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Vopat Chapter 32 PDF

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Vopat Chapter 32 PDF

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Arafat Hossain Akash
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prer 32 AND OPERATION (y CHA (CE FORMAN srariow Pres ‘ARACTERISTICS I 3 | . Ant f generating plant; erformance of gene lants B es over a period of time, eristics. Perform : | efficiencies c 7 fF useful energy Output during (ie ee period. ‘This measure ot samhl> } "a / the period to the | / Serformance varies temperature Ne or rat het Et mt oat et BS mmo 9 ditior BS COI with unce total output, and quality of pe_of loadeduration eu y of comparison unless all> - fuel; hence it is not & ee ‘the same controlling conditions, ‘plant performances ave OOo establish and questionable as to their Such corrections are difficult to estal accuracy. . Fi ibed by the input-output Plant peformance x most, press, rt Somer. Figure 82a curve derived, from tests of the individu shows the general trend of such a curve, which follows the form defined by ep yratbetesttdet p+ + nar The time consumed in finding the equation of an input-output curve usually cannot be justified, and so the curve is always expressed.-graphi- cally. In this text, however, since certain Telationships between the input-output curve and its derived curves can be more clearly demon- strated mathematically and because of the amount of space-required by curves to be read to four significant figures, the characteristics will be SF a ne ad Poem work e positive intere J measures the amount of is energy di Any, additional input over the ° » the magnitude depéndi chinely dditional input” nitude depending upon mor tana te 8 Les Prom she bas ese 8 output, owing diretly, and also ohn 26 and heat-rate cree oUNBUt curve the be demonstrated lety ieremental-rate curve, ° whe ee ee pa or, bed " in Fig. 82-10 and o, R example of these oe? use of the latter will Panion curves is given _ 612 ‘ ots AND OPBRATII7 ~~ mastation ath whole, OF anvORMANCE: ions of BU sraTion PP turbine, steam Bo ‘ion the anput_L- i ki fad. Lin in mill For the steam aiescl engine and nd the cae could be in tori ; Jond the corresponding oe ficiency , \ pressing the effi ENTAL RATES: , cach cent input; then _ BAIS Ly 199 per Instead of ex! is plotted against the value of L. rapur-ourout cunve, EFFICIENCY cunve__ HEAT wcReM : i a v1 Be Ca 7 Output eye % . Crate, and inere- Ca Fie. 32-1. wo. ‘curve and corresponding efficiency, mental-rate curves. . nas a ratio, the unit then being the of input. ch load the corresponding as a percentage it could be give decimal part of a_unit of The heat-rate curve is derived by taking at ea input; then I HR=7 Btu per kwhr a ea is plotted against the corres i ee ponding value of L. ate is a di function of the reciprocal of the efficiency since Bip hess rate ipitinet Tol HR = 1 __ 341,300 , ao : L~ Tt > f@M3 X10) ea A Ji heat-rate curve us, if can be expressed_also_mathematicall: Thi y- the input-output curve is defined by in =a+ aL + cL? + dL? * ;cONOMICS fownR BC : the input-output, derived from re a (or differential) input required by load; the jneremental rate defined 108 Btu per hr cased output = (94.44 — 68.78) 10° From the ineremental-rate eure = 25.66 X 10° Btu per br STATION PERFORMANC Ming that from [= 7 to Lm 8 the be a straight line ¥ ous ert n these two lon I be the nv the inerement iny ee 2X 1282 X 108 = 25.64 10F Blu pF hr 6 X10" Ber per he). the two answers follows from the searding the close approximation to & his good agreement between validity of the assumption made re 7 oy aa ‘ In Ia 7 a 7 0 ta T % ca L o o Fie, 32-2. Curves demonstrating equality of heat and incremental rates at minimum heat rate for given input-output curve. straight line of the incremental-rate curve for the relatively small increase in load. For a large increment of load this assumption would not, hotd because of the marked curvature of the incremental-rate curve; for such 2 condition to approximate closely