Module 5

Republic of the Philippines

MALLIG PLAINS COLLEGES INC.
Casili, Mallig, Isabela

FACILITATING LEARNER – CENTERED TEACHING

MODULE 5
Learning Metaphors and Theories of Learning
Learning is a process of gaining knowledge. Learning is a product of experience, study,
instruction or scholarship. Such process is influence by interactions in the environment, if someone
has learned something, such learning is manifested in his behavior. Changes in behavior are pieces
of evidence showing that learning has taken place. It means that learning is a change in behavior
attributable to experience. This definition has 3 main components:
 It involves changes in the learner.
 What is changed is the learner’s knowledge.
 It is caused by the learner’s experience.

Metaphors of Learning
Metaphor is a cognitive tool that enables us to see one thing in terms of another. Metaphor
is a transfer of meaning from one object to another to on the basis of perceived similarities.
Metaphors from a Behaviorist point of view
 Learning is a traveler who comes to many countries and takes many pictures of
everything he observes, which he then stores in different albums.
 Learning is just like a video camera which records the world.
 Learning is like a sponge which soaks in the water.
 Learning is like training a horse.
 Learning is like training an instrument.
 Learning is like eating, it satisfies a necessity.
Reinforcement is commonly viewed as a “reward.” Positive reinforcement occurs when the
behavior produces another new stimulus. We call it negative reinforcement if the disappearance of
a stimulus occurs. Punishment is used to decrease the performance of a behavior while
reinforcement is used to increase the performance of a behavior.
Three laws that govern important aspects of behavior:
1. The Law of Effect – states that if a response produces a comforting effect, there is the
likelihood that each will be repeated. If a response produces an annoying effect, then such
will not be repeated.

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2. The Law of exercise – maintains the idea that the connection between a stimulus and a
response is strengthened by bettering exercised frequently. recently and vigorously.
3. The Law of Readiness – emphasizes the law of motivation. Animal and humans must be
STM (Short Term Memory) Techniques
 Repetition - nothing in the STM system lasts for long without constant repetition
 Chunking – it is a method of regrouping items so that we have fewer items to
remember.

Identifying logical patterns

 Identifying the recurring patterns makes the information easy to recall.
LTM (Long Term Memory) Techniques
 Association – as we go to through the process of recalling information, we search for
contextual factors that will help associate with an event or a person.
 Categorization – information can be organized according to categories.
 Mediation – we form a meaningful word association.
 Imagery – it makes use of our sensory modalities in which we transform ideas into vivid
images.

Barriers to effective memory:

Repression and distortion
Retroactive inhibition
Primacy and recency effects.

Four strategies to help students to help students retrieve and remember information:
1. Whole and part learning.
2. Repetition and drills.
3. Overlearning and automaticity.
4. Distributed practice.

The 7 sins of Memory:

1. Transcience
2. Absent-mindedness
3. Blocking
4. Misattribution

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5. Suggestability
6. Bias
7. Persistence

Generative Process
Merlin C. Wittrock was the founder of generative process theory that hinges on knowledge
about the brain processes and functions. The brain is responsible for cognitive functions such as
comprehension, knowledge acquisition, attention, motivation, and transfer. Wittrock gave
emphasis on a very important principle: the learners are not considered empty vessels of
information; they are rather active participants in the learning process, striving hard to construct,
negotiate, and share meaning.
There are four processes in this learning model:
1) Attention
2) Motivation
3) Knowledge and perceptions
4) Generation

Cognitive Process
Cognitive development is popularized by Jean Piaget who is known for his research on the
development of children’s cognition. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development proposed stages
that children undergo in the development of intelligence and formal thought processes. According
to him, the changes in behavior that occur during development are the results of changes in one’s
ability to reason about the world around him or her.
Various fundamental principles underlying the development of knowledge have also been
studied. The first principle led him to use a common explanatory scheme to understand both the
evaluation of organisms and the growth of scientific knowledge. In psychology, it appears as
“genetic epistemology” – Piaget’s term for his lifelong project. Genetic epistemology refers to the
information of knowledge. It means that certain knowledge goes from a lower level to a higher
level (from simple to complex). The second fundamental principle underlying the whole Piagetian
work is “structuralism”. In the field of life, there exist “totalities” (structures) distinct from their
parts and improving on their own organization. In his theory, various organisms have to be in
harmony with each other, thereby developing equilibration. The knowledge structure responsible
for our ability to reason and adapt to the environment is called a scheme. Schemes are specific
patterns of mental activities for acquiring information about the environment.
The second form of functional invariant is known as adaptation. It refers to our attempt to
create an accurate view of the world around us. Adaptation means adjustment to the demands of
the environment which occurs in two basic and complementary processes: assimilation and
accommodation.

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Assimilation is a way of fitting new information into existing schemes. These are mental
structures or organized patterns of actions or thoughts that we use to interpret experiences.
Accommodation, on the other hand, is a process of modifying our schemes in order to interact with
the world around us. Assimilation and accommodation are inseparable processes. Equilibration
accounts for this tendency. It is responsible for reducing cognitive conflicts in order to create a
balanced cognitive state. This is made possible through the complementary processes of
assimilation and accommodation.
Equilibrium operates on three different levels: within a particular scheme, within a
particular domain, and across all domains. Domains are specific areas of knowledge which share
a specific focus and are distinct from each other.

Stages of Cognitive Development

There are four stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete
operational, and formal operation stages. Each stage according to Piaget is characterized by a
particular type of thinking and behavior that reflects cognitive organization and structure.
 Sensorimotor stage (from birth to two years). In this stage, children begin to make sense
of the world by using their sensory impressions and motor actions. Their ways of reasoning
and solving problems include motor movements rather than manipulation of ideas.

According to Piaget, there are six sub-levels of sensorimotor stage which mark the
development of essential abilities and understanding of the world. They are as follows:
 Reflex scheme level. It occurs from birth to one month. This level marks the
development of reflexes.
 Primary circular level. It occurs from one month to four months. This stage
is characterized by the development of habits.
 Secondary circular level. It occurs from four months to eight months. This
indicates the development of coordination between vision and prehension
(grasping and perception with the use of the senses).
 Coordination of secondary course round modest circular level. It starts
from eight to twelve months. This stage marks the development of object
presence.
 Tertiary circular reaction level. It occurs from twelve to eighteen months.
This stage indicates the development of the child’s curiosity.
 Symbolic representation. It starts from eighteen to twenty-four months. It is
characterized by mental combinations.
Children also develop fundamental knowledge on the four properties of the external world.
These properties include knowledge of objects, causation, time, and space. Knowledge of objects
is reflected in the child’s understanding that objects are permanent. Object permanence states that
the objects will exist even if they are out of sight. Knowledge of causation is reflected in the child’s

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ability to understand perceived causes. Knowledge of time is evident in various activities.

Knowledge of space is manifested in the ability of the child to probe the inside of containers.
Educational Implications: To foster learning during this stage, it is suggested that parents allow
children to play with objects or other toys.
 Preoperational Stage. (2 to 7 years old). During this stage, the child’s language
increasingly becomes an important tool in dealing with the environment. This period can
be divided into two:
 Preconceptual level – 2 to 4 years. This level marks the development of egocentrism
and animism.
 Intuitive level – 4 to 7 years. This is characterized by the development of initial
schemes.
The child’s symbolic representations of events and objects are stored for recall at a later
time. Semiotic function is the ability of the child to use symbols. Semiotic functions are
represented by the child’s deferred imitation, mental imagery, symbolic play and language.
Deferred imitation occurs when the child is able to reproduce an action long after the original
action is produced. Mental imagery is affected by what the child has seen or experienced in the
past.
Limitations of preoperational stage:
1. Conservation is a process of determining that the amount or quantity of something
remains as it is, even the child’s perception of it may change.
2. Egocentricity. Egocentric child is selfish, but that he tends to believe that everybody
sees and experiences events that way he does.
Educational Implications: To maximize learning, children may play by putting on costumes or
disguising something and encouraging them to take on a different character. Teachers and parents
can motivate children to play with toys or other objects that replace the original shape. This activity
can help children develop the concept of conservation.
 Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years). The child possesses operative schemes that
necessitates him to think in logical terms.
Classification is the child’s ability to group a set of objects and to group around a common
category of attributes. The other skill id called seriation. In this skill, the child develops the ability
to order objects according to height, length, or width.
The most notable characteristic of concrete operations is the idea of horizontal decalage.
It deals with pace different in levels of performance that a child manifests between various
cognitive domains or activities within a given stage of development. Additionally, it deals with the
child’s tendency to solve some kinds of problems in the concrete operational stage. The word
decalage is of French origin which means “shift”. The child’s thinking is said to be horizontal
because it involves employing the same kind of thinking to new types of problems. By way of
illustration, Andrei knows that 7 + 3 = 10. If he also grasps the idea that 6 + 4 = 10, then he may

