may be used to discover problems of class
members and to ascertain if every one has a job of educational value to perform.
This procedure motivates class members to anticipate and prevent many
problems. It allows a teacher and class members to plan their activities so that
every one is engaged in a worthwhile educational task, and it also motivates
class members to begin their shop activities promptly. Some shop projects may
be sufficiently large or difficult to necessitate two or more class members working
together. If a project requires more than one class member, each person should
have definite responsibilities for the success of the project. Instructors must make
certain that all class members have opportunities to develop the skills and
abilities they need.
Some class members hesitate to take the lead in a project of which they
are working with others. The result is that they do not develop necessary skills
and abilities in agriculture mechanics. There is no definite answer to the question
regarding the number of persons who can profitably work on a project. It depends
on the size and type of project and the personality of persons working together. It
is usually better however to have too few working on a project than to have too
many. Two is the maximum number of persons who should work. Together on a
vast majority of projects.

Sewing Tools
Checking out tools to class members has many disadvantages. It is usually
better to permit the students to help themselves to the tools they need. Some of
the advantages of these procedures are as follows:
1. It saves time since checking is eliminated
2. There is less confession because students do not have to stand in line and
wait to check out tools.
3. It places the class members on their honour

26
 4. It permits the sharing of tools (when tools are checked out to students,
they do not care, trust others to use them until they have checked them in.
5. Discipline problems involving the students and the person who is checking
tools are presented.
6. Shop space is saved.

If a check out system is used, tool room is necessary, which uses considerate
floor space when students are allowed to help themselves to the tools they need,
wall cabinet and tool dollies may be used. The value of tool dollies is that they
may be rolled closed to the project.
The argument for checking out tools to class members is that it prevents the
loss of tools from shop. If a class member is assigned to see that all tools are in
their proper locations at the end of a class session, if all tools are marked and if
the instructor also checks to determine if all tools have been replaced before a
class leaves, very few shop tools will be lost. Tools from a shop may be lost in a
number of ways. The shop may be burglarized as vandalized. Some shops
cannot be made burglar and vandal proof but certain precaution may be taken.
The teacher should have the local police department, check the shop facilities
and suggest ways of providing increased protection to the contents of the shop.
The shop should be kept locked and others should not be permitted to have
keys. Persons should not be allowed to work in unless a teacher of agric is
present. Most tools are lost by being carried away in the pockets of the students.
All tools should be stored where they are visible and can be checked with a
glance. Students should check at the beginning of each class for missing tools
and they should repeat this check at the end of each shop period. If a tool is
removed from a shop, the teacher should put a tag on the tool where it belongs.

Shop Supplies
Students in class should be requested to have their materials at the agric
shop before class time. High school students should not expect to use time to
buy supply at a shop or store. Allowing students to go to store to purchase supply
during class reduces materially the instructional time available for agricultural
mechanics. Often the people in la community or the administration of a school do
not approve of students leaving the campus without an instructor. A few of a
more common pieces of lumber and a few of a common kind and of nails, hinges,
screws and paints may be kept on hand in a shop so that if any one runs out of
materials, the instructor can furnish it thus preventing delays in the project in the
process and preventing requests to go to a hard wares store or lumbar yards for
extra supplies during the shop periods. A school may provide a revolving fund to
try for these supplies. As the instructor sells the supplies to the students, the
money is collected and deposited at the schools office where it is credited to the
revolving fund. When more supplies are purchased, these are charged to the
same fund. sometimes, supplies are sold with a 10% mark up to allow for waste.

27
When it is a general policy for a school to pay similar charges for other
departments in the school, a mark up is not used. A farm may be developed for
keeping a record of any material purchased by the school by class members.
Some supplies such as welding rods and electrodes are usually furnished by
schools with adult students. The costs of such supplies are usually paid by the
students through a fee for consumable supply.

Using a shop Whistle

In agric mechanics instruction, there is often so much noise that instructors
find it rather difficult to obtain the attention of every one when they wish students
to stop work. An ordinary whistle of the type used by athletics directs is very
effective for this purposes. Using a whistle is much easier for an instructor than
shouting at a class.