the true increment input, the total ‘area would have to be arbitrarily divided into smaller areas and the height of each of these determined. The application of this method of determining increment inputs will be demonstrated in a later chapter. The reader is urged to plot the curves of this problem to afford a more complete appreciation of the discussion. Ww 2 Note in Fig. 32-Ic that the incremental-rate curve crosses the-heat-rate curve at the lowest value of heat rate when the two curves are plotted on common coordinates. The reason for this property becomes evident : oo following analysis: + : ee pee represents a continuous input-output curve on whieh through th ecvelbomy (nlm) where the tangent the curve will e origin. The equation of this ee aes : , DHT iP+I EL end SUYIGS ‘spsiom J9y70 UT 1 >t T douts sasuas gqe2 OY OY} TP + 'T 04 7 Wo.y pro] ut asvosoU uv soy yyy smOTJOy I PUT 40 dXO UL Spvo] Joy ‘AJasIOAUOD aouls sasvadap ayer 4eAY ay 7p + 7 0} 7 WOrY PVO] UT esvasoU! Au JOJ aBuLL Pwo] STG} UIYIN Uy L, Ty DPR s> 40 I” IP “ur put 0187 weasgaq peo] SUT 2} uy} swoys 9z-ZE “Bly Jo Worvsepisu0o yyy = “YH WA “T Wssoro ysnur saamo oar} a4} ‘OYsHoyVAvYO Fursvasout snonupywoI G Sey _ “dyed [eyuewaour ayy sjenbe yf ways Mutu v 48 st aad yndyno-yndur snonuyy i ayA0 Gay, H = “Ul weyL wy = 0 7 ang “qye —~ “aH =”. ~ “TP _uwypao = : — “1% ap ‘aL al 9 paoy sty2 IC PWamaray ogy syonbo azoyosaupy 7 3 9asn9 HL 1 adops ayy HU10q “De @Amno yndyno-jndur yenjov ey} 0} quaduvy oy} jo adors etl “D = “yyy uayas WINUILUT G St OIC qa omy HOYL, “SPE! oqo e 7) wey, Toasiy oq snus daano oyw-yvort out WA saold ae aif P20] soo jo ye juoduny styy 2soq S21 amo yndynoyndt LEE” 4 aug , : Fay 0 angen wis tl HNC x Len) aymdeiwau| Burpuods & ait 22 7 8q Pinos oaand oynijeyuaurasoUL PU ALE °4) sama gndgno-ndur un posep!so? doa ayy JE NON p= = “4H T en oyuaiiam oy 30 ales Soyer qeay oyg “7 18 NEL gouvoNnood yaMod E a jog ACMITEY Spo] ye pus Futtado aaron C 8 JOF Sun Buryvur Aq pays} o1v soutqany, -quao rod FF -Moqv st [BOO poztiaajnd pur ‘10 ‘sus Aq poay soya -u98 wrveys Joy ‘quad Jad GF oq st 4 s10yv1dUES WItE}s Pary-sayo)s a {quoo 10d ZF JO Jap10 OY} JO Ayjensn st sautqiny Jo $789} Jo uorstooad ayy, j *sqjnsox 480} puv 489} oY) BuNNdwI09 pur Suryonpuod Jo poyyour oy (g) pus ‘yoyeq earquo oy syuasordas ATNIy Yoqeq B Jo a[dures TB YOIYA OF aardep (F) ‘steasesqo Aq suOTvorpur quoumMaysu Jo Suypuer Jo ssouzovxo (g) ‘suoryvorput 4901109 aINsUa 07 syuoUNAysUL yo uorywordde _sedoad_(z)_‘syuewe.msvout_10) }asN S]UOUIN.A}SUT JO uorstoard oy LBAMiVou) SuMoTjoy oq Uodn spuodop SWrouTnsvaUT To sis) JC own oyT, “suotyeurtxosddy Appvas ut Ore sorpguenb [worsdyd Jo syuow -amsvaut asteooq suoyywunxordde squo ose uorsjoasd Jo 1op10 ysoysp ayy Jo 8180} ‘9804 IY “AINSV ou £q parosuods sopod ‘3509 sonod oy] UI [ep ayHuTU UL payrpoo st yudwdmbs qumpd soAod BuPys99 Jo powew ays, *Kovmoov JO Japso oqvuosvar v Jo syNsor omsud OF poamnbaa axe uoryerederd pur arco afquiepisuog “guvyd ayy ut UNE S}s04 ‘£q pano} aie quoudmbe Fuyspxo Jo soystrayousey paypioosse pur gndyno-nduy “paaquesund you st at ‘payonb aq Aur spvoy JOyIC qe oourmuoysed YENoy, “PLo] [ng 38 ATuo douuTIOJIod OF goqunaend 0} Kreusoysna St FY SLOPeIBUES wvOIS TOY “poyoodxe uLyT yorood quo 10d | aaueULIOIod B aaqULINS PUL PLOT TNF OF qaqrenb-2u0 WOly aouvursojied payadxo aqonb wayo srmnyousnuTur sougany JO -quowdmbe ayprurts wo FomyousnuTur ayy £q uns oxo Jump #3809 doys puw Twjuotmpodse snosount pur suoryemnoyes UAIsep woay peayep as vIyP YRS -ypup souvuroszod Kroscaoau af} Ajddns [la somngougnunur oy “poropssuos Suroq st 10K) ojyysur 10g yuourdinbs Nou wayAL “VEC aouvunsopreg Jo USO “B-ZE * Tununun est WOU = 40 =e put 7 = PT voll, o. = 40 (eee G/pp ue SHOT H SAIN OPHI-vOY OP aa ye so annows ug Aq Apoug AIA paywaySWOMIOp. an sang yndyno-mnduy wo Jo ays pertacuosut PAY yw quay Jo Apyenbey coves guot ut asia smonutTos qonbosns ESS ‘siuysuaaout Asnonuyyw0d st organ ‘eyes quowosour ogy ‘poujoues st 91M quay WNUTTLLUE oy) OV “pyar jruouroxour oy sfenbs oye uae Ou [TN sosvo.0Uf puoy oyy Sv OL 119 somsnragovuvHo