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have to think that 7 + 3 = 6 + 4. His understanding of such mathematical relationship demonstrates

the principle of horizontal decalage. Conversely, vertical decalage points to the idea that the shift
happens from one kind of thinking to another. It occurs when Andrei moves from preoperational
stage to concrete operational stage or from concrete to formal operational stage.
Educational Implications: During this stage, children really enjoy helping their mother in the
kitchen, especially when she cooks something. Helping their mother can be fun especially when
such activity turns into a great learning opportunity. Thus, parents and teachers may be motivated
to give children the chance to manipulate objects and ideas, do simple experimental jobs, with a
limited number of steps. On a higher ground, children may apply their analogical thinking to show
the relationship of new material to already existing knowledge.
Formal operational stage. The development of abstract thinking and reasoning is the benchmark
of formal operational stage. The sub-categories include:
 Composition. Andrei knows that any two units can be combined to produce a new unit.
 Reversibility. When Andrei combines two units, he knows exactly that these can be
separated again.
 Associativity. Andrei learns that the same results may be obtained by combining units in
different ways.
 Identity. In the process of combination, Andrei knows that combining an element with its
inverse or opposite function invalidates it.
 Tautology. Andrei believes that when classification or relation is repeated, it is not
changed.
 Iteration. Andrei understands that a number combined with the same number gives a new
number.
Educational Implications: During this stage, students are filled with opportunities for hypothetical
situations. For this reason, they must be motivated to work collaboratively within groups, or they
may be allowed to work in pairs so that they develop working on hypothetical topics. For instance,
they may be encouraged to write a skit or a short story on hypothetical issues.

Behavior Theory
According to behaviorism, the major subject matter of psychology is activity rather than
structure. All behaviorists are focused on the analyses of stimuli and responses. The methodology
used in behaviorism is basically scientific where stimulus variables can be objectively manipulated
and response variables can be reliably measured. Many of the behaviorists’ experiments were
conducted using animals as their test subjects. This practice only demonstrates a primary
assumption of their theory. That is, behaviorism adheres to the belief that learning follows the
same laws regardless of species. Also, it clearly shows that while some species may be able to
learn more complex behaviors than other species, the basic phenomenon by which learning occurs
is the same in human.

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The behavior theory is conveniently divided into two types: association theory and
reinforcement theory.
Association theory was developed by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian psychologist who was known
for his outstanding contribution in the field of psychology.
Operant conditioning or reinforcement theory is attributed by Burrhus Skinner, an
American psychologist. For Skinner, consequences are referred to as reinforcers and punishers. It
means that a reinforce is anything which increases the probability that the desired behavior will be
performed. The punisher is something that decreases the behavior it follows.
In operant conditioning, there are important components. The first is an operant response
produced by an organism which in turn produces consequences in the environment. Human
operants are freely emitted. Skinner assumed that most behavior is operant. The other component
of operant conditioning is identified as stimulus consequence that is brought about by the emitted
response. A consequence is anything that increases or decreases the probability of the operant to
repeat or stop the behavior.

Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt theory was developed by 3 psychologists Wolfgang Kohler, Max Wertheimer, and
Kurt Koffka. The word “gestalt” is of German origin which means pattern, shape or form. They
view learning according to the laws governing the perception of wholes.
Gestalt theory generates 5 laws that govern perception. They are as follows:
Law of Continuity. This law holds the idea that we tend to connect individual
components together so they form a continuous pattern that generates meaning.
Also, we have the tendency to perceive smooth continuities rather than abrupt
changes.
Law of Closure. This law holds the idea that incomplete figures tend to be
perceived as complete. Our minds tend to feel in the gaps or missing parts of certain
figures.
Law of Similarity. This law hinges on the idea that related or similar objects are
put together. This law emphasizes that objects are perceived as related to one
another.
Law of Proximity. This law holds the idea that things or objects close to each other
are put together.
Law of Pragnanz. The word “pragnanz” is a German word which means “good
figure”. This law, also known as the law of simplicity and the law of good figure,
states that all possible organizations could be perceived in a stimulus array – one
that possesses the best, the simplest, and the most stable form. It means that lessons
which seem very important are remembered. We remember the most significant
part of the lesson or one that stimulates us to think and learn.

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Social Cognitive Theory

This theory refers to the interface between behavioral and cognitive perspectives. Social-
cognitive perspective is focused on both internal and external factors that lead to the idea of
reciprocal determinism – the interaction among the person, the person’s behavior, and the
environment.
Modeling refers to the observation and learning of new behaviors from others.it is the
display of behaviors that are imitated by others. By simply observing how others behave, we can
imitate what we have observed. In this manner, we acquire new information through observation.
Bandura placed his cognitive emphasis on observational learning as the most important
means of changing human behavior. Observational learning means watching the behavior of
others (models). According to Albert Bandura, observational learning has four different processes
described in the following table.
Processes Descriptions
Attention  Use expressive gestures and body movements.
 Use a juxtaposed form of modeling.
 Divide the skills to be learned into workable segments.
 Highlights those that are important.
 Repeat the modeled behavior and provide time for practice.
Retention  Connect the modeled behavior to the old or familiar activity.
 Use verbal descriptions to label essential actions.
 Instruct students to utilize physical and cognitive rehearsal.
Production  Provide the necessary feedback while monitoring the
progress of modeled behavior.
 Employ corrective or constructive feedback.
Reinforcement and  At the outset, tell students the importance of adopting a
Motivation modeled behavior.
 Use direct and vicarious reinforcement to strengthen the
performance of modeled behavior.

Social Constructivism
Lev Semeonovich Vygotsky was a Russian Jew and psychologist who was born in 1896,
the same year as Piaget. Since Piaget was primary concerned to explain the development of
intelligence and reasoning in humans from its biological roots, Vygotsky stressed that people’s
culture has something to do with their development. For several years, Vygotsky’s works were
forbidden for political reasons in the Soviet Union. He died of tuberculosis at age 38 before he
could fully develop his theory. However, his argument has received much attention and interest.
For Vygotsky, cognitive development is a social process. He maintained the idea that
cognitive development is shaped by the socio-cultural contexts in which it occurs. Also, he argued
that vognitive development grows from our own interactions with the other members of our
culture. Each culture enables us to acquire tools of thought such as language. Culture is transmitted
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from one generation to the other with the use of language – both oral and written. Moreover, he
believed that complex forms of thinking have their roots in social interactions. Constructivism
hinges on the belief that individuals cannot simply be given knowledge. It means people must
construct their own knowledge as they interact with the things around them. When they construct
knowledge, they use their prior knowledge. Their knowledge grows by comparing new
information with what they already know. Constructivism holds the idea that the human mind
constantly looks for various forms or designs that match and attempts to resolve gaps or
differences. Furthermore, Vygotsky propose that acquiring novel information is facilitated by an
adult – an older sibling, more skilled trainer, or more knowledgeable individual – who is able to
model a new behavior. An older person who acts as a guide structures all the encounters in the
environment for better learning. This process of learning is later termed as scaffolding by Jerome
Bruner.
Such new learning, as Vygotsky viewed, can be best facilitated in the zone of proximal
development (ZPD). Vygotsky was so interested in the social factors in children’s development.
Thus, he developed the concept of ZPD – the area where a child cannot solve a problem alone, but
may be able to successfully solve it with appropriate assistance from an adult or more experienced
child. The concept of ZPD eventually leads to the concept of scaffolding, which is the support or
guidance offered by the adult and upon which the students build – scaffold – their own functional
skills and competencies, eventually to be incorporated into their individual repertoire.

