First ICFA Instrumentation School/Workshop at the ICFA

Instrumentation Center in Morelia, Mexico

University of Michoacan
Morelia, Michoacan, Mexico

November 18-29, 2002

Front-End Electronics
and
Signal Processing

Helmuth Spieler
Physics Division
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Berkeley, CA 94720

These course notes and additional tutorials at

http://www-physics.lbl.gov/~spieler
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Table of Contents

I. Introduction
Example System
Measured Quantities
Fluctuations
Signal Processing Systems
Acquiring the Detector Signal

II. Signal Processing 1

Pulse Shaping
Equivalent Noise Charge
Sources of Electronic Noise
Some Other Aspects of Pulse Shaping
Timing Measurements

III. Signal Processing 2

Digitization of Pulse and Time
- Analog to Digital Conversion
Digital Signal Processing

IV. Systems
CDF Si Vertex Detector Upgrade
BaBar Silicon Vertex Tracker
ATLAS Silicon Strip and Pixel Systems

V. Why Things Don’t Work

VI. Summary

Appendices

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
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I. Introduction

1. Example Detectors

ATLAS detector subsystems 5

Scintillation detector 10

Ionization Chambers 11

2. The Signal

Magnitude 12

Fluctuations 13

3. The Problem

Signal and noise spectra 20

Filtering 22

4. Signal Processing Systems 24

5. Acquiring the Detector Signal 30

Integration on input capacitance 31

Active integrators 35

Frequency and time response 39

Input impedance and time response 41

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
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I. Introduction
Purpose of pulse processing and analysis systems:

1. acquire electrical signal from detector

typically a short current pulse

2. tailor the time response (i.e. “shape” the output pulse)

of the system to optimize
• minimum detectable signal (detect hit/no hit)
• energy measurement (magnitude of signal)
• event rate
• time of arrival (timing measurement)
• insensitivity to detector pulse shape
• some combination of the above

Generally, these cannot be optimized simultaneously

⇒ compromises

Position-sensitive detectors use presence of hit,

amplitude measurement or timing.
⇒ same problem

3. digitize the signal and store for subsequent analysis

Additional requirements, depending on specific application, e.g.

radiation resistance
low power
portable systems
large detector arrays, e.g. in HEP
robustness
cost

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
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1. Example Detector Systems: ATLAS Detector

MUON CHAMBERS MAGNET TOROIDS

BEAM

TRACKING SYSTEM
(IN 2T SOLENOID)

HADRONIC ELECTROMEGNETIC
CALORIMETER CALORIMETER

Schematic End-View
EM Calorimeter Tracking

Hadron
Solenoid Magnet
Calorimeter

Muon
System

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
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1.1 Tracking in 2T magnetic field

Separate particles by
sign of charge
magnetic rigidity q/m

⇒ position measurement layer by layer

to reconstruct tracks

Inner layers: Silicon pixel and strip detectors

Measure presence of hit

Outer layers: “straw” drift chambers

timing provides position information

(see muon system)

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
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1.2. Calorimetry

Particles generate showers in calorimeters

Electromagnetic Calorimeter (yellow):

Absorbs and measures the energies of all

electrons, photons

Hadronic Calorimeter (green)

Absorbs and measures the energies of hadrons,

including protons and neutrons, pions and kaons

(electrons and photons have been absorbed

in EM calorimeter)

⇒ amplitude measurement
position information provided by segmentation

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 8

1.3. Muon System

Muons are the only charged particle that can travel through all of the
calorimeter material and reach the outer layer.
muons with energy above, say, 5 GeV will penetrate about 5
meters of steel, whereas hadrons of almost any energy are
completely absorbed in about 1.5 meters of steel.

The muon sensors are gas proportional drift chambers,

3 cm in diameter, ~ 1 – 6 m long.

TRACK

∆t

Electrons formed along the track drift towards the central wire.
The first electron to reach the high-field region initiates the avalanche,
which is used to derive the timing pulse.
Since the initiation of the avalanche is delayed by the transit time of
the charge from the track to the wire, the time of the avalanche can
be used to determine the radial position.