NouLvusdo ANY aONVWHOUad NOLES J since yconomsens ' pow! sighed generabor Output Arey, min and vempera) ures, ad cyery 6 10itt. AM inetrurg fore and after the ten, fund jons are applied to the [ft is customary to COP ee idard conditions of pressure a idard pressure at the exhvane “4 3 toy wd and we tions avo must be sade jy impossible to condense the stay i orifice plates to measure the fluig ug read every minute during the test run, I the test run may be increased to 2 hy i rrors of manometer reading, ie test, runs depends upon the uncertainty a ar measurements; for instance, in a stoker. in fuel measurements a ayes w certain amount of ineompely eee aie stoker, and it is extremely difficult to make this the sume at the beginning and end of a test run. Similarly the water leve| in the boiler drum may be different at the beginning and end of a test run even though the gauge may read the same. By making a test run long enough the effect of these unknown quantities can be reduced toa suitable degree. Usually Jow-load test runs are made for 48-hr and full- load runs for about 24 hr. Pulverized-coal-fired and oil- and gas-fired boilers are generally run 8 to 12 hr on each run. Feedwater to the boiler is weighed, as well as the fuel; samples of fuel are taken from each weighed batch for calorific and ultimate analyses; temperatures, pressures, and f the fluctuations are ve ‘y more to reduce Duration of steam-£¢ drafts are observed every 15 or 30 min; and gas analyses are made at various passes in the steam generator every 15 or 30 min. ‘Two or more test runs.are usually made at each of four or more rates of steam generation. It will be evident that determination of the boiler input-output curve involves much more work and time than the com- parable turbine characteristic, However, it requires probably more skill to operate a steam generator i os oe optimum efficiency at all times than 4 ARACTERISTIC RATION © STATION PERFORMANCE AND OP Joad-duration curve would be characteristic shown ope Ty Al + fy Ala b ly Aly F* Average HR , divide both numeri ternate evalu: the total time {5 then xr At)/t _ I’ _ average input rate average load Average HR = Sor anye > DF where t = (Ad) is the total hours in the period. Fic. 32-3. Application of load-duration curve to input-outpat-irve in determining average heat rate. The load-duration curve, as shown by the solid line in Fig. 32-4, is a typical shape for an actual plant. . This shape proves troublesome in computing the average heat rate. It may be simplified to an equivalent e average load for each interval is found, usually by inspection, by keeping the area under the average load curve (horizontal dotted line) equal to the area under the actual load curve (solid line). ) Careful investigation shows that this modification introduces an entirely pass error and is completely justified by the saving in calculating e. t_of instantaneous the same numerical coordinates _ Despite the fact that the input-output curve i put rate vs. the instantan can be used ihe Seneral shape of load-duration curve, the a Put will plot at some point above the input to plot the average input rates vs. . powsR ECONOMICS A ‘1 lie within a certain are, 620 orformance points rote following demonstrat % possible average Pot is the purpose? Mang ye geoutput curve IS Me he : : ¢ inpul-ou «t-output curve and post bare shown 40 ee mid operate at ae Cotte, Tn Fig. 325 and Fare TE ihe station Sac ee average itt ding heat-re curve: idered period, erage input rate spon rate oo respectivelys with the instantaneoy, { constant-load load-duratig, Toad La it and average and load. input rat Fig, 32-4. Method of simplifying a load-duration curve. curves as in Fig. 32-5c, the average input-output curve 1-a-b-2 as in Fig. 32-5e would be a reproduction of the instantaneous curve 1-a-b-2 in Fig. 32-5a. The same holds for the instantaneous and average heat-rate curves as in Fig. 32-5 and f. thas at Z, and Ly in Fig. 32-5d. ‘Then, as the number of hours of operation at each load is varied, the load-duration-curve shapes would vary as indicated by the dotted lines in the figure. The locus of the average heat fates i i ™ operatii : oe ively can be demonstrated as follows: ee Let ‘ a = average input rate for ti L/ = average load for total otal period of ¢ hr eriod of ¢ hr Tz = instantaneous in i Put rate for ji 4, = instantaneous input rate for ieee nee t = hours of operation at ingyen load -L, 4 = hours of operation at load L, WON CHARACTERISTICS 621 HEAT RATE CURVE STATION PERFORMANCE AND OP : INPUT-OUTPUT CURVE i | : 8p otk put LOAD DURATION CURVES WITH VARYING PROPORTIONS OF TIME 4 SAPO rT | La a INPUT-OUTPUT ENVELOPE HEAT RATE EI NVELOPE ‘Average L 622 Then (2g) (2g) (24) From B27) g : Substituting (322), (ng ‘and solving, ind 5 eating @2-4) in B23), petituting (@2-4) in ( “ Lat =) + Eo (82-7) = i and solving, Ly — La) Equating (82-6) and (32-8), - Ly — Le) Ws 1d = We =) (329) Clearing and transposing, / 7 LalIy — Te) h-hh], = ; S® r= [n- fhat |+[Z2 Lo pe All fhe factors in the bracketed terms are constgfits,Then/the genetal fofm of the equation is \ y- vhere J’ and_L' correspond to the variables. Then the locus of the average input-output points for varying hours of operation at two ‘values ‘of Toading, keeping the total period hours constant, is a straight Te connecting the two points (corresponding to the load al the jnput- output characteristic such as the dotted line Pee ao i 'y inspection, it will be seer ight li terminal points of the curve ei a straight line eonneeting the tt two points on the curve. Fy ean be below the curve lab, hey envelope that encompasses all poss output intersections or plots. T SA. gpATION PERFORMANCE AND OFmteanayiy vere a —=——rtr—i—i eT envelo} infinite heat rate. ms depending upon the degree of curvature of the Lae curve, a power station may have a wide or narrow TAGS of possible ae heat rates. At a given average load it will, therefore, be possible to have j eonsiderable variation in average heat rate, the magnitude being governed by the shape of the Igad-duration curve. The limiting case for zero envelope area occurs when the input-output curve 1s a straight line. } ‘The envelop a load curve lies is narrdwed, such as be| BRKe and f. The upper limit of average inpu ype is at zero load aa Oo area also( diminishes as the limits of load between which tween loads L, and Ly in Fig. t rate is defined by the erating station is defined by -P yl i. ‘The input-output curve of a 20-mw ger Go4 T = 30/+ 0.5L + 0.6517 Tf Kece Fis in millions of Btu per hour and L is in megawatts. Find the average heat fate of this Station Tor a day when it was operating at a Toad of 20 mw, for, 12 hr am was kept hgt at zero load for the;remainit Compare this average heat rate with the heat rate that would obtain if the same energy were produced for the day at a constant 24-hi load, i.e., at 100 per cent To: tor = nh = *Bolution . ‘ po.b0 40556 4085 2¢0,= 9051002 peed 4 AtL = 20: - a © t I = 30+0.5 X 20 + 0.65 X 400 = 300 X 10° Btu hr v SLT se 0 x 12) + 20X12) = 240m - ae we cist = (30 X 12) + (300 X 12) = 3,960 x 10° Btu 7 3,964 7 . Average daily HR = 3:960 X10" "16 509 Beu per kwhr Y zie AtL = / PE 340 x08 7 y Average L = 249905 10 my og Avg b= Ze 30 ° i \ mn =P +05 +06, : fi L=10: ot Zz S HR = e a 3.0 +0.5 + 6.5 = 10x 10¢ Btu per mwhr, or 10,000 Btu per kwhr C/- Thus, if i e s, if it were possible to redistribute the generation of the total daily o utput to a constant rate for the 24 hr, a saving of —- Ee 16,500 — 10,000 = 6,500 Bn per kwhr could be achieved. i e input-output i . : curve and its ¢ i‘ ae with the capacity facto "By plotting in this fashion j EEE y powER ECON a vad factor will 624 avelope defined by the load will eeomp ga = arrower &! ‘ that fie performance Pon's: | te that the range Of values thay a Abany = possible Firat step of this analyst! Mr od by the value of the capac’ of enpacit As the first iZeume is definitely Hemi ADacity of oni toad factor ean assume IS 0. Cap. 30 tha : do TT has been sown in CHOP. — cca | - i a This may ¢ where LF = load factor Covhere LF = Jandy factor { _ Cap = capacity, kw C = ad, kw js — Linas = peak Loa ince capacity is a constant and the peak for the normal case, si Goat caainot exceed the capacity, the load factor for a given value of 100 I ea [Ls s WL i ial : UY 2d UA EE 3 GZ] reves et pee || i ints To eapaty A ; a na LL Capacity Factor - Percent 6. Correlation of load and capacity Fra. 324 factors, capacity factor can assume capac a any value ‘betwe ity imi a fe magnitude of the capacity factor oi aa i Oo ihe input-output eurve in Fig, 39-7 the pone lim capacity factor, Assumi Othe ne abscissa curve operates betyy, i factor, the overall envelnce couvalen to 10 and it as RMANCE AND OPERATION CHARACTERISTICS 625 inte value of load factor for a given magnitude mit of the average input will be found by sponding maximum load as a per- PERFO At any selected intermed: of capacity factor, the upper li determining the value of the corr centage or ratio of the capacity, ic, 9 Loe _ CP Cap ~ LF \ ; is maximum load is located on the input-output curve by regarding 1000 | cy Numbers on curves i L are load faciors e ‘ 2 600) = 400 21M | 200) 0 20 40 60 80 100 Capacity Factor - Percent Fic, 32-7. Input-output-curve envelope as limited by load factor. it as an equivalent capacity factor. For example, referring-to the figure, if at 60 per cent capacity factor the upper limit of average input is wanted for a load factor of 75 per cent, then _ | Tes TP 7757 98 = Ge | or the peak lnad far thic aanditinn fe QM nnn anmt Abbe naa natiel han” powrn BCONOMICS i load factor. en sr cont load factor wy 16000 1400¢}— 2 12000}——}-——* 10000] Meat rate - Btu per bwhe 8000 $009 20 40 60 80 100 Capacity Factor - Percent -8, Station heat-rate envelope as limited by load factor. A system having more than one unit. of similar generating eq as the proper division of load as a problem. Improper load division may appreciably decrease the therm: iency of the system asa whole, Figure 32-9 represents the input-output curves of Wo units that are to operate in parallel and supply a common load. Since 4 is obviously more efficient throughout its load range, the tendency would be to jump to the incorrect conclusion that A should be loaded first to capacity, then unit B. ‘ Arhe problem is correctly attacked by plotting the sum of the inputs | toA and B ag; ‘inst the load on A for a given constant load on the two unite 2 Fig. 32-10. For a total load of 8 mw on the two units, in | Placing Bs ce a on A and 8 mw on B, the total combined input is 148 ere M Per ir As the load is shifted from B to A, maintaining the putput constant, the total input decreases until A carries 5 mw and B carries Shivti ; Shifti combined input. Arie maxi it NE More load onto AY L ¢ = 80 as to require the constant combined out division of load for the in Fig. 32-10. This method is cumbersome ang PUL loci it entire range o ERATION CHATAGH #0 ——~ ciple of economic Joad division, fe solution for the general [ol yrl) 10° B1ure 8 Unit trgat Carb) 17 BL a/ar Combined Input (1 0 2 4 6 8 10 “Load on Unit A(L)- Ma 39-10, Variation of combined input ‘th varying load division between units ‘and B of Fig. 32-9. 2 6 8 ‘unit Load (Lor L) ~ Megawal stoutput characteristics of 0 Fis. 3 units A | *ease “Taking any combined constant-output locus in Fig. 32-10, at the point of minimum input, dl. 7° a (32-11) where 1, =I,+ b= combined input to A and B +(32-12) L, = Ly + Ly = combined output of A and B (32-13) Then al. = ag + aly _ ou 2. + Gla dla * He Ga) dI,_._ aly , dL. ~ dle j- (82-15) But Ty _ aly dhe use . , dL, ~ dln dls, (32-16) From (32-13) dly _ dhe . ; dh, dha © and since L, is a constant, dey dba *M. J. Steinber i ible J Stenberg and T. 1. Smith, ‘trical Engineering, March, 1934. 