Agenda

 Why protection is needed

 Principles and elements of the
protection system
 Basic protection schemes
 Digital relay advantages and
enhancements
Disturbances: Light or Severe

 The power system must maintain acceptable

operation 24 hours a day
 Voltage and frequency must stay within certain
limits
 Small disturbances
 The control system can handle these
 Example: variation in transformer or generator
load
 Severe disturbances require a protection system
 They can jeopardize the entire power system
 They cannot be overcome by a control system
Power System Protection
Operation during severe disturbances:
 System element protection
 System protection
 Automatic reclosing
 Automatic transfer to alternate power
supplies
 Automatic synchronization
Electric Power System Exposure to
External Agents
Damage to Main Equipment
Protection System

A series of devices whose main purpose

is to protect persons and primary electric
power equipment from the effects of faults

The “Sentinels”
Blackouts
Characteristics Main Causes
 Loss of service in  Overreaction of
a large area or the protection
population region system
 Hazard to human  Bad design of the
life protection system
 May result in
enormous
economic losses
Short Circuits Produce High
Currents

Three-Phase Line
a
b
c
I

Substation Fault

Thousands of Amps I
Wire
FAULTS ON POWER SYSTEMS RISK :

Severe damage to the faulted equipment :

 Excessive current may flow;
 Causes burning of conductors or equipment
windings;
 Arcing - energy dissipation;
 Risk of explosions for oil - filled switchgear, or
when in hazardous environments.
Damage to adjacent plant :
 As the fault evolves, if not cleared quickly;
 Due to the voltage depression / loss of supply.
Mechanical Damage During
Short Circuits
 Very destructive in busbars, isolators, supports,
transformers, and machines
 Damage is instantaneous
Mechanical
Forces
f1 f2
i1
i2
Rigid Conductors f1(t) = k i1(t) i2(t)
The Fuse

Fuse

Transformer
Essential qualities of
protection:

 Reliability
 Selectivity-
Absolute or relative
 Fastness
 Discrimination
Protection System Elements
 Protective relays
 Circuit breakers
 Current and voltage transducers
 Communications channels
 DC supply system
 Control cables
Protective relays:
 A device which detect intolerable or
unwanted conditions within the
assigned area.
 * A watchman or watchdog for the
equipment/area
 * Silent sentinels to power system.
How relays are differentiated?
 Can be differentiated based on:
 * Functional categories
 * Input quantities
 *Operating Principles
 * Performance Characteristics.
What are various design
criteria?
 * Dependability/Reliability
 * Security
 * Selectivity
 *Speed
 * Simplicity/flexibility
 *Stability
 *Performance Vs. Economy
What are various technique
used?
 * Electromechanical
 *Solid state/Static
 * Microprocessor/Numerical
Non-Unit, or Unrestricted
Protection :
No specific point downstream up to which
protection will protect

 Will operate for faults on the protected

equipment;
 May also operate for faults on downstream
equipment, which has its own protection;
 Need for discrimination with downstream
protection, usually by means of time
grading.
Unit, or Restricted Protection :
Has an accurately defined zone of
protection

An item of power system plant

is protected as a unit;
Will not operate for out of zone
faults, thus no back-up
protection for downstream
faults.
Types of relays
As per function:
 Main
 Auxiliary
 Signal
As per actuating quantity
 Overrelays
 Underrelays
Types…
As per connection
 Primary
 Secondary(common)
As per action on CB
 Direct acting
 Indirect acting
As per construction
 Electromagnetic
Types..
 Static
 Numerical
As per comparator types
 Single input comparator
 Two input comparator
 Multiple input comparator
Methods of disciminations:
 To locate fault
by time
by current grading
by time and direction
by distance
by time, current and distance
by current balance
by power direction comparison
 Type of fault
Three-Phase Diagram of the Protection
Team

CTs CB

Protected
Control Equipment

Relay

VTs
DC Tripping Circuit
+

Relay
SI
Red
DC Station Lamp
Battery Relay
SI Contact

52a Circuit
Breaker
52
TC

–
Circuit Breakers
Current Transformers

Very High Voltage CT

Medium-Voltage CT
Voltage Transformers

Medium Voltage

Note: Voltage transformers

are also known as potential
High Voltage transformers
Protective Relays
Examples of Relay Panels

Microprocessor-
Based Relay

Old Electromechanical
How Do Relays Detect Faults?
 When a fault takes place, the current, voltage,
frequency, and other electrical variables behave in a
peculiar way. For example:
 Current suddenly increases
 Voltage suddenly decreases
 Relays can measure the currents and the voltages
and detect that there is an overcurrent, or an under
voltage, or a combination of both
 Many other detection principles determine the design
of protective relays
Primary Protection
Primary Protection Zone
Overlapping
Protection
Zone A
52 Protection
Zone B
To Zone A
Relays
To Zone B
Relays