Components of Constructivism
Additionally, constructivism is a theory that describes how we construct our experiences
through interactions in the environment. The following are important components of
constructivism:
 Discovery learning is an approach to learning that accounts for our active involvement.
Jerome Bruner associates discovery learning to guided learning in which students are
supervised according to the type of help they need.
 Inquiry learning is associated with John Dewey’s scientific principle of learning.
 Cooperative learning encourages total cooperation and participation. We should encourage
students to promote the spirit of unity, interdependence, and collegiality because each
member is given an active role to play. To promote successful cooperative learning, we
can adapt these suggestions:
 Provide mixed ability grouping.
 Communicate clear guidelines and goals.
 Delegate individual tasks in order to encourage the spirit of interdependence.
 Communicate the amount of time needed to finish the task.
 Assess or evaluate the amount of the performance of each member in the group.
 Individualized learning is designed to meet the individual needs of students. This method
is employed with a variation of time, modes, activities, and even materials.

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 Learning with technology is also known as computer-aided instruction. The advent of

modern technology offers an array of opportunities to practice our intellectual skills in
research or develop our social skills. Visually engaging, appealing, and interactive
technological gadgets play a major role in today’s communication and learning. The use of
technology for instruction assists us in the discharge of our duties in the classroom.

Conditions of Learning
Robert Mills Gagne, an American educator developed a hierarchical theory in which some
types of learning are prerequisites to other types. Gagne had a great influence on the fields of
education, military, and industry. Gagne and L. J. Briggs were among the early proponents of the
concept known as instructional system design which suggests that all parts of a lesson or a period
of instruction can be designed to orchestrate together as an integrated instructional plan.

Five Types of Learning

1. Intellectual skills refer to the learners’ use of symbols to interact in the environment. It
enables them to explain why and how things happen and help them predict possible
outcomes and consequences as results of their interactions.
Intellectual skills are also known as procedural knowledge. Intellectual skills have
four subcategories.
Discrimination. The learners know how to differentiate or compare
between objects as similar or different. Given some situations, they can
identify the underlying characteristics of each other.
Concepts. Concepts can be defined or concrete. Learners use their ability
to recognize, classify, or categorize, and generalize certain characteristics.
Concrete concepts have physical characteristics that permit students to
classify objects and formulate ways of categorizing things as to their shape,
color, size, and texture. On the other hand, defined concepts are those that
are treated beyond their physical characteristics in their definition. The
characteristics as well as properties of objects are not disregarded. However,
the description of relationships between or among objects is important.
Rules. These are the principles to which our actions, behaviors, prevailing
customs, and traditions conform. To enhance our skills properly, we need
to strictly follow the rules.
Principles. These govern our thoughts; these are fundamental rules used to
explain and interpret phenomena and predict the possible consequences of
such phenomena. They explain how events happen and elucidate how some
concepts and rules are combined to form relationships which may be causal
or correlational.
2. Verbal information skills are the second type of learning according to Robert Gagne.
Verbal information accounts for learning names, labels, and facts.