Principle also used in straw tracker – need fast timing electronics

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
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Summary of Measured Quantities

1. Si Tracking position to ~10 µm accuracy in r ϕ
(through segmentation)
timing to 25 ns accuracy to separate
bunch crossings
2. Straw Tracker position to 170 µm at r > 56 cm
3. EM calorimeter energy via LAr ionization chambers
position through segmentation
4. Hadron calorimeter energy via plastic scintillator tiles
position through segmentation
5. Muon System signal via ionization chambers
position through timing measurement

Although these various detector system look very different, they all
follow the same principles.
Sensors must determine
1. presence of a particle
2. magnitude of signal
3. time of arrival

Some measurements depend on sensitivity, i.e. detection threshold.

example: silicon tracker, to
detect presence of a particle in a given electrode

Others seek to determine a quantity very accurately, i.e. resolution

example: calorimeter – magnitude of absorbed energy
muon chambers – time measurement yields position

All have in common that they are sensitive to

1. signal magnitude

2. fluctuations

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
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1.4. A Typical Detector System – Scintillation Detector

INCIDENT CURRENT
RADIATION PULSE

SCINTILLATOR PHOTOMULTIPLIER

Processes in Scintillator – Photomultiplier

SCINTILLATOR PHOTOCATHODE ELECTRON

MULTIPLIER

INCIDENT LIGHT ELECTRONS ELECTRICAL

RADIATION SIGNAL

PHOTOMULTIPLIER

number of photons number of photoelectrons charge in pulse

∝ absorbed energy ∝ absorbed energy ∝ abs. energy

Signal Processing

PULSE SHAPING ANALOG TO DIGITAL DIGITAL

CONVERSION DATA BUS

charge in pulse pulse height

∝ abs. energy ∝ absorbed energy

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
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1.5. Ionization Chamber

All ionization chambers utilize the same principle:
1. Particles deposit energy in an absorber and create mobile
charge carriers (positive and negative charge pairs).
in solids, liquids: electrons and holes
in gases: electrons and ions
2. Electric field applied to detector volume sweeps charge
carriers towards electrodes and induces a signal current
DETECTOR AMPLIFIER

Cdet Vin Ci Ri

tc

v
velocity of charge carriers

dq s
rate of induced charge on
detector electrodes dt

t
Qs
qs
signal charge

if Ri x (Cdet + Ci ) >> collection time tc:

Qs
peak voltage at amplifier input Vs =
C det + Ci
Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler
2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
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2. The Signal
Any form of elementary excitation can be used to detect the radiation
signal.
absorbed energy
Magnitude of signal =
excitation energy

An electrical signal can be formed directly by ionization.

Incident radiation quanta impart sufficient energy to individual

atomic electrons to form electron-ion pairs (in gases) or
electron-hole pairs (in semiconductors and metals).

Other detection mechanisms are

Excitation of optical states (scintillators) → light intensity

Excitation of lattice vibrations (phonons) → temperature

Breakup of Cooper pairs in superconductors

Formation of superheated droplets in superfluid He

Typical excitation energies

Ionization in gases ~30 eV

Ionization in semiconductors 1 – 10 eV

Scintillation 20 - 500 eV

Phonons meV

Breakup of Cooper Pairs meV

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
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Precision of signal magnitude is limited by fluctuations

Two types of fluctuations

1. Fluctuations in signal charge for a given energy absorption in

detector

signal formed by many elementary excitations

absorbed energy
number of signal quanta =
excitation energy
E
N=
Ei

Number of signal quanta fluctuates statistically.

∆N = FN

where F is the Fano factor (0.1 in Si, for example),

so the energy resolution

∆E = Ei ∆N = FEEi r.m.s.
∆EFWHM = 2.35 × ∆Erms

2. Baseline fluctuations in the electronics

“electronic noise”

The overall resolution is often the result of several contributions.

Individual resolutions add in quadrature, for example

∆E = ∆E fluc
2
+ ∆Eelec
2

If one contribution is 20% of the other, the overall resolution is

increased by 10%.
Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler
2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
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Resolution of NaI(Tl) and Ge detectors

(J.Cl. Philippot, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. NS-17/3 (1970) 446)

NaI(Tl) scintillation detector: signal fluctuations

Ge detector: predominantly electronic noise

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
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Resolution increases sensitivity

Signal to background ratio improves with better resolution
(narrow peak competes with fewer background counts)

G.A. Armantrout, et al., IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. NS-19/1 (1972) 107

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 16

Signal Fluctuations in a Scintillation Detector

Example: a typical NaI(Tl) system (from Derenzo)

511 keV gamma ray

⇓
25000 photons in scintillator

⇓
15000 photons at photocathode

⇓
3000 photoelectrons at first dynode

⇓
.
3 109 electrons at anode

2 mA peak current

Resolution of energy measurement determined by statistical variance

of produced signal quanta.

