2019

LUMIGEA

SVJETLOTEHNIČKI POJMOVI
EDUKATIVNI MATERIJALI
RANKO SKANSI
 LUMIGEA 1

http://lumigea.com [email protected]
 LUMIGEA 2

SADRŽAJ
LIGHTING UNITS AND TERMINOLOGY ..................................................................................................... 4

Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 4

Lighting Units ....................................................................................................................................... 5

What we see vs. how we design ......................................................................................................... 9

Data presentation.............................................................................................................................. 10

Illuminance .................................................................................................................................... 10

Light Intensity Data ........................................................................................................................... 10

Manufacturers’ Data ..................................................................................................................... 10

Personal Feedback Question 2.1 ....................................................................................................... 12

http://lumigea.com [email protected]
 LUMIGEA 3

http://lumigea.com [email protected]
 LUMIGEA 4

LIGHTING UNITS AND TERMINOLOGY

Introduction
Before we can begin to investigate the subject of lighting, we have to understand the ‘language’ of
light and what better place to start than the definitions and explanations of the units.

http://lumigea.com [email protected]
 LUMIGEA 5

http://lumigea.com [email protected]
 LUMIGEA 6

Lighting Units
Luminous Flux (Symbol: ∅, Unit: lumen)
This is the quantity of light emitted by a light source or falling onto a surface. As we noted in Chapter
1, light is a form of electromagnetic radiation and the luminous flux is derived from the product of the
radiant power in Watts and the Visual response characteristic (Vl) of the eye. The SI unit of luminous
flux is the lumen (abbr. lm)†2-1.

Luminous Intensity or Intensity (Symbol: I, Unit: candela)

If flux is a description of the quantity of light
emitted by a lamp, then intensity is a
measure of the strength of light emitted in
a given direction. For example, a standard
100 Watt General Lighting Service (GLS)
household incandescent lamp may produce
a total luminous flux of about 1200 lumens,
but this light is emitted evenly in all
directions. If you were looking at the lamp,
the intensity travelling towards your eye
would be about 95 candela.
The SI unit for luminous intensity is the
candela (abbr. cd) †2-2.

Solid Angle
The luminous flux and the luminous intensity are linked by the solid angle. As we noted in Chapter 1,
light is emitted from a source in straight lines and spreads out over a larger and larger area as it travels
away from the source. Light therefore radiates in three-dimensions and so it is not surprising that we
need to use three-dimensional angles. You may therefore recall from trigonometry that 2-dimensional
angles can be measured either in degrees or in radians.

Where the radian or circular measure is

derived from the length and radius of an arc

l = r x q †2-3 where q is measured in radians.

†2-1:
Lumen: derived from the Latin meaning light.
†2-2:
Candela: The unit is obviously a reference to the pioneer lighting days when spermaceti (from the sperm whale)
candles were used as a standard light source. In practice the modern paraffin wax candle burns with a brighter
flame and is equivalent to 2 or 3 candelas. Candela is the Latin word for candle.

http://lumigea.com [email protected]
 LUMIGEA 7

Similarly, three-dimensional angles are measured in

steradians (derived from the Greek for ‘solid’ and
‘radian’) – abbr. st, where the ‘solid-angle’ is given
by the area and radius of a cone.

As you can imagine, solid angles are not easy to measure, but they can be determined for standard
geometric shapes. For example, the total inside surface of a sphere is given by 4 π r2, thus the total
solid angle at the centre of a sphere
4 π r2
= ----------- = 4 π steradians
r2
This is how we converted the 1200 lumen output from the 100 Watt lamp into candelas of intensity
for the earlier example. The relationship linking the two is given by - F = I w (Flux = Intensity x Solid
Angle [steradian])

Thus, for the complete sphere of the lamp ω = 4 π and

the uniform intensity = 1200 (lm) / 4 π (st) = 95,5 cd.

†2-3:
For a complete circle, the outer circumference = 2 p r ÷ r = 2 p radians. This gives us a convenient method of
converting from degrees to radians since 360° = 2 p radians or 180° = p radians.

http://lumigea.com [email protected]
 LUMIGEA 8

Illuminance (Symbol: E, Unit: lux)

The illuminance or the level of illumination is the density of luminous flux reaching a surface. It can be
measured for an area or at a single point. The SI unit of illuminance is the lux (abbr. lx)†2-4

Luminance (Symbol: L, Unit: Candelas per square metre)

The luminance is effectively the brightness of an object or surface. However, lighting engineers try to
avoid this term wherever possible because brightness is a subjective term. A car headlight for example
on full beam, looks much brighter at night than it does during the day, although the actual light emitted
by the lamp does not change. However, the term ‘brightness’ will probably mean more to most people
than the format definition which is; ‘the intensity of light emitted in a given direction from a projected
area of a surface or source’. The term ‘projected area’ is an interesting one and gives us a clue as to
how we might control the luminance, for example, of a light source. Most domestic (GLS) lamps are
available in either a clear, a ‘pearlized’, or a ‘white-coated’ glass format and which, within a few
percent, emit the same light output. (The pearlized glass (produced by an acid etch) absorbs between
1-2% of light output and the white coated form (produced by coating the inside of a pearlized bulb by
white silica coating), absorbs between 3½-5% light).