628 Substituti ah dls (2419) dL, a n (32-15), ie for must_be equal. , Bug thencromental rates which have bee 7) 1000 Btuskuns 2 RE \w* Incremental Rate» 0 204 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Load - Megawatts F2o, 82-11, Incremental rates of units A and B and their combined ineremental-rate curve, Then by plotting the incremental-rate curves as in Fig. 32-11 for the two units A and B of Fig. 32-9 all that is necessary to divide the load economically is to maintain the incremental rates equal and select the loads accordingly. Thus at an incremental rate of 12,000 Btu per kwhr the load on A should be 4,700 kw and on B it should be 2,400 kw to Benerate a combined loud of 7,100 kw. To expedite load division for varying total loads, the combi mental-rate curve is plotted by adding up the h rate and plotting the sums against the partie ined incre- curve A + B is such a combined curve as it 3,200 kw total load the combined curve coi In this rai i From ¢ to 16,6 total ¢ the A the inet cari 1 of pre Fig sey AND OPERATION CHARARS SST STATION PERFORMANCE ° en 3,400 kw up the total curve peers ry aetion My ht e690 i t Breaches ful : 0 te rll Se sisad ja a reproduction of the upper bees ee total curve following thi ere he er portion the A curve. ” " 1 1 | + | A - | | | i tei— i Cor i Unit tod Moe im =) . 46 6 10 12 14 16 18 20 Total load - Mw. Fra, 32-12, Load-division schedule of units A and B. 0 2 the load ordinate with A + B is found; following across at constant incremental rate to the intersections with A and B, we find that A should carry 5,700 kw and B should carry the remainder, 4,700 kw. This method of load division can be extended to include any number The loading schedule with the aid of these curves may be of units. ‘abular form as in Table 32-1 or in graphical form as in presented in t: Fig. 32-12. ‘Tanne 32-1, Loap-prviston Scuepuue, Units A ano B (Load, megawatts) eae input-output curves and ie in the foregoing figures are Steam generators and also di mn RCONOMICS those illust rated in Fig, 32-13, Thi « sudden changes of slope at RS «sof inflection in the separa: openings. The incrementa, | urve beeomes very complex ang ; row t curves like ye and invol and y ¢ input-out plex sha {the valve ope! é \7 / modified curve Load remental-rate curve de- eam-turbine char- toa ‘on of steam-turbine Fig, 32-14. Inet rived from modified st acteristics. urate to difficult to use, For most purposes it is sufficiently - by connecting the maximum valve- simplify the input-output curve : as shown dotted in Fig. 32-13. The opening points by straight lines relatively slight deviation of this modified characteristic from the true one is of no practical moment. Owing to the constant slopes between valve-opening points, the resulting incremental-rate curve has a step- shaped appearance, as in Fig. 32-14. The vertical sections of the curve merely indicate that the horizontal sections all refer to the same machine; actually the change in slope of the input-output curve at the opening points does not pass through all the intermediate values suggested by the vertical connecting lines. In dividing load between turbines of this type to achieve maximum fuel economy, the principle of equal incremental rates still prevails. ince the increméntal-rate curves are of a discontinuous nature, it is gener: lly impossible to hold the turbine increm : Fundamentally the principle of equal ine regarded as apportioning an increase in loa that will incur the minimum increase in i mental-rate curves this results in maintaini puRPONMANCE AND OPERATION, CHANACTERISTICS 631 STATION uous incremental-rate curves ‘vith the lowest incremental rate picks up cremental rates for two turbines A machine B picks up to load Ly dof Ly. With increasing ud to La for 2 total load of i : i {| —_———_. 3 po if | i 1. _ ol— Oty tpt GLY ye ; Fic jnuous ineremental-rate curves and their combined curve L, + Ls. The combined. incremental-rate curve of the two machines is Ly, A carries it on its the dot-d 1c. For any inerease above Ly + second valve to L; for a total load of Li + Ls. Note that the combined incremental- curve for the two machines is of an increasing nature, indicating that at all loads the increase is picked up at the maximum possible economy. ‘To divide load L, between two machines, we find that it intersects the combined curve at the sixth step. Reading to the left, we find that the variation in