Oral Physiology Course 3ed Lecture
By: Dr. Belques Al-Huraibi
Ass Professer In Immunology& Allergy
Sana’a University
• The liver is responsible for metabolizing toxic substances and
with signaling from the pancreas maintains carbohydrate
metabolism.
• The liver also helps to regulate lipid metabolism and is the
primary site of cholesterol production.
• The kidneys are responsible for regulating blood water levels,
re-absorption of substances into the blood, maintenance of salt
and ion levels in the blood, regulation of blood pH, and
excretion of urea and other waste products.
• The hypothalamus is involved in the regulation of body
temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, and circadian rhythms
(which include wake/sleep cycles).
• Homeostatic processes are very complex because the
setpoint or normal range might change depending on
the circumstance.
• For example, the hypothalamus can change the body’s
temperature set point, such as raising it during a fever
to help fight an infection.
Homeostatic regulation Mechanisms
• Homeostatic regulation involves three parts or mechanisms:
• 1) the receptor, 2) the control center and 3) the effector.
• The receptor receives information that something in the environment is
changing.
• The control center or integration center receives and processes
information from the receptor.
• And lastly, the effector responds to the commands of the control
center by either opposing or enhancing the stimulus. This is an ongoing
process that continually works to restore and maintain homeostasis. For
example, in regulating body temperature there are
temperature receptors in the skin, which communicate information to the
brain, which is the control center, and the effector is our blood vessels
and sweat glands in our skin.
A sensor or receptor that detects changes in the internal or external
environment. An example is peripheral chemoreceptors, which detect
changes in blood pH.
The integrating center or control center receives information from the
sensors and initiates the response to maintain homeostasis.
The most important example is the hypothalamus, a region of the brain that
controls everything from body temperature to heart rate, blood pressure, satiety
(fullness), and circadian rhythms (including, sleep and wake cycles).
An effector is any organ or tissue that receives information from the integrating
center and acts to bring about the changes needed to maintain homeostasis.
One example is the kidney, which retains water if blood pressure is too low.
• The sensors, integrating center, and effectors are the basic components of
every homeostatic response. Positive and negative feedback are more
complicated mechanisms that enable these three basic components to maintain
homeostasis for more complex physiological processes.
• Negative Feedback
• Negative feedback mechanisms use one of the products of the
reaction to reduce the output or activity of the process for the
purpose of returning an organ or system to its normal range of
functioning. Most homeostatic processes use negative feedback
regulation to maintain a specific parameter around a setpoint range
that supports life Figure 8.1. However, it should be noted that
negative feedback processes are also used for other processes that
are not homeostatic.
• Within the realm of homeostasis, temperature control is a good
example that uses negative feedback.
• Nerve cells (the sensors) relay information about body
temperature to the hypothalamus (the integrating center).
• The hypothalamus then signals several effectors to return the
body temperature to 37oC (the set point).
• Two effectors activated in the process when core temperature
is too high are the sweat glands which serve to cool the skin
and the blood vessels which undergo vasodilation (or
enlarging) so the body can give off more heat.
• Once the core temperature is brought back into normal range,
the sensor will send Negative feedback messages to the
integrating center to turn off the process (i.e; turn off the sweat
glands and inhibit further vasodilation).
Positive and Negative Feedback
• When a change of variable occurs, there are two main types of feedback to
which the system reacts:
• Negative feedback: a reaction in which the system responds in
such a way as to reverse the direction of change. Since this tends to
keep things constant, it allows the maintenance of homeostasis. For
instance, when the concentration of carbon dioxide in the human
body increases, the lungs are signaled to increase their activity and
expel more carbon dioxide.
• Thermoregulation is another example of negative feedback. When body
temperature rises, receptors in the skin and the hypothalamus sense a change,
triggering a command from the brain. This command, in turn, effects the
correct response, in this case a decrease in body temperature.
• Positive feedback mechanisms are designed to push levels out of
normal ranges and are not used as often in homeostatic responses.
To achieve positive feedback, a series of events initiates a cascading
process that builds to increase the effect of the stimulus.
• An example of a positive feedback loop is the blood clotting cascade
which is originally initiated by external damage to the vasculature
(Figure).
• During a damage event, extrinsic factors begin the initiation of the
blood clotting cascade. The proteins involved in this process are
usually held inactive by being produced in a much larger form than is
required. To activate the protein, the protein needs to be cleaved
into a smaller, active
Figure 4: The Positive
Feedback Mechanism
of the Blood Clotting
Cascade. Extrinsic
factors such as damage
or injury activated the
cleavage of zymogen
proteins in the blood
clotting cascade.
