ISC2

CISSSP Certification Training

Certified Information Systems Security Professional

Conducted by
• Md Showkat Ali,
• CISSP, CCSP, PMP, CISA, CISM, CISSP, CRISC, CGEIT

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 CISSP DOMAINS
• The CISSP exam evaluates expertise across eight security domains.

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 2019 CISSP Review Course
CHAPTER 3
Security Engineering
Domains Weight
1. Security and Risk Management 15%
2. Asset Security 10%
3. Security Architecture and Engineering 13%
4. Communication and Network Security 14%
5. Identity and Access Management (IAM) 13%
6. Security Assessment and Testing 12%
7. Security Operations 13%
8. Software Development Security 10%

Total: 100%

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 Domain 3 Agenda

• Cryptography
• Principles of Secure Design
• Trusted Computer Base Elements
• Security Perimeter
• Reference Monitor
• Security Kernel
• Security Models
• Computer/Security Architecture
• Security Models
• Security Evaluation Criteria

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 CRYPTOGRAPHY
• Historical uses of Cryptography
• Security Services provided by cryptography
• Definitions and terms
• Symmetric Cryptography
• Asymmetric Cryptography
• Hybrid Cryptography
• Integrity through Hashing, MACs and Digital Signatures
• Public Key Infrastructure
• IPSec
• Attacks on Cryptography

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 CRYPTOGRAPHY DEFINITIONS & GOALS

• The art of creating and implementing secret codes and ciphers is known as cryptography.

• Cryptography is paralleled by the art of cryptanalysis—the study of methods to defeat codes and
ciphers.

• Together, cryptography and cryptanalysis are commonly referred to as cryptology.

• Cryptographic keys are called Crypto variables.

Goals of Cryptography:

• Goal of cryptography is to protect four fundamental index: confidentiality, integrity, authentication,

and nonrepudiation.
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 CRYPTOGRAPHY IN HISTORY

• Caesar Cipher

• Scytale

• Vignere

• Vernam

• Enigma Machine and Purple Machine

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 CAESAR CIPHER

• Simple Substitution

• Shift Characters 3 spaces

• A=D, B=E, C=F, etc.

• Substitution Ciphers are subject to pattern analysis. Its said ‘Shift Cipher’ also.

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 SCYTALE

• Spartans used this cipher to communicate messages to generals in the field

• Wrapped tape around a rod

• Diameter of the rod is the pre-agreed upon secret (key)

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 VIGNERE

• First polyalphabetic cipher (polyalphabetic cipher" means "a secret code based on several letters")

• Key word is agreed upon ahead of time

• First letter of the key is matched up against first letter of the message, and so on

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 CRYPTOGRAPHY IN WARFARE

• Enigma Machine/Purple Machine

• Used by the Germans/Japanese in WWII

• Breaking the cryptography of these devices is credited with reducing the length of the war.

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 VERNAM CIPHER/One Time PAD

• One Time Pad

• Only mathematically unbreakable form of
cryptography
• Key must be used only once
• Pad must be at least as long as the message
• Key pad is statistically unpredictable
• Key Pad must be delivered and stored securely
*
*Subtraction by 26, and subtractions will be applicable getter than
26 number and rest of the number will be remaining same.
* Key length will be same as plaintext level

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 Cryptographic Mathematics

Boolean Mathematics:
• AND: NOT:

• OR XOR
• OR:

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SECURITY SERVICES PROVIDED BY CRYPTOGRAPHY

MODULO FUNCION Nonce

nonce is a random number generated at the
moment of processing for one-time use.
Ex: Initialization vector (IV), a random bit string
that is the same length as the block size and is
XORed with the message.
ONE WAY FUNCTION Zero-Knowledge Proof

• A one-way function is a mathematical The mechanism to prove your knowledge of a

operation that easily produces output fact to a third party without revealing the fact
values for each possible combination of itself to that third party.
inputs but makes it impossible to retrieve
the input values. Ex: Hashing

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 SECURITY SERVICES PROVIDED BY CRYPTOGRAPHY
• Privacy: Prevents unauthorized disclosure of information.

• Authenticity: Verifies the claimed identity.

• Integrity: Detects modification or corruption.

• Non-Repudiation: Combines authenticity and integrity. A sender can’t dispute having sent a
message, nor its contents.

PAIN Service provided by Cryptography

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 DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS
• Cipher is a cryptographic algorithm

• Plaintext is an unencrypted message

• Ciphertext is an encrypted message

• Encryption converts the plaintext to a ciphertext

• Decryption turns a ciphertext back into a plaintext

• Plain Text + Initialization Vector + Algorithm (aka Cipher) +Key = CipherText

• Work factor describes how long it will take to break a cryptosystem (decrypt a ciphertext without
the key), the higher the better.

• Secrecy of the cryptographic algorithm does not provide strength -Kerckhoffs' principle
• Security Through Obscurity 16
 Types of Ciphers
Transposition Ciphers ( Vigenere ):
• Transposition ciphers use an encryption algorithm to rearrange the letters of a plaintext message, forming the
ciphertext message.

Substitution Ciphers
Substitution ciphers use the encryption algorithm to replace each character or bit of the plaintext message with a
different character.
EX: Ceaser’s Cipher

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 ONE TIME PAD: VERNER CIPHERS

• One-time pads use a different substitution alphabet for each letter of the plaintext message.
• C = (P + K) mod 26
• The one-time pad must be randomly generated.
• The one-time pad must be physically protected against disclosure.
• Each one-time pad must be used only once.
• The key must be at least as long as the message to be encrypted.
• This is because each character of the key is used to encode only one character of the message.
• When the key is taken from any book/novel it is also called Running Key Cipher

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 RUNNING KEY/BOOK CIPHER
Running key Cipher/Book Cipher:
• The encryption key is as long as the message itself and is often chosen from a common book.

• For example, the sender and recipient might agree in advance to use the text of a chapter from
Moby-Dick, beginning with the third paragraph, as the key.

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 STREAM & BLOCK CIPHER

Stream Ciphers
• Stream ciphers operate on one character or bit of a message (or data stream) at a time.
• The Caesar cipher is an example of a stream cipher. The one-time pad is also a stream cipher because
• the algorithm operates on each letter of the plaintext message independently.
M1 M2 M3 --Mn (M=Messages , K= encryption key C=chipper text)
K1 K2 K3 -- Kn
C1 C2 C3 -- Cn It’s encrypted every bit of the message.

Block Ciphers
• Block ciphers operate on “chunks,” or blocks, of a message and apply the encryption algorithm to an entire message block
at the same time.
• The transposition ciphers are examples of block ciphers.
• The more complicated columnar transposition cipher works on an entire message (or a piece of a
• message) and encrypts it using the transposition algorithm and a secret keyword.
• Most modern encryption algorithms implement some type of block cipher.

It divided message in block ,like 64bit each block, and it’s encrypted with it’s key (40,56,64,128,256 bit each block), and out
will be the same size of block. && example DES

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 STREAM VS. BLOCK

Stream Ciphers encrypt one bit (up to one byte) of data at a time.

• Transposition, Substitution, XOR

• Very fast and efficient

• Not as Secure

• RC-4 is the only stream cipher necessary for the test

Block Ciphers chunk data into blocks. Each chunk goes through a series of math functions
called S-boxes

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 Confusion and Diffusion
Confusion occurs when the relationship between the plaintext and the key is so complicated that an
attacker can’t merely continue altering the plaintext and analyzing the resulting ciphertext to
determine the key.

Diffusion occurs when a change in the plaintext results in multiple changes spread throughout the
ciphertext.

Example, a cryptographic algorithm that first performs a complex substitution and then uses
transposition to rearrange the characters of the substituted ciphertext. In this example, the
substitution introduces confusion, and the transposition introduces diffusion.
• Confusion hides the relations between the ciphertext and key
• Diffusion hides the relations between the ciphertext and the plaintext.