However, both the pearl lamp and the

‘white’ lamp have a much lower
luminance than the clear because the
light is coming from a much larger area.
In addition, the white silica coating has
the benefit of a greater powers of
diffusion and so virtually obscures
the bright filament.

The SI unit for luminance is the candela

per square metre (abbr. cd/m2).

†2-4:
Lux: derived from the Latin, again meaning light.

*Projected Area: The projected area or apparent area of a source is the flat, plain area ‘seen’ from the specified
direction.

http://lumigea.com [email protected]
 LUMIGEA 9

For example, if the light source is a

cylinder – Then seen from direction A,
the source would appear as a flat
rectangle, but seen from direction B, it
would appear as a disc.

What we see vs. how we design

Without some context, this section on units can
be confusing. What we must also appreciate is
how we see, and what we see, are not always
how we design. For example, a lamp emits light
in all directions, but we cannot see it all at once.
We can only see the intensity of light travelling
in our direction. Similarly, we do not see the
total amount of light falling onto a surface, we
only judge the luminance of an object by the
intensity of light being reflected back towards
us. Yet the lamp output and illuminance are very
important parameters in terms of the design of
an installation. One reason that the approaches
differ is that it is very difficult to define a
mathematical model as to ‘how we see’, and so
we fall back on experience - if we illuminate the
subject with enough light we should be able to
see it. In summary therefore, our units can be
related diagrammatically:

http://lumigea.com [email protected]
 LUMIGEA 10

Data presentation
Illuminance
Typical of the range of illumination we commonly experience during our lives are -
Bright sunlight 100.000,0 lux
Dull, overcast day 5.000,0 lux
General Office 500,0 lux
Domestic lounge 50,0 lux
Moonlight 0,1 lux
As you can see, this has a span of 1 million lux (0,1 – 100.000) and even this does not represent the
extremes of man’s visual abilities. No wonder we need some guidance as to acceptable lighting levels
for certain tasks. To assist us with design, the CIBSE Code for Interior Lighting 1994, specifies levels of
‘service illuminance’ and ‘limiting glare indices’†2-5 for a range of locations and occupations. The
quoted levels are intended as a guide to good practice and in standard conditions of application, should
produce both a satisfactory task illuminance and a suitable appearance to the interior. We should note
here the operative words “guide for standard conditions”, and realize that for ‘non-standard’
conditions – for example where the users of the installation are elderly, or where there is a windowless
environment (no daylight) – then these may require different levels of lighting (and possibly, different
techniques of calculation) to those noted in the code.

†2-5:
The ‘service illuminance’ is the mean illuminance throughout the maintenance cycle of the lighting installation,
averaged over the relevant area.
The ‘limiting glare index’ specifies the degree of discomfort glare which will be acceptable from an overhead
lighting installation.

Light Intensity Data

Most techniques of design require the calculation of illumination. This can be an average level over a
specific area, a general level over the whole area or the level of illumination at a specific point. If the
later, it is important to know the intensity of light being directed at that point and it is here that the
luminaire manufacturers assist us with data.
Manufacturers’ Data
Typical of the data provided by manufacturers are:

Intensity distributions and Polar Curves

As we noted from the definition, intensity requires both a value and a direction, and one of the simplest
methods of presentation is a polar curve.
If you imagine a photocell located on, and able to move around, a vertically mounted circular track and
pointed towards a luminaire which is located at the centre of the track. As the photocell moves it gives

http://lumigea.com [email protected]
 LUMIGEA 11

intensity readings at known angles and provides the data from which the data for a polar curve is
produced. This is then the principle of the distribution photometer.

Where available space for equipment is at a

premium, a mirror is frequently used to increase the
distance from the light source to the photocell. The
mirror as arranged to reflect an image of the
luminaire into, and moves with, the photocell.

The polar curve presents the intensity distribution on a ‘polar’ scale where the concentric circles of
the graph measure intensity (working from inside to outside) and the ‘spokes’ of the graph represent
angles measured from the downward vertical.

Where the intensity distribution is not

symmetrical, for example with a fluorescent
luminaire then it is usual to plot the
transverse polar curve on the left of the
diagram and the axial polar curve on the right.
Naturally, the light distribution for a luminaire
is three dimensional and so to ‘map’ a
complete luminaire may require many polar
curves, each one for a different aspect or
azimuth plane of the luminaire. The required
intervals of elevation and azimuth (angle of
luminaire) vary with the type of luminaire and
are given by British Standards. Typically, to
provide a complete set of photometric data
for a fluorescent luminaire, it is necessary to
measure the intensity distribution at 30°
intervals - (i.e. for 12 planes).

http://lumigea.com [email protected]
 LUMIGEA 12

Distribution Tables
Alternatively, the information can also be provided by means of an intensity distribution table.