Activation of the
zymogen, Thrombin IIa
begins the formation of
the fibrin clotting
network and also elicits
positive feedback that
further upregulates the
entire clotting cascade.
System Interactions
Each body system contributes to the homeostasis of other systems
and of the entire organism. No system of the body works in isolation
and the well-being of the person depends upon the well-being of all
the interacting body systems.
A disruption within one system generally has consequences for
several additional body systems. Most of these organ systems are
controlled by hormones secreted from the pituitary gland, a part of the
endocrine system. Table 1 summarizes how various body systems
work together to maintain homeostasis.
• Main examples of homeostasis in mammals are as follows:
The regulation of the amounts of water and minerals in the body.
This is known as osmoregulation. This happens primarily in the
kidneys.
• The removal of metabolic waste. This is known as excretion.
This is done by the excretory organs such as the kidneys and
lungs.
• The regulation of body temperature. This is mainly done
by the skin.
The regulation of blood glucose level. This is mainly
done by the liver and the insulin and glucagon secreted
by the pancreas in the body
s
Table 1: Types of Homeostatic Regulation in the Body
Hormones and Other Tissues, Organs and Organ
Homeostatic Processes
Messengers Systems Involved
Antidiuretic Kidneys, urinary bladder,
Excess water, salts, and hormone (ADH), ureters, urethra (urinary
Osmoregulation (also
urea expelled from aldosterone, system), pituitary gland
known as excretions)
body angiotensin II, (endocrine system), lungs
(respiratory system)
carbon dioxide
Skeletal muscle (muscular
Sweating, shivering,
system), nerves (nervous
dilation/constriction of
system), blood vessels
blood vessels at skin
(cardiovascular system),
Thermoregulation surface, insulation by Nerve Impulses
skin and adipose tissue
adipose tissue,
(integumentary system),
breakdown of adipose
hypothalamus (endocrine
tissue to produce heat
system)
Release of insulin and
glucagon into the blood in Pancreas
response to rising and falling (endocrine system),
blood glucose levels, Insulin, glucagon, liver (digestive
Chemical respectively; increase in cortisol, carbon system); adrenal
breathing rate in response
Regulation dioxide, nerve glands (endocrine
to increases carbon dioxide
(including levels in the blood, and impulses, system) lungs
glucoregulation) release of carbon dioxide erythropoietin (respiratory system),
into exhaled air from lungs, (EPO) brain (nervous
secretion of erythropoietin system), kidneys
by kidneys to stimulate
(urinary system)
formation of red blood cells
Endocrine System
• The endocrine system, shown in Figure 2, includes glands which secrete hormones
into the bloodstream. Hormones are chemical messenger molecules that are made by
cells in one part of the body and cause changes in cells in another part of the body.
The endocrine system regulates the metabolism and development of most body cells
and body systems through feedback mechanisms. For example, Thyrotropin-
Releasing Hormone (TRH) and Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) are controlled
by a number of negative feedback mechanisms. The endocrine glands also release
hormones that affect skin and hair color, appetite, and secondary sex characteristics of
males and females.
Figure 2: The endocrine system controls almost every other body system through feedback
mechanisms. Most of the mechanisms of the endocrine system are negative feedback.
• The endocrine system has a regulatory effect on other organ
systems in the human body.
• In the muscular system, hormones adjust muscle metabolism,
energy production, and growth.
• In the nervous system, hormones affect neural metabolism,
regulate fluid and ion concentration and help with reproductive
hormones that influence brain development.
Disruption of Homeostasis
• Many homeostatic mechanisms keep the internal environment within certain limits (or set points). When
the cells in your body do not work correctly, homeostatic balance is disrupted.
• Homeostatic imbalance may lead to a state of disease. Disease and cellular malfunction can be caused in
two basic ways: by deficiency (cells not getting all they need) or toxicity (cells being poisoned by things
they do not need). When homeostasis is interrupted, your body can correct or worsen the problem, based
on certain influences. In addition to inherited (genetic) influences, there are external influences that are
based on lifestyle choices and environmental exposure.
• These factors together influence the body’s ability to maintain homeostatic balance. The endocrine
system of a person with diabetes has difficulty maintaining the correct blood glucose level. A diabetic
needs to check their blood glucose levels many times during the day, as shown in Figure 3, and monitor
daily sugar intake.
Internal Influences: Heredity
• Genetics:
• Genes are sometimes turned off or on due to
external factors which we have some control over.