Cleaning a Shop
Good house keeping is an important part of the training in agric
mechanics. About 10 min before the close of a shop period, a whistle may be
blown signaling that all tools land materials are to be put away and that the shop
is to be cleaned. Students should clean around the projects on which they have
worked and put away any tools they have used. A rotational system may be
developed so that all class members serve as sweepers over an equal period of
time for the duration of a course. Two students may be assigned as sweepers for
a week or so at a time. The shop should be well cleaned. All lumbar and projects
neatly arranged, and all tools returned to their proper places before a class is
dismissed.

Maintaining Equipments
Good equipments help to make students better workers, but equipment
cannot stay in a good condition unless it is given proper care. In order to ensure,
economical use and satisfactory service from equipment, it is imperative that it be
properly maintained. Students need instruction in how to keep equipment
properly lubricated and adjusted and free from rust, dirt and grime. They should
recondition and replace worn parts as soon as needed. The proper maintenance
of tools and equipment in a shop is an important part of the students training. The
students should take pride in keeping the tools and equipment in good condition.
They will obtain much satisfaction from using such equipments and its use will
contribute to good work quality.

Shop Safety
Many accidents have occurred because of the improper use of
equipments. A sufficient number of fire extinguishers should be kept in a shop at
all times, since many fires have been started in shops through the improper use
of equipments. All possible preventions should be taken to make a workshop a

28
safe place in which to work. Accidents are caused, they do not just happen. The
recommendations of the manufacturer should be followed in the safe use of the
shop equipments. Safety talks, posters and regulations help in preventing
accidents in a shop but they are not adequate. Students need to understand
safety precautions. The teacher may develop thus understanding at least partially
by allowing the students to develop their own safety regulations for the shop.
These safety regulations would develop from discussions and thinking
concerning necessary precautions. Each student participate in developing
regulations, they will probably more completely understand them and be more
willing to observe them. Following are a few examples of safety regulations which
might originate from the students:
1. Treat injuries immediately
2. Keep the shop clean and in order
3. Remove all nails projecting from boards
4. Wear goggles when using a grinder
5. Wear a hood when you are welding
6. Never use any power equipment unless safety guards are in place.
7. Always stop equipments before making adjustments.

These safety precautions are general. Specific safety precautions may also be
developed for each piece of equipment and each operation in a shop. The safety
precautions or regulations may also contain statements of the reasons for the
regulations. Each class needs to develop its own safety regulations if the
members of the class are to understand and respect them. Materials which may
be used by students as references during the time they are developing their
safety regulations may be obtained from many sources. E.g. The National safety
Council in Chicago has many publications on safety. The instructional manual for
the different types of shop equipment contains many suggestions.

Students Behaviour
With adults and post high school youths, the only behaviour problem that
usually concerns a teacher is the observance of safety precautions. Observance
of safety precautions requires constant vigilance on the part of a teacher
because even young and old adults are sometimes forgetful regarding safety.
Usually, there are no behaviour problems with high school students working in a
shop because they are interested in their work. If behaviour problems do
develop, the principles of handling and preventing them should be used. A shop
class cannot be as quiet as other classes, in fact, it should not be. If two students
are working together on the same job, some conversion pertaining to the job is
necessary. Land talking, whistling, singing or other unnecessary disturbances
however, should be discouraged.

29
References
Reference materials are often needed in a shop. If library shelf for such
materials may be maintained in a protected spot in a shop.
How to organize an agric Mechanics Programme
Meaning of agriculture mechanics. Agric mechanics involves the
development of the mechanical abilities of students in performing agricultural
shop activities, in operation, maintaining, repairing and adjusting farm machinery;
in constructing and maintaining farm buildings in storing, operating and
maintaining farm electrical systems; in processing farm products and in
performing the mechanical activities in soil and water management programmes.
The terms agricultural mechanics and agriculture shops have often been used
interchangeably in the past. The latest interpretation however is that agriculture
mechanics is a more inclusive term than agriculture shop. The instruction in
agriculture shop is now considered one of the phases of instruction in an
agriculture mechanics programme.

What does agriculture mechanics include?