∆E ∆N N 1
= = =
E N N N
Resolution determined by smallest number of quanta in chain, i.e.
number of photoelectrons arriving at first dynode.

In this example

∆E 1
= = 2% r.m.s. = 5% FWHM
E 3000
Typically 7 – 8% obtained, due to non-uniformity of light collection
and gain.
Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler
2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
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Baseline Fluctuations (Electronic Noise)

Choose a time when no signal is present.

Amplifier’s quiescent
output level (baseline):

sensitivity x10 TIME

These fluctuations are

added to any input
signal

Pulse output of the

ideal system

(sensitivity x1)

TIME

Signal + Noise

TIME

Measurement of peak amplitude yields

signal amplitude + noise fluctuation
Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler
2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 18

The preceding example could imply that the fluctuations tend to

increase the measured amplitude, since the noise fluctuations
vary more rapidly than the signal.

In an optimized system, the time scale of the fluctuation is

comparable to the signal peaking time.

Then the measured amplitude fluctuates positive and negative

relative to the ideal signal.

Measurements taken at 4 different times:

(noiseless signal superimposed for comparison)

TIME TIME

TIME TIME

Amplitude distribution of noise appears as amplitude

distribution of signal.

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 19

3. The Problem

Radiation impinges on a sensor and creates an electrical signal.

The signal level is low and must be amplified to allow digitization and
storage.

Both the sensor and amplifiers introduce signal fluctuations – noise.

1. Fluctuations in signal introduced by sensor

2. Noise from electronics superimposed on signal

The detection limit and measurement accuracy are determined by the

signal-to-noise ratio.

Electronic noise affects all measurements:

1. Detect presence of hit:

Noise level determines minimum threshold.
If threshold too low, output dominated by noise hits.

2. Energy measurement:
noise “smears” signal amplitude

3. Time measurement
noise alters time dependence of signal pulse

How to optimize the signal-to-noise ratio?

1. Increase signal and reduce noise

2. For a given sensor and signal: reduce electronic noise

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 20

Assume that the signal is a pulse.

The time distribution of the signal corresponds to a
frequency spectrum (Fourier transform).

Examples:

Time Domain Frequency Domain

A (t )

A (ω )

0.0E+00 1.0E-07 2.0E-07 3.0E-07 0.0E+00 5.0E+07 1.0E+08 1.5E+08 2.0E+08

t [s] ω [radians]

The pulse is unipolar, so it has a DC component and the

frequency spectrum extends down to 0.
A (t )

A (ω )

0.0E+00 1.0E-07 2.0E-07 3.0E-07

0.0E+00 5.0E+07 1.0E+08 1.5E+08 2.0E+08
t [s] ω [radians]

This bipolar pulse carries no net charge, so the frequency

spectrum falls to zero at low frequencies.

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 21

The noise spectrum generally not the same as the signal

spectrum.

Typical Noise Spectrum:

1.0E-07
]
1/2
NOISE VOLTAGE [nV/Hz

1.0E-08

1.0E-09
1.0E+00 1.0E+02 1.0E+04 1.0E+06 1.0E+08

FREQUENCY [Hz]

⇒ tailor frequency response of measurement system to

optimize signal-to-noise ratio.

Frequency response of measurement system affects both

• signal amplitude and

• noise.

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 22

There is a general solution to this problem:

Apply a filter to make the noise spectrum white (constant over
frequency). Then the optimum filter has an impulse response that is
the signal pulse mirrored in time and shifted by the measurement
time.
For example, if the signal pulse shape is:
A (t )

-5.0E-06 0.0E+00 5.0E-06

t [s]

The response of the optimum filter:

A (t )

-5.0E-06 0.0E+00 5.0E-06

t [s]

This is an “acausal” filter, i.e. it must act before the signal

appears.
⇒ only useful if the time of arrival is known in advance.
Not good for random events
– need time delay buffer memory ⇒ complexity!
Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler
2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 23

Does that mean our problem is solved (and the lecture can end)?

1. The “optimum filter” preserves all information in signal, i.e.

magnitude, timing, structure.

Usually, we need only subset of the information content, i.e.

area (charge) or time-of-arrival.

Then the raw detector signal is not of the optimum form for the
information that is required.

For example, a short detector pulse would imply a fast filter

function. This retains both amplitude and timing information.
If only charge information is required, a slower filter is better, as
will be shown later.

2. The optimum filter is often difficult or impractical to implement

Digital signal processing would seem to remove this restriction,

but this approach is not practical for very fast signals or
systems that require low power.

4. Simpler filters often will do nearly as well

5. Even a digital system requires continuous (“analog”)

pre-processing.

6. It’s often useful to understand what you’re doing, so we’ll spend

some more time to bring out the physical background of signal
formation and processing.

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 24

4. Signal processing systems

Large detector systems may consist of several subsystems especially

designed to perform specific functions, for example

• position sensing (tracking)

• energy measurement (spectroscopy, calorimeters)
• timing
• particle identification

Functions
Although these subsystems may look very different and use radically
differing technologies, they all tend to comprise the same basic
functions:

1. Radiation deposits energy in a detecting medium.

The medium may be gas, solid or liquid.

In a tracking detector one wishes to detect the presence of a

particle without affecting its trajectory, so the medium will be
chosen to minimize energy loss and particle scattering.

Conversely, if one wishes to measure the total energy

(energy spectrometry or calorimetry), the absorber will be
chosen to optimize energy loss (high density, high Z).

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 25

2. Energy is converted into an electrical signal, either directly or

indirectly. Each detected particle will appear as a pulse of electric
charge.

Direct conversion:
incident radiation ionizes atoms/molecules in absorber, creating
mobile charges that are detected.
(ionization chambers)

Indirect conversion:
incident radiation excites atomic/molecular states that decay by
emission of light, which in a second step is converted into charge.
(scintillation detectors)

The primary signal charge is proportional to the energy absorbed.

Some typical values of energy required to form a signal charge of

1 electron:

gases 30 eV

semiconductors 1 to 10 eV

scintillators 20 to 500 eV

In neither of these schemes is the signal charge available

instantaneously. In a scintillation detector the pulse duration is
determined by the decay time of the optical transitions, in an
ionization chamber the charges must move to the electrodes to
obtain the full signal.

Typical pulse durations: 1 ns – 10 µs

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 26

3. The electrical signal is amplified.

a)electronic circuitry

b) gain by secondary multiplication

primary charge is accelerated to sufficient energy for it to

liberate additional charge carriers by impact ionization.

Examples: proportional chambers

avalanche photodiodes
photomultiplier

Both techniques may introduce significant random fluctuations

(electronic noise, avalanche noise).

Ideally, a gain stage would increase only the magnitude of the

detector pulse, without affecting its time dependence.

This ideal behavior is never strictly realized in practice,

as it would require amplifiers with infinite bandwidth.

However, this is not a severe limitation, as in many

applications it is quite acceptable and even desirable
to change the pulse shape.

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 27

4. Pulse shaping
(not always necessary, but always present in some form)

The time response of the system is tailored to optimize the

measurement of signal magnitude or time and the rate of
signal detection.

The output of the signal chain is a pulse (current or voltage)

whose area is proportional to the original signal charge, i.e.
the energy deposited in the detector.

Typically, the pulse shaper transforms a narrow detector

current pulse to

• a broader pulse (to reduce electronic noise),

• with a gradually rounded maximum at the
peaking time TP
(to facilitate measurement of the amplitude)

Detector Pulse Shaper Output

However, to measure pulses in rapid succession, the

duration of the pulse must be limited to avoid overlapping
signals.

If the shape of the pulse does not change with signal level,
the peak amplitude is also a measure of the energy, so one
often speaks of pulse-height measurements or analysis.

The pulse height spectrum is the energy spectrum.

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 28

5. Digitization

a) signal magnitude
(analog-to-digital converter, viz. ADC or A/D)
Example:
Vref

comparators decoder

data
output

The input signal is applied to n comparators in parallel. The

switching thresholds are set by a resistor chain, such that
the voltage difference between individual taps is equal to the
desired measurement resolution.
In the presence of a signal all comparators with threshold
levels less than the signal amplitude will fire. A decoder
converts the parallel bit pattern into a more efficient form, for
example binary code.
This type of ADC is fast, but requires as many comparators
as measurement bins. Other converter types provide higher
resolution and simpler circuitry at the expense of speed.

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 29

b) time difference between the detected signal and a reference

signal
(time-to-digital converter, TDC)

The reference signal can be derived from another detector or

from a common system clock, the crossing time of colliding
beams, for example.

Circuit implementations include schemes that count “clock

ticks” in fully digital circuitry or combine time-to-amplitude
and amplitude-to-digital conversion in mixed analog-digital
arrangements.

In complex detector systems the individual digitized outputs

may require rather complex circuitry to combine the signal
associated with a specific event and “package” them for
efficient transfer.

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 30

5. Acquiring the Detector Signal

• Determine energy deposited in detector

• Detector signal generally a short current pulse

Typical durations

Thin silicon detector

(10 ... 300 µm thick): 100 ps – 30 ns
Thick (~cm) Si or Ge detector: 1 – 10 µs
Proportional chamber (gas): 10 ns – 10 µs
Gas microstrip or microgap
chamber: 10 – 50 ns
Scintillator + PMT/APD: 100 ps – 10 µs

The total charge Qs contained in the detector current pulse

is(t) is proportional to the energy deposited in the detector

E ∝ Q s = ∫ is(t) dt

• Necessary to integrate the detector signal current.

Possibilities: 1. Integrate charge on input capacitance

2. Use integrating (“charge sensitive”)
preamplifier
3. Amplify current pulse and use integrating
(“charge sensing”) ADC

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 31

Integration on Input Capacitance

DETECTOR AMPLIFIER

Cdet Vin Ci Ri

v+

velocities of charge carriers t

v-

t
rate of induced charge on dq s
detector electrodes dt

t
Qs
signal charge qs

t
if Ri x (Cdet + Ci ) >> collection time
Qs
peak voltage at amplifier input Vin =
Cdet + Ci
↑
Magnitude of voltage depends on detector capacitance!

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 32

In reality the current pulses are more complex.

Current pulses on opposite sides (n-strip and p-strip) of a
double-sided silicon strip detector (track traversing the detector)

n-Strip Signal, n-Bulk Strip Detector

Vdep= 60V, Vb= 90V
0.6

0.5 electrons
holes
Signal Current [ µ A]

0.4 total

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time [ns]

p-Strip Signal, n-Bulk Strip Detector

Vdep= 60V, Vb= 90V
0.6
electrons
0.5 holes
total
Signal Current [ µ A]

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time [ns]

Although both pulses originate from the same particle track, the
shapes are very different.
Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler
2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 33

However, although the peak voltage or current signal measured by

the amplifier may be quite different, the signal charge

Qs = ∫ is dt
is the same.

n-Strip Charge, n-Bulk Strip Detector

Vdep= 60V, Vb= 90V
4.5

4.0

3.5
Signal Charge [fC]

3.0

2.5 electrons
2.0 holes
total
1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time [ns]

p-Strip Charge, n-Bulk Strip Detector

Vdep= 60V, Vb= 90V
4.5

4.0

3.5
Signal Charge [fC]

3.0

2.5 electrons
holes
2.0 total
1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time [ns]
Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler
2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 34

⇒ Desirable to measure signal charge

• independent of detector pulse shape

When the input time constant RC is much greater than the signal
duration, the peak voltage is a measure of the charge

1 Qs
C∫
V = is dt =
C

The measured signal depends on the total capacitance at the input.

Awkward in system where the detector capacitance varies, e.g.

• different detector geometries
(e.g. strip detectors with different lengths)
• varying detector capacitance
(e.g. partially depleted semiconductor detectors)

Use system whose response is independent of detector capacitance.

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 35

Active Integrator (“charge-sensitive amplifier”)

Start with inverting voltage amplifier
Voltage gain dvo / dvi = − A ⇒ vo = − Avi
Input impedance = ∞ (i.e. no signal current flows into amplifier input)
Connect feedback capacitor Cf between output and input.

Voltage difference across Cf : vf = (A + 1)vi

⇒ Charge deposited on Cf : Q f = C f v f = C f ( A + 1)vi

Qi = Qf (since Zi = ∞)

⇒ Effective input capacitance

Qi
Ci = = C f ( A + 1)
vi
(“dynamic” input capacitance)
Gain

dVo A ⋅ vi A A 1 1
AQ = = = = ⋅ ≈ ( A >> 1)
dQi Ci ⋅ vi Ci A + 1 Cf Cf

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 36

Qi is the charge flowing into the preamplifier ....

but some charge remains on Cdet.

What fraction of the signal charge is measured?

Qi Civi C Qs
= = i ⋅
Qs Qdet + Qi Qs Ci + Cdet

1
= ≈ 1 (if Ci >> Cdet )
C det
1+
Ci
Example:

A = 103
Cf = 1 pF ⇒ Ci = 1 nF

Cdet = 10 pF: Qi /Qs = 0.99

Cdet = 500 pF: Qi /Qs = 0.67

↑
Si Det.: 50 µm thick
500 mm2 area

Note: Input coupling capacitor must be >>Ci for high

charge transfer efficiency.

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 37

Calibration
Inject specific quantity of charge - measure system response

Use voltage pulse (can be measured conveniently with oscilloscope)

Ci >> CT ⇒ Voltage step applied to test input

develops over CT .

⇒ QT = ∆V . CT

Accurate expression:
CT  CT 
QT = ⋅ ∆V ≈ CT 1 −  ∆V
CT  Ci 
1+
Ci

Typically: CT /Ci = 10-3 – 10-4

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 38

Realistic Charge-Sensitive Preamplifiers

The preceding discussion assumed idealized amplifiers

with infinite speed.
In reality, amplifiers may be too slow to follow the instantaneous
detector pulse.
Does this incur a loss of charge?

Equivalent Circuit:

DETECTOR AMPLIFIER

iin

is Cdet vin R

↑ ↑
charges moving in detector capacitance
detector induce change discharges into amplifier
of charge on detector
electrodes

Signal is preserved even if the amplifier responds much more slowly

than the detector signal.

However, the response of the amplifier affects the measured pulse

shape.

• How do “real” amplifiers affect the measured pulse shape?

• How does the detector affect amplifier response?

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 39

A Simple Amplifier
V+

RL

io Co
vo
vi

Voltage gain:
dvo dio
AV = = ⋅ ZL ≡ gm ZL
dvi dvi
gm ≡ transconductance
Z L = RL // Co
−1
1 1  1 
= + iω Co ⇒ AV = gm  + iω Co 
Z L RL  RL 
↑ ↑
low freq. high freq.

gm RL
log AV gm
-i
ωCo

1 log ω
RL Co

upper cutoff frequency 2π fu

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 40

Pulse Response of the Simple Amplifier

A voltage step vi (t) at the input causes a current step i o (t) at the
output of the transistor.

For the output voltage to change, the output capacitance Co must first
charge up.

⇒ The output voltage changes with a time constant τ = RLCo

log AV input output

1 log ω V = Vo (1 − e −t / τ )
RL Co

Frequency Domain Time Domain

The time constant τ corresponds to the upper cutoff frequency

1
τ=
2π f u

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 41

Input Impedance of a Charge-Sensitive Amplifier

Input impedance

Zf Zf
Zi = ≈ ( A >> 1)
A +1 A

Amplifier gain vs. frequency beyond the upper cutoff frequency

ω0
A = −i
ω

Feedback Impedance Gain-Bandwidth Product

1
Z f = −i
ω Cf
⇒ Input Impedance
i 1
Zi = − ⋅
ω C f −i ω 0
ω
1
Zi =
ω0C f

Imaginary component vanishes ⇒ Resistance: Zi → Ri

⇒ low frequencies ( f < fu): capacitive input

high frequencies ( f > fu): resistive input

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 42

Time Response of a Charge-Sensitive Amplifier

Closed Loop Gain

CD + C f
Af = ( A f << A0 )
Cf

CD
Af ≈ (C D >> C f )
Cf

Closed Loop Bandwidth

ωC A f = ω0
Response Time
1 1
τ amp = = CD
ωC ω 0C f

⇒ Rise time increases with detector capacitance.

Alternative Picture: Input Time Constant

τ i = Ri C D

1
τi = ⋅ C D = τ amp
ω 0C f

Same result as from conventional feedback theory.

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler
2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL
 43

Input impedance is critical in strip or pixel detectors:

Amplifiers must have a low input impedance to reduce transfer of
charge through capacitance to neighboring strips

strip detector
electrodes

For strip pitches that are smaller than the bulk thickness the
capacitance is dominated by the fringing capacitance to the
neighboring strips CSS.

Typically: 1 – 2 pF/cm for strip pitches of 25 – 100 µm on Si.

The backplane capacitance CSG is typically 20% of the strip-to-strip

capacitance.

Negligible cross-coupling at times t > (2 … 3) x Ri CD and if Ci >> CD .

Front-End Electronics and Signal Processing – I. Introduction Helmuth Spieler

2002 ICFA Instrumentation School, Morelia, Mexico LBNL