Other times, little can be done to prevent the
development of certain genetic diseases and
disorders. In such cases, medicines can help a
person’s body regain homeostasis.
• An example is the metabolic disorder Type 1 diabetes, which is a
disorder where the pancreas is no longer producing adequate
amounts of insulin to respond to changes in a person’s blood glucose
level. (Insulin replacement therapy, in conjunction with
carbohydrate counting and careful monitoring of blood glucose
concentration, is a way to bring the body’s handling of glucose back
into balance).
• Cancer can be genetically inherited or be due to a mutation
caused by exposure to toxin such as radiation or harmful
drugs.
• A person may also inherit a predisposition to develop a
disease such as heart disease. Such diseases can be delayed
or prevented if the person eats nutritious food, has regular
physical activity, and does not smoke
External Influences: Lifestyle
• Nutrition: If your diet lacks certain vitamins or minerals your
cells will function poorly, and you may be at risk to develop a
disease. For example, a menstruating woman with inadequate
dietary intake of iron will become anemic. Hemoglobin, the
molecule that enables red blood cells to transport oxygen,
requires iron. Therefore, the blood of an anemic woman will
have reduced oxygen-carrying capacity. In mild cases
symptoms may be vague (e.g. fatigue), but if the anemia is
severe the body will try to compensate by increasing cardiac
output, leading to weakness, irregular heartbeats and in
serious cases, heart failure.
Physical Activity
• Physical activity is essential for proper functioning of our cells and
bodies. Adequate rest and regular physical activity are examples of
activities that influence homeostasis. Lack of sleep is related to a
number of health problems such as irregular heartbeat, fatigue,
anxiety, and headaches. Being overweight and obesity, two conditions
that are related to poor nutrition and lack of physical activity greatly
affect many organ systems and their homeostatic mechanisms. Being
overweight or obese increases a person’s risk of developing heart
disease, Type 2 diabetes, and certain forms of cancer. Staying fit by
regularly taking part in aerobic activities such as walking, shown in
Figure 4, has been shown to help prevent many of these diseases.
Mental Health:
• Mental Health: Your physical health and mental health are
inseparable. Our emotions cause chemical changes in our
bodies that have various effects on our thoughts and feelings.
Negative stress (also called distress) can negatively affect
mental health. Regular physical activity has been shown to
improve mental and physical well-being, and helps people to
cope with distress. Among other things, regular physical activity
increases the ability of the cardiovascular system to deliver
oxygen to body cells, including the brain cells. Medications that
may help balance the amount of certain mood-altering
chemicals within the brain are often prescribed to people who
have mental and mood disorders. This is an example of medical
help in stabilizing a disruption in homeostasis.
• Environmental Exposure
• Any substance that interferes with cellular function and
causes cellular malfunction is a cellular toxin.
• There are many different sources of toxins, for example, natural
or synthetic drugs, plants, and animal bites. Air pollution,
another form of environmental exposure to toxins is shown in
Figure 5. A commonly seen example of an exposure to cellular
toxins is by a drug overdose. When a person takes too much of
a drug that affects the central nervous system, basic life
functions such as breathing and heartbeat are disrupted. Such
disruptions can results in coma, brain damage, and even death.
• Neurons are the building blocks of the body’s
communication system, it is the network of neurons
that allow signals to move between the brain and body.
These organized networks, composed of up to 1 trillion
neurons, make up what is known as the nervous system.
• The human nervous system has two parts: the central
nervous system, which includes the brain and spinal cord,
and the peripheral nervous system, which is composed of
nerves and nerve networks throughout the body.
• The endocrine system is also essential to
communication. The system utilizes glands
located throughout the body that secrete
hormones. The hormones regulate a variety of
body functions, including metabolism, digestion,
blood pressure, and growth. The endocrine
system is not directly linked to the nervous
system, but the two interact in a number of ways
The Central Nervous System
• The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and
spinal cord. The primary form of communication in the CNS is
the neuron. Together, the brain and the spinal cord are the
literal "center" of the body’s communication system.
• The brain and spinal cord are vital to human life and
functioning.
• The body employs a number of protective barriers to
surround them, including the bone (skull and spine)
and membraneous tissue known as meninges. The
brain and spine are suspended in a protective liquid
known as cerebrospinal fluid.
CNS
• The CNS is responsible for processing every sensation
and thought that you experience. The sensory
information that is gathered by receptors throughout
the body. It then passes the information on to the
central nervous system. The CNS also sends messages
to the rest of the body to control movement, actions,
and responses to the environment.
