Oilfield Review

Spring 2012

Quadrupole Sonic Logging While Drilling

Jar Optimization
The Future of Mud Logging
Offshore Decommissioning
12-OR-0002
Offshore Idle Iron: Remains of the Past or Infrastructure of the Future

In September 2010, to hasten the removal of idle infra- using currently available technology. The distinction is
structure on the outer Continental Shelf of the Gulf of important because, owing to the petroleum industry’s
Mexico, the US Department of the Interior issued decom- remarkable ability to innovate, resources not seen or
missioning guidance to operators and pipeline right-of-way accessible today may very well be both visible and acces-
holders. The intent of the notice to lessees (NTL) was to sible within the next few years.
spur compliance with regulations issued in 2002 by the US The industry has long held this position to justify post-
Minerals Management Service regarding requirements for poning plugging operations until within one year after the
plugging wells, decommissioning platforms and pipelines lease runs out—the absolute regulatory deadline for
and clearing sites. decommissioning. The new mandate seems to cast aside
The NTL was issued jointly by Interior Secretary the industry reasoning, which is a mistake.
Ken Salazar and Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, It may be particularly instructive for regulators to
Regulation and Enforcement Director Michael R. Bromwich. consider the example of the now mature practice of
According to the accompanying press release, the notice extended-reach drilling. Today, this technique allows
was issued to clarify earlier federal mandates that any well operators to construct wellbores that reach and drain
not used during the previous five years for exploration or reserves that are horizontally and vertically miles from
production had to be plugged. Production platforms and the wellhead. The implication for breathing new life into
pipelines associated with those wells and not involved with old infrastructure is clear; old platforms and pipelines
exploration and production activities also had to be decom- once used to support a now-depleted field may be used to
missioned. The result of the 2010 NTL directive is that access and service nearby reserves too small to justify
operators must immediately begin the process of plugging new surface facilities but reachable and profitable using
and abandoning nearly 3,500 nonproducing wells and new directional drilling technology. Other examples of
dismantling and removing about 650 platforms in the game-changing innovations are 3D seismic, logging and
Gulf of Mexico. measuring while drilling, and real-time monitoring and
There is little argument with the department’s intent. In control of drilling and production—all introduced and
recent years, hurricanes Ivan, Katrina and Rita have made refined within the past two decades.
clear the potential danger when idle iron, weakened by The intent of the Department of the Interior is valid. But
years of neglect and decay, is torn loose and pushed about all parties concerned, including the public, will be best
the gulf during a storm. Likewise, as some unfortunate served if the decision to order the decommissioning of
offshore operators can attest, it is significantly less costly individual pieces of infrastructure is balanced by consider-
to dismantle and remove stable structures than those that ing whether realistic, imminent technological advances are
have been scattered about the ocean floor, floated miles in the offing that might dictate leaving them in place.
from their original locations or tilted at precarious angles
by hurricane force winds and seas. Holly Hopkins
For these reasons, and in keeping with their role of envi- Senior Policy Advisor, Upstream and Industry Operations
ronmental stewards anxious to prevent leaks or other American Petroleum Institute
Washington, DC
forms of pollution entering the gulf waters from disinte-
grating infrastructure, operators should share the desire of Holly Hopkins is a Senior Policy Advisor, Upstream and Industry Operations for
the US Department of the Interior to rid the gulf of much the American Petroleum Institute (API). Her experience on environmental and
of this idle iron. And just as it is in the industry’s best energy issues includes work both inside and outside the US federal government.
She staffs the API Drilling and Production Operations Subcommittee, which
interest to embrace this effort, it is hoped that the admin- includes oversight of upstream safety, and staffs two of the four joint industry
istration will see that it is in the interest of the US to tem- task forces formed in response to the Gulf of Mexico Macondo incident: the
per enforcement of the mandate with reason. Offshore Equipment Task Force and the Subsea Well Control and Containment
Task Force. Prior to joining API, she was a policy consultant to the Consumer
Regulators should make decommissioning decisions not Energy Alliance (CEA), providing advice and guidance to CEA members regard-
according to some arbitrary timetable, but by using a ing the US government executive branch, specifically the US Department of
risk-based approach that will prevent premature removal the Interior (DOI) and the Minerals Management Service (MMS). From August
2001 to January 2009, Holly worked for the US DOI in several capacities. Most
of infrastructure. Regulators should consider, for
recently she served as the chief of staff to the MMS. Holly also served as MMS
instance, whether some platforms, pipelines and well- liaison to the assistant secretary, Land and Minerals Management and as spe-
heads are idle because there is no oil or gas in or near cial assistant to the deputy secretary. Prior to working for the DOI, she worked
the reservoirs they once served, or because the remaining as a policy assistant at National Environmental Strategies, Washington, DC.

resources cannot be brought to the surface economically

1
 Schlumberger

Oilfield Review
www.slb.com/oilfieldreview

Executive Editor 1 Offshore Idle Iron: Remains of the Past or Infrastructure of the Future
Lisa Stewart
Editorial contributed by Holly Hopkins, Senior Policy Advisor,
Senior Editors
Matt Varhaug Upstream and Industry Operations, American Petroleum Institute
Rick von Flatern

Editors
Richard Nolen-Hoeksema
Tony Smithson 4 Sonic Logging While Drilling—
Shear Answers
Contributing Editors
Judy Feder Modern sonic tools, which measure acoustic properties of
Ginger Oppenheimer rocks, provide compressional and shear wave data that
Rana Rottenberg
engineers use to compute in situ mechanical properties.
Design/Production These properties are useful for determining optimal drilling
Herring Design parameters and identifying rocks with better completion
Mike Messinger
characteristics. Until recently, acquiring shear wave data
Illustration in all formations was not possible while drilling. New LWD
Chris Lockwood
Tom McNeff
tools and processing techniques enable shear wave data to
Mike Messinger be measured in real or near–real time. This information can
George Stewart be used to improve drilling efficiency and safety. Engineers
Printing can also characterize environments where acoustic measure-
RR Donnelley—Wetmore Plant ments are difficult to obtain, such as highly deviated and
Curtis Weeks horizontal wells. The results are better drilling and comple-
tion decisions for operators.

16 Working Out of a Tight Spot

Stuck pipe costs operators hundreds of millions of dollars per
year as a result of nonproductive time during drilling opera-
tions. For this reason, for decades, drillers have included drill-
ing jars in their toolstring as the first response to drillpipe that
cannot be moved up or down or be rotated. Today, advances in
the technology of jarring operations have extended their appli-
cation to horizontal and highly deviated wells.

On the cover:

Mud logging serves a variety of important

functions at the wellsite. By monitoring
an array of drilling sensors and sampling
formation cuttings and mud gas, mud
loggers are able to recognize when the
drill bit has penetrated a productive
formation. As formation and pressure About Oilfield Review
evaluation specialists, they also track Oilfield Review, a Schlumberger journal, Oilfield Review is published quarterly and © 2012 Schlumberger. All rights reserved.
drilling parameters to help the driller communicates technical advances in printed in the USA. Reproductions without permission are
safely reach total depth. Here, a mud finding and producing hydrocarbons strictly prohibited.
logger heads to the shale shaker to to employees, clients and other oilfield Visit www.slb.com/oilfieldreview for
collect a sample of formation cuttings. professionals. Contributors to articles electronic copies of articles in English, For a comprehensive dictionary of oilfield
include industry professionals and experts Spanish, Chinese and Russian. terms, see the Schlumberger Oilfield
from around the world; those listed with Glossary at www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com.
only geographic location are employees
of Schlumberger or its affiliates.

2
 Spring 2012
Volume 24
Number 1
ISSN 0923-1730

24 The Expanding Role of Mud Logging Advisory Panel

Gretchen M. Gillis
Among its many important functions, drilling mud transports Aramco Services Company
formation cuttings and formation fluids from the bit to the sur- Houston, Texas, USA
face. For decades, analysis of these samples by mud loggers Roland Hamp
provided operating companies with some of the earliest indica- Woodside Energy Ltd.
Perth, Australia
tors of reservoir potential. Today, advances in surface sensor
design and automated monitoring give mud loggers powerful Dilip M. Kale
ONGC Energy Centre
tools for improving drilling efficiency and safety. At the same Delhi, India
time, new mud gas sampling and analysis techniques provide
George King
first insights into fluid composition and reservoir geochemistry, Apache Corporation
in advance of wireline sampling runs and well tests. Houston, Texas
Alexander Zazovsky
Chevron
Houston, Texas

42 Offshore Permanent Well Abandonment

As deepwater fields become depleted, the offshore industry is
tasked with permanently abandoning thousands of subsea
wells and hundreds of platforms. Government directives are
speeding the pace of decommissioning activity, which has
added to operators’ burdens. Offshore service providers are
trying to minimize the financial impact of these costly opera-
tions through innovative technology and methods that
reduce the time required to perform them.

51 Contributors

53 New Books and Coming in Oilfield Review

55 Defining Perforating:
Detonation for Delivery
This is the fifth in a series of introductory articles describing basic concepts of the E&P industry.

