Project management

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Project management is the process of leading the work of a team to achieve goals
and meet success criteria at a specified time. The primary challenge of project
management is to achieve all of the project goals within the given constraints. [1] This
information is usually described in project documentation, created at the beginning of
the development process. The primary constraints are scope, time, quality,
and budget.[2] The secondary challenge is to optimize the allocation of necessary
inputs and apply them to meet pre-defined objectives.
The objective of project management is to produce a complete project which
complies with the client's objectives. In many cases the objective of project
management is also to shape or reform the client's brief to feasibly address the
client's objectives. Once the client's objectives are clearly established they should
influence all decisions made by other people involved in the project – for example
project managers, designers, contractors and sub-contractors. Ill-defined or too
tightly prescribed project management objectives are detrimental to decision making.
A project is a temporary endeavor designed to produce a unique product, service, or
result with a defined beginning and end (usually time-constrained, and often
constrained by funding or staffing) undertaken to meet unique goals and objectives,
typically to bring about beneficial change or added value. [3][4] The temporary nature of
projects stands in contrast with business as usual (or operations),[5] which are
repetitive, permanent, or semi-permanent functional activities to produce products or
services. In practice, the management of such distinct production approaches
requires the development of distinct technical skills and management strategies. [6]

Contents

 1History
 2Project management types
 3Approaches of project management
o 3.1Benefits realization management
o 3.2Critical chain project management
o 3.3Earned value management
o 3.4Iterative and incremental project management
o 3.5Lean project management
o 3.6Phased approach
o 3.7Process-based management
o 3.8Project production management
o 3.9Product-based planning
 4Process groups
o 4.1Initiating
o 4.2Planning
o 4.3Executing
o 4.4Project Documentation
o 4.5Monitoring and controlling
o 4.6Closing
o 4.7Project controlling and project control systems
 5Characteristics of projects
o 5.1Project Complexity
 6Project managers
 7Multilevel success framework and criteria
 8Risk management
 9Work breakdown structure
 10International standards
 11Program management
 12Project portfolio management
 13Project management software
 14Virtual project management
  15See also
 16References
 17External links

History[edit]
Until 1900, civil engineering projects were generally managed by creative architects,
engineers, and master builders themselves, for example, Vitruvius (first century
BC), Christopher Wren (1632–1723), Thomas Telford (1757–1834) and Isambard
Kingdom Brunel (1806–1859).[7] In the 1950s organizations started to systematically
apply project-management tools and techniques to complex engineering projects. [8]

Henry Gantt (1861–1919), the father of planning and control techniques

As a discipline, project management developed from several fields of application

including civil construction, engineering, and heavy defense activity.[9] Two
forefathers of project management are Henry Gantt, called the father of planning and
control techniques,[10] who is famous for his use of the Gantt chart as a project
management tool (alternatively Harmonogram first proposed by Karol Adamiecki[11]);
and Henri Fayol for his creation of the five management functions that form the
foundation of the body of knowledge associated with project and program
management.[12] Both Gantt and Fayol were students of Frederick Winslow Taylor's
theories of scientific management. His work is the forerunner to modern project
management tools including work breakdown structure (WBS) and resource
allocation.
The 1950s marked the beginning of the modern project management era where core
engineering fields come together to work as one. Project management became
recognized as a distinct discipline arising from the management discipline with
engineering model.[13] In the United States, prior to the 1950s, projects were managed
on an ad-hoc basis, using mostly Gantt charts and informal techniques and tools. At
that time, two mathematical project-scheduling models were developed. The "critical
path method" (CPM) was developed as a joint venture between DuPont
Corporation and Remington Rand Corporation for managing plant maintenance
projects. The "program evaluation and review technique" (PERT), was developed by
the U.S. Navy Special Projects Office in conjunction with the Lockheed
Corporation and Booz Allen Hamilton as part of the Polaris missile submarine
program.[14]
PERT and CPM are very similar in their approach but still present some differences.
CPM is used for projects that assume deterministic activity times; the times at which
each activity will be carried out are known. PERT, on the other hand, allows for
stochastic activity times; the times at which each activity will be carried out are
uncertain or varied. Because of this core difference, CPM and PERT are used in
different contexts. These mathematical techniques quickly spread into many private
enterprises.

PERT network chart for a seven-month project with five milestones

At the same time, as project-scheduling models were being developed, technology

for project cost estimating, cost management and engineering economics was
evolving, with pioneering work by Hans Lang and others. In 1956, the American
Association of Cost Engineers (now AACE International; the Association for the
Advancement of Cost Engineering) was formed by early practitioners of project
management and the associated specialties of planning and scheduling, cost
estimating, and cost/schedule control (project control). AACE continued its
pioneering work and in 2006 released the first integrated process for portfolio,
program and project management (total cost management framework).
In 1969, the Project Management Institute (PMI) was formed in the USA.[15] PMI
publishes the original version of A Guide to the Project Management Body of
Knowledge (PMBOK Guide) in 1996 with William Duncan as its primary author,
which describes project management practices that are common to "most projects,
most of the time." PMI also offers a range of certifications. [16]

Project management types[edit]

Project management methods can be applied to any project. It is often tailored to a
specific type of projects based on project size, nature, industry or sector. For
example, the construction industry, which focuses on the delivery of things like
buildings, roads, and bridges, has developed its own specialized form of project
management that it refers to as construction project management and in which
project managers can become trained and certified. [17] The information technology
industry has also evolved to develop its own form of project management that is
referred to as IT project management and which specializes in the delivery of
technical assets and services that are required to pass through various lifecycle
phases such as planning, design, development, testing, and
deployment. Biotechnology project management focuses on the intricacies of
biotechnology research and development. [18] Localization project
management includes application of many standard project management practices
to translation works even though many consider this type of management to be a
very different discipline. There is public project management that covers all public
works by the government which can be carried out by the government agencies or
contracted out to contractors. Another classification of project management is based
on the hard (physical) or soft (non-physical) type.
Common among all the project management types is that they focus on three
important goals: time, quality, and budget. Successful projects are completed on
schedule, within budget, and according to previously agreed quality standards i.e.
meeting the Iron Triangle or Triple Constraint in order for projects to be considered a
success or failure.[19].
For each type of project management, project managers develop and utilize
repeatable templates that are specific to the industry they're dealing with. This allows
project plans to become very thorough and highly repeatable, with the specific intent
to increase quality, lower delivery costs, and lower time to deliver project results.

Approaches of project management[edit]

A 2017 study suggested that the success of any project depends on how well four
key aspects are aligned with the contextual dynamics affecting the project, these are
referred to as the four P's:[20]

 Plan: The planning and forecasting activities.