•
• The Peripheral Nervous System
• The peripheral system (PNS) is composed of nerves that extend
outside of the central nervous system. The nerves and nerve
networks that make up the PNS are actually bundles of axons from
neuron cells. The nerve bundles can be relatively small or large
enough to be easily seen by the human eye.
• The PNS is further divided into two different systems: the somatic
nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.
Somatic Nervous System
• The somatic nervous system transmits sensory
communications. It is responsible for voluntary
movement and action. It is composed of sensory
(afferent) neurons and motor (efferent) neurons.
• Sensory neurons carry information from the nerves
to the brain and spinal cord while motor neurons
transmit information from the central nervous
system to the muscle fibers.
•
Autonomic Nervous System
• The autonomic nervous system is responsible for
controlling involuntary functions such as heartbeat,
respiration, digestion, and blood pressure. The system is
also involved in human emotional responses such as
sweating and crying.
• The autonomic nervous system is subdivided into
the sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic
nervous system.
•
The autonomic nervous system is subdivided into
the sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous
system.
A- Sympathetic nervous system:
The sympathetic nervous system controls the body’s
response to an emergency. When the system is aroused,
your heart and breathing rates increase, digestion slows
or stops, the pupils dilate and you begin to sweat. Also
known as the fight-or-flight response, the system is
preparing your body to either fight the danger or flee.
Parasympathetic nervous system:
The parasympathetic nervous system counters the
sympathetic system.
After a crisis or danger has passed, the system helps
to calm the body by :slowing heart and breathing
rates, resuming digestion, contracting the pupils,
and stopping sweating.
Exploring the Peripheral Nervous System
• The Endocrine System
• The endocrine system is composed of glands that secrete
chemical messengers known as hormones.
• Hormones are carried in the bloodstream to specific areas of
the body, including the organs and body tissues.
• The pineal gland, the hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, the
thyroid, the ovaries, and the testes are some of the most
important glands in the body. Each of these glands works in a
number of unique ways in specific areas.
• Nerves are differentiated according to their function.
• A sensory (or afferent) neuron carries information from the
sensory receptors, whereas
• a motor (or efferent) neuron transmits information to the muscles
and glands.
• An interneuron, which is by far the most common type of neuron,
is located primarily within the CNS and is responsible for
communicating among the neurons. Interneurons allow the brain
to combine the multiple sources of available information to create
a coherent picture of the sensory information being conveyed.
• The spinal cord is the long, thin, tubular bundle of
nerves and supporting cells that extends down from the
brain. It is the central throughway of information for the
body.
• Within the spinal cord, 1- Ascending tracts of sensory
neurons relay sensory information from the sense organs
to the brain while 2- Descending tracts of motor neurons
relay motor commands back to the body.
• When a quicker-than-usual response is required, the
spinal cord can do its own processing, bypassing the
brain altogether.
• A reflex is an involuntary and nearly instantaneous
movement in response to a stimulus. Reflexes are triggered
when sensory information is powerful enough to reach a
given threshold and the interneurons in the spinal cord act
to send a message back through the motor neurons without
relaying the information to the brain (see Figure, “The
Reflex”).
• When you touch a hot stove and immediately pull your
hand back, or when you fumble your cell phone and
instinctively reach to catch it before it falls, reflexes in
your spinal cord order the appropriate responses before
your brain even knows what is happening.
AUTONOMOUS Nervous System
• Nervous systems
• consist of these types of specialized neurons and range in size
from a few hundred nerve cells in worms to approximately 100
billion nerve cells in humans. Neurons are capable of transmitting
information electrically and chemically. Figure portrays the major
parts of a neuron. Dendrites are small branches which can
connect to nearby neurons. A single axon can extend in length up
to about a meter in humans and connect to the dendrites of more
distant neurons. For example, a neuron could connect the spinal
cord to a foot.
•
Making Chemical Connections: Neurotransmitters
• The chemical exchange between neurons occurs at synapses, the
small spaces separating the dendrites and axon endings (see Figure
The
synapse
• The first nerve cell releases chemical neurotransmitters that
can bind with receptors in the second neuron. The exchange can
result in excitation or inhibition, depending upon the type of
receptor activated.
• Figure 2 lists the major neurotransmitters along with their roles
in the body.
• Psychoactive drugs can affect mood, thought, and behavior.
Most achieve these effects by impacting upon
neurotransmitters and synaptic connections. In Chapter 11
(Maladaptive Behavior), we will consider the use of
psychoactive drugs in the treatment of depression and
schizophrenia