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CRYPTOGRAPHY

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 SYMMETRIC CRYPTOGRAPHY
• In symmetric cryptography the same key is used to both encrypt and decrypt

• Very fast means of encrypting/decrypting with good strength for privacy

• Preferred means of protecting privacy data/Bulk encryption

• Also can be called “Private Key” “Secret Key” or “Shared Key” Cryptography

• Major weakness is that the key must be securely shared before two parties may communicate
securely

• Keys are often shared via an out-of-band method

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 SYMMETRIC CRYPTOGRAPHY
Initialization Vectors and Chaining
• Initialization vector is used in some symmetric ciphers to ensure that the first encrypted
block of data is random.

• Ensures that identical plaintexts encrypt to different ciphertexts

• Two messages that begin the same will encrypt the same way up to the first difference.

• Chaining (called feedback in stream modes) seeds the previous encrypted block into the
next block to be encrypted

• Destroys patterns in the resulting ciphertext

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DRAWBACKS TO SYMMETRIC CRYPTOGRAPHY

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 ASYMMETRIC CRYPTOGRAPHY

• Every user has a key pair.

• Public key is made available to anyone who requests it

• Private key is only available to that user and must not be disclosed
or shared

• The keys are mathematically related so that anything encrypted

with one key can only be decrypted by the other.

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P.A.I.N SERVICES THROUGH ASYMMETRIC CRYPTOGRAPHY AND HASHING

• Privacy: Receiver’s Public Key. Example: Encryption

• Authenticity: Sender’s Private Key

• Integrity (not asymmetric OR symmetric): Hashing, Digital Signature.

• Non-Repudiation: Hash encrypted Sender’s Private Key: Asymmetric

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SUMMARY OF SYMMETRIC vs ASYMMETRIC

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NUMBER OF KEYS SYMMETRIC vs ASYMMETRIC

So for Symmetric, Number of keys= n(n-1)/2 and for Asymmetric its only 2n
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 COMMON SYMMETRIC & ASYMMETRIC ALGORITHM

SYMMETRIC:

DES, 3DES, AES, RC-4, RC-5, Two Fish, Blowfish, IDEA, CAST, MARS, Skipjack

ASYMMETRIC:

DSA & RSA, ECC (Elliptical Curve Cryptography) & El Gamal, Diffie Hellman, Knapsack

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 DES (Data Encryption Standard)
Data Encryption Standard (DES)

• DES is the Data Encryption Standard

• Describes the Data Encryption Algorithm (DEA)

• Made a United States federal standard symmetric cipher in 1976

• Designed by IBM, based on their older Lucifer symmetric cipher

• Uses a 64-bit block size (meaning it encrypts 64 bits each round) and a 56-bit key.

• Encrypts 64-bit blocks of data with a 56-bit key, using 16 rounds of encryption

• Work factor required to break DES was reasonable in 1976

DES-DEA-1976-IBM-64bit Block size-54 bit keys-16 round of encryptions.

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 Data Encryption Standard (DES) -Modes
• DES can use five different modes to encrypt data

• The modes’ primary difference is block versus (emulated) stream, the use of initialization vectors, and whether
errors in encryption will propagate to subsequent blocks.

The five modes of DES are:

• Electronic Code Book (ECB)

• Cipher Block Chaining (CBC)

• Cipher Feedback (CFB)

• Output Feedback (OFB)

• Counter Mode (CTR)

• ECB is the original mode of DES

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Data Encryption Standard (DES) -Electronic Code Book (ECB)
• The simplest and weakest form of DES
• No initialization vector or chaining
• Identical plaintexts with identical keys encrypt to identical ciphertexts
• ECB is used only for exchanging small amounts of data, such as keys

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Data Encryption Standard (DES) -Cipher Block Chaining (CBC)
• A block mode of DES

• XORs the previous encrypted block of ciphertext to the next block of plaintext to be encrypted

• First encrypted block is an initialization vector that contains random data

• The “chaining” destroys patterns

• One limitation of CBC mode is that encryption errors will propagate: an encryption error in one block will cascade
through subsequent blocks due to the chaining, destroying their integrity.

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 Data Encryption Standard (DES) -Cipher Feedback (CFB)

• Very similar to CBC; the primary difference is CFB is a stream mode

• Uses feedback (the name for chaining when used in stream modes) to destroy patterns

• Like CBC, CFB uses an initialization vector and destroys patterns, and errors propagate

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 Data Encryption Standard (DES) -Output Feedback (OFB)

• Differs from CFB in the way feedback is accomplished

• CFB uses the previous ciphertext for feedback. The previous ciphertext is the subkey XORed to the
plaintext.
• OFB uses the subkey before it is XORed to the plaintext.

• Since the subkey is not affected by encryption errors, errors will not propagate.

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 Data Encryption Standard (DES) -Counter (CTR)

• Like OFB; the difference again is the feedback: CTR mode uses a counter

• Shares the same advantages as OFB (patterns are destroyed and errors do not propagate) with an
additional advantage: since the feedback can be as simple as an ascending number, CTR mode
encryption can be done in parallel

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Data Encryption Standard (DES) –Modes Comparison Table

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 Data Encryptions Standard (DES) –Triple DES

• Applies DES encryption three times per block

• “Encrypt, Decrypt, Encrypt” (EDE) order using three keying options: one, two, or three
unique keys

• Applying triple DES EDE with the same key each time results in the same ciphertext as
single DES

• 2TDES EDE uses key 1 to encrypt, key 2 to “decrypt,” and key 1 to encrypt. This results in
112 bits of key length. It is commonly used for legacy hardware applications with limited
memory

• 3TDES EDE (three different keys) is the strongest form, with 168 bits of key length

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 Symmetric Encryption
International Data Encryption Algorithm (IDEA)

• A symmetric block cipher designed as an international replacement to DES

• Patented in many countries

• Uses a 128-bit key and 64-bit block size

• Held up to cryptanalysis

• Primary drawbacks are patent encumbrance and its slow speed compared to newer
symmetric ciphers such as AES

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 Symmetric Encryption
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)

• Current United States standard symmetric block cipher

• Uses 128-bit (with 10 rounds of encryption), 192-bit (12 rounds of encryption), or 256-bit (14
rounds of encryption) keys to encrypt 128-bit blocks of data

• Open algorithm, free to use, and free of any intellectual property restrictions

• Designed to replace DES

• The number of encryption rounds depends on the key length chosen:

128-bit keys require 10 rounds of encryption.

192-bit keys require 12 rounds of encryption.
256-bit keys require 14 rounds of encryption.
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 Symmetric Encryption
Blowfish & Twofish
Blowfish:
• Blowfish block cipher is another alternative to DES and IDEA

• Blowfish operates on 64-bit blocks of text.

• It extends IDEA’s key strength even further by allowing the use of variable-length keys ranging
from a relatively insecure 32 bits to an extremely strong 448 bits.

Twofish:
The Twofish was another one of the AES finalists.

Twofish is a block cipher that operates on 128-bit blocks of data and is capable of using cryptographic keys up
to 256 bits in length.

Twofish uses two techniques not found in other algorithms:

Prewhitening involves XORing the plaintext with a separate subkey before the first round of encryption.

Postwhitening uses a similar operation after the 16th round of encryption 43

Symmetric Memorization Chart

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 Asymmetric Key Algorithm
• public key cryptosystems rely on pairs of keys assigned to each user of the cryptosystem.

• Every user maintains both a public key and a private key.

• As the names imply, public key cryptosystem users make their public keys freely
available to anyone with whom they want to communicate.

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 RSA
• Named for Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman, the creator

• Currently the standard for Digital Signatures

• Uses the idea that there is no efficient way to factor the product of large prime numbers

• Multiplying the prime number 6269 by the prime number 7883 results in the composite number 49,418,527.
That “way” is quite easy to compute, taking milliseconds on a calculator. Answering the question “which prime
number times which prime number equals 49,418,527” is much more difficult.

• The problem is called factoring, and no shortcut has been found for hundreds of year

• Basis of the RSA algorithm

• The math used for RSA is sometimes referred to as a trap-door function

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 DIFFIE-HELLMAN

• The first asymmetric algorithm

• Secure key-agreement without pre-shared secrets

• Based on discrete logarithms in a finite field

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DIFFIE HELLMAN KEY AGREEMENT

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1.Alice and Bob agree on a public number (10), which is not hidden.
2.Alice chooses a private number (15), which she keeps secret. She adds this to the public number (10 + 15 = 25) and sends 25 to
Bob.
3.Bob does the same, choosing a secret private number (30). He adds it to the public number (10 + 30 = 40) and sends 40 to Alice.
4.With their results swapped, Alice and Bob now add their private numbers to what they receive:
1. Alice has Bob's 40. She adds her private number: 40 + 15 = 55.
2. Bob has Alice's 25. He adds his private number: 25 + 30 = 55.
Alice and Bob both start at the same number (10) and both do half of a sum, which means they both get the same result without
seeing what the other person added (15 and 30). This is useful in cryptography because Alice and Bob do not share their private
numbers, which means a third party cannot spy on the result (55) unless they can find both private numbers; even if a third party
knows Alice sent 10 + 15 = 25, they don't know the result is 55 unless they also know Bob sent 30.
Since only Alice and Bob know their private numbers, this is a good way of sending secure information if the numbers are very big
and the calculations are difficult. Since computers can use very complicated math to encrypt things, this stops people from trying a
brute force attack to guess the numbers until it works. One example of how big calculations are made this way is the original
version of Diffie-Hellman, which used both multiplicative group of integers modulo n and primitive root modulo n.

Risk
While very useful, Diffie-Hellman is at risk of a man-in-the-middle attack. Alice and Bob do not need to prove who they are to
swap their information, which means there is a risk that Charlie can look at the information while it is being swapped, and can
even pretend to be Alice or Bob to try and figure out their keys. One way this is avoided is to use authentication, where people
perform extra steps to prove who they are.

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 ECC (ELLIPTICAL CURVE CRYPTOGRAPHY)
• Based upon plotting points upon a curve

• Frequently used for handheld devices due to their limited processing capability

• One-way function that uses discrete logarithms as applied to elliptic curves

• Solving this problem is harder than solving discrete logarithms, so algorithms based on Elliptic Curve
Cryptography (ECC) are much stronger per bit than systems using discrete logarithms (and also stronger than
factoring prime numbers)

• Requires less computational resources because shorter keys can be used compared to other asymmetric
methods

• Often used in lower power devices Cryptosystem Key length

• RSA 1,024 bits, DSA 1,024 bits, Elliptic curve 160 bits

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 REVIEW SYMMETRIC VS. ASYMMETRIC
Symmetric:

• Fast
• Out of band key exchange
• No integrity, authenticity or authenticity
• Not Scalable

Asymmetric:

• Slow
• Scales to large organizations well
• Provides non-repudiation
• Key exchange does not require exchange of any secret information

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SSL/TLS HYBRID CRYPTOGRAPHY

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 INTEGRITY

• Data gets modified

• Accidentally through corruption

• Intentionally through malicious alteration

• Hash: only good for accidental modification

• MAC: Provides reasonable authenticity and integrity not strong enough to be non-repudiation
(because it uses a symmetric key)

• Digital Signatures: Can detect both malicious and accidental modification, but requires an overhead.
Provides true non-repudiation

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 HASHING
• Hashing is the Digital representation of the contents of the file

• If the file changes, the hash will change

Five basic requirements for a

• The input can be of any length.

• The output has a fixed length.
• The hash function is relatively easy to compute for any input.
• The hash function is one-way (meaning that it is extremely hard to
• determine the input when provided with the output).

• When two different documents produce the same hash it is called a collision

• A birthday attack is an attempt to cause collisions. It is based on the idea that it is easier to find two
hashes that happen to match than to produce a specific hash.
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 HASHING ALGORITHMS

• Variable length message, fixed length has

• MD-5 used to be the standard with a 128 bit hash

• SHA-256 is becoming very frequently used

• RipeMD, Tiger, Whirlpool, HAVAL are lesser known hashing algorithms

• Older hash functions include Secure Hash Algorithm 1 (SHA-1), which creates a 160-bit hash and
Message Digest 5 (MD5), which creates a 128-bit hash

• Newer alternatives such as SHA-2 are recommended

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 MD5 & Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA)

MD5
• Message Digest algorithm 5, created by Ronald Rivest
• Creates a 128-bit hash value based on any input length
• Weaknesses have been discovered where collisions could be found in a practical amount of time
• MD6 is the newest version of the MD family of hash algorithms, first published in 2008

Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA)

• Name of a series of hash algorithms
• SHA-1 was announced in 1993 in the United States Federal Information
• SHA-1 creates a 160-bit hash value
• SHA-2 is recommended over SHA-1 or MD5

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 SALTING THE PASSWORD
Salting Saves Passwords

• The cryptographic salt is a random value that is added to the end of the password before the operating
system hashes the password. The salt is then stored in the password file along with the hash.

• When the operating system wishes to compare a user’s proffered password to the password file, it first
retrieves the salt and appends it to the password.

• It feeds the concatenated value to the hash function and compares the resulting hash with the one
stored in the password file.

• Specialized password hashing functions, such as PBKDF2, bcrypt and scrypt allow for the creation of
hashes using salts

• The use of salting dramatically increases the difficulty of brute-force attacks.

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 DIGITAL SIGNATURE

• Provide nonrepudiation, which includes authentication of the identity of the signer, and proof of
the document’s integrity (proving the document did not change)

• Digital signatures provide authentication and integrity, which forms nonrepudiation. They do not
provide confidentiality: the plaintext remains unencrypted.

• Message is hashed.

• Hash is encrypted by Sender’s Private Key.

• SHA-1 is generally used for the hash

• RSA is the asymmetric encryption algorithm that encrypts the hash with the sender’s private key.

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DIGITAL SIGNATURE

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 WHAT PREVENTS MITM ATTACKS

• Authentication

• Remember Encryption can NOT thwart a MITM attack

• Authentication is what prevents MITM

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 HMAC
• Combines symmetric encryption with hashing

• Similar to a digital signature, except that it uses symmetric encryption instead of

asymmetric

• HMACs are used by Ipsec

• Two parties must preshared secret key (such as a DES key). Once shared, the sender may
generate a HMAC by hashing the message with an algorithm such as MD5 or SHA-1, and
then encrypting the hash with the preshared key via symmetric cipher such as DES

• The receiver hashes the plaintext locally and also decrypts the HMAC with his/her copy of
the private key, recovering the sender’s hash. If the two hashes match, the sender is
authenticated, and the message’s integrity is assured.

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 PKI (PUBLIC KEY INFRASTRUCTURE)

• Leverages all three forms of encryption to provide and manage digital certificates

• A digital certificate is a public key signed with a digital signature

• Digital certificates may be server-based

• If the two are used together, they provide mutual authentication and encryption.

• The standard digital certificate format is X.509.

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 PKI ENTITIES

Certificate Authority (CA)

• Digital certificates are issued by Certificate Authorities (CAs)

• Authenticate the identity of a person or organization before issuing a certificate to them
• CAs may be private (run internally) or public (such as Verisign or Thawte)

Registration Authority (RA)

• Validates the requester identity on behalf of CA.

Certificate Revocation List

• Certificate Authorities maintain Certificate Revocation Lists (CRL)

• List certificates that have been revoked

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 CERTIFICATES
• X.509 standard

• Provides authenticity of a server’s public key

• Necessary to avoid MITM attacks with server’s using SSL or TLS

• Digitally signed by Certificate Authority

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CERTIFICATE CONTENTS

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 CERTIFICATE REVOCATION

CRL: CA publishes CRL:

Client is responsible for downloading to see if a certificate has been revoked.

OCSP (Online Certificate Status Protocol):

Streamlines the process of verifying whether or not a certificate has been revoked.

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 ENCRYPTING DATA IN TRANSIT

• Protect Data as it traverses the network

• Most protocols like IP, HTTP FTP are not inherently secure

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 IPSEC

• Suite of protocols that provide a cryptographic layer to both IPv4 and IPv6

• One of the methods used to provide Virtual Private Networks (VPN)

Includes two primary protocols:

– Authentication Header (AH) and
– Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP).

• AH and ESP provide different, and sometimes overlapping functionality

• Supporting IPsec protocols include Internet Security Association and Key Management Protocol (ISAKMP) and
Internet Key Exchange (IKE)

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 IPSEC SUB-PROTOCOLS
• AH (Authentication Header) Provides integrity, authenticity, and non-repudiation through the use
of an ICV (Integrity Check Value). AH also protects against replay attacks but NO CONFIDENTIALITY

• ESP (Encapsulating Security Payload) Provides authenticity and integrity through a MAC (no non-
repudiation since a MAC is symmetric). The main service provided is ENCRYPTION. ICV is run on
payload only.