 Process: The overall approach to all activities and
project governance.
 People: Including dynamics of how they collaborate and
communicate.
 Power: Lines of authority, decision-makers,
organograms, policies for implementation and the like.
There are a number of approaches to organizing and completing project activities,
including: phased, lean, iterative, and incremental. There are also several extensions
to project planning, for example based on outcomes (product-based) or activities
(process-based).
Regardless of the methodology employed, careful consideration must be given to the
overall project objectives, timeline, and cost, as well as the roles and responsibilities
of all participants and stakeholders.[21]
Benefits realization management[edit]
Main article: Benefits realisation management
Benefits realization management (BRM) enhances normal project management
techniques through a focus on outcomes (benefits) of a project rather than products
or outputs, and then measuring the degree to which that is happening to keep a
project on track. This can help to reduce the risk of a completed project being a
failure by delivering agreed upon requirements (outputs) i.e. project success but
failing to deliver the benefits (outcomes) of those requirements i.e. product success.
In addition, BRM practices aim to ensure the strategic alignment between project
outcomes and business strategies. The effectiveness of these practices is supported
by recent research evidencing BRM practices influencing project success from a
strategic perspective across different countries and industries. These wider effects
are called the strategic impact.[22]
An example of delivering a project to requirements might be agreeing to deliver a
computer system that will process staff data and manage payroll, holiday and staff
personnel records in shorter times with reduced errors. Under BRM, the agreement
might be to achieve a specified reduction in staff hours and errors required to
process and maintain staff data after the system installation when compared with
without the system.
Critical chain project management[edit]
Main article: Critical chain project management
Critical chain project management (CCPM) is an application of the theory of
constraints (TOC) to planning and managing projects, and is designed to deal with
the uncertainties inherent in managing projects, while taking into consideration
limited availability of resources (physical, human skills, as well as management &
support capacity) needed to execute projects.
The goal is to increase the flow of projects in an organization (throughput). Applying
the first three of the five focusing steps of TOC, the system constraint for all projects,
as well as the resources, are identified. To exploit the constraint, tasks on the critical
chain are given priority over all other activities. Finally, projects are planned and
managed to ensure that the resources are ready when the critical chain tasks must
start, subordinating all other resources to the critical chain.
Earned value management[edit]
Main article: Earned value management
Earned value management (EVM) extends project management with techniques to
improve project monitoring. It illustrates project progress towards completion in terms
of work and value (cost). Earned Schedule is an extension to the theory and practice
of EVM.
Iterative and incremental project management[edit]
See also: Iterative and incremental development
In critical studies of project management, it has been noted that phased approaches
are not well suited for projects which are large-scale and multi-company, [23] with
undefined, ambiguous, or fast-changing requirements, [24] or those with high degrees
of risk, dependency, and fast-changing technologies. [25] The cone of
uncertainty explains some of this as the planning made on the initial phase of the
project suffers from a high degree of uncertainty. This becomes especially true as
software development is often the realization of a new or novel product.
These complexities are better handled with a more exploratory or iterative and
incremental approach.[26] Several models of iterative and incremental project
management have evolved, including agile project management, dynamic systems
development method, extreme project management, and Innovation Engineering®.[27]
Lean project management[edit]
Main article: Lean project management
Lean project management uses the principles from lean manufacturing to focus on
delivering value with less waste and reduced time.
Phased approach[edit]
The phased (or staged) approach breaks down and manages the work through a
series of distinct steps to be completed, and is often referred to as "traditional" [28] or
"waterfall".[29] Although it can vary, it typically consists of five process areas, four
phases plus control:
Typical development phases of an engineering project

1. initiation.
2. planning and design.
3. construction.
4. monitoring and controlling.
5. completion or closing.
Many industries use variations of these project stages and it is not uncommon for the
stages to be renamed to better suit the organization. For example, when working on
a brick-and-mortar design and construction, projects will typically progress through
stages like pre-planning, conceptual design, schematic design, design development,
construction drawings (or contract documents), and construction administration.
While the phased approach works well for small, well-defined projects, it often results
in challenge or failure on larger projects, or those that are more complex or have
more ambiguities, issues and risk.[30]
Process-based management[edit]
Main article: Process-based management
The incorporation of process-based management has been driven by the use of
maturity models such as the OPM3 and the CMMI (capability maturity model
integration; see this example of a predecessor) and ISO/IEC 15504 (SPICE –
software process improvement and capability estimation). Unlike SEI's CMM, the
OPM3 maturity model describes how to make project management processes
capable of performing successfully, consistently, and predictably to enact the
strategies of an organization.
Project production management[edit]
Main article: Project production management
Project production management is the application of operations management to the
delivery of capital projects. The Project production management framework is based
on a project as a production system view, in which a project transforms inputs (raw
materials, information, labor, plant & machinery) into outputs (goods and services). [31]
Product-based planning[edit]
Main article: Product-based planning
Product-based planning is a structured approach to project management, based on
identifying all of the products (project deliverables) that contribute to achieving the
project objectives. As such, it defines a successful project as output-oriented rather
than activity- or task-oriented.[32] The most common implementation of this approach
is PRINCE2.[33]

Process groups[edit]
The project development stages[34]

Traditionally (depending on what project management methodology is being used),

project management includes a number of elements: four to five project
management process groups, and a control system. Regardless of the methodology
or terminology used, the same basic project management processes or stages of
development will be used. Major process groups generally include: [2]

 Initiation
 Planning
 Production or execution
 Monitoring and controlling
 Closing
In project environments with a significant exploratory element (e.g., research and
development), these stages may be supplemented with decision points (go/no go
decisions) at which the project's continuation is debated and decided. An example is
the Phase–gate model.
Initiating[edit]

Initiating process group processes[34]

The initiating processes determine the nature and scope of the project. [35] If this stage
is not performed well, it is unlikely that the project will be successful in meeting the
business’ needs. The key project controls needed here are an understanding of the
business environment and making sure that all necessary controls are incorporated
into the project. Any deficiencies should be reported and a recommendation should
be made to fix them.
The initiating stage should include a plan that encompasses the following areas.
These areas can be recorded in a series of documents called Project Initiation
documents. Project Initiation documents are a series of planned documents used to
create order for the duration of the project. These tend to include:
  project proposal (idea behind project, overall goal,
duration)
 project scope (project direction and track)
 product breakdown structure (PBS) (a hierarchy of
deliverables / outcomes and components thereof)
 work breakdown structure (WBS) (a hierarchy of the
work to be done, down to daily tasks)
 responsibility assignment matrix (RACI) (roles and
responsibilities aligned to deliverables / outcomes)
 tentative project schedule (milestones, important dates,
deadlines)
 analysis of business needs and requirements against
measurable goals
 review of the current operations
 financial analysis of the costs and benefits, including
a budget
 stakeholder analysis, including users and support
personnel for the project
 project charter including costs, tasks, deliverables, and
schedules
 SWOT analysis: strengths, weaknesses, opportunities,
and threats to the business
Planning[edit]
After the initiation stage, the project is planned to an appropriate level of detail
(see example of a flow-chart).[34] The main purpose is to plan time, cost, and
resources adequately to estimate the work needed and to effectively manage risk
during project execution. As with the Initiation process group, a failure to adequately
plan greatly reduces the project's chances of successfully accomplishing its goals.
Project planning generally consists of[36]

 determining the project management methodology to

follow (e.g. whether the plan will be defined wholly up
front, iteratively, or in rolling waves);
 developing the scope statement;
 selecting the planning team;
 identifying deliverables and creating the product and
work breakdown structures;
 identifying the activities needed to complete those
deliverables and networking the activities in their logical
sequence;
 estimating the resource requirements for the activities;
 estimating time and cost for activities;
 developing the schedule;
 developing the budget;
 risk planning;
  developing quality assurance measures;
 gaining formal approval to begin work.
Additional processes, such as planning for communications and for scope
management, identifying roles and responsibilities, determining what to purchase for
the project and holding a kick-off meeting are also generally advisable.
For new product development projects, conceptual design of the operation of the
final product may be performed concurrent with the project planning activities, and
may help to inform the planning team when identifying deliverables and planning
activities.
Executing[edit]

Executing process group processes[34]

While executing we must know what are the planned terms that need to be
executed. The execution/implementation phase ensures that the project
management plan's deliverables are executed accordingly. This phase involves
proper allocation, co-ordination and management of human resources and any other
resources such as material and budgets. The output of this phase is the project
deliverables.
Project Documentation[edit]
Documenting everything within a project is key to being successful. To maintain
budget, scope, effectiveness and pace a project must have physical documents
pertaining to each specific task. With correct documentation, it is easy to see
whether or not a project's requirement has been met. To go along with that,
documentation provides information regarding what has already been completed for
that project. Documentation throughout a project provides a paper trail for anyone
who needs to go back and reference the work in the past. In most cases,
documentation is the most successful way to monitor and control the specific phases
of a project. With the correct documentation, a project's success can be tracked and
observed as the project goes on. If performed correctly documentation can be the
backbone to a project's success.
Monitoring and controlling[edit]
Monitoring and controlling process group processes [34]

Monitoring and controlling consists of those processes performed to observe project

execution so that potential problems can be identified in a timely manner and
corrective action can be taken, when necessary, to control the execution of the
project. The key benefit is that project performance is observed and measured
regularly to identify variances from the project management plan.
Monitoring and controlling includes: [37]