Luminous Intensity in cd/1000 lm*

Angle from
Transverse Axial
downward
Plane Plane
vertical
(degrees) (cd/1000 lm) (cd/1000 lm)
0 230 230
5 240 229
10 254 222
15 266 213
20 278 202
25 294 189
30 300 176
35 289 160
40 265 143
45 220 125
50 157 106
55 101 85
60 57 64
65 23 45
70 7 30
75 1 19
80 1 11
85 0 4
90 0 0

Personal Feedback Question 2.1

Using the intensity distribution data noted above and a printed copy of the polar graph paper included
with the POLAR.pdf file, draw both the transverse and the axial plane polar curves. Since each side of
the transverse plane is symmetrical and each side of the axial plane is the same, you may include both
curves on the same polar chart. The convention is to have the transverse plane (T) on the left and the
axial plane (A) on the right.

NB: You must be careful when trying to infer a light distribution characteristic from a polar curve.
Despite what many claim, a polar curve does not give an indication of the light (flux) distribution, it
gives an indication of the intensity distribution and the two are not the same. Remember our new term

http://lumigea.com [email protected]
 LUMIGEA 13

– solid angle and take two points from your transverse polar curve to illustrate the difference between
intensity and flux. Assume for a moment that the luminaire is symmetrical i.e. it has the same intensity
distribution for all vertical azimuth planes (our’s does not, or else the transverse and axial planes would be
the same – and so our real luminaire is an asymmetric luminaire). The intensity distribution is very high
around the angle from the downward vertical of 30°. So between 25° to 35° (a 10° band) we can assume
the average intensity is about 295 cd per 1000 lumens. The solid angle between these two angles is
given by: 2p x (cos 25° - cos 35°) = 0.55 steradian, and so from flux = intensity x solid angle this segment
produces – 295 cd x 0.55 steradian = 162 lumens per 1000 cd. Now for comparison, look at the polar
curve near the horizontal, say between 60°to 70°. We will assume the average intensity is (57 + 7)/2 =
32 cd/1000 lm. Again the solid angle is given by: 2p x (cos 60° - cos 70°) = 0.993 steradian, therefore
flux in this segment produces – 32 cd x 0.993 steradian = 32 lumens per 1000 cd.

The point I’m trying to make is, the

intensity at the higher angle (60° – 70°
band) is only 1/10 th of that in the lower
(25° – 35° band), yet it produces 1/ 5 th of
the light – not 1/10 th. So just be careful,
intensity is not flux!

Cartesian Co-ordinates
For some luminaires, floodlights, spotlights, etc, for which you decide the ‘aiming point’, there is no
‘downward vertical’. The reference is therefore taken as the lamp axis which is usually also the beam
aiming point.

Cone (or beam) diagrams

Whilst this is not strictly an intensity diagram, it is often provided by spotlight manufacturers as an
alternative to intensity data. It typically displays the direct (beam-centre) illuminance and beam-width
at various distances from the lamp.

http://lumigea.com [email protected]
 LUMIGEA 14

Isolux and Zonal Flux diagrams

These are also useful methods of providing design information, typically for area floodlighting design.

Isolux
For a given height, the manufacturer provides lines of
constant illuminance (isolux) on a floor or working plane
grid.

Zonal Flux
As an alternative to illuminance data
(lux), the manufacturer may provide
flux information (lumens). The total
useful flux in the beam can then be
determined down to 1/10 th of the peak
intensity, by inserting the 1/10 th peak
intensity isocandela line and summing
all the flux in the rectangles which are
so enclosed; due allowance being made
for rectangles that are only partially
enclosed. For convenience of use, it is
common to scale the ‘grid’ in angles
from the beam centre and to base the
diagram figures per 1,000 lamp lumens.

http://lumigea.com [email protected]
 LUMIGEA 15

Isocandela Diagrams
This is a method of representing the
photometric performance of a
luminaire in all directions, not just in
one plane as with a polar curve. To
visualise the diagram, imagine the
luminaire is suspended in the centre of
a large transparent sphere upon which
is drawn lines of equal illumination
(isolux). These correspond to lines of
equal intensity (isocandela) [since the
radius of measurement is constant]
because –

Intensity = Sphere Illuminance x (Distance)2

[see Inverse Square Law later]

This ‘sphere’ can then be projected onto a

flat surface using a ‘Sinusoidal’ projection or
‘Sanson’s Net’ projection to form an
‘Isocandela’ diagram.

This form of surface mapping is chosen

because it keeps areas on the flat paper
within a given boundary, proportional to
areas on the original sphere and is a common
projection for world maps.

http://lumigea.com [email protected]
 LUMIGEA 16

POJMOVI
Luminous Flux [Svjetlosni tok] (φ; lm)

Luminous Intensity or Intensity [Svjetlosni intenzitet] (I; cd)

Solid Angle [Prostorni kut] (steradijani)

Illuminance [Rasvjetljenost] (E; lux)

Luminance [Svjetlina] (L; cd/m2)

Glare [Blještanje]

http://lumigea.com [email protected]