Editorial correspondence Subscriptions Distribution inquiries

Oilfield Review Client subscriptions can be obtained Tony Smithson
5599 San Felipe through any Schlumberger sales office. Oilfield Review
Houston, Texas 77056 USA Clients can obtain additional subscrip- 12149 Lakeview Manor Dr.
(1) 713-513-1194 tion information and update subscription Northport, Alabama 35475 USA
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3
 Sonic Logging While Drilling—Shear Answers

Jeff Alford Engineers use acoustic data from sonic logging tools to drill more efficiently with
Matt Blyth
Ed Tollefsen greater safety margins and to optimize completions. LWD sonic tools introduced in
Houston, Texas, USA the mid-1990s delivered compressional wave data but were unable to provide shear
John Crowe wave data in all formations. A new LWD acoustic tool measures shear wave data in
Chevron Cabinda Gulf Oil Company Ltd
Luanda, Angola
formations where this was previously impossible, and engineers are using this
information to drill with greater confidence, determine optimal directions for drilling
Julio Loreto
Sugar Land, Texas and identify rocks with better completion characteristics.

Saeed Mohammed
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia The downhole drilling environment creates further required to acquire data in a setting inun-
inhospitable conditions for logging-while-drilling dated with noise and vibration.
Vivian Pistre (LWD) tools. The drill bit grinds through layers of Sonic acquisition is challenging while drill-
Sagamihara, Japan rock as the rotating drillstring and BHA continu- ing; however, service companies have worked to
ally slam against the borehole wall, shocking sen- develop LWD sonic tools because they provide
Adrian Rodriguez-Herrera sitive electronic components. Drilling mud surges information that is not readily available from
Bracknell, England
through the drillpipe and exits through the bit, other logging devices while drilling. Measure-
Oilfield Review Spring 2012: 24, no. 1. sweeping the hole clean and returning cuttings to ments derived from the propagation of sound
Copyright © 2012 Schlumberger.
the surface. Although LWD tools are designed to waves through porous media provide helpful
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Raj Malpani,
Houston; and Utpal Ganguly, Sugar Land, Texas. endure these environments, LWD sonic tools are information about geologic and geophysical
Mangrove, Petrel, SonicScope, Variable Density and
VISAGE are marks of Schlumberger.

4 Oilfield Review
properties. Petrophysicists have developed meth- S-wave and Stoneley wave
Transmitter Rayleigh wave arrivals arrivals
ods to use real-time acoustic measurements to
pulse
determine formation attributes that include pore
pressure and overburden gradients, lithology and

Amplitude
mechanical properties. Petrophysicists also use Time
sonic data for gas detection, fracture evaluation
and seismic calibration.
The first LWD sonic tools, introduced in the
mid-1990s, provided compressional wave measure- P-wave Mud wave
arrivals arrivals
ments, along with shear wave data in some forma- > Acoustic waves. Sonic tools measure the time it takes for an acoustic
tions. These data were used for computing sonic pulse of sound to travel from a transmitter to a receiver array. The sound
porosity, estimating pore pressure and correlating wave strikes the borehole, travels through the formation and then arrives
downhole depth-based data with surface seismic back at the tool where the receivers measure the amplitude of the signal
time-based data. Wireline sonic tools used differ- versus time. As the sound wave passes through rock, different types of
waves are generated. The first two arrivals are the compressional, or
ent sources and, because they could process and P-waves, followed by shear, or S-waves. These two are the most important
transmit data at higher rates, provided answers for oilfield applications because they are used to compute porosity and
that were beyond the capability of their early LWD mechanical properties. Rayleigh, mud and Stoneley waves arrive later.
counterparts. These capabilities include measure-
ments of high-quality compressional and shear
wave information to estimate geomechanical prop- Sound waves propagate through a solid medium The change in traveltime is related to the volume
erties in soft formations and the ability to deter- in a variety of modes, such as compressional and of fluid in the rock’s pore space, which is a func-
mine the orientation of rock properties in shear waves, and these modes have different veloc- tion of the porosity. Sonic porosity measurements
anisotropic formations. A recently introduced ities (above). In addition to these, other modes, were a key driver in the initial development of
LWD sonic tool provides real-time compressional including Rayleigh, mud and Stoneley waves, can acoustic logging tools.
and shear wave data in formations where this was be identified in the sonic signal.1 Depending on the physical measurement
not possible with earlier tools. Many materials have been characterized by needed, the acoustic logging tool can be designed
This article reviews the use of sonic data in oil their acoustic slowness (below). For instance, a with transmitters, or sources, to generate a par-
and gas operations, with special emphasis on compressional sound wave travels through steel ticular type of pressure pulse. The most basic form,
LWD tools. A discussion of quadrupole sonic mea- at 187 μs/m [57 μs/ft]. Compressional waves and the type that is common across all forms of
surements is included, along with the process of travel through zero-porosity sandstone at approx- acoustic tools, is the monopole source. Monopole
deriving mechanical properties from sonic data. imately 182 μs/m [55.5 μs/ft] and through sources produce a radial pressure field, analogous
Case studies demonstrate how engineers have limestone at around 155 μs/m [47.3 μs/ft]. to the wave pattern produced by a pebble dropped
been able to extract shear data in soft formations Compressional waves that pass through forma- onto the surface of a pond but in three dimensions.
using quadrupole sonic modes. These data, along tion rocks containing water, oil or gas have longer They are used primarily to obtain the compres-
with compressional data, are then used to opti- traveltimes than through rocks with no porosity. sional slowness of the formation.
mize drilling practices, monitor real-time pore
pressure while drilling, improve completions and
estimate geomechanical formation properties.
Compressional Shear
Material Slowness Time Slowness Time
Some Sound Basics Δt c, μs/m [μs/ft] Δt s, μs/m [μs/ft]
Acoustic logging tools measure the time it takes
Steel 187 [57] 338 [103]
for an audible pulse of sound to travel from a trans-
Sandstone 182 [55.5] 289 [88]
mitter, through the mud, along the borehole, back
Limestone 155 [47.3] 290 [88.4]
through the mud and then to an array of receivers
Dolomite 143 [43.5] 236 [72]
along the body of the tool. This measured time
equals the cumulative time of travel through the Shale 200 to 300 [61 to 91] varies
various media that have been traversed. Freshwater 715 [218] Not applicable
The velocity of the sound wave measured Brine 620 [189] Not applicable
across the receiver array is the speed of sound > Characteristic values for compressional wave slowness (Δtc) and shear
through the formations directly opposite the wave slowness (Δts).
receivers. Petrophysicists refer to this measure-
ment as slowness—the inverse of velocity; it is
expressed as traveltime per unit length. This 1. Rayleigh waves, named for Lord Rayleigh, who predicted transmitter through the mud column and are then
measurement is also referred to as a delta t (Δ t) their existence in 1885, are frequency-dependent detected at the tool receivers. Stoneley waves, named for
dispersive waves that travel along the surface of the Robert Stoneley, are surface waves that are associated
measurement because it is the interval transit borehole. Rayleigh waves are used to evaluate velocity with the solid/fluid interface along a borehole wall. They
time for the sound wave to travel through 1 m or variation with depth. Mud waves are arrivals from the are used to estimate fracture density and permeability.
original sonic pulse that have traveled from the
1 ft of formation.

Spring 2012 5
 As part of the process to measure compres- The compressional head wave eventually arrives at If the shear slowness in the formation is
sional slowness, a monopole source generates a the receiver array, allowing computation of the greater than the compressional slowness in the
compressional wave in the borehole fluid sur- compressional velocity of the formation. borehole fluid—a condition known as a slow for-
rounding the tool. The wave pattern expands When the compressional wave from a mono- mation—the compressional wave will still refract
radially, traveling at the compressional slowness pole source is refracted into the formation, some upon reaching the borehole, but the angle of
of the fluid, until it encounters the borehole wall, compressional energy is converted to shear waves refraction is such that critical refraction never
where some of the energy is reflected back and that refract into the formation. Whereas com- occurs, and no head wave is produced in the bore-
some is refracted into the formation (below). pressional waves propagate through both the hole. Therefore, no shear head wave is detected
Snell’s law defines the relationship between fluid-filled borehole and the porous rock matrix, at the receivers, and the shear velocity cannot be
the angle of refraction and the ratio of sound shear waves are not supported by fluids and prop- determined. This is a fundamental limitation of
velocities in the fluid and the formation.2 The agate through fluid-filled porous media by travel- monopole sources for acoustic logging.
energy that is critically refracted travels along ing from grain to grain through the rock matrix. If The ability to measure shear slowness with a
the borehole wall toward the receivers. The the shear slowness in the formation is less than monopole source thus depends on both borehole
refracted energy propagates through the forma- the compressional slowness in the borehole fluid and formation properties. Borehole fluid
tion as a compressional wave and travels faster fluid—a situation known as a fast formation— slowness values vary from around 620 μs/m
than the fluid wave because the formation is the refracted wave is critically refracted and gen- [189 μs/ft] for water-base muds to 787 μs/m
stiffer than the fluid. erates a shear head wave in the borehole. This [240 μs/ft] or slower for synthetic oil-base muds.
The critically refracted compressional wave head wave travels at the shear velocity of the for- Slow formations are common at shallow well
generates a head wave in the borehole that travels mation and may be detected by the receiver depths because of a lack of compaction by over-
at the formation compressional velocity.3 Following array. In this way, monopole acoustic tools can burden pressure. For the same reason, slow for-
Huygens principle, at each point along the bore- provide shear velocities, but only in the case of mations are common in deepwater drilling
hole wall, the compressional wave acts as a new fast formations. environments. Shear data, which are crucial for
source, transmitting waves back into the borehole. determining wellbore strength and stability in
slow formations, cannot be extracted from data
acquired with tools that employ only monopole
sources. In wellbore sections where these data
Fast Formation Slow Formation
are often most needed, they are unavailable.
Wellbore Compressional wave Wellbore Limitations of monopole sources in measur-
ing shear wave data in slow formations led to the
Head waves Compressional wave development of dipole logging technology.4 Tools
Shear wave
Head wave with dipole sources generate a flexural wave that
is analogous to shaking the borehole (next page).
Fluid wave Fluid wave Flexural waves are dispersive—their speed var-
ies with frequency—and at low frequencies, they
travel at the velocity of shear waves. Tools with
Monopole Monopole
source source dipole sources have the ability to deliver shear
slowness measurements regardless of the mud
slowness; therefore, they are useful for obtaining
P-wave S-wave Stoneley wave P-wave Stoneley wave slowness measurements in slow formations.
The dipole source is also directional in nature,
Transmitter-receiver distance

Transmitter-receiver distance

and by using directional receiver arrays and two

such sources separated by 90°, engineers are
able to derive oriented shear data from around
the wellbore. This cross-dipole measurement pro-
vides information such as maximum and mini-
mum stress azimuths, radial velocity profiles with
distance away from the borehole wall and the
orientation of anisotropic shear data.
Traveltime Traveltime
Wireline acoustic logging tools that combined
> Sonic waves from monopole sources. Monopole sonic tools generate a pulse of energy that strikes
a monopole source for compressional and shear
the formation and then travels along the borehole as a compressional head wave. In hard, or fast, data in fast formations and cross-dipole sources
formations (top left), the compressional wave, or P-wave, generates shear waves, or S-waves, that for oriented shear data in slow formations were
arrive later in time than P-waves (bottom left). Soft, or slow, formations (top right) sustain shear introduced in the 1980s. Service companies con-
waves, but they are refracted into the formation and may not arrive at the receivers (bottom right). tinue to use tools of this type, although current
Current tools have multiple receivers, and the sonic signal arrives later as the transmitter-receiver
distance increases. Although the signal amplitude diminishes with distance between transmitter and wireline tools with these sources can deliver a
receiver, data can be time shifted and stacked to improve coherence and signal-to-noise ratio.
Stoneley waves (green) arrive later in time than the P- and S-waves.

6 Oilfield Review
 Borehole Cross Section Radial Displacement Radiation Patterns

Monopole mode Nondeformed Compressional wave

cross section

displacement
Radial
90 180 270 360
Azimuth

Flexural wave 1
Flexural wave 1 Flexural wave 2
Dipole mode

displacement
Radial
Flexural wave 2
90 180 270 360

Azimuth

Quadrupole wave

Quadrupole mode
displacement
Radial

90 180 270 360

Azimuth

> Acoustic sources. Three types of acoustic sources are used in well logging: monopole (top), dipole (center) and quadrupole (bottom).
Monopole sources generate sound waves that radiate from the tool and travel through the formation as compressional waves. Dipole
sources generate directional flexural waves. Cross-dipole sources emit two flexural waves that are oriented 90° apart. Quadrupole sources
generate complex waveforms that are frequency dependent. At very low frequencies, they travel at velocities that approximate the velocity
of shear waves. The blue stars represent the approximate location along the borehole of the wave represented in the cross section.

wider range of measurements for petroleum The Rise of LWD Acoustic Tools rates—the total daily operating cost—routinely
applications than the earlier tools could.5 Wireline acoustic tools deliver high-quality mea- reach US$ 1 million.
A third acoustic source, which was recently surements in a relatively low-noise environment, For many applications, including pore pres-
introduced for oilfield applications, generates but they have shortcomings. The lag between sure prediction and wellbore stability analysis,
quadrupole waves. At very low frequencies, these drilling and logging, along with conveyance meth- the ability to acquire data during the drilling pro-
waves travel through the formation at a speed ods needed to deploy wireline tools, presents cess, and use the data as soon as possible, signifi-
comparable to that of shear waves. As with dipole complications. Delivering tools to TD in extended- cantly increases the value of the data. Wireline
shear data, the quadrupole data converge asymp- reach horizontal wells can also be complicated measurements are obtained days or even weeks
totically to the shear wave velocity.6 Although and time consuming, although a number of con- after a formation has been drilled, and therefore
somewhat similar to dipole waves, they exhibit a veyance techniques have evolved over the years.7 may be useful only for problem review or for plan-
different propagation pattern, which is more dif- Furthermore, wireline sonic tools should be cen- ning future wells.
ficult to conceptualize. Another term applied to tralized, and tool weight can make this problem- Acoustic data are also affected by borehole
them—screw waves—presents an image of how atic in high-angle and horizontal wellbores. In conditions and challenges—such as mud filtrate
they travel along the borehole. At present, ser- addition, shutting down drilling operations while invasion and rugosity—that may introduce mea-
vice companies use quadrupole sources in LWD logging dramatically increases the incremental surement errors, the severity of which tends to
tools only. cost of the logging operation, particularly in increase with time after an interval has been
deepwater drilling operations where rig spread drilled. Additionally, in settings involving damaged
2. Dutch mathematician Willebrord Snellius is credited with 3. Named for Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens, the 5. For more on advances in sonic logging: Arroyo Franco JL,
formulating the laws of refraction of waves. Snell’s law Huygens principle states that every point of a wavefront Mercado Ortiz MA, De GS, Renlie L and Williams S:
states that the ratio of the sines of the angles of may be considered the source of secondary wavelets “Sonic Investigations In and Around the Borehole,”
incidence, i, and refraction, R, is equivalent to the ratio of that spread out in all directions with a speed equal to the Oilfield Review 18, no. 1 (Spring 2006): 14–33.
phase velocities, V, in the two media. In this case, the speed of propagation of the waves. 6. A dispersion plot of shear slowness from dipole data
media are the mud, m, and the formation, ƒ . The 4. For more on cross-dipole sonic tools: Brie A, Endo T, versus the frequency of the acoustic wave will converge
relationship can be written as follows: Hoyle D, Codazzi D, Esmersoy C, Hsu K, Denoo S, asymptotically on the formation shear slowness.
sin i V
= m . Mueller MC, Plona T, Shenoy R and Sinha B: “New 7. For more on logging tool conveyance methods:
sin R Vƒ Directions in Sonic Logging,” Oilfield Review 10, no. 1 Billingham M, El-Toukhy AM, Hashem MK, Hassaan M,
Critical refraction occurs when the angle of refraction is (Spring 1998): 40–55. Lorente M, Sheiretov T and Loth M: “Conveyance—
greater than or equal to 90°, meaning the wave travels Down and Out in the Oil Field,” Oilfield Review 23, no. 2
along the borehole wall. (Summer 2011): 18–31.

Spring 2012 7
 Wireline Dipole LWD Dipole collars. Sound waves propagate easily through
these collars and their arrival at the receivers
Wellbore Wellbore overwhelms the signals from the formation.
Eliminating collar arrivals was a considerable
Tool Tool problem for early generation tools.
Tool flexural
response Slotted tool housings and materials designed
to attenuate tool arrivals for wireline sonic tools
are not an option for LWD tools, so engineers had
Weak interference
to develop other methods to limit the energy
Formation flexural
response Strong interference coupled directly from the collar. Early generation
Slowness

Slowness
LWD sonic tools featured heavily grooved collars,
Formation shear which were successful in limiting the effects of
slowness tool arrivals on the measured data. This design,
Shear asymptote however, resulted in a collar that was more flexi-
LWD dipole sonic
tool response ble than the rest of the BHA, which increased the
tool’s susceptibility to shock, vibration, tool tilt
Frequency Frequency between receivers and eccentering.
One of the most crucial shortcomings that
engineers sought to address was the inability to
> Dipole sources in wireline and LWD tools. Flexural waves from dipole sources are dispersive. A
obtain shear data in all formations, which mono-
wireline tool (left) in the borehole is designed so that the flexural signal (blue line) passing through the
body of the tool does not interfere with the formation flexural slowness data (red). Slowness data pole sources could not do. Engineers first
plotted versus frequency on a dispersion plot will approach the formation shear slowness value at the attempted to replicate the physics upon which
asymptote (horizontal dashed line). To withstand the rigors associated with drilling, LWD sonic tools wireline tools are based. Experimenting with
(right) are built into a stiff drill collar. The flexural wave (green) that propagates through an LWD tool
dipole sources, they discovered that at precisely
interferes with and distorts the measurement (heavy dashed black line) such that it does not follow
the shear slowness asymptote of the formation flexural response (red). For this reason, service the frequency range needed to acquire shear
companies have adopted quadrupole sources rather than dipole sources for LWD sonic tools. information in most formations, there was inter-
ference between the dipole collar flexure signal
and the formation signal (above left). Therefore,
instead of dipole measurements, Schlumberger
or unstable boreholes, wireline tools may not be avoid hazards such as drilling into overpressured and other service companies adopted a quadru-
able to reach TD, or operators may choose to forgo zones and can optimize drilling mud density. For pole technique for LWD sonic tools.9
logging operations out of concern for tool sticking. advanced processing, such as extracting shear As with dipole waves, quadrupole waves are
These concerns led, in part, to the development of data in fast formations, full waveforms for each dispersive, meaning their velocity depends on
LWD acoustic tools. transmitter firing were available, but were frequency. At low frequencies, the velocity
The LWD sonic tools introduced in the stored in memory and retrieved when the tools approaches an asymptote equal to the shear
mid-1990s used monopole sources and measured returned to surface. velocity of the formation. Processing and an
formation compressional slowness.8 These mea- Over the years, LWD sonic tools have evolved inversion technique extract shear slowness val-
surements were made available in real time by through several stages, primarily focusing on ues from the measured quadrupole dispersion
sending the acoustic data, along with other LWD enhancing reliability and consistency of mono- data. However, because the low-frequency com-
measurements, to the surface using mud pulse pole-derived answers and increasing the amount ponents of the quadrupole signal attenuate
telemetry systems. of data available in real time. One hurdle to the quickly, the quadrupole dispersion profile does
Engineers could monitor pore pressure development of LWD sonic tools was accounting not reach the asymptote of formation shear speed
trends and compute sonic porosity from com- for the energy from the transmitter that arrived as clearly as the dispersion data from flexural
pressional data, and geophysicists could relate at the receiver array after passing through the waves created by dipole sources.
depth-derived borehole events with time-based body of the tool. For integrity during drilling and The more dispersive profile of quadrupole
surface seismic events. Using pore pressure because they must be as strong as the rest of the data may result in a wave velocity that falls below
trends measured while drilling, engineers can drillstring, LWD tools are built into steel drill the actual formation shear speed. Quadrupole
data are affected by formation properties, bore-
8. Degrange J-M, Hawthorn A, Nakajima H, Fujihara T and 10. Scheibner et al, reference 9.
Mochida M: “Sonic While Drilling: Multipole Acoustic 11. The SonicScope tool can also generate cross-dipole hole conditions, drilling mud properties, tool
Tools for Multiple Answers,” paper IADC/SPE 128162, flexural waves but they are not currently used. characteristics and the tool’s presence and posi-
presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference and
12. Bulk density is usually provided by a density porosity tion in the wellbore. It is crucial that engineers
Exhibition, New Orleans, February 2–4, 2010.
measurement.
9. For a detailed explanation of quadrupole modeling and
13. Named for 17th century British physicist Robert Hooke, understand these effects, which can be tool spe-
processing: Scheibner D, Yoneshima S, Zhang Z,
Izuhara W, Wada Y, Wu P, Pampuri F and Pelorosso M:
this law states that the strain within an elastic material cific, to extract shear slowness from quadrupole
is proportional to the applied stress. For anisotropic
“Slow Formation Shear from an LWD Tool: Quadrupole
media, the law can be expressed as a second-rank data. In addition, the processing of quadrupole
Inversion with a Gulf of Mexico Example,” Transactions
of the SPWLA 51st Annual Logging Symposium, Perth,
stiffness tensor. data is more complex than the processing of
Western Australia, Australia, June 19–23, 2010, paper T. 14. Zoback MD: Reservoir Geomechanics. New York City: dipole data.10
Cambridge University Press, 2007.

8 Oilfield Review
 Engineers have performed extensive modeling
and testing to confirm the validity of quadrupole
source technology and of the processing technique
used to extract shear data in slow formations.
Because of these efforts, quadrupole sources are Wideband multipole transmitter
the common mode used by service companies for
extracting shear data in slow formations using
LWD tools, although the methods of extracting the
answers differ from company to company.
Quadrupole LWD sonic tools offer answers
that were not available from monopole tools.
However, they do not yet fully replace the capa- 48 wideband digital receivers
bilities of cross-dipole wireline tools because
quadrupole sources are not directional. But this
newly acquired ability to deliver shear data for
fast and slow formations in real time greatly
> SonicScope LWD tool. Built into a stiff drill collar that is about 9 m [30 ft] in length, the SonicScope
increases the value of LWD sonic tools.
tool has a wideband multipole transmitter and can be programmed to acquire data in several modes.
The 48 receivers located on the outside of the tool are 4 in. apart and provide high-resolution data at
The Scope of LWD Tool Design high spatial density.
To address the need for a quadrupole LWD tool,
Schlumberger developed the SonicScope multi-
pole sonic while drilling tool. The SonicScope
tool has a wide spectrum of applications because best fit modeled responses, engineers can extract and is a measure of the stiffness of a material.
it can acquire data in several modes. Although shear slowness values lower than 2,000 μs/m Stiffer rocks have higher Young’s modulus val-
the answers depend on the type of data acquired [600 μs/ft]. The SonicScope tool is fully combin- ues and are easier to fracture than rocks with
and how it is processed, drillers, geophysicists, able with other MWD and LWD tools. When com- lower values. Poisson’s ratio, which is the ratio
geologists, petrophysicists, reservoir engineers bined with other measurements, such as density of transverse strain to axial strain, is related to
and completion engineers can all use the infor- data, the acoustic data offer solutions for applica- closure stress; rocks with higher Poisson’s ratio
mation it provides. tions that include seismic correlation, pore pres- values are more difficult to fracture and prop
The SonicScope tool acquires monopole and sure determination, log interpretation in complex open than those with lower values.14 Targeting
quadrupole measurements using a powerful broad- lithologies and geomechanical rock properties. intervals for hydraulic fracturing that have
band transmitter that excites the borehole in both higher Young’s modulus values and lower
modes over a frequency range from 1 to 20 kHz.11 Using the Data Poisson’s ratio values may improve stimulation
There are 48 receiver sensors with 10-cm [4-in.] In situ geomechanical properties cannot be mea- performance and well productivity.
spacing mounted on the outside of the tool in pro- sured directly; however, they can be computed
tected grooves positioned 90° apart (above right). using compressional and shear slowness values
The receivers are arranged in four arrays that pro- in combination with the bulk density of the
a ρb a ρb
vide 12 axial and 4 azimuthal measurements. Each rock.12 For the case of isotropy, in which mate- M= . G = .
(Δtc ) 2 (Δt s ) 2
array contains 12 digitizers, one for each sensor. rial properties are the same in every direction,
The transmitter-to-receiver spacing is optimized geomechanics specialists apply Hooke’s law of
4G . 9KG .
to maximize the signal-to-noise ratio. The tool’s elasticity to derive simple equations that use K =M – E =
3 3K + G
1-GB memory capacity enables the recording of all log-derived measurements to calculate several
modes even with data recording rates of up to once elastic moduli (right).13 The compressional
3K – 2G .
per second. The current version of the tool has a modulus, M (also referred to as the P-wave or ν=
6K + 2G
43/4-in. diameter; larger tools, with diameters of 63/4, longitudinal modulus), is computed from com-
81/4 and 9 in., are in development. pressional wave data. Similarly, the shear modu- > Hooke’s law and isotropic elastic moduli. For
Generally, the tool is programmed in the field lus, G, a measure of a material’s ability to the case of isotropic rocks, engineers use three
to record high-frequency monopole measure- withstand shearing, is computed from the shear log-derived measurements to come up with five
ments for compressional slowness and shear wave data. Once these two values are deter- mechanical properties. The compressional
modulus, M, is computed from the compressional
slowness in fast formations, low-frequency mono- mined, the bulk modulus, K; Young’s modulus, E; slowness time (Δtc) and bulk density, ρb. The
pole data for Stoneley waves and quadrupole data and Poisson’s ratio, ν, can be calculated. shear modulus, G, is calculated from the shear
for shear acquisition in slow formations. For the The bulk modulus is the ratio of average nor- slowness time (Δts) and bulk density. The a in
both equations is a unit conversion constant. In
quadrupole mode, data are acquired in a fre- mal stress to volumetric strain and is the extent
turn, these two moduli are used to compute the
quency range down to 2 kHz. From dispersion to which a material can withstand isotropic bulk modulus, K, Young’s modulus, E, and
analysis, which uses an inversion algorithm to compressive loading before failure. Young’s Poisson’s ratio, ν.
modulus relates strain to stress in one direction

Spring 2012 9
 However, the simple equations relating log- stants to 21, deriving the relationships used to use pore pressure to facilitate drilling and
derived measurements to mechanical rock prop- determine mechanical properties in an anisotro- increase safety margins. Using mechanical prop-
erties are not valid when elastic anisotropy is pic formation is a formidable task that is beyond erties derived from sonic data, they can optimize
encountered.15 The general formulation relating the scope of this article. drilling programs and validate their ability to fol-
stress to strain as described by Hooke’s law is When acoustic data are available, engineers low a given well profile while maintaining well-
represented by a fourth-order stiffness tensor use these data to compute pore pressure, derive bore stability. Completion engineers use these
that has 81 elastic constants and summations. elastic properties and correlate downhole data same data to design stimulation programs.
Although symmetry reduces the number of con- with surface seismic results. Drilling engineers Geophysicists refine seismic data acquired at the
surface using information derived from downhole
sonic data.
Real-time data from LWD sonic tools have two
Attenuation Resistivity main applications for pore pressure determina-
0.2 ohm.m 2,000 tion: identifying overpressured formations and
Depth, ft

Gamma Ray Phase Shift Resistivity LWD Sonic Slowness selecting mud density (left). For drilling engi-
0 gAPI 150 0.2 ohm.m 2,000 150 μs/ft 50
neers, overpressured zones present hazards that
can range from mildly annoying to catastrophic.
Optimizing mud weights to maintain borehole
stability and drill safely may result in consider-
able cost savings.16
X2,000 During lithification, sediments are com-
pacted by overburden pressure and fluids are
Compaction
trend expelled. The effects of compaction can be
observed in sonic slowness data as a steady
X3,000 decrease in the compressional slowness. This is
most obvious in shale intervals. Conversely, when
fluids cannot escape, the formation retains fluids
and becomes overpressured. Higher fluid content
X4,000 results in higher compressional slowness values.
Drilling through overpressured shale zones
usually does not pose a hazard because these
zones have inherently low permeability; however,
X5,000 should the bit encounter a porous layer that is
overpressured, the hydrostatic pressure in the
wellbore may be insufficient to contain the pore
pressure. The result may be a rapid influx of res-
X6,000 ervoir fluids, or a kick. In extreme cases, the well
may blow out.
Engineers can also use mechanical properties
computed from acoustic data to construct a 1D
X7,000 mechanical earth model using programs such as
the single-well geomechanics module in Petrel
seismic-to-simulation software (next page, top).
The models can be adjusted while drilling using
X8,000 real-time data from LWD sonic tools. Such models
allow drillers to maintain a drilling mud density,
> Watching for trends. Real-time LWD gamma ray data (Track 1) indicate the or mud weight, that strikes a balance between
well is penetrating shale in the upper half of this section. As long as the bit the hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore and any
remains in a shale section, there is little potential for encountering
overpressure and taking a kick; however, should the bit enter a permeable anticipated increase in reservoir pore pressure.
zone, there is a risk of influx of formation fluids. The driller would typically There is a point, however, at which raising
choose to manage overpressure by increasing mud weight, but if the the mud weight can cause weaker rocks to fail.
shallower formations are not strong enough to sustain mud weights
Pore pressure prediction programs can deter-
sufficient to control an overpressured condition, casing must be set.
Because changes in lithology or fluid can mask changes in the pressure mine the maximum mud density that can be
regime, resistivity (Track 2) may not always indicate overpressured maintained before the formation breaks down.
conditions. The increase in sonic slowness (Track 3) at around X5,000 ft When the maximum mud weight threshold is
indicates a potential overpressured condition (red shading). If real-time
shear data are available from the LWD sonic tool, engineers can compute
reached, casing is run to isolate weaker forma-
the strength of shallower formations and determine the thresholds for mud tions. A mistake of a few meters can result in an
weight maximum values. expensive extra casing run or create hazardous

10 Oilfield Review
drilling conditions. Mechanical properties of the
Effective stress, psi
formations must be known in order to determine 800 600 400 200 0 –200 –400
the mud density limits.
Once the mechanical properties are com-
puted from compressional and shear slowness
data, geomechanical modeling programs can pro-
vide solutions to drilling and completion ques-
tions. Examples of modeling programs are
VISAGE reservoir geomechanics modeling soft-
ware and Mangrove reservoir-centric stimulation
design software. VISAGE software is a full-scale
reservoir-modeling program that engineers use to
predict behavior during drilling, injection and
production. Using finite-difference methods, the
software calculates detailed 3D and 4D models
that can display patterns of pressure, stress,
strain, porosity and permeability at specific
points or across an entire reservoir (below right). > Integrating sonic data. By including sonic data in reservoir models, such as this Petrel example,
Fracture stimulations in conventional reservoirs operators can design wellbore profiles that are compatible with the mechanical properties of the
can be modeled along with expected production. formation. Geoscientists compute mechanical properties from surface seismic data, and the LWD
sonic data are used to update models in near real time. For instance, advanced computations deliver
Mangrove software was developed for use with stress profiles that vary in a complex manner around the wellbore projection, and are graphically
unconventional reservoirs. displayed along a near-wellbore grid (shown encircling the wellbore). These displays allow engineers
An example of how geomechanical data are to better understand the borehole geomechanical status and adjust well plans to safely reach a target
(lower green area). The magenta background to the left represents Young’s modulus, an elastic
used in the development of unconventional
parameter used to define the stress state, determined from seismic inversion. These types of
resource plays is in identifying targets with information can be updated with downhole sonic data as the well is drilled. Sonic data can also tie
better characteristics for multistage fracture time-based surface seismic data, such as the cross section displayed on the right, to specific depth
stimulation. Spacing and location of perforation references downhole.
clusters are crucial elements in stimulation
design of these reservoirs.17 A manual approach
of identifying intervals with completion-quality
rock can be tedious. However, current industry Low

Mud weight safety margin

practice of designing stimulation jobs with
evenly spaced perforation clusters regardless of
variations in rock properties can result in sub-
optimal recovery.
Other key challenges in completion design
involve modeling the complex fracture networks
High
that are frequently observed in unconventional
reservoirs and evaluating their impact on produc-
tion. Accounting for heterogeneity in completion
design can help engineers enhance well produc-
tivity, especially by identifying changes in geome-
chanical properties—paticularly those that can
be derived from sonic data. The absence of a sin-
gle integrated solution to incorporate rock het-
Narrow operational window Negative operational window
erogeneity has been an impediment to optimizing
> Drilling through operational windows. After populating 3D and 4D models with mechanical
fracture stimulation designs.
properties, engineers can perform field-scale stress simulations to determine magnitude and
15. For information on application of sonic data in orientation of stresses (cyan crosses). Areas to be avoided within the reservoir can be identified,
formations with elastic anisotropy: Armstrong P, such as those shown in red in the background. Narrow operational windows, which may correspond
Ireson D, Chmela B, Dodds K, Esmersoy C, Miller D, to many factors, including maximum mud weight, regions of high fluid loss and mechanical
Hornby B, Sayers C, Schoenberg M, Leaney S and
Lynn H: “The Promise of Elastic Anisotropy,”
instability, are displayed in 3D, allowing engineers to choose a well path that maximizes safety and
Oilfield Review 6, no. 4 (October 1994): 36–47. efficiency. Drillers may decide to set casing above or below these zones, or proceed with caution,
16. Brie et al, reference 4. aware of the increased risks. An acceptable path can be located between areas with narrow
17. King GE: “Thirty Years of Gas Shale Fracturing: What operating windows (purple). The vertical cross section also provides detailed information about the
Have We Learned?” paper SPE 133456, presented at the effects of a nearby salt dome on the stress field. The mud weight safe operating margins, computed
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, from seismic and sonic data, actually increase from top to bottom, which is the opposite of
Florence, Italy, September 19–22, 2010. conditions in most reservoirs. The corresponding color changes go from blue (low safety margin) to
green to yellow to orange (high safety margin).

Spring 2012 11
 Horizontal Application
Geometrically placed perforation clusters
Rock quality Chevron Cabinda Gulf Oil Company Ltd uses
Good CQ and good RQ acoustic data to optimize drilling and comple-
Good CQ and bad RQ tions in a Lower Congo basin field offshore
Bad CQ and good RQ
Angola.19 Shear data are required for computing
Bad CQ and bad RQ
mechanical properties, which are then used in
Rock quality well design to ensure wellbore stability. Engineers
planned to acquire SonicScope data from two
separate 6-in. horizontal boreholes, drilled
Stress sequentially, to confirm that high-quality shear
Stress data could be extracted while drilling. Along with
the SonicScope tool, the LWD logging program
Low High
included azimuthal density, neutron porosity and
Selectively placed perforation clusters
resistivity tools.
The reservoir consists of unconsolidated thin-
bedded sands. To maximize exposure to the thin
layers, lateral wellbores are drilled with sinusoi-
dal trajectories. Interval A was drilled to a mea-
sured depth of 4,570 ft [1,390 m] and then,
Rock quality without pulling out of the hole, the sidetrack
Interval B was drilled to 4,240 ft [1,290 m]. The
deviation ranged from 78° to 93° in Interval A
Stress and from 80° to 97° in Interval B.
The primary focus for the study was to com-
pare the compressional and shear measure-
ments obtained using monopole sources with
> Logging data for fracture design. In unconventional reservoirs, such as gas shales, operators measurements extracted from quadrupole data.
frequently use geometry (top) rather than geology and geomechanics to determine fracture staging The engineers programmed the tool to obtain
and perforation cluster locations. LWD acoustic data, such as those from the SonicScope tool, can high-frequency monopole, low-frequency mono-
identify rocks with low stress, which offer better completion quality (CQ), and petrophysical analysis
pole and low-frequency quadrupole waveform
can identify intervals with better reservoir quality (RQ). The Mangrove program generates a composite
quality score combining CQ and RQ to rank the rock along the wellbore, recommends preferred data, which were acquired while running in the
locations for perforation clusters and groups similar rocks in treatment stages (bottom). The stress is hole and while drilling in open hole. High-
presented beneath the well projection and ranges from low (red) to high (blue). The same number of frequency monopole data were also acquired
perforation clusters are used in both examples—colored ovals represent perforation clusters in each
while in casing. Compressional slowness data
stage—but in the recommended results they are concentrated in better quality rock (blue, green and
yellow), and poor quality rock (red) is avoided. Operators following this engineering approach for were transmitted to surface in real time, and log-
completion design have seen substantial improvement in production. (Adapted from Cipolla et al, ging engineers transmitted the information to
reference 18.) geoscientists at the onshore office. Data were
also stored in tool memory for further processing
To address unconventional hydraulic fracture quantified from these multidomain reservoir data after TD was reached in Interval B and the tools
design and to help optimize fracture stimula- so that completion engineers can optimize stage could be retrieved from the well.
tions, Schlumberger engineers developed placement and perforation programs. Monopole data provided good compressional
Mangrove stimulation modeling software Operators recognize the benefits of using acous- measurements; however, shear slowness data
(above).18 The software incorporates seismic, tic log data for well and completion design. from the monopole source were frequently miss-
geologic, geomechanical and microseismic data Acquisition of data in extended-reach horizontal ing from both intervals (next page). Processing of
along with reservoir simulations to model frac- wellbores has been problematic with wireline tools the quadrupole waveform data yielded continu-
ture propagation and geometry. The software because it is difficult to convey them to TD and it is ous shear slowness data of good quality across
includes two different fracture simulators that hard to keep the tools centered in the wellbore. the majority of both intervals. The shear slowness
are designed for complex hydraulic fracture mod- LWD sonic tools, designed to acquire data in these values from the quadrupole data in Interval A
eling. They are linked to reservoir models for types of environments, provide real-time formation ranged from 132 to 310 μs/ft [433 to 1,020 μs/m],
optimizing fracture design and production fore- mechanical properties that may improve drilling and in Interval B the range was 145 to 264 μs/ft
casting. Reservoir and completion quality are decisions and stimulation programs. [476 to 866 μs/m]. With the monopole data, no
shear slowness values greater than 243 μs/ft
18. Cipolla C, Weng X, Onda H, Nadaraja T, Ganguly U and 19. Mohammed S, Crowe J, Belaud D, Yamamoto H,
Malpani R: “New Algorithms and Integrated Workflow Degrange J-M, Pistre V and Prabawa H: “Latest [797 μs/m] were observed. With the quadrupole
for Tight Gas and Shale Completions,” paper SPE 146872, Generation Logging While Drilling Sonic Tool: Multipole source, Chevron Cabinda Gulf Oil was able to
presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Acoustics Measurements in Horizontal Wells from
Exhibition, Denver, October 30–November 2, 2011. Offshore West South Africa,” Transactions of the quantify shear slownesses in zones that were too
SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium, Colorado slow for the monopole source.
Springs, Colorado, USA, May 14–18, 2011, paper CC.

12 Oilfield Review
 2-MHz
Resistivity
Data
Bulk Density
10-in. Monopole
Phase Shift Poisson’s Ratio 1.95 g/cm3 2.95
ROP
0.2 ohm.m 200 0 0.5 Neutron Porosity
200 ft/h 0 Monopole Projection
22-in. Quadrupole 45 % –15
Gamma Ray Phase Shift Poisson’s Ratio 40 μs/ft 340
PEF
0 gAPI 150 0.2 ohm.m 200 0 0.5 Monopole Δtc Quadrupole Projection
Caliper 0 20
34-in. Monopole 40 μs/ft 340 40 μs/ft 440
Phase Shift Vp /Vs Ratio Density Correction
5 in. 10 Monopole Δts Quadrupole Inversion Quality
Bit Size 0.2 ohm.m 200 0 5 –1 g/cm3 1
40 μs/ft 340 1 –4 Waveform
5 in. 10 Measured
24-in. Quadrupole Monopole
Attenuation Vp /Vs Ratio Δtc Quadrupole Δts Quadrupole Δts Variable Density Log
depth, ft
Washout
0.2 ohm.m 200 0 5 240 μs/ft 40 40 μs/ft 340 40 μs/ft 440 0 μs 5,000

XX,000

XX,100

> Good quality shear data from the SonicScope LWD tool. Chevron Cabinda engineers use mechanical properties computed from acoustic data for well
design and to optimize drilling practices in a Lower Congo basin field offshore Angola. In this example, several LWD logs were run in a horizontal well and
provided rate of penetration (ROP), gamma ray and caliper data (Track 1) along with resistivity (Track 2) and porosity data (Track 4). The SonicScope tool
was included in the suite to evaluate its ability to provide shear data in soft formations. Extracting shear slowness from monopole data is difficult in the
unconsolidated formations that are typical of the field. Track 5 presents the coherence projections for the monopole compressional data (black curve on
left) and monopole shear data (black curve on right). In several places across the logged interval, such as the gap in the middle of this interval, the
monopole shear data are incomplete. Quadrupole shear data acquired with the SonicScope tool are continuous (Track 5, red curve). The coherence
(Track 6) of the quadrupole data provides high confidence in the measurement quality. There is also a difference between the two shear slownesses
measured by the different methods. This difference is associated with acoustic anisotropy in this horizontal well. Where monopole shear data are available,
Vp /Vs ratios from the two datasets are shown (Track 3, green and dashed magenta lines). Monopole Poisson’s ratio (Track 3, purple) is compared with
quadrupole Poisson’s ratio (Track 3, dashed red) and these data also exhibit some differences across the interval. A Variable Density log (Track 7) is used to
check the quality of the received sonic data. (Adapted from Mohammed et al, reference 19.)

Spring 2012 13
 Variable Density Log Sweet Spots in Real Time
In addition to improving well design and optimiz-
High-Frequency Monopole Waveforms
ing drilling with increased safety, sonic data help
0 μs 3,000 engineers make and validate real-time well
Casing Arrival Window Start
placement decisions. Recently, engineers used
data from the SonicScope tool to identify sweet
Casing 0 μs 3,000 spots in a horizontal well.20 Two drilling runs were
Bit Size Casing Arrival Window Stop made in the well, one of more than 1,500 ft
5 in. 10 0 μs 3,000 [460 m] and a second of 886 ft [270 m].21 The
LWD assembly did not include density or porosity
data. Identification of sweet spots was based
solely on changes in the ratio of compressional
and shear velocities (Vp /Vs).
For this reservoir, a correlation had been
observed between drilling rate of penetration
(ROP) and production; zones with higher ROPs
exhibited better hydrocarbon production.
Drilling rates can, however, be influenced by fac-
tors that are unrelated to reservoir quality, such
as bit type and condition. On the other hand,
stable Vp /Vs ratios had also been associated with
better quality rock, and they reflect reservoir
properties. Log analysts identified seven sepa-
rate zones within the drilled interval based on
Casing shoe Vp /Vs ratios. Zone 1 represents the interval con-
taining the landing point. Zone 2 is the interval
over which angle was built to penetrate the reser-
voir. Changes in formation lithology and variable
> Cement bond logging with an LWD sonic tool. Data from the SonicScope formation properties were identified from
tool can be presented in a format similar to that of wireline cement bond logs Vp /Vs ratios in zones 4 and 6. Zones 3, 5 and 7 have
(CBLs) to evaluate cement behind casing. The measurements are qualitative steady Vp /Vs ratios and correspond to 10%
rather than quantitative. The Variable Density log is a presentation of the
acoustic waveform at a receiver, in which the amplitude is presented in increases in ROP compared with the average
shades of a gray scale. Because cement bonded to the outside of the casing ROP for the drilled section (next page).
attenuates the signals that would normally be present, the Variable Density From sonic data, engineers confirmed that
log is a useful indicator of the presence of cement behind pipe. In this three intervals offered the best quality rock for
interval, the depth of end of casing is shown (red line). The absence of
waveform arrivals in the casing window (dashed yellow line to dashed blue completion. The driller was also able to guide the
line) indicates good bonding of the cement behind the pipe. The patterns to well back to better quality intervals after inadver-
the right of expected casing arrivals come from the formation, which signify tently exiting the preferred zones. The results of
bonding of cement to the formation. (Adapted from Mohammed et al,
this study demonstrate the value of real-time
reference 19.)
sonic data to quantify rock quality.

The absence of shear data in softer forma- The interpretation based on the LWD sonic data is Sound Future
tions would have made it impossible to compute only qualitative, but is often sufficient to verify that Engineers recognize the importance of using
mechanical properties in these zones. Because the pipe is adequately cemented in place. mechanical property data in optimizing drilling
measurements with the quadrupole source deliv- The Lower Congo basin reservoir described in programs and designing effective stimulation
ered shear slowness in slow formations inter- this case study consisted of unconsolidated jobs. Identifying and responding to seemingly
sected by both intervals, engineers are able to sands, which can pose drilling challenges. The small variations in properties can mean the dif-
incorporate mechanical property data in future ability to extract usable-quality acoustic shear ference between disastrous results and a well
well designs. data from LWD sonic quadrupole measurements drilled with few complications. Small variations
In addition to compressional and shear slow- in these unconsolidated sands enabled engineers in mechanical properties can be exploited to
ness, the SonicScope tool provided cement bond to derive geomechanical properties for planning improve commercial viability of drilling pros-
logging (CBL) information in the 7-in. casing future extended-reach horizontal wells. These pects where fracture stimulation is indicated.
(above). From high-frequency monopole data, log data were used for several purposes, including
20. Sweet spots refer to target locations or areas within a
analysts identified the top of cement (TOC) and developing safer drilling programs, optimizing play or a reservoir that represent the best production or
estimated the cement quality. A Variable Density drilling, managing mud properties and under- potential production. Geoscientists and engineers
attempt to map sweet spots to allow wellbores to be
log, similar to wireline CBL logs, was also generated. standing limiting factors for future wells. placed in the most productive zones of the reservoir.
21. Degrange et al, reference 8.

14 Oilfield Review
 Zones 1 and 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 Zone 5 Zone 6 Zone 7
100
80
ROP, ft/h 60
40
20
0

140
120
Δt c, Δt s, μs/ft

100
80
60
40
Δt c recorded mode Δt c real time Δt s recorded mode Δt s real time
2.000

1.875
Vp /Vs ratio

1.750

1.625

1.500

0.500
Poisson’s ratio

0.375

0.250

0.125

Zones 1 and 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 Zone 5 Zone 6 Zone 7

True vertical depth, ft

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500

Original well plan Horizontal departure, ft

Revised trajectory
> Sweet spot drilling. ROP has been identified by the operator of this well as a sign of good completion-quality rock. However, ROP is influenced
by factors other than reservoir quality. The ROP data (green curve) are not conclusive and have considerable variability. Stable Vp /Vs ratios are
also an indicator of completion quality and can be computed from sonic compressional data (top, blue and red curves) and shear data (purple and
green curves) acquired in real time or recovered from downhole memory. Engineers identified seven different zones (yellow and green shading)
across the interval based on LWD Vp /Vs data (red curve). Poisson’s ratio (blue curve) is an indicator of rock stiffness. The cross section (bottom)
shows the location of each zone of the wellbore relative to the sweet spot (between light blue lines). Zone 1 is the heel of the horizontal section
where the well was kicked off, and Zone 2 is where angle was being built to enter the reservoir. Zones 4 and 6 were drilled out of zone for short
intervals. Zones 3, 5 and 7 have stable Vp /Vs ratios around 1.625, were drilled in zone and were identified as good targets for fracture stimulation.
(Adapted from Degrange et al, reference 8.)

New LWD sonic tools and techniques allow access relevant to drilling and completion operations. overcome these conditions and answer funda-
to these data in real time. Presenting the data in a form that decision mak- mental questions about the rocks being pene-
Integration of acoustic data in drilling, com- ers can use to visualize the downhole environ- trated by the bit. These tools are saying
pletion and evaluation workflows is a key to the ment is crucial. something important about the reservoir and
future of LWD sonic operations. Service compa- The area around the bit is noisy and wracked the rocks, and geoscientists are listening. —TS
nies have demonstrated conclusively that these by sound and vibrations while drilling. However,
data can be extracted and that the information is engineers have designed LWD acoustic tools that

Spring 2012 15
 Working Out of a Tight Spot

For more than 80 years, jars have been widely accepted in the drilling industry as
inexpensive contingencies to save rig time and to protect the drillstring and wellbore
from damage in the event of stuck pipe. Advances in technology and increased under-
standing of the dynamics of successful jarring operations have extended the applica-
tion of jars to horizontal and highly deviated wells. Challenges to optimal use of jars
remain, however, and both the art and the science of jarring continue to evolve.

Bob Costo Drilling jars serve a single purpose: to free stuck year.1 Approximately 50% of stuck pipe incidents
Larry W. Cunningham pipe. Jarring is the process of dynamically trans- occur during tripping, 20% while reaming and
Glenn Joseph Martin ferring strain energy stored in the drillstring to a working pipe and 10% while drilling ahead.2
José Mercado device—a jar—that concentrates kinetic energy Jarring is the last line of defense against down-
Brian Mohon at the point where the pipe is stuck. Most opera- time, expensive fishing operations, sidetracking
Liangjun Xie
tors include jars in their drilling BHAs as precau- or well abandonment. Although E&P companies
Houston, Texas, USA
tion against the likely occurrence of stuck pipe. It go to great lengths to avoid costs that result from
Oilfield Review Spring 2012: 24, no. 1.
is estimated that drillstrings become stuck an stuck pipe, drilling teams are generally unfamil-
Copyright © 2012 Schlumberger. average of once for every three wells drilled, cost- iar with the mechanics and dynamics of jars
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Eric ing operators hundreds of millions of dollars per and untrained in optimizing jarring operations.
Wilshusen, Houston.
Accelerator AP, AP Impact, Hydra-Jar AP and Jar-Pact are
marks of Schlumberger.

1. Shivers RM III and Domangue RJ: “Operational Decision

Making for Stuck-Pipe Incidents in the Gulf of Mexico:
A Risk Economics Approach,” SPE Drilling & Completion 8,
no. 2 (June 1993): 125–130.
2. Bradley WB, Jarman D, Plott RS, Wood RD, Schofield TR,
Auflick RA and Cocking D: “A Task Force Approach to
Reducing Stuck Pipe Costs,” paper SPE/IADC 21999,
presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference,
Amsterdam, March 11–14, 1991.
3. Bowes C and Procter R: 1997 Drillers Stuck Pipe
Handbook. Houston: Schlumberger (1997): 13.
4. Clausen J, Rebellon J, Blanc J and Barton S: “Novel
Drilling Technology Delivers a Step Change in Challenging
Deepwater Operations,” paper SPE 142501, presented at
the SPE Middle East Oil and Gas Show and Conference,
Manama, Bahrain, September 25–28, 2011.

16 Oilfield Review
Packoff Keyseating Differential Sticking

> Stuck pipe mechanisms. Pipe may become stuck in the hole, unable to be moved up or down or rotated, for a variety of reasons. Packoff (left) may occur
when an unconsolidated formation—loosely packed with little or no bonding between particles, pebbles or boulders—falls into the wellbore. Packoff can
also occur when formation cuttings or debris settle around the BHA. Keyseating (center) may happen when the drillpipe rotates against a single point on
the borehole wall where it wears a groove, or keyseat (inset), into the wall. When the drillstring is pulled out of the hole, the tool joints or sections of the
BHA of larger diameter than the drillstring are unable to move through the keyseat. In this case, the drillstring may be moved down or rotated but cannot be
pulled upward and thus is stuck in the hole. Differential sticking (right) may result when a force created by the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid in the
wellbore is greater than the pore pressure of a permeable formation. This overbalance presses the drillstring against the wellbore and is often initiated
when the drillstring is stationary or moving very slowly and comes in contact with a permeable formation or a thick mud filtercake.

Consequently, operators don’t always realize the down or be rotated. Pipe can become stuck while undergauge hole, stiff drilling assembly, mobile
full value of their contingency plan, and millions drilling, making a connection, logging or testing formations, ledges, doglegs and casing failures.
of dollars remain at risk. or during any operation in which equipment is in Differential sticking occurs when the pipe is
Service companies are partnering with opera- the hole. There are two primary types of pipe stationary or moving very slowly. It is caused by
tors to dramatically reduce operational risk, sticking: mechanical and differential. drilling fluid overbalance—when hydrostatic
downtime and cost by educating rig personnel and Mechanical sticking is usually encountered pressure in the mud column is greater than the
by encouraging the proper and timely use of jar while the drillstring is being moved and is caused pore pressure in the permeable formation—
placement analysis programs that have become by a physical obstruction or restriction. Three which pushes the pipe into the wellbore wall.3
the preventive component of jar contingency mechanisms are responsible for stuck pipe: pack- Aggravating conditions include high overbalance
plans. Having a broader understanding of geology, off, bridging and wellbore geometry interference pressures, thick filtercake, high-density drilling
wellbore and BHA geometry and the implications (above). Packoff occurs when an unconsolidated fluids and muds with high solids content.
of jar placement will enable drilling engineers to formation, formation cuttings or debris in the When engineers have an understanding of the
design BHAs that optimize penetration rates and wellbore settle around the BHA and fill the annu- potential mechanisms and causes of stuck pipe,
wellbore placement while providing maximum lus between the drillstring and the wellbore. It they may be able to optimize placement of jars
protection against potential downhole events that typically takes place after the mud pumps have early enough in the design process to maximize
undermine drilling performance. been off for an extended period during opera- jarring effectiveness. Operators that have this
This article reviews causes of stuck pipe and tions such as pulling out of hole. Bridging results knowledge may also better select the appropriate
the types of jars available and discusses jarring when medium to large pieces of formation, jarring forces and durations for the hole condi-
forces and the importance of planning and cement or junk fall into the wellbore and block tions once a drillstring becomes stuck.
analyzing jar placement in the drillstring. Case the annulus.
histories from Canada, Oman and the US demon- Wellbore geometry interference may arise How Jars Work
strate the benefits of successful jarring when the shape or size of the well and that of the Although drilling jars have been in use since the
operations. BHA are incompatible. Often the interference is 19th century, modern jars did not emerge until
caused by keyseat sticking when the hole deviates the 1930s. In 1931, engineers designed a jar that
Stuck Pipe Basics from true vertical. A keyseat is an indentation or consisted of a telescoping mandrel held in place
When the static force necessary to move a drill- groove cut into the formation in which larger by a mechanical latch-type device. Numerous
string exceeds the rig’s capabilities or the tensile diameter components of the drillstring, such as improvements since that time have enabled jars
strength of the drillpipe, the drillstring becomes collar connections and the BHA, can become to handle the demands created by increasingly
stuck. The pipe can no longer be moved up or wedged. Other causes of interference include complex wells.4

Spring 2012 17
 Today, a jar consists of a mandrel that slides 250
within a sleeve and an internal detent mecha-
nism that briefly delays the movement of the 16-in. stretch
200
mandrel before releasing it.5 The mandrel is 9-in. stretch

Overpull force, lbf × 1,000

often referred to as a hammer and the sleeve as
150
an anvil. This nomenclature helps explain how
energy is released from the drillstring and trans-
ferred to the stuck pipe (below).6 100
Jars operate on the principle of stored poten-
tial energy. The potential energy available to the 50
jar comes from overpull or set-down values
applied at surface.7 Jars can strike, or fire, 0
upward, downward or both. The jar is run in the 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000
drillstring either in tension or in compression. If Length of free drillpipe, ft
run in tension, the mandrel is completely > Acquiring strain energy. The energy available to the jar comes from the
extended. If run in compression, it is completely overpull force applied at surface to stretch the drillpipe. The type and length
closed. In either position, mandrel movement is of drillpipe affect the amount it can stretch and the energy it can store. This
graph for 5-in., 19.5-lbm/ft drillpipe compares two stretch lengths attainable
prevented until jarring becomes necessary and for different applied overpull as a function of the length of free drillpipe above
drillers apply additional tension or compression the stuck point. For a given stretch, the overpull force, and thus the energy
to the drillstring.8 available for jarring, decreases with increasing length of free drillpipe.

To fire a jar upward, the driller slowly applies string is released, delivering a compressive force
Overpull force
overpull to the top of the string while the BHA at the sticking point in an effort to release the
remains stationary. The detent in the jar restricts stuck tool by driving it downward. The jarring
Drillpipe the movement of the mandrel for a brief time, process is repeated—in some cases hundreds of
causing the drillpipe to physically stretch and times—until the stuck pipe is freed or, if jarring
store strain energy (above). This phase, often has not been successful, the operator decides to
called the loading phase, typically lasts only a few pursue a different course of action.
Collar seconds but when the rig crew uses hydraulic Two quantities that are generated by jarring
jars, which have long delay times, the loading combine to overcome the sticking force and
phase can last for several minutes.9 move stuck pipe: impact and impulse. The first
Anvil
The next phase, sometimes referred to as the quantity, impact, is the peak force caused by the
Jar
Detent mechanism preimpact phase, begins when the detent collision of the hammer with the anvil. The sec-
Hammer releases and concludes with jar impact. This ond quantity, impulse, is the change in momen-
phase typically lasts from 50 to 200 ms. The man- tum during the impact phase measured by the
drel accelerates, and the energy stored in the area under the load versus time curve (next
Stuck point stretched drillstring is suddenly released, setting page, top right). Both impact and impulse are
into motion the drillpipe mass and the collar or influenced primarily by the number of drill
heavyweight drillpipe (HWDP) mass directly 5. A detent is a device that positions and holds one
above the jar. These masses gain momentum dur- mechanical part in relation to another so that the device
can be released when a force is applied to one of the
Bit ing free travel. parts. An example of a detent in a common object is the
When the motion stops, an impact load, com- release mechanism in umbrellas.
parable to a hammer striking an anvil, is 6. Kalsi MS, Wang JK and Chandra U: “Transient Dynamic
> Jarring assembly. A typical jarring assembly Analysis of the Drillstring Under Jarring Operations by
imparted. The time interval of this impact phase the FEM,” SPE Drilling Engineering 2, no. 1 (March 1987):
consists of a mandrel, or hammer, that slides
is typically 10 to 50 ms. The impact generates a 47–55.
within a sleeve, or anvil, and a detent mechanism.
7. Overpull is the amount of pull on the moving pipe that is
The detent restricts the movement of the mandrel shock wave that travels up and down the drill- in excess of its weight in air or fluid. Set-down weight,
briefly before releasing it. The time delay enables string. This process provides a sudden release of also referred to as slack-off or released drillstring
the drillpipe to store potential energy. The weight, is the weight of the drillstring and BHA available
energy at the stuck point.
sudden release of the detent mechanism causes at the stuck point or at bottomhole if the pipe is free.
the mandrel to accelerate rapidly for a distance The postimpact phase lasts for a matter of 8. Schmid JT Jr: “Designing BHAs for Better Drilling Jar
of 25 to 50 cm [10 to 20 in.] before it slams against seconds until the drillstring has returned to a Performance,” World Oil 195, no. 5 (October 1982):
the sleeve, releasing the stored energy and 100–104.
state of complete rest. During the next phase,
imparting an impact force at the stuck point. 9. Aarrestad TV and Kyllingstad Å: “Loads on Drillpipe
resetting, the drillstring is lowered until string During Jarring Operations,” SPE Drilling & Completion 9,
Upward motion of the mandrel causes the no. 4 (December 1994): 271–275.
hammer to slam into the anvil, producing an weight imposes a compressive force on the jar,
10. Newman KR and Procter R: “Analysis of Hook Load
upward force on the drillstring. Downward which resets it for the next jarring cycle. Forces During Jarring,” paper SPE/IADC 118435,
mandrel motion produces the opposite effect. When jarring downward, instead of overpull presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference and
Exhibition, Amsterdam, March 17–19, 2009.
applied to the drillpipe, the weight of the tool-

18 Oilfield Review
collars above the jar; fewer drill collars result in
Impact
a higher impact force, but more drill collars
deliver a greater impulse. In successful jarring
operations, a compromise is achieved through
proper jar placement and regulating the number Impulse = usable units

Force
of drill collars to maximize how the impact and of force × time
impulse forces work together to free the pipe.
The magnitude of the impact delivered by the
jars is limited by the overpull or slack-off weight
available. A properly designed jarring assembly
usually exerts more force when jarring upward
than downward because the driller can pull on Time
the drillpipe with a force of up to 90% of the yield
> Impact and impulse. When jars are activated, the aim is to create an impact
strength of the pipe. However, the available force to overcome the force causing the pipe to stick. The impulse, with units
slack-off weight, and resulting compressive force, of force x time, is momentum, and must be sufficient to move the pipe. Both
is much less than the total toolstring weight impact and impulse are influenced primarily by the number of drill collars
because of buckling limitations of the drillstring above the jar and by jar placement.
above the jar, drill collar length configuration and
the relative position of the drill collars and the
jar.10 Jarring is most effective when it is per-
formed in the opposite direction to that which impact, but are constructed differently and Mechanical and hydraulic jars function simi-
the drillpipe was traveling when the pipe became have different functions. Drilling jars are the larly, but differ in their detent mechanisms.
stuck; that is, jarring upward is most effective if length of standard drillpipe, are durable Mechanical jars are actuated using a series of
sticking occurred while running the drillstring enough to withstand drilling stresses and are springs, locks and rollers with release mecha-
into the hole, and jarring downward is most effec- run as components of the BHA. They may be nisms. The mechanical jar fires upward at a pre-
tive if sticking occurred while running out. fired and reset several times during a single set tensile force and downward at a preset
Two resistance forces can affect jarring. A jarring operation. Fishing jars are shorter than compressional force; these normally exceed the
high differential pressure between the inside and standard drillpipe, cannot withstand drilling tensile or compressional forces reached while
the outside of the jar, acting on the total sealed forces and are run only after the pipe above the drilling. Firing is dependent on load only, not on
cross-sectional area at the mandrel, may create a stuck point has been disconnected and length of time. During drilling, the mechanical
force sufficient to open the jar and lift the drill- retrieved from the hole. They are typically jar is either cocked or extended to its fully open
string. This is called jar pump open force, or jar designed to jar upward only. or fully compressed position (below). Although
extension force. When jarring upward, the opera-
tor must add the pump open force to the surface
overpull to obtain actual tension at the jar. When
jarring downward while circulating, drillers must Detent Mechanism Cocked Detent Mechanism Tripped
slack off more weight at the surface to overcome
Down adjusting
the pump open force acting in the opposite sleeve
direction. Mandrel
Pump open force can sometimes aid in Tubular
upward jarring. In cases of severe differential spring free

toolstring sticking or drag, overpull cannot fire a Trip sleeve

mechanical jar or induce a large enough blow
from a hydraulic jar. A jar may sometimes be fired
by increasing the mud pump rate, which Friction sleeve
and outer housing
increases pump force, or by a combination of
increasing mud pressure and applying tension to Tubular Tubular spring
the drillstring. Drag on drillpipe increases over- spring free loaded to trip
load up
pull requirements. In vertical wells, drag can be
Up adjusting
negligible, but drag in directional wells often sleeve
increases the overpull required to fire the jar by
as much as 10%. > Mechanical jar. When a mechanical jar detent mechanism is cocked (left),
the tubular springs hold the trip sleeve against the mandrel, which prevents
Types of Jars the jar from firing. By maintaining an applied tensile or compressional force
that is less than the set tubular spring force, the jar may be run in and out of
Jars are classified by function and by actuation the hole without fear of tripping the jar. When applied tension is greater than
method. Drilling and fishing jars have similar the preset tubular spring force, the trip sleeve is forced upward or downward,
designs and deliver approximately the same allowing the mandrel to slide free (right) and the jar to be fired.

Spring 2012 19
 Jars may be run either in compression or in
Fluid Upper detent Detent Connector Neutralizer Lower detent
tension, providing the flexibility for optimized
Lubricant cylinder mandrel piston sub cylinder mandrel placement in the drillstring. Additionally,
because the tool works without applied torque,
the drillstring is not rotated during jarring, thus
directional drilling tool orientation is not
changed. To ensure that the Hydra-Jar AP drilling
jar performs effectively and reliably in specific
applications, engineers developed Jar-Pact BHA
Drive cylinder Balance piston Detent Upper Hydraulic Neutralizer Lower detent
impact placement software. This software models
detent fluid piston cylinder the placement of the AP Impact advance perfor-
cylinder mance system. Using data from the operator’s
well plan—including borehole and BHA parame-
> Double-acting hydraulic Hydra-Jar AP tool. The drive cylinder consists of a section that allows for
ters—the software recommends the optimal
free axial extension and retraction of the jar mandrel while allowing torque to be transmitted through
the tool. The upper fluid cylinder and balance piston maintain a pressure balance with that of the placement for the tools to avoid locating them in
borehole. The upper detent cylinder includes a restriction called the detent. When overpull tension or near the drillstring neutral point or transition
is applied, the detent piston is pulled toward the detent, metering the hydraulic fluid through the zone.13 The software also ensures that the ratio of
detent piston and allowing stretch to accumulate in the drillstring. The detent piston moves through the hole and tool diameters is within recom-
the cylinder at a slow rate until it clears the detent, tripping the jar and firing upward. The lower
detent mandrel and cylinder perform the same functions as their upper counterparts, but allow for mended guidelines.
downward jarring. Although operators strive to jar pipe free
quickly with as few firings as possible, experi-
ences in a well in western Canada illustrate the
strength and repeatability of advanced hydraulic
drilling jars. Apache Canada included a
mechanical jars are still preferred for some niche through the orifice and the speed and force at Hydra-Jar AP tool in the drillstring in a borehole
applications, including high-temperature wells, which the jar fires. The magnitude of the impact as a precautionary measure while drilling in the
many engineers favor hydraulic jar technology for is proportional to overpull. Greater overpull pro- dolomite-carbonate Keg River Formation in
most applications. duces quicker jar firing and a more forceful Alberta, Canada. During drilