Ultrasonic Testing techniques
• Pulse Echo
• Through Transmission
• Transmission with Reflection
Pulse Echo Technique
• Single probe sends and
receives sound
• Gives an indication of
defect depth and
dimensions
• Not fail safe
Defect Position
B
A
No indication from defect A (wrong orientation)
Through Transmission Technique
Tx Rx
Transmitting and
receiving probes on
opposite sides of the
specimen
Presence of defect
indicated by reduction
in transmission signal
No indication of
defect location
Fail safe method
Through Transmission Technique
Advantages Disadvantages
• Less attenuation • Defect not located
• No probe ringing • Defect can’t be
• No dead zone identified
• Orientation does not • Vertical defects don’t
matter show
• Must be automated
• Need access to both
surfaces
Transmission with Reflection
T R
Also known as:
Tandem Technique or
Pitch and Catch Technique
Ultrasonic Pulse
• A short pulse of electricity is applied to a piezo-electric crystal
• The crystal begins to vibration increases to maximum amplitude and
then decays
Maximum
10% of
Maximum
Pulse length
Pulse Length
• The longer the pulse, the more penetrating the sound
• The shorter the pulse the better the sensitivity and resolution
Short pulse, 1 or 2 cycles Long pulse 12 cycles
Ideal Pulse Length
5 cycles for weld testing
The Sound Beam
• Dead Zone
• Near Zone or Fresnel Zone
• Far Zone or Fraunhofer Zone
The Sound Beam
NZ FZ Main
Beam
Intensity
varies
Exponential Decay
Distance
The side lobes has multi
minute main beams
Two identical defects may give
different amplitudes of signals
Near
Side Lobes
Zone
The main beam or the centre
beam has the highest intensity of
sound energy
Main Lobe Any reflector hit by the main beam
will reflect the high amount of
energy
Main Beam
Sound Beam
Near Zone Far Zone
• Thickness • Thickness
measurement measurement
• Detection of defects • Defect detection
• Sizing of large defects • Sizing of all defects
only
Near zone length as small as possible
Near Zone
2
D
Near Zone
4
V
f
2
D f
Near Zone
4V
Near Zone
• What is the near zone length of a 5MHz compression probe with a crystal
diameter of 10mm in steel?
2
D f
Near Zone
4V
2
10 5 , 000 , 000
4 5 , 920 , 000
21 . 1 mm
Near Zone
2 2
D D f
Near Zone
4 4V
• The bigger the diameter the bigger the near zone
• The higher the frequency the bigger the near zone
• The lower the velocity the bigger the near zone
Should large diameter crystal probes have a high or
low frequency?
Which of the above probes has the longest Near Zone ?
1 M Hz
5 M Hz
1 M Hz 5 M Hz
Near Zone
2 2
D D f
Near Zone
4 4V
• The bigger the diameter the bigger the near zone
• The higher the frequency the bigger the near zone
• The lower the velocity the bigger the near zone
Should large diameter crystal probes have a high or
low frequency?
Beam Spread
• In the far zone sound pulses spread out as they move away from the
crystal
/2
K KV
Sine or
2 D Df
Beam Spread
K KV
Sine or
2 D Df
Edge,K=1.22
20dB,K=1.08
6dB,K=0.56
Beam axis or
Main Beam
Beam Spread
K KV
Sine or
2 D Df
• The bigger the diameter the smaller the beam spread
• The higher the frequency the smaller the beam spread
Which has the larger beam spread, a compression or a
shear wave probe?
Beam Spread
• What is the beam spread of a 10mm,5MHz compression wave probe in
steel?
KV
Sine
2 Df
1 . 08 5920
5000 10
o
0 . 1278 7 . 35
Which of the above probes has the Largest Beam Spread ?
1 M Hz
5 M Hz
1 M Hz 5 M Hz
Beam Spread
K KV
Sine or
2 D Df
• The bigger the diameter the smaller the beam spread
• The higher the frequency the smaller the beam spread
Which has the larger beam spread, a compression or a
shear wave probe?
Testing close to side walls
Sound at an Interface
• Sound will be either transmitted across or reflected back
Reflected
How much is reflected and
Interface transmitted depends upon the
relative acoustic impedance of the
2 materials
Transmitted
The Phenomenon of Sound
REFLECTION
REFRACTION
DIFFRACTION
Law of Reflection
• Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection
60o 60o
Inclined incidence(not at 90o )
Incident
Transmitted
The sound is refracted due to differences in sound
velocity in the 2 DIFFERENT materials
REFRACTION
• Only occurs when:
The incident angle is other than 0°
30°
Water Steel Water
Steel Steel Steel
Refracted
REFRACTION
• Only occurs when:
The incident angle is other than 0°
The Two Materials has different VELOCITIES
30°
30°
Steel Water
Steel Steel
65°
30°
No Refraction Refracted
Snell’s Law
Normal
Incident I
Material 1
Material 2 Refracted
R
Sine I Vel in Material 1
Sine R Vel in Material 2
Snell’s Law
C
20 Sine I Vel in Material1
Sine R Vel in Material 2
Perspex
Sine 20 2730
Steel Sine 48.3 5960
48.3 0 . 4580 0 . 4580
C
Snell’s Law
C Sine I Vel in Material1
15
Sine R Vel in Material 2
Perspex Sine 15 2730
Sine R 5960
Steel
5960
34.4 SinR Sin 15
2730
C
SinR 0 .565
R 34 .4
Snell’s Law
C
20
Perspex
Steel
48.3
C
24
S
Snell’s Law
C
C When an incident beam of sound
approaches an interface of two different
materials: REFRACTION occurs
Perspex
There may be more than one waveform
Steel transmitted into the second material,
example: Compression and Shear
When a waveform changes into
another waveform: MODE
C CHANGE
C
SS
Snell’s Law
If the angle of Incident is
C increased the angle of
refraction also increases
Up to a point where the
Compression Wave is at 90°
Perspex from the Normal
Steel 90° This happens at the
FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE
C
S
1st Critical Angle
C 27.4 Compression wave refracted at 90
degrees
33
S
2nd Critical Angle
C
C
57
S (Surface Wave)
90
Shear wave refracted at 90 degrees
Shear wave becomes a surface wave
1st Critical Angle Calculation
C 27.2 Sine I 2730
Sine 90 5960
Perspex
Sin 90 1
C
Steel 2730
SinI
5960
S SinI 0 .458
I 27 .26
2nd Critical Angle Calculation
C C Sine I 2730
57.4
Sine 90 3240
Perspex
Sin 90 1
S
Steel 2730
SinI
3240
SinI 0 .8425
I 57 .4
Before the 1st. Critical Angle: There are
1st. both Compression and Shear wave in
the second material
C
At the FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE Compression
2nd. wave refracted at 90°
Shear wave at 33 degrees in the material
90° Between the 1st. And 2nd.
Beyond the 2nd. Critical Critical Angle: Only SHEAR
Angle: All waves are wave in the material.
reflected out of the Compression is reflected out of
material. NO wave in the the material.
material.
S C At the 2nd. Critical Angle: Shear is
refracted to 90° and become
33° SURFACE wave
Summary
• Standard angle probes between 1st and
2nd critical angles (45,60,70)
• Stated angle is refracted angle in steel
• No angle probe under 35, and more
than 80: to avoid being 2 waves in the
same material. One Defect Two Echoes
C S
S
Snell’s Law
• Calculate the 1st critical angle for a perspex/copper interface
• V Comp perspex : 2730m/sec
• V Comp copper : 4700m/sec
2730
SinI 0 . 5808 35 . 5
4700