Protection
Zone A
52 Protection
Zone B
To Zone A
Relays To Zone B
Relays
Backup Protection
Breaker 5
Fails
C D
A E

1 2 5 6 11 12

T
B F

3 4 7 8 9 10
Typical Short-Circuit Type
Distribution

Single-Phase-Ground: 70–80%
Phase-Phase-Ground: 17–10%
Phase-Phase: 10–8%
Three-Phase: 3–2%
Balanced vs.
Unbalanced Conditions
Ia
Ic

Ic

Ia

Ib
Ib
Balanced System Unbalanced System
Decomposition of an Unbalanced
System
Ia
Ic
Ib
I a1
I c1

Ib 2
Ia0
Ib0 Ia2
Ic0 I b1 Ic2

Zero-Sequence Positive-Sequence Negative-Sequence

Single-Phase Balanced Balanced
Power Line Protection Principles
 Overcurrent (50, 51, 50N, 51N)
 Directional Overcurrent (67, 67N)
 Distance (21, 21N)
 Differential (87)
Characteristics of overcurrent
relays:
 Definite time
 IDMT- inverse definite minimum time
 Very inverse
 Extremely inverse
Application of Inverse-Type
Relays
Relay t
Operation
Time

I
Radial Line

Fault Load
Inverse-Time Relay
Coordination

Distance
t

 T  T  T
Distance
50/51 Relay Coordination

Distance
t

 T  T  T
Distance
Directional Overcurrent Protection
Basic Applications

L
Distance Relay Principle
L
d
I a , Ib , I c

Radial
21 Three-Phase
Va ,Vb ,Vc Line
Solid Fault

Suppose Relay Is Designed to Operate

When:
| Va | (0.8) | Z L1 || I a |
The Impedance Relay
Characteristic
R 2  X 2  Z r21

X Plain Impedance Relay

Operation Zone

Z  Z r1 Radius Zr1
Zr1

R
Need for Directionality
F2 F1
1 2 3 4 5 6

RELAY 3 X
Operation Zone
F1

F2 R
Nonselective
Relay Operation
Three-Zone
Time Distance Protection
Zone 3
Zone 2
Zone 1

1 2 3 4 5 6

Time
Zone 1 Is Instantaneous
Circular Distance Relay Characteristics
X X
PLAIN OFFSET
IMPEDANCE MHO (2)

R
X
X
LENS
MHO (RESTRICTED MHO 1)

R R

X X

OFFSET TOMATO
MHO (1) (RESTRICTED MHO 2)

R R
Differential Protection Principle

Balanced CT Ratio
CT CT
Protected
Equipment External
Fault

50 IDIF = 0

No Relay Operation if CTs Are Considered Ideal

Differential Protection Principle
CTR CTR
Protected
Equipment
Internal
Fault

50 IDIF > ISETTING

Relay Operates
Problem of Unequal CT
Performance
CT Protected CT External
Equipment Fault

50 IDIF  0

 False differential current can occur if a CT saturates

during a through-fault
 Use some measure of through-current to desensitize
the relay when high currents are present
Possible Scheme – Percentage
Differential Protection Principle
ĪSP ĪRP
CTR CTR
Protected
Equipment

ĪS ĪR

Relay
(87)

Compares: IOP  I S  I R
| IS |  | IR |
k  I RT k
2
Differential Protection
Applications
 Bus protection
 Transformer protection
 Generator protection
 Line protection
 Large motor protection
 Reactor protection
 Capacitor bank protection
 Compound equipment protection
Differential Protection
Summary

 The overcurrent differential scheme is simple

and economical, but it does not respond well to
unequal current transformer performance
 The percentage differential scheme responds
better to CT saturation
 Percentage differential protection can be
analyzed in the relay and the alpha plane
 Differential protection is the best alternative
selectivity/speed with present technology
Advantages of Digital Relays
Compatibility with
Low maintenance
Multifunctional digital integrated
(self-supervision)
systems

Highly sensitive,
Highly reliable
secure, and Adaptive
(self-supervision)
selective

Reduced burden
Programmable
on Low Cost
Versatile
CTs and VTs
Why study this protection
scheme??
 Protection scheme plays a vital & important
role for the normal operation or the steady
state operation of different components of
power system network, which must be reliable,
fast and efficient.
 In order to achieve all these features, it is
essential that these should be proper care in
designing and choosing an appropriate and
efficient protection scheme.
 The protective relays functions as the
brain behind the whole schemes…
THANK YOU