An agriculture mechanics programme includes all the mechanical activities
that a progressive farm or off farm agricultural worker should perform with the
kinds of tools and equipment assessable. Recommendations on what should be
included in the agric mechanics programme have been made by committees on
agriculture teacher education of the American society of agricultural engineers, in
collaboration with an advicesly group of agricultural education specialists. These
committees recommended six areas of instructions namely:
1. Agriculture shop work
2. Agriculture power and machinery
3. Agriculture building and conveniences
4. soil and water management
5. Rural electrification
6. Processing agricultural products.
These six areas of instruction have been carefully examined and the following
outline, which is very similar to the suggestions made by these committees have
been prepared.
1. Agriculture shop work
a. Wood work and carpentry
2. Providing, equipping a home shop
3. Classifying, selecting and caring for lumbar
4. Selecting and using nails, screws , bolts and hinges
5. Classifying, using and caring for wood working tools
6. Fitting shop tools
7. Figures bills of material
8. Sketching and reading blue-prints
30
 9. Cutting rafters
10. Carrying out wood working and agriculture carpentry projects.

Painting and Glazing

1. Painting
2. glazing

Rope work
i. Selecting and caring for rope
ii. Using and handling rope
iii. Splicing rope
iv. Tieing knots

Harness work
1. Preparing and caring for harness

Sheet metal work

1. Selecting and using soldering equipment
2. Soldering

Forge work
1. Preparing for forge work
2. Working hot and cold metal

Welding
i. Welding by the oxyacetylene process
ii. Welding with an electric welder

Agriculture Power and Machinery

Transmission of power
i. selecting, using and repairing bolts
ii. Installing line shafts, pulleys and belts

Farm Motors
i. Understanding fundamental principles of engines
ii. maintaining fuel, coding and ignition systems
iii. Maintaining farm meters

Trucks and Tractors

i. selecting, using and caring for farm trucks
ii. Selecting, using and caring for tractors
Farm Machinery
i. Selecting farm machinery
31
 ii. Using and maintaining farm machinery
iii. constructing labour saving equipment

Agriculture Buildings and Conveniences

i. Concrete work
ii. Understanding the uses and composition of concrete
iii. Estimating quantities and proportions of concrete mixtures.
iv. mixing, pouring and caring concrete

Farm Building
i. Constructions, remolding and repairing farm buildings

Farm Home Conveniences

i. Selecting and using plumbing equipment
ii. Installing and repairing plumbing fixtures
iii. Establishing farm water supply systems
iv. Establishing farm sewage disposal systems
v. Heating farm homes

Rural Electrification
i. Understanding electrical sources, terms and materials
ii. Wiring a farm stead and maintaining equipment.

Soil and Water management

i. Terracing to control soil erosion
ii. Using contour farming and strip cropping practices
iii. Providing farm drainage and irrigation

Processing Agricultural Products

i. Refrigerating
ii. Preserving
iii. Modifying

A new Emphasis on Agric Mechanics

Many department of agricultural education in the public schools offer
instructions in only the agriculture shop phases of agric mechanics. In adequate
teacher education in the other fine areas of agriculture mechanics instruction,
tradition, inadequate equipment and the offering of agricultural mechanics
instead only teacher high school students are a few of the reasons for the
narrowness of the agriculture mechanics programme in many schools. Most
prospective teachers of agricultural mechanic programme i.e. now receiving a
broad training and many established teachers are being provided with

32
opportunities for professional improvement in the area of agree mechanics. The
schools agric mechanics shop are being opened in increasing numbers to young
and older adults directing instruction in agriculture mechanics. Many new agric
mechanics shops of much greater size have been constructed. The result is that
an increasing number of schools are now offering complete programmes of
agriculture mechanics. A school offering only agriculture shop work is becoming
more and more difficult to locate students now demand that phases of agriculture
mechanics such as are welding, gas welding farm machines is repair,
maintenance and adjustment, soil and water management and the mechanical
phases of food processing be included as part of their instruction in agriculture
mechanics.
Importance of agriculture mechanics instruction
The instruction in agric mechanics is an integral part of the programme in
agricultural education. It provides for the development of mechanical activities
essential for success in agric occupations and in family living. The students
supervised occupational experience programme offer many opportunities for
desirable agriculture mechanics activities. The time usually allotted to agric
mechanics varies from 25 to 40% of the total time devoted to courses in agric
depending on local needs. A few of the advantages of agric mechanics
instruction may be listed as follows:
1. It provides training in the skills that are necessary to do the needed
mechanical jobs in agriculture.
2. It gives students an opportunity to use their hands
3. It helps students, after the job is done, to realize that they have
accomplished something.
4. It stimulates the interest of students be especially like this phase of
instruction in agriculture.
5. It adds variety to a programme in agriculture.
6. It makes farm and off farm agric workers realize that the instruction is
agree is not mainly theory t of real practical value when agric mechanics is
a part of that instruction.
7. It shows immediate results
8. It affords an opportunity to advertise the work of the department.