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Names and labels are words used to identify people, places, objects,
incidents, events, occurrences, ideas, thoughts, symbols, among others.
Aside from names and labels, we also need to understand facts. These are
statements of truth.
Verbal information and intellectual skills cannot be separated because
verbal information is of no value without intellectual skills. To remember verbal
information easily, Gagne recommended the use of frameworks (known as
schemata) for clustering familiar facts.
3. Cognitive strategies help us understand information in order to develop a unique
solution to problems. These are fundamental mental activities to formulate plans,
devices, and techniques through which a certain problem will be solved. Knowledge of
all concepts which are combined to form relationships is essential to cognitive
processes.
4. Motor skills deal with the coordination of muscular movement which includes walking,
running, jumping, writing, dancing, strolling, jogging, or stretching. Children acquire
these skills through observation. They watch other people perform and then do the
activity on their own. They usually refine their movements through trial and error.
Complex motor skills such as riding bicycle, skating, or swimming require a great deal
of instruction and practice.
5. Attitudes are our predispositions toward a person, an object, event, and other stimuli in
the environment. These manifest our attractions or aversions. Predispositions emanate
from our will; attitudes can then be regarded as conglomerations of mental conditions
that govern our behavior and conduct. The following influence our attitudes:
 Affective influence accounts for the primary element that develops early in life.
It means that children’s earlier likes and dislikes are influenced by their parents.
The process of identification is another social influence. According to Freud,
children try to identify people usually of the same sex during the resolution of
the Oedipus complex. However, Erikson believed that throughout childhood
and adolescence, individuals identify with several people including their peer
groups, relatives, or neighbors. These identifications help them develop various
attitudes, thereby creating attractions or versions.
 Cognitive influence deals with knowledge about a particular person, object, or
event that has something to do with our attitudes. Our cognition about students,
for example, forms a part of our attitudes toward them.
 Behavioral influence refers to our behavior that affects our own attitudes. This
influence may seem unusual. Basically, attitudes affect behavior and now we
claim that behavior affects attitudes. How is it possible? The following
explanation will help us understand the claim.
Cognitive dissonance is a borrowed term from musical terminology. It is
harmony caused by two inharmonious tones that produce dissonance. In attitude
formation, cognitive dissonance means that combinations of two inharmonious
thoughts result in dissonance. Therefore, we must reduce such dissonance by
changing one or the other cognition. The theory of cognitive dissonance,

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therefore, explains that if two cognitive thoughts are inconsistent, unpleasant

tension might occur.
Gagne delineated the various views about successful learning experiences. Consequently,
according to Gagne:
 Learning is gradually building up in a structural hierarchy. It means that learning starts
from being simple until such time that it moves up to complexity.
 Learning is a method in which people become competent and productive member of the
society.
 Learning is a product of various types of human behaviors. It means that human capabilities
are developed by various stimulations from the environment.

Jerome Bruner’s Theory

Jerome Seymour Bruner has been very influential in shaping teaching and learning. Based
on the concept of categorization, Bruner believed that as active learners, students continue to
structure and restructure their environment. He further believed that the world they experience is
a product of their mind. The objects in the environment follow certain modes of representation.
According to Bruner, these objects are represented in the muscles. This representation is
called enactive because it focuses on the development of motor capacities or on knowing how to
do things. Children also develop their iconic representation. An icon is an image. According to
Bruner, iconic representation is a process of creating mental images that account for certain objects
or events. It is referred to as iconic because it focuses on the development of sensory capacities.
The highest form of representation is known to be symbolic because it emphasizes the
development of intellectual capacities. There is a big difference between a symbol and an icon. A
symbol is arbitrary while an icon is a representation that bears a literal resemblance to its referent.
This is why we have difficulty in understanding the meaning of various symbols. Enactive, iconic,
and symbolic representations develop in a sequential manner. However, it does not mean to say
that they replace one another. In reality, as children grow, they continue to use various
representations.
Bruner’s theory of learning emphasizes discovery learning that is premised on his belief
that the formation of coding systems requires discovery of relationships. He advocated the use of
varied instructional techniques by which children are encouraged to discover facts and
relationships for themselves. In the same way, he stressed that some forms of spiral curriculum be
provided for children. A spiral curriculum is one that develops the same lessons at succeeding age
or grade levels as well as at different levels of difficulty, important aspects of the curriculum should
be revisited at different stages so that children can be encouraged to think and act at different levels
of thought and action. This can be achieved by presenting materials at higher developmental levels.

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Spiral curriculum is about integration and cohesion of knowledge. It means that there must
be a considerable venue for developing themes in which a number of different content areas can
be combined and integrated.
To sum up, metaphoric assumptions can be helpful in describing learning. To engage our
students in the learning enterprise, we can help them to better articulate their thoughts and ideas
with the aid of metaphors. Aside from the metaphors, we can also describe learning from various
perspectives that serves as mental frameworks to help us understand how information is absorbed,
processes, and retained during learning. Several theories of learning are offered and these theories
differ for a variety of reasons. However, these theories help us understand the nature of learning
and how it occurs.

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