• IKE: Internet Key Exchange---No Security Services. Just management of secure connection

• ISAKMP (Internet Security Association and Key Management Protocol) Manages Keys, Security
Associations (SAs)and Security Parameters Index (SPI)

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 IPSEC
• IPsec can be used in tunnel mode or transport mode
• Tunnel mode is used by security gateways (which can provide point-to-point IPsec tunnels)
• ESP Tunnel mode encrypts the entire packet, including the original packet headers
• ESP Transport mode only encrypts the data (and not the original headers); this is commonly used
when the sending and receiving system can “speak” IPsec natively

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 SSL & TLS
• SSL authenticates and provides confidentiality to Web traffic

• Transport Layer Security (TLS) is the successor to SSL

• SSL and TLS are commonly used as part of HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure)

• When you connect to a Web site such as https://www.isc2.org/, the data is encrypted. The data is
encrypted out of the gate. This is done via asymmetric encryption: your browser downloads the
digital certificate of www.isc2.org, which includes the site’s public key, signed by the Certificate
Authority’s private key. If your browser trusts the CA (such as Verisign), then this signature
authenticates the site: you know its isc2.org and not a rogue site. Your browser then uses that
public key to securely exchange a symmetric session key. The private key is stored on the isc2.org
Web server, which allows it to decrypt anything encrypted with the public key. The symmetric key is
then used to encrypt the rest of the session.

• SSL is no depreciated after POODLE attack. TLS is current.

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IMPLEMENTATION OF CRYPTOGRAPHY: DIGITAL ENVELOPES IN S/MIME
S/MIME (Secure Multipart Internet Mail Exchange) :

• Standards based secure email by creating a digital envelope

Sender functions:
• Calculate hash value on message
• Encrypt message with session key
• Encrypt hash value with private key
• Encrypt session key with receiver’s public key

Receiver functions:
• Decrypt session key with private key
• Decrypt hash value with sender’s public key
• Decrypt message
• Calculate hash value and compare with one sent
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 CRYPTOGRAPHY: PGP (PRETTY GOOD PRIVACY)

• Proprietary mail standard from Phil Zimmerman

• Free, but proprietary software must be installed

• Uses Web of Trust (If you trust that my digital certificate authenticates my identity, the Web of trust
means you trust all the digital certificates that I trust)

• Passphrases instead of passwords

• Learned keys are stored in a file called the key ring

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 Implementing Cryptography
Escrowed Encryption

• Takes a private key and divides it into two or more parts

• The parts are held in escrow by different trusted third-party organizations, which will only release their portion
of the key with proper authorization, such as a court order
• Balance between an individual’s privacy, and the needs of law enforcement

Clipper Chip

• The name of the technology used in the Escrowed Encryption Standard (EES)
• Announced in 1993 by the United States government to deploy escrowed encryption in telecommunications
devices
• Created a media firestorm, and was abandoned by 1996
• Used the Skipjack algorithm, a symmetric cipher that uses an 80-bit key, an algorithm that was originally
classified as secret
• Skipjack was later declassified in 1998
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 Implementing Cryptography
Steganography
• Steganography is the science of hidden communication
• Hides the fact that communication is taking place
• Modern steganography hides information inside data files, such as images
• Messages that are hidden via steganography are often encrypted first, providing both
confidentiality of the data and secrecy of the communication

Digital Watermarks
• Digital Watermarks encode data into a file
• The watermark may be hidden, using steganography

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 PROTECTING CONFIDENTIALITY OF DATA REST

• Data stored on local drives must be protected

• Log off of workstations not in use

Whole Drive Encryption:

Protect Hard Drive in the event the disk is stolen
TPM :
The TPM is a chip that resides on the motherboard of the device.
The TPM functions as the storage and management of keys used for full disk encryption (FDE)
solutions.
• The TPM provides the operating system with access to the keys, preventing someone from
removing the drive from one device and inserting it into another device to access the drive’s data.
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 ATTACKS ON CRYPTOGRAPHY

• Ciphertext Only/Bruteforce: Attacker has captured encrypted text on the network. Usually
means all the attacker can do is brute force

• Known Plain Text: The attacker has captured cipher text, but also knows what a portion of
the message is in plain text. The goal is to derive the key which was used

• Chosen Plaintext: Attacker can see the full text encrypted and decrypted. Usually the
attacker has initiated the message

• Chosen Ciphertext: The attacker has the ability to decrypt chosen portions of the
ciphertext message and use the decrypted portion of the message to discover the key.

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 ATTACKS ON CRYPTOGRAPHY CONTINUED

Meet in the Middle (Not to be confused with Man in the Middle)

• Meet-in-the-middle attack encrypts on one side, decrypts on the other side, and meets in the
middle

• Common attack is against “double DES”

• Attack is a known plaintext attack: the attacker has a copy of a matching plaintext and ciphertext,
and seeks to recover the two keys used to encrypt.

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 ATTACKS ON CRYPTOGRAPHY CONTINUED
Differential Cryptanalysis
• Seeks to find the “difference” between related plaintexts that are encrypted
• Usually launched as an adaptive chosen plaintext attack
• The cryptanalyst uses statistical analysis to search for signs of nonrandomnessin the ciphertexts

Side-channel Attacks
• Use physical data to break a cryptosystem, such as monitoring CPU cycles or power consumption
used while encrypting or decrypting

Key Clustering
• Occurs when two different symmetric keys applied to the same plaintext produce the same
ciphertext

Birthday Attack
• Named after the birthday paradox
• Based on fact that in a room with 23 people or more, the odds are greater than 50% that two will
share the same birthday
• Used to create hash collisions
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 SECURITY MODELS

• What subjects and objects are permitted to do (within a model or framework)

• Subject (often a user)
• Object (a resource)
• Managing relationship between subject and object is access control
• Understand concepts of read up, read down, write up, write down

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 SECURITY MODELS
Discretionary access control (DAC)
• Means of restricting access to objects based on the identity of subjects and/or groups to which they belong
• A subject with a certain access permission is capable of passing that permission (perhaps indirectly) on to any other subject. (User/
owner of the file change the file permissions)

Mandatory access control (MAC)

• Type of access control where the operating system constrains the ability of a subject to access or perform some sort of operation on
an object
• Authorization rule enforced by the operating system kernel
• Security policy is centrally controlled by a security policy administrator
(OS self change the permission)

Rule-based access control (RuBAC)

• Access is allowed or denied to objects based on a set of rules defined by a system administrator
• Access properties are stored in Access Control Lists (ACL) associated with each object (EX: Firewall Rule /Predefine)

Role-based access control (also RBAC)

• Also known as Non-discretionary Access Control
• Assigns permissions to particular roles in an organization

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 Security Models

Understand the Fundamental Concepts of Security Models

• State Machine Model

• Bell-LaPadulaModel
• Lattice-Based Access Controls
• Biba Model
• Clark-Wilson Model
• Information Flow Model
• Brewer and Nash Model (aka Chinese Wall)
• Take-Grant Model
• Access Control Matrix
• Zachman Framework for Enterprise Architecture
• Graham-Denning Model
• Harrison-Ruzzo-Ullman Model

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 Security Models

State Machine Models

• The state of a system is its snapshot at any one particular moment. The state machine model
describes subjects, objects, and sequences in a system. The focus of this model is to capture the
system’s state and ensure its security.

• For a subject to access this object or modify the object value, the subject should have appropriate
access rights.

Always secure no matter what state it is in

• Finite state machine (FSM)

• State transition
• Secure state machine

83
 Confidentiality models:
Bell & LaPadula)

• Developed by David Elliot Bell and Len LaPadula

• This model focuses on data confidentiality and access to classified information.
• A Formal Model developed for the DoD multilevel security policy
• This formal model divides entities in an information system into subjects and objects.
• Model is built on the concept of a state machine with different allowable states (i.e. Secure state)

84
 Bell & LaPadula Confidentiality Model

• Bell & LaPadula Confidentiality Model

Has 3 rules:
Simple Security Property –“no read up”
A subject cannot read data from a security level higher than subject’s security level.