 Measuring the ongoing project activities ('where we

are');
 Monitoring the project variables (cost, effort, scope, etc.)
against the project management plan and the project
performance baseline (where we should be);
 Identifying corrective actions to address issues and risks
properly (How can we get on track again);
 Influencing the factors that could circumvent integrated
change control so only approved changes are
implemented.
Two main mechanisms support monitoring and controlling in projects. On the one
hand, contracts offer a set of rules and incentives often supported by potential
penalties and sanctions.[38] On the other hand, scholars in business and management
have paid attention to the role of integrators (also called project barons) to achieve a
project’s objectives.[39][40] In turn, recent research in project management has
questioned the type of interplay between contracts and integrators. Some have
argued that these two monitoring mechanisms operate as substitutes [41] as one type
of organization would decrease the advantages of using the other one, while others
have suggested that they can complement each other. [42]
In multi-phase projects, the monitoring and control process also provides feedback
between project phases, to implement corrective or preventive actions to bring the
project into compliance with the project management plan.
Project maintenance is an ongoing process, and it includes: [2]

 Continuing support of end-users

 Correction of errors
 Updates to the product over time
Monitoring and controlling cycle

In this stage, auditors should pay attention to how effectively and quickly user

problems are resolved.
Over the course of any construction project, the work scope may change. Change is
a normal and expected part of the construction process. Changes can be the result
of necessary design modifications, differing site conditions, material availability,
contractor-requested changes, value engineering, and impacts from third parties, to
name a few. Beyond executing the change in the field, the change normally needs to
be documented to show what was actually constructed. This is referred to as change
management. Hence, the owner usually requires a final record to show all changes
or, more specifically, any change that modifies the tangible portions of the finished
work. The record is made on the contract documents – usually, but not necessarily
limited to, the design drawings. The end product of this effort is what the industry
terms as-built drawings, or more simply, "as built." The requirement for providing
them is a norm in construction contracts. Construction document management is a
highly important task undertaken with the aid of an online or desktop software
system, or maintained through physical documentation. The increasing legality
pertaining to the construction industry's maintenance of correct documentation has
caused the increase in the need for document management systems.
When changes are introduced to the project, the viability of the project has to be re-
assessed. It is important not to lose sight of the initial goals and targets of the
projects. When the changes accumulate, the forecasted result may not justify the
original proposed investment in the project. Successful project management
identifies these components, and tracks and monitors progress, so as to stay within
time and budget frames already outlined at the commencement of the project. Exact
methods were suggested to identify the most informative monitoring points along the
project life-cycle regarding its progress and expected duration. [43]
Closing[edit]

Closing process group processes.[34]

Closing includes the formal acceptance of the project and the ending thereof.
Administrative activities include the archiving of the files and documenting lessons
learned.
This phase consists of:[2]
  Contract closure: Complete and settle each contract
(including the resolution of any open items) and close
each contract applicable to the project or project phase.
 Project close: Finalize all activities across all of the
process groups to formally close the project or a project
phase
Also included in this phase is the Post Implementation Review. This is a vital phase
of the project for the project team to learn from experiences and apply to future
projects. Normally a Post Implementation Review consists of looking at things that
went well and analyzing things that went badly on the project to come up with
lessons learned.
Project controlling and project control systems[edit]
Project controlling (also known as Cost Engineering) should be established as an
independent function in project management. It implements verification and
controlling function during the processing of a project to reinforce the defined
performance and formal goals.[44] The tasks of project controlling are also:

 the creation of infrastructure for the supply of the right

information and its update
 the establishment of a way to communicate disparities
of project parameters
 the development of project information technology
based on an intranet or the determination of a project
key performance indicator system (KPI)
 divergence analyses and generation of proposals for
potential project regulations[45]
 the establishment of methods to accomplish an
appropriate project structure, project workflow
organization, project control and governance
 creation of transparency among the project
parameters[46]
Fulfillment and implementation of these tasks can be achieved by applying specific
methods and instruments of project controlling. The following methods of project
controlling can be applied:

 investment analysis
 cost–benefit analysis
 value benefit analysis
 expert surveys
 simulation calculations
 risk-profile analysis
 surcharge calculations
 milestone trend analysis
 cost trend analysis
 target/actual-comparison[47]
Project control is that element of a project that keeps it on track, on-time and within
budget.[37] Project control begins early in the project with planning and ends late in the
project with post-implementation review, having a thorough involvement of each step
in the process. Projects may be audited or reviewed while the project is in progress.
Formal audits are generally risk or compliance-based and management will direct
the objectives of the audit. An examination may include a comparison of approved
project management processes with how the project is actually being managed.
[48]
 Each project should be assessed for the appropriate level of control needed: too
much control is too time-consuming, too little control is very risky. If project control is
not implemented correctly, the cost to the business should be clarified in terms of
errors and fixes.
Control systems are needed for cost, risk, quality, communication, time, change,
procurement, and human resources. In addition, auditors should consider how
important the projects are to the financial statements, how reliant the stakeholders
are on controls, and how many controls exist. Auditors should review the
development process and procedures for how they are implemented. The process of
development and the quality of the final product may also be assessed if needed or
requested. A business may want the auditing firm to be involved throughout the
process to catch problems earlier on so that they can be fixed more easily. An
auditor can serve as a controls consultant as part of the development team or as an
independent auditor as part of an audit.
Businesses sometimes use formal systems development processes. These help
assure systems are developed successfully. A formal process is more effective in
creating strong controls, and auditors should review this process to confirm that it is
well designed and is followed in practice. A good formal systems development plan
outlines:

 A strategy to align development with the organization's

broader objectives
 Standards for new systems
 Project management policies for timing and budgeting
 Procedures describing the process
 Evaluation of quality of change

Characteristics of projects[edit]
There are five important characteristics of a project. (i) It should always have a
specific start and end dates. (ii) They are performed and completed by a group of
people. (iii) The output is delivery on unique product or service. (iv) They are
temporary in nature. (v) It is progressively elaborated. example: Designing a new
car, writing a book.
Project Complexity[edit]
Complexity and its nature plays an important role in the area of project management.
Despite having number of debates on this subject matter, studies suggest lack of
definition and reasonable understanding of complexity in relation to management of
complex projects.[49] As it is considered that project complexity and project
performance are closely related, it is important to define and measure complexity of
the project for project management to be effective. [50]
By applying the discovery in measuring work complexity described in Requisite
Organization and Stratified Systems Theory, Dr Elliott Jaques classifies projects and
project work (stages, tasks) into basic 7 levels of project complexity based on such
criteria as time-span of discretion and complexity of a project's output: [51][52]

 Level 1 Project – improve the direct output of an activity

(quantity, quality, time) within a business process with
targeted completion time up to 3 months.
 Level 2 Project – develop and improve compliance to a
business process with targeted completion time from 3
months to 1 year.
 Level 3 Project – develop, change, and improve a
business process with targeted completion time from 1
to 2 years.
 Level 4 Project – develop, change, and improve a
functional system with targeted completion time from 2
to 5 years.
 Level 5 Project – develop, change, and improve a group
of functional systems / business function with targeted
completion time from 5 to 10 years.
 Level 6 Project – develop, change, and improve a whole
single value chain of a company with targeted
completion time from 10 to 20 years.
 Level 7 Project – develop, change, and improve multiple
value chains of a company with target completion time
from 20 to 50 years.[53]
Benefits from measuring Project Complexity is to improve project people feasibility
by:[54]

 Match the level of a project's complexity with effective

targeted completion time of a project
 Match the level of a project's complexity with the
respective capability level of the project manager
 Match the level of a project task's complexity with the
respective capability of the project members