load is being taken on the third valve of A and that B is carrying load at the maximum point for its third valve. For any number of steam turbines, if none of the steps have the same incremental rate, the combined incremental-rate curve will contain the same number ofeges as the sum of the steps in the individual incremental-rate curves. VA 3% 6. Station Performance Characteristic. The performance of any individual piece of power-plant equipment such as a boiler, turbine. diesel engine, pump, fan, or heat exchanger ibed. ' input-output curve, Since a station ism ' tl ferent forms of apparatus, their rf integrated so that the performanc expressed by a single input-output be 32-16 shows the major o will be assumes the general form he sealed in Btu per hour. The rve may be Teadily ist BOSS load yy on tracing & giver refore the statiog) amount that finally 1. Starting boilers, a certain, Ly gross by plotting Ly kw ic of the station nput-output curves nd somewhat more accurate dA/ML, M. J. Bteinberg a Electrical Engi STATION FORMANCE AND OP ATION CHARACTERISTICS 633. poren PERFORMANCE ruanint GENERATOR PERFORMANCE y 9 = \ a 3 , te Turbine or station gross load - hw ® o STATION AUNILIARY DEMAND gnoss vs NET STATION OUTPUT 4 a E 3, 34 8 t u ‘i 5 t 2 2 7 Grove oad = he ee eo @ STATION PERFORMANCE q 2 \y : L Fro. 32. 16. Input-out ves pput eur station input-output oes of component station equipment and derivation of ; | i | plant with several units mos, when the peak demand occurs. 4 + and the total plant or system laced in operation. “Ty hould be operating at ‘unit of eapacity in service the remaining active, cnorey supply without interruption: Toad is equal to or less than the-capacity of a single “Tf the minimum load is ¢ tO unit, two upits will have to be placed in operation to protect continuity of service. The order in which the units are placed in service depends upon their relative efficien jes. The most efficient machine is placed in service first, followed by machines in descending order of efficiency 8 needed. ‘The load is divided among the units in“ oj eration 01 of equal incremental rates Re ‘ ine tabulation, with the indicated order of efficien [ORMANUB any ~~ STATION PERF! capacity schedule wot uld appear as in the For the given conditions tl following tabulation: ry IN OPERATION ‘Capac Unit . Mw system ja ‘Total load ‘| eae ea eo 7 . { 0 50 | 50 Fe 100 50 so | 50 | -- 100 50+ 50 | 50 | 70, 170- | 100 ¥ © | 50 | 5d | 706 170 100+ | - . 20 | 50 | 50 | 70 190 120 ; . ~ | 990 | 50 | 50 | 70 100 120+ . 10 20 50 | .50 70 200 ia 130 . | 10 “| 90 | 50 | 50 | 70 200 130+ “| qo | 10 | 20 | 50 | 50 | 70 210 140 fl to | 10 | 90 | 50 | 0 | 7 210 140+ 5 | 10 | 10 | 20 | 50 | 50 70 215 From loads of 0 to 50 mw two units run; upon the loss of one the remaining unit could carry the load in this range. From loads in excess ¥f.50 muy the loss of the largest unit, 70 mw, would nob shut down the system because of lack of active capacity. Note that, though the capacity of the system is 215 mw, the maximum protected demand that it ean carry is 215 — 70 = 145,mw. The manner in which the capacity would vary over a day is illustrated in Fig. 32-17. 2a a eee 8 eal cle AM. tem! " Fic. 32-17, Hourly variation of capacity with demand. 4d active operation is termed the “spin. pacity To! int ss m, ap ‘shown in the preceding, should always be greater than the load. The difference between spinning capacity and the load is termed the “spin. ning reserve.” The minimum magnitude of the spinning reserve js generally equal to the capacity of the largest unit, This reserve does not designate certain specific units of the group but is merely a portion of the total spinning capacity that protects against the accidental loss of the largest. unit. In some power systems having a relatively large number of units the total installed capacity as a minimum is not allowed to be less than the sum of the peak demand ex- pected plus the capacity of the two largest units; ie., the installed reserve is maintained equal to the capacity of the two largest units. There is no general fixed rule re- garding the required installed reserve; some systems specify three units, and others a certain percentage of the expected peak demand, while others depen! on a proba- bility analysis (Sec. 31-2). 