*_Security Property –“no write down”

A subject cannot write data to a security level lower than the subject’s security level.

Strong * Property –“no read/write up or down”.

A subject with read/write privilege can perform read/write functions only at the subject’s
security levels.

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 Biba Integrity Model

• Developed by Kenneth J. Biba in 1977 based on a set of access control rules designed to
ensure data integrity

• No subject can depend on an object of lesser integrity

• Based on a hierarchical lattice of integrity levels

• Authorized users must perform correct and safe procedures to protect data integrity

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 Biba Integrity Model
The Rules:

• Simple integrity axiom –“no read down” –A Subject cannot read data from an object of
lower integrity level.

• * Integrity axiom –“no write up” –A Subject cannot write data to an object at a higher
integrity level.

• Invocation property –A subject cannot invoke (call upon) subjects at a higher integrity level.

87
 Commercial Models
Integrity models –Clark-Wilson Model
• Real-world integrity model
• Requires subjects to access objects via programs
• Programs have specific limitations to what they can

• Clark Wilson enforces well-formed transactions through the use of the access triple:
• User  Transformation Procedure  CDI (Constrained Data Item)

Deals with all three integrity goals

SEPARATION of DUTIES
• Prevents unauthorized users from making modifications
• Prevents authorized users from making improper modifications
• Maintain internal and external consistency –reinforces separation of duties
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 Commercial Models –Continued

• Brewer-Nash Model –a.k.a. Chinese Wall

• Developed to combat conflict of interest in databases housing competitor

information

• Way of separating competitors data within the same integrated database

• Provides access controls that can change dynamically depending upon a

user’s previous actions

• Model states that a subject can write to an object if, and only if, the
subject can not read another object that is in a different data set
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 Information flow model

• In this model, data is thought of as being held in individual discrete compartments

• Information is compartmentalized based on two factors; classification and need to know

• Model seeks to eliminate covert channels

• Model ensures that information always flows from a low security level to a higher security
level and from a high integrity level to a low integrity level.

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 Non-interference Model
Model Characteristics:

• Model ensures that actions at a higher security level does not interfere with the actions at a lower security level.

• The goal of this model is to protect the state of an entity at the lower security level by actions at the higher security
level so that data does not pass through covert or timing channels.

• Model ensures that any actions that take place at a higher security level do not affect, or interfere with, actions that
take place at a lower level

• Addresses the inference attack that occurs when some one has access to some type of information and can infer
(guess) something that he does not have the clearance level or authority to know.

• Covert Channel–policy violation hidden from the system owner

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 Lattice Model
Model Characteristics

• Model consists of a set of objects constrained between the least upper bound and the greatest lower bound
values.

• The least upper bound is the value that defines the least level of object access rights granted to a subject.

• The greatest lower bound is value that defines the maximum level of object access rights granted to a subject

• The goal of this model is to protect the confidentiality of an object and only allow access by an authorized
subject.

• Security controls for complex environments

• A security lattice model combines multilevel and multilateral security

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 Take-Grant Model

Contains rules that govern the interactions between subjects and objects, and permissions subjects can
grant to other subjects

• Two rights occur in every instance of the model: take and grant

Rules include take, grant, create, and remove

– Take rule allows a subject to take rights of another object

– Grant rule allows a subject to grant own rights to another object

– Create rule allows a subject to create new

– Remove rule allows a subject to remove rights it has over on another object

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 Graham-Denning Model

• Defines a set of basic rights in terms of commands that a specific subject can execute on an object

• Three parts; objects, subjects, and rules; focus on the eight (8) rules:

• R1: Transfer Access

• R2: Grant Access
• R3: Delete Access
• R4: Read Object
• R5: Create Object
• R6: Destroy Object
• R7: Create Subject
• R8: Destroy Subject

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 Modes of Access Control Operation
There are four (4) modes of system/access control operation:

1. Dedicated:

• Only one classification (label) for all objects in the system

• Subject must possess a clearance equal or greater than the system label
• Subjects must have 1) appropriate clearance, 2) formal access approval, and 3) a need to know for
all the objects in the system

2. System High:

• System contains objects of mixed labels

• Subjects must possess a clearance equal to (or greater than) the highest object label

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 Modes of Access Control Operation
3. Compartmented:
• Objects are placed into “compartments”
• Subjects must have a formal (system-enforced) need to know to access data in compartment
– All subjects must have:
– 1) Signed NDA for ALL information on the system
– 2) clearance for ALL information on the system
– 3) formal access approval for SOME objects on the system, and
– 4) valid need to know for SOME objects on the system

4. Multilevel:
• System contains objects of varying labels
• Subjects with varying clearances can access the system
• All subjects must have
– 1) Signed NDA for ALL information on the system,
– 2) clearance for SOME information on the system,
– 3) formal access approval for SOME objects on the system, and
96
– 4) valid need to know for SOME objects on the system
 Access Control Matrix

• Commonly used in OS and applications

• Table that defines access permissions between specific subjects and objects

97
 Secure System Design Concepts
Layering

• Separates hardware and software functionality into modular tiers

• Actions that take place at one layer do not directly affect components in another

• For networking types; OSI is an example of layering (covered later)

Generic list of security architecture layers:

– Hardware
– Kernel (and system/device drivers)
– Operating system
– Applications

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 Secure System Design Concepts
Abstraction–

• Complexity is the enemy of security

• Unnecessary details are hidden from the user

• Abstraction means the user simply presses play and hears music.

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 Secure System Design Concepts
The Ring Model

Protection Rings provide a security mechanism for an operating system by creating boundaries
between the various processes operating on a system and also ensures that processes do not
affect each other or harm critical system components.

• CPU hardware layering used to separate and protect domains (user mode from kernel mode)
– Most CPUs (including Intel x86) have four rings Ring
– 0 –Kernel
– Ring 1 –Operating system components outside of Ring 0
– Ring 2 -Device drivers
– Ring 3 –User applications

• Processes communicate between the rings via system calls

• System calls are slow (compared to performing work within one ring), but provide security
• Ring model also provides abstraction
• Linux and Windows use rings 0 and 3 only
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 Secure System Design Concepts

Open and Closed Systems

– Open systems use open hardware and standards, using standard

components from various vendors
– Example: IBM-compatible PCs

• Closed systems use proprietary hardware or software

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 COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) –Processes the instructions provided by the various
applications/programs. To do this the CPU needs to access such instructions from their memory
locations.

The CPU can access the memory locations in its cache, along with memory locations in the
random access memory (RAM). These types of memory are called primary memory.

The major components.

• The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs mathematical calculations
• Control Unit (coordinates instruction execution): Controls and send instructions to the ALU
• Registers that act as temporary memory locations and store the memory addresses of the
instructions and data that needs processing by the CPU.

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 SECURE HARDWARE ARCHITECTURE

The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

• Process–an executable program and its data loaded and running in memory
• Thread(also called a lightweight process or “LWP”) –a child process; where one
process has “spawned” another process.
• A heavyweight process (or “HWP”) is called a task; one big advantage for threads is
that they can share memory.
– Process states:
– New: a process being created
– Ready: process waiting to be executed by the CPU
– Running: process being executed by the CPU
– Blocked: waiting for I/O
– Terminate: a completed process

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 SECURE HARDWARE ARCHITECTURE

The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

• Multitasking: Allows multiple tasks (heavy weight processes) to run simultaneously on one CPU

• Multiprocessing: Multiple processes running on multiple CPUs

-Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP) -one operating system to manage all CPUs
-Asymmetric Multiprocessing (AMP)-one operating system image per CPU

• Multiprogramming: Multiple programs running simultaneously on one CPU

• Multithreading: Multiple threads (light weight processes) running simultaneously on one CPU

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 SECURE HARDWARE ARCHITECTURE
• Memory Addressing

Addressing modes are CPU-dependent

– Direct-“Add X to the value stored in memory location #YYYY.”

– Indirect–Works the same way as direct; however, the #YYYY is actually another memory
location, not a location itself.
– Register direct–references CPU cache register, not secondary memory.
– Register indirect–references CPU cache register also.

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 SECURE HARDWARE ARCHITECTURE
BIOS:

• Basic Input Output System

• Contains code in firmware that is executed when a PC is powered on
• 1stthing it does is run the Power On Self-Test (POST)
• POST finds the boot sector that contains machine code for the OS kernel
• Kernel loads and executes into the OS

WORM Storage:

• Write Once Read Many

• Usually used for record retention and high integrity information
• CD-Rs, DVD-Rs, etc.
• Not CD-RWs or DVD-RWs

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 SECURE HARDWARE ARCHITECTURE

Trusted Platform Module (or TPM)

• Developed and updated by the Trusted Computing Group; international standard

• Processor that can provide additional security capabilities in hardware
• Usually on the motherboard
• Hardware-based encryption (fast)
• Boot integrity –protecting against rootkits and kernel bypass attacks
• Platform integrity and disk encryption (primary uses)

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 SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
• Trusted computing base (TCB) as a combination of hardware,
software, and controls that work together to form a trusted base to
enforce your security policy.

• The security perimeter of your system is an imaginary boundary that

separates the TCB from the rest of the system

• The part of the TCB that validates access to every resource prior to
granting access requests is called the Reference monitor

• The collection of components in the TCB that work together to

implement reference monitor functions is called the Security kernel.

• The Reference Monitor is a concept or theory that is put into practice

via the implementation of a security kernel in software and hardware.

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 EVALUATION CRITERIA
Why Evaluate?

- To carefully examine the security-related components of a system

• Trust: A trusted system is one in which all protection mechanisms work together to process sensitive
data for many types of users while maintaining a stable and secure computing environment

• Assurance: Assurance is simply defined as the degree of confidence in satisfaction of security needs.

• The Orange Book (TCSEC): US Based. The Orange Book & the Rainbow Series

• ITSEC (Information Technology Security Evaluation Criteria): EU Based

• Common Criteria: Blended of both and the latest.

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Trusted Computer Security Evaluation Criteria (TCSEC)

• Developed by the National Computer Security Center (NCSC)

• Also known as the Orange Book

• Based on the Bell-LaPadulla model (deals with only confidentiality)

• Uses a hierarchically ordered series of evaluation classes

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 Trusted Computer Security Evaluation Criteria (TCSEC)
“The Orange Book”
Ratings:

• Division D is the lowest form of security, and A is the highest:

• D: Minimal Protection
C: Discretionary Protection
– C1: Discretionary Security Protection
– C2: Controlled Access Protection
B: Mandatory Protection
– B1: Labeled Security Protection
– B2: Structured Protection
– B3: Security Domains
A: Verified Protection
– A1: Verified Design

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 Information Tech Security Evaluation Criteria (ITSEC)
• Created by some European nations in 1991 as a standard to evaluate security attributes of computer systems

• The First Criteria to evaluate functionality and assurance separately

• Assurance correctness ratings range from E0 (inadequate) to E6 (formal model of security policy)

• Functionality ratings range include TCSEC equivalent ratings (F-C1, F-C2, etc.)

• The equivalent ITSEC/TCSEC ratings are:0: D

• F-C1,E1: C1
• F-C2,E2: C2
• F-B1,E3: B1
• F-B2,E4: B2
• F-B3,E5: B3
• F-B3,E6: A1

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 COMMON CRITERIA ISO 15408
• Internationally agreed upon standard for describing and testing the security of IT products

• Primary objective of the Common Criteria is to eliminate known vulnerabilities of the target for
testing

Terms:

• Target of Evaluation (ToE): The system or product that is being evaluated

• Security Target (ST): The documentation describing the TOE

• Protection Profile (PP): An independent set of security requirements and objectives for a specific
category of products or systems

• Evaluation Assurance Level (EAL): The evaluation score of the tested product or system

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 Common Criteria (CC) Ratings
Rated as Evaluation Assurance Level (EAL) 1 through 7

• EAL 1 –Functionally tested

• EAL 2 –Structurally tested

• EAL 3 –Methodically tested and checked

• EAL 4 –Methodically designed, tested, and reviewed

• EAL 5 –Semi formally designed and tested

• EAL 6 –Semi-formally verified designed and tested

• EAL 7 –Formally verified designed and tested

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 Certification & Accreditation
Certification:

• A process that ensures systems and major applications adhere to formal and established
security requirements that are well documented and authorized.

• It is usually performed by a vendor.

Accreditation:

• A formal declaration by a Designated Accrediting Authority (DAA) that information systems

are approved to operate at an acceptable level of risk based on the implementation of an
approved set of technical, managerial, and procedural safeguards.

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 Virtualization and Distributed Computing
Virtualization

• Adds a software layer between the operating system and computer hardware
• Multiple “guest” systems can run on one physical “host”

Hypervisor

• Software that controls access between “guest” operating systems and the “host” hardware
• Type 1–part of the operating system; runs on host hardware, e.g. VMware ESX
• Type 2–runs as an application within the operating system, e.g. VMware Workstation

Benefits
• Lower hardware cost
• Lower power cost
• Smaller footprint

Security Issues
• More complex
• Easy to bring up new systems (without proper checks/balances)
• An issue in the host and/or hypervisor could affect every guest (VMEscape)

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 Virtualization and Distributed Computing

Cloud Computing

• Leverage economies of scale

• Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)–customer configures operating system and all else (Linux server
hosting)
• Platform as a Service (PaaS)–pre-configured operating system, customer installs & configures
everything else (Web service hosting)
• Software as a Service (SaaS)–everything is configured, customer just uses (Web mail)

• Private cloud –cloud is dedicated to one single customer

• Public cloud –cloud is shared amongst multiple organizations
• Hybrid cloud- Mixed of above two.

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 Virtualization and Distributed Computing
Cloud Computing -Security Issues

• Need strict SLAs

• Limited visibility

• Shared infrastructure and shared target

• Right to audit, right to assess (vulnerabilities), and right to test (pentest)

• Physical boundaries (geographically)

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 Virtualization and Distributed Computing

Thin Clients
• Rely on central servers –central servers run applications, store data, and simplified security
• Cheaper than full PCs

Diskless Workstations
• Contains CPU, memory, and firmware (no disk drive)
• Kernel and operating system loaded via network

Thin Client Applications

• Browser-based access to centralized applications and data
• Runs on a full PC

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 Virtualization and Distributed Computing

The Internet of Things (IoT)

• Small Internet connect devices

• Refrigerators, Televisions, home automation, etc.

• Security freaking nightmare!

• Vendors don’t patch, poor customer support, features overrule security, etc.

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 System Vulnerabilities, Threats and Countermeasures
Emanations

• Energy that escapes an electronic system –potential side-channel attack

• TEMPEST is a National Security Agency specification and a NATO certification referring to

spying on information systems through leaking emanations, including unintentional radio
or electrical signals, sounds, and vibrations.

• Shielding standards (many are classified); however, three levels are public.

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 System Vulnerabilities, Threats and Countermeasures
Backdoors

• Usually malicious

• System shortcut to bypass security checks

• Bypass login, sometimes planted as part of a larger attack

Maintenance Hooks

• Usually innocent

• Shortcuts installed on purpose by system designers or programmers

• Should never be left in a production system

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 System Vulnerabilities, Threats and Countermeasures
Covert Channels
• A covert channel is a method that is used to pass information over a path that is not normally used
for communication.
• The legitimate channel to pass information is called Overt Channels.

Covert Timing Channel

• A covert timing channel conveys information by altering the performance of a system component or
modifying a resource’s timing in a predictable manner.

• Using a covert timing channel is generally a method to secretly transfer data and is very difficult to
detect.