Project managers[edit]
A project manager is a professional in the field of project management. Project
managers are in charge of the people in a project. People are the key to any
successful project. Without the correct people in the right place and at the right time
a project cannot be successful. Project managers can have the responsibility of the
planning, execution, controlling, and closing of any project typically relating to
the construction industry, engineering, architecture, computing, and
telecommunications. Many other fields of production engineering, design
engineering, and heavy industrial have project managers.
A project manager needs to understand the order of execution of a project to
schedule the project correctly as well as the time necessary to accomplish each
individual task within the project. A project manager is the person accountable for
accomplishing the stated project objectives on the behalf of the client. Project
Managers tend to have multiple years’ experience in their field. A project manager is
required to know the project in and out while supervising the workers along with the
project. Typically in most construction, engineering, architecture, and industrial
projects, a project manager has another manager working alongside of them who is
typically responsible for the execution of task on a daily basis. This position in some
cases is known as a superintendent. A superintendent and project manager work
hand in hand in completing daily project task. Key project management
responsibilities include creating clear and attainable project objectives, building the
project requirements, and managing the triple constraint (now including more
constraints and calling it competing constraints) for projects, which is cost, time,
quality and scope for the first three but about three additional ones in current project
management. A typical project is composed of a team of workers who work under
the project manager to complete the assignment within the time and budget targets.
A project manager normally reports directly to someone of higher stature on the
completion and success of the project.
A project manager is often a client representative and has to determine and
implement the exact needs of the client, based on knowledge of the firm they are
representing. The ability to adapt to the various internal procedures of the
contracting party, and to form close links with the nominated representatives, is
essential in ensuring that the key issues of cost, time, quality and above all, client
satisfaction, can be realized.
A complete project manager, a term first coined by Dr. Robert J. Graham in his
simulation, has been expanded upon by Randall L. Englund and Alfonso Bucero.
They describe a complete project manager as a person who embraces multiple
disciplines, such as leadership, influence, negotiations, politics, change and conflict
management, and humor. These are all "soft" people skills that enable project
leaders to be more effective and achieve optimized, consistent results.

Multilevel success framework and criteria[edit]

There is a tendency to confuse the project success with project management
success. They are two different things. Project management success criteria is
different from project success criteria. The project management is said to be
successful if the given project is completed within the agreed upon time, met the
agreed upon scope and within the agreed upon budget. Subsequent to the triple
constraints, multiple constraints have been considered to ensure project success.
However, the triple or multiple constraints indicate only the efficiency measures of
the project, which are indeed the project management success criteria during the
project lifecycle.
The priori criteria leave out the more important after-completion results of the project
which comprise four levels i.e. the output (product) success, outcome (benefits)
success and impact (strategic) success during the product lifecycle. These posterior
success criteria indicate the effectiveness measures of the project product, service
or result, after the project completion and handover. This overarching multilevel
success framework of projects, programs and portfolios has been developed by Paul
Bannerman in 2008.[55] In other words, a project is said to be successful, when it
succeeds in achieving the expected business case which needs to be clearly
identified and defined during the project inception and selection before starting the
development phase. It should noted that this multilevel success framework conforms
to the theory of project as a transformation depicted as the input-process / activity-
output-outcome-impact in order to generate whatever value intended. Emanuel
Camilleri in 2011 classifies all the critical success and failure factors into groups and
matches each of them with the multilevel success criteria in order to deliver business
value. [56]

Risk management[edit]
Main article: Project risk management
The United States Department of Defense states; "Cost, Schedule, Performance,
and Risk" are the four elements through which Department of Defense acquisition
professionals make trade-offs and track program status. [57] There are
also international standards. Risk management applies proactive identification
(see tools) of future problems and understanding of their consequences
allowing predictive decisions about projects.

Work breakdown structure[edit]

Main articles: Work breakdown structure and Scope (project management)
The work breakdown structure (WBS) is a tree structure that shows a subdivision of
the activities required to achieve an objective – for example a portfolio, program,
project, and contract. The WBS may be hardware-, product-, service-, or process-
oriented (see an example in a NASA reporting structure (2001)).[58] Beside WBS for
project scope management, there are organizational breakdown structure (chart),
cost breakdown structure and risk breakdown structure.
A WBS can be developed by starting with the end objective and successively
subdividing it into manageable components in terms of size, duration, and
responsibility (e.g., systems, subsystems, components, tasks, sub-tasks, and work
packages), which include all steps necessary to achieve the objective. [30]
The work breakdown structure provides a common framework for the natural
development of the overall planning and control of a contract and is the basis for
dividing work into definable increments from which the statement of work can be
developed and technical, schedule, cost, and labor hour reporting can be
established.[58] The work breakdown structure can be displayed in two forms, as a
table with subdivision of tasks or as an organisational chart whose lowest nodes are
referred to as "work packages".
It is an essential element in assessing the quality of a plan, and an initial element
used during the planning of the project. For example, a WBS is used when the
project is scheduled, so that the use of work packages can be recorded and tracked.

International standards[edit]
There are several project management standards, including:

 The ISO standards ISO 9000, a family of standards for

quality management systems, and the ISO 10006:2003,
 for Quality management systems and guidelines for
quality management in projects.
 ISO 21500:2012 – Guidance on project management.
This is the first International Standard related to project
management published by ISO. Other standards in the
21500 family include 21503:2017 Guidance on
programme management; 21504:2015 Guidance on
portfolio management; 21505:2017 Guidance on
governance; 21506:2018 Vocabulary;
21508:2018 Earned value management in project and
programme management; and 21511:2018 Work
breakdown structures for project and programme
management.
 ISO 31000:2009 – Risk management.
 ISO/IEC/IEEE 16326:2009 – Systems and Software
Engineering—Life Cycle Processes—Project
Management[59]

 International Project Management Association (IPMA)

Individual Competence Baseline[60]
o Association for Project Management (APM) Body of
Knowledge[61]
o Australian Institute of Project Management  (AIPM)
has 4 levels of certification; CPPP, CPPM, CPPD &
CPPE for Certified Practicing Project ... Partner,
Manager, Director and Executive.
 Capability Maturity Model from the Software
Engineering Institute.
 A Guide to the Project Management Body of
Knowledge (PMBOK Guide) from the Project
Management Institute (PMI)
 GAPPS, Global Alliance for Project Performance
Standards – an open source standard describing
COMPETENCIES for project and program managers.
 HERMES method, Swiss general project management
method, selected for use in Luxembourg and
international organizations.
 The logical framework approach, which is popular in
international development organizations.
 PRINCE2 (Projects in Controlled Environments).
 Team Software Process (TSP) from the Software
Engineering Institute.
 Total Cost Management Framework, AACE
International's Methodology for Integrated Portfolio,
Program and Project Management.
 V-Model, an original systems development method.
Program management[edit]
Main article: Program management
Some projects, either identical or different, can be managed as program
management so that a program manager is in charge of project managers. Hence, a
program manager is also known as a project director.

Project portfolio management[edit]

Main article: Project portfolio management
An increasing number of organizations are using what is referred to as project
portfolio management (PPM) as a means of selecting the right projects and then
using project management techniques[62] as the means for delivering the outcomes in
the form of benefits to the performing public, private or not-for-profit organization.
PPM is usually performed by a dedicated team of managers organized within an
Enterprise Project Management Office (PMO) headed by a PMO director, usually
based within the organization. Thus, the position in charge of PPM can also be
designated as the chief project officer or the chief technology officer. In cases where
strategic initiatives of an organization form the bulk of the PPM, the head of the PPM
is titled as the chief initiative officer.

Project management software[edit]

Main articles: Project management software and Project management information
system
Project management software is software used to help plan, organize, and manage
resource pools, develop resource estimates and implement plans. Depending on the
sophistication of the software, functionality may include estimation and
planning, scheduling, cost control and budget management, resource
allocation, collaboration software, communication, decision-making, workflow, risk,
quality, documentation, and/or administration systems.[63][64]

Virtual project management[edit]

Main article: Virtual team
Virtual program management (VPM) is management of a project done by a virtual
team, though it rarely may refer to a project implementing a virtual environment [65] It is
noted that managing a virtual project is fundamentally different from managing
traditional projects,[66] combining concerns of telecommuting and global collaboration
(culture, time zones, language).[67]

See also[edit]
Related fields Related subjects

 Agile Construction  Collaborative project management

 Architectural engineering  Decision-making
 Construction management  Game theory
 Cost engineering  Earned value management
 Facilitation (business)  Human factors
 Industrial engineering  Kanban (development)
 Project Production Management  Operations research
 Project management software  Process architecture
 Project portfolio management  Program management
 Project workforce management  Project accounting
 Software project management  Project governance
 Systems engineering  Project management simulation
 Small-scale project management
 Software development process
 Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)

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