32-8. Hydraulic-station Operation. The question of load division and capacity Ta PF scheduling for a pure hydraulic system not a using any thermal equipment is subject to ar hy a kt ach the water flow available and the peak .de- lic plant dur- A ing maximum river flow; (6) ™and to be met. In a properly designed peak-load operation of hy- hydraulic system ‘sufficient water flow is eee whoo normally available to meet the demand at Seva to oyecalen any time. At times of low flow it may, . . ; require careful scheduling of units to main an optimum efficiency at all load levels to meet the system demand. he hea a ainec station is one unit of a system containing bot draulic and thermal stations, its operation will ra in a somewhat different fashion. sete 636 POWER ECONOMICS » the generated energy would be Ul n When the river has ample flow, the plant is loa continuously to produce the maximum energy possible with its ment to carry the base of the load curve (Fig. 32-18a) or the energy in the river flow, whichever is the sma ee maller, is a kw. onMANCH AND OPERATION CHARACTEIISTICS 637 plant capacity or the ay flow ove STATION PERF! ‘ever the load drops b flow, as beyond a’ hr, jf storage is not available. ‘At periods of low flow carefull at water flow and its use so that the hydraul to help carry the peak load of the system: Shutting down the station and storing the d Sf aeaeets pondage and then at the time of the peak poriod placing the Pettion in operation by..drawing upon the pondage It is generally possible to estimate closely the amount of river flow available for a foming week and, therefore, the amount of energy. ‘The system load ‘at which the hydraulic station should be cut into operation is estimated in the following manner: With the probable load curve for the coming week known as in Fig, 32-18b, the load-energy curve as in Fig. 32-18¢ can be calculated. If the amount of energy in the river flow is equal to py —c’ kwhr, this amount of energy is supplied to the load curve in its upper load range. ‘Then, upon Inying off b’ — ¢” kwhr from the total energy in the load eurve on the load-energy curve in c, it is found that this amount of energy is contained in the area above ¢ kw. Thus, whenever the load exceeds c kw, the hydraulic station is cut into operation and carries the variable portion of the system load while the thermal plants carry a constant load. The difference b — c kw must not exceed the capacity of the hydraulic station. If it does, this means that, th thermal plants will increase their load at the time of the peak load to preyent overloading the hydraulic station; the hydraulic station will bs cut in at a lower load than for the former case. ae energy in the river low the energy in the “some of the water Mma or the dam spillway able able tention should be given to the av -plant capacity is avs ‘This is usually done by river flow during, off-peak PROBLEMS input-output curve of a 100-mw station is expressed by the formula : T = 105180 + 10L + 0.0014) where nis in Bru Pet hour and L is i ihegawatts. . load at: whi i i oa which the maximum efficiency occurs. . Plot the heat-rate and thermal-efficiency curve 32-2. For ¢] ion it a 9F the station in Prob. 32-1 compute the input from. @, “Assuminy 4. Plot thei T= 10° x (250 + 5L + 0.0318) + the input-output, heat-rate and incremental-rate rower th ten duention 4,600 6, 600 000 ¢ following were to, be_plaeed=in_o) je A, Devise s loading Schedule gystem has three generating units with the curves given. Tasir P-2 Unit Capacity, mw | Input-output curve = 108 X (13 4 0.0417 + 0.0 = 10 X (10 + SL + 0.42) = 10° X (16 + 8L) 4 10 0 an ¢ Plot the input-output curves of all unit its on b. Plot the heat-rate curves of . Plot ti 8 common gral all Units on a common graph, Tt

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