The Objectives of Agric Mechanics Instruction

1. To develop students interest, attitudes, habits, ideals and understandings
in agric mechanic activities.
2. To develop abilities required to construct or repair suitable equipment
essential for SOEP.
3. To develop students confidence to their ability to perform needed jobs.
4. To create a desire and to develop the abilities required to do quality work.
5. To develop students interest in having desirable home shops.

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 6. to develop abilities in the selecting maintenance and self use of tools and
equipment.
7. To develop judgment abilities.
8. To develop abilities in using tools and equipment effectively.
9. To develop abilities in creative thinking.
Character Building Through Agric Mechanics
There are numerous opportunities for character building through the
instruction in agric mechanics. Agric mechanics provides opportunities to develop
habits of industry, carefulness, orderliness and accuracy. These habits are
developed if agric mechanics is taught correctly. However, if not taught correctly
may provide a fertile field for growth of undesirable habits such as carefulness,
wastefulness, shiftlessness, untidiness and deceit. If instructors are to promote
desirable habits they must lead by having their work well planned, by being
careful and accurate in their work and by taking pride in keeping tools in place,
benches in order and floors clean.

Developing Suitable Course Materials

1. Base course contents on needs
In deciding what to teach in agric mechanics, a teacher must give first
consideration to the interest, needs and abilities of the students. The 1o objective
of the instruction should b the development of effective abilities in agric
mechanics for present and prospective farmers and for off farm agricultural
workers. This means that the students must receive the type of training which will
prepare them to perform the agric mechanics jobs they will need to do as
progressive farmers or off farm agricultural workers with the kinds of tools and
equipment they will have accessible. For example, if a teacher examined SOEP
of students and found out that most of them were planning corn production
projects and that the rest of the students in group could have corn improvement
projects can be involved in submentry jobs relating to corn production, the
teacher could anticipate the necessity of teaching about corn production during
the year. One of the problem areas in corn production which would probably be
included would be increasing corn production yields. An approved practice in
getting maximum corn production yield is the obtaining an adequate population of
corn plants per hectare. Thus the teacher could anticipate the probable necessity
of teaching at least to many of the students, however, to adjust corn planters to
obtain correct plant population per hectare. When classroom instruction is based
on the SOEP programme of the students, the agric mechanics instruction can
become or be a natural out growth of the classroom instruction.

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Secure Basic Data
Available data such as census report and departmental records should be
studied if available data regarding agric mechanics are lacking and survey may
be necessary. A survey of the farm and agricultural business in the community is
usually adviceable. This survey should reveal information such as the following:
i. Basic information about the farms and agricultural businesses, including sizes
and types of operations.
ii. Kinds of machinery used on the farm and in the off farm agricultural
businesses.
iii. Mechanical activities of farmers and of farm agricultural workers.
iv. Tools and equipment in home shops and shops of agricultural businesses.
v. Kinds of construction or repair projects done on farms and in agricultural
businesses.
vi. Home conveniences on the farm.
vii. Labour saving devices being used.
A few of the ways teachers motivate valid Agriculture mechanics jobs and
projects in the schools agriculture mechanics shops are as follows:
1. Visit the students, their parents and their employers and plan with them
worthwhile jobs and projects which may be done in the shop.
2. Plan agric mechanics activities as the natural continuation of the classroom
instruction.
3. Allow local new papers to carry articles concerning the agric mechanics
programme.
4. Exhibit agric mechanic projects at country fare, school fares and adult
classes.
5. Stencil the department name on each finished product.
Factors to consider in determining the content of a course
In a thing a course in agric mechanics, teachers should consider the following
questions:
i. How long will the period be?
ii. How many periods each week may be devoted to agric mechanics?
iii. How many years may be devoted to agric mechanics
iv. What are the needs of the students and the community?
v. What shop facilities are available?
vi. What are the qualifications of the instructor?
vii. What instructions will be offered to young and older adult workers?
1. Concept of workshop
2. How to conduct agric mechanic workshop
3. What does agric mechanic workshop entails?
4. Importance of agric mechanics workshop
5. Factors to consider in determining an agric mechanic workshop.

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