Covert Storage Channel

A covert storage channel conveys information by writing data to a common storage area where another
process can read it.
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 System Vulnerabilities, Threats and Countermeasures
Applets

• Small pieces of mobile code that are embedded in other software such as Web browsers

• Downloaded from servers and run locally

Java:
-- Object-oriented
– Bytecode is platform independent; requires the Java Virtual Machine (JVM)
– Applets run in a sandbox

ActiveX:
– Functionally very similar to Java applets
– Only on M$ systems
– Use digital certificates for security
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 System Vulnerabilities, Threats and Countermeasures
XML –Extensible Markup Language

• defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and
machine-readable
• XML documents should begin by declaring some information about themselves

SOA–Service Oriented Architecture

• an architectural pattern in computer software design in which application components

provide services to other components via a communications protocol, typically over a
network
• service can be used and reused throughout an organization rather than built within each
individual application
• SOA concepts include SOAP, REST, DCOM, CORBA, and others
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 Database Security

Inference
• Requires deduction using clues
• Controls might be polyinstantiationor diffusion

Aggregation
• Mathematical process that asks every question
• No deduction
• Control might be limiting the number of queries

Protection: Polyinstantiation
• Two different objects (instances) with the same name
• Depending on the security level established, one record contains sensitive information, and the
other one does not, that is, a user will see the record's information depending on his/her level of
confidentiality dictated by the policy
• The ability of a database to maintain multiple records with the same key. It is used to prevent
inference attacks.
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 Database Security
Data Mining

• Searching through large (many TB and EB) data stores looking for patterns

• Used extensively for detecting fraud

• Sometimes causes privacy concerns if data is not properly anonymized

Data Analytics

• Often used to determine a baseline of normal behaviors

• Deviations from the baseline may indicate misuse or compromise

127
 Physical Security –Unique Terms and Definitions

Mantrap:
A preventive physical control with two doors. Each door requires a separate form of
authentication to open

Bollard
A post designed to stop a car, typically deployed in front of building entrances

Smart card
A physical access control device containing an integrated circuit

Tailgating
Following an authorized person into a building without providing credentials

128
 Physical Security
Introduction
• Physical assets: people, buildings, systems, and data
• CISSP® exam considers human safety as the most critical concern of this domain -trumps all other concerns
• Physical security protects against threats such as unauthorized access and disasters, both man-made and natural

Perimeter Defenses
• Help prevent, detect, and correct unauthorized physical access
• Should employ defense-in-depth
• Fences, doors, walls, locks, etc.

Fences
• A fence is a perimeter-defining device.
• Should be designed to steer ingress and egress to controlled points, such as exterior doors and gates
• Fences 3 to 4 feet high deter casual trespassers.
• Fences 6 to 7 feet high are too hard to climb easily and deter most intruders, except determined ones.
• Fences 8 or more feet high with three strands of barbed wire deter even determined intruders.

129
 Physical Security
Gates

Types of Vehicle Gates:

– Class I Residential (home use)

– Class II Commercial/General Access (parking garage)
– Class III Industrial/Limited Access (loading dock for 18-wheeler trucks)
– Class IV Restricted Access (airport or prison)

• Gates should be placed at controlled points at the perimeter -Secure sites use fences and
topography to steer traffic to these points.

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 Physical Security
BOLLARDS:

• A traffic bollard is a strong post designed to stop a car

• Term derives from the short/strong posts (called mooring bollards) used to tie ships to piers when
docked
• Often installed in front of convenience stores, to prevent a confused driver who mixes up the
accelerator and brake from driving into the store.
• Used in secure facilities to prevent cars from entering (whether intentionally or not)
• Can use large concrete planters for the same effect
• Usually placed in front of physically weak areas of a building, such as entryways

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 Physical Security
Lights

• Can act as both a detective and deterrent control

• Criminals will usually favor a poorly lighted target over a more visible one

• Should be bright enough to illuminate the desired field of vision (the area being protected)

• Fresnel (pronounced fray-NELL) lights -Same type originally used in lighthouses, use Fresnel lenses
to aim light in a specific direction

– Light measurement: Lumen, the amount of light one candle creates

– Foot candles; one foot candleis one lumen per square foot
– Lux, based on the metric system, more commonly used now: one lux is one lumen per square meter.

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 Physical Security
Closed Circuit Television (CCTV)

• Detective device used to aid in detecting the presence of intruders in restricted areas
• Can also be used as a deterrent device/control
• CCTVs using the normal light spectrum require sufficient visibility to illuminate the field of
view
• Infrared devices can “see in the dark” by displaying heat
• Older “tube cameras” are analog devices
• Key issues include depth of field (the area that is in focus) and field of view (the entire area
viewed by the camera)
• More light allows a larger depth of field because a smaller aperture places more of the
image in focus
• A wide aperture (used in lower light conditions) lowers the depth of field

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 Physical Security
Locks
• Preventive physical security control
• Used on doors and windows to prevent unauthorized physical access
• May be mechanical, such as key locks or combination locks
• May be electronic -often used with smart cards or magnetic stripe cards

Key locks
• Require a physical key to unlock
• Keys may be shared or sometimes copied, which lowers the accountability of key locks
• A common type is the pin tumbler lock, which has two sets of pins: driver pins and key pins.
• The correct key makes the pins line up with the shear line, allowing the lock tumbler (plug) to turn
• Ward or Warded locks must turn a key through channels (called wards); a “skeleton key” is designed to open
varieties of warded locks
• A spring-bolt lock is a locking mechanism which “springs” in and out of the door jamb
• The door may be closed with the spring bolt exposed
• A deadbolt is rigid; the door cannot be closed when the deadbolt is unlocked
• Both spring-bolt and deadbolts extend into the strike plate in the door jamb

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 Physical Security

Lock Picking

• The art of opening a lock without a key

• A set of lock picks can be used to lift the pins in a pin tumbler lock, allowing the attacker to open
the lock without a key

• A technique called lock bumping uses a shaved-down key which will physically fit into the lock. The
attacker inserts the shaved key and “bumps” the exposed portion (sometimes with the handle of a
screwdriver). This causes the pins to jump, and the attacker quickly turns the key and opens the
lock.

• All key locks can be picked or bumped: the only question is how long it will take

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 Physical Security

Combination Locks:

• Have dials that must be turned to specific numbers, in a specific order (alternating clockwise and
counterclockwise turns) to unlock
• A weak form of physical access control for production environments such as data centers
• Button or keypad locks also use numeric combinations
• Limited accountability due to shared combinations
• Combinations may be discovered via a brute-force attack, where every possible combination is
attempted
• Locks may also be compromised via shoulder surfing
• Can be used for low-security applications such as locking an employee restroom, but should not be
used to protect sensitive data or assets

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 Physical Security
Smart Cards and Magnetic Stripe Cards
• “Smart” means the card contains a computer circuit
• Smart card is also known as “Integrated Circuit Card” (ICC).
• May be “contact” or “contactless”
• Contact cards must be inserted into a smart card reader
• Contactless cards are read wirelessly
• One type of contactless card technology is Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID)
• Contain RFID tags (also called transponders) which are read by RFID transceivers

• Magnetic stripe card contains a magnetic stripe which stores information

• Passive devices that contain no circuits
• Sometimes called swipe cards: they are used by swiping through a card reader
• Many international credit cards are smart cards, while magnetic stripe cards are more commonly used as credit
cards in the United States

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Tailgating/piggybacking:

• Occurs when an unauthorized person follows an authorized person into a

building after the authorized person unlocks and opens the door

• Policy should forbid employees from allowing tailgating and security awareness
efforts

• Attackers attempting to tailgate often combine social engineering techniques,

such as carrying large boxes, increasing the chances an authorized user will
“help out” by holding the door open

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Mantraps/Deadman’s Door

• Mantraps are a preventive physical control with two doors.

• The first door must close and lock before the second door may be opened

• Each door typically requires a separate form of authentication to open

• The intruder is trapped between the doors after entering the mantrap

Turnstiles:

• Turnstiles are designed to prevent tailgating by enforcing a “one person per authentication” rule

• Secure data centers may use floor-to-ceiling turnstiles with interlocking blades to prevent an
attacker from going over or under the turnstile

• Both mantraps and turnstiles must be designed to allow safe egress in case of emergency 139
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WIRING CLOSETS:

• Wiring closets used to be a small closet where the telecommunications cables were organized for
the building using punch-down blocks.

Rules:

• Never use the wiring closet as a general storage area.

• Have adequate locks, which might include biometric elements.
• Keep the area tidy.
• Do not store flammable items in the area.
• Set up video surveillance to monitor activity inside the wiring closet.
• Use a door open sensor to log entries.
• Do not give keys to anyone except the authorized administrator.
• Perform regular physical inspections of the wiring closet’s security and contents.
• Include the wiring closet in the organization’s environmental management and monitoring, in order
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Emanation Security:
Many electrical devices emanate electrical signals or radiation that can be intercepted by unauthorized individuals.
These signals may contain confidential, sensitive, or private data.

TEMPEST:
The types of countermeasures and safeguards used to protect against emanation attacks are known as TEMPEST
countermeasures. Its of 3 types:

1. Faraday Cage
• A Faraday cage is a box, mobile room, or entire building designed with an external metal skin, often a wire
mesh that fully surrounds an area on all sides.
• This metal skin acts as an electromagnetic interference (EMI)-absorbing capacitor that prevents
electromagnetic signals (emanations) from exiting or entering the area that the cage encloses.

2. White Noise
White noise simply means broadcasting false traffic at all times to mask and hide the presence of real emanations.

3. Control Zone
• A third type of TEMPEST countermeasure, a control zone, is simply the implementation of either a Faraday cage
or white noise generation or both to protect a specific area in an environment; the rest of the environment is
not affected.
• A control zone can be a room, a floor, or an entire building
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Power Problems:

• Fault: A momentary loss of power

• Blackout: A complete loss of power
• Sag: Momentary low voltage
• Brownout: Prolonged low voltage
• Spike: Momentary high voltage
• Surge: Prolonged high voltage
• Inrush: An initial surge of power usually associated with connecting to a power source,
whether primary or alternate/secondary
• Noise: A steady interfering power disturbance or fluctuation
• Transient: A short duration of line noise disturbance
• Clean: Non fluctuating pure power
• Ground: The wire in an electrical circuit that is grounded

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• Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is a type of self-charging battery that can be used to
supply consistent clean power to sensitive equipment.
• A UPS has a second function, one that is often used as a selling point: it provides
continuous power even after the primary power source fails.

• A Surge Protector includes a fuse that will blow before power levels change enough to
cause damage to equipment.
• However, once a surge protector’s fuse or circuit is tripped, current flow is completely
interrupted.
• Surge protectors should be used only when instant termination of electricity will not cause
damage or loss to the equipment. Otherwise, a UPS should be employed instead.

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Generators

• Designed to provide power for longer periods of times than UPSs

• Will run as long as fuel is available

• Sufficient fuel should be stored onsite for the period the generator is expected to provide power

• Refueling strategies should consider a disaster's effect on fuel supply and delivery

• Generators should not be placed in areas which may flood or otherwise be impacted by weather
events

• Should be tested and serviced regularly.

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EMI

• All electricity generates magnetism, so any electrical conductor emits Electromagnetic

Interference (EMI)

• Network cables that are poorly shielded or run too closely together may suffer crosstalk,
where magnetism from one cable “crosses” over to another nearby cable

• Crosstalk can be mitigated via proper network cable management

• Never route power cables close to network cables

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HVAC

• Keep the air at a reasonable temperature and humidity

• Operate in a closed loop, recirculating treated air (helps reduce dust and other airborne contaminants)

Positive Pressure and Drains

• All HVAC units should employ positive pressure and drainage

• Means air and water should be expelled from the building

• Untreated air should never be “inhaled” into the building, and water should drain away from the building

– A common malfunction of HVAC units is condensation of water pooling into the building, often going under raised floors where it
may not be detected
– Positive drains are designed to avoid this problem

• Location of all gas and water lines, as well as all drains, should be formally documented.
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Motion Detectors:

A motion detector, or motion sensor, is a device that senses movement or sound in a specific area.

An infrared motion detector monitors for significant or meaningful changes in the infrared lighting pattern of a
monitored area.

A heat-based motion detector monitors for significant or meaningful changes in the heat levels and patterns in a
monitored area.

A wave pattern motion detector transmits a consistent low ultrasonic or high microwave frequency signal into a
monitored area and monitors for significant or meaningful changes or disturbances in the reflected pattern.

A capacitance motion detector senses changes in the electrical or magnetic field surrounding a monitored object.

A photoelectric motion detector senses changes in visible light levels for the monitored area. Photoelectric motion
detectors are usually deployed in internal rooms that have no windows and are kept dark.

A passive audio motion detector listens for abnormal sounds in the monitored area.

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Smoke Detectors

• Work through two primary methods: ionization and photoelectric

• Ionization-based smoke detectors contain a small radioactive source which creates a small
electric charge

• Photoelectric sensors work in a similar fashion, except that they contain an LED (Light Emitting
Diode) and a photoelectric sensor that generates a small charge while receiving light

• Both types of alarm alert when smoke interrupts the radioactivity or light, lowering or
blocking the electric charge

• Dust should always be avoided in data centers. Small airborne dust particles can trigger smoke
detectors just as smoke does, leading to
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Intrusion Alarms

• Deterrent Alarms: Alarms that trigger deterrents may engage additional locks, shut doors, and so on
• Repellant Alarms: Alarms that trigger repellants usually sound an audio siren or bell and turn on lights.
These kinds of alarms are used to discourage intruders or attackers
• Notification Alarms Alarms that trigger notification are often silent from the intruder/attacker
perspective but record data about the incident and notify administrators, security guards, and law
enforcement.

Alarm Types:

• Local Alarm System Local alarm systems must broadcast an audible alarm signal that can be easily
heard up to 400 feet away.
• Central Station System The alarm is usually silent locally, but offsite monitoring agents are notified so
they can respond to the security breach.
• Auxiliary Station Auxiliary alarm systems can be added to either local or centralized alarm systems

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Fire Prevention

Fire Triangle:

• The point of the fire triangle is to illustrate that if you can remove any one of the four items from the
fire triangle, the fire can be extinguished.

Different Fire Suppression medium action on fire triangle:

• Water suppresses the temperature.

• Soda acid and other dry powders suppress the fuel supply.

• CO2 suppresses the oxygen supply.

• Halon substitutes and other nonflammable gases interfere with the

• chemistry of combustion and/or suppress the oxygen supply.

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STAGES OF FIRE:

• Stage 1: The Incipient Stage At this stage, there is only air

ionization but no smoke.
• Stage 2: The Smoke Stage In Stage 2, smoke is visible from the
point of ignition.
• Stage 3: The Flame Stage This is when a flame can be seen with the
naked eye.
• Stage 4: The Heat Stage At Stage 4, the fire is considerably further
down the timescale to the point where there is an intense heat
buildup and everything in the area burns.
• The earlier a fire is detected, the easier it is to extinguished.

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Fire Extinguishers
• Fire extinguishers are to be used only when a fire is still in the incipient stage

• Water cannot be used on Class B fires because it splashes the burning liquids and such liquids usually
float on water.
• Water cannot be used on Class C fires because of the potential for electrocution.
• Oxygen suppression cannot be used on metal fires because burning metal produces its own oxygen.

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Fire Prevention

• Fixed-temperature detection systems trigger suppression when a specific temperature is

reached.

• The trigger is usually a metal or plastic component that is in the sprinkler head and melts at a
specific temperature.

• Rate-of-rise detection systems trigger suppression when the speed at which the temperature
changes reaches a specific level.

• Flame-actuated systems trigger suppression based on the infrared energy of flames.

• Smoke-actuated systems use Photoelectric or Radioactive ionization sensors as triggers.

• Incipient smoke detection systems, also known as aspirating sensors, are able to detect the
chemicals typically associated with the very early stages of combustion before a fire is otherwise
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Fire Suppression Systems:

• A wet pipe system (also known as a closed head system) is always full of water. Water discharges
immediately when suppression is triggered.

• A dry pipe system contains compressed air. Once suppression is triggered, the air escapes, opening
a water valve that in turn causes the pipes to fill and discharge water into the environment.

• A deluge system is another form of dry pipe system that uses larger pipes and therefore delivers a
significantly larger volume of water; Not suitable for Data Center or Sever Room.

• A preaction system is a combination dry pipe/wet pipe system. The system exists as a dry pipe until
the initial stages of a fire are detected, and then the pipes are filled with water.

• The water is released only after the sprinkler head activation triggers are melted by sufficient heat.

• Manual intervention is needed to stop the release of water, hence its appropriate for environments
that house both computers and humans together.

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• Thank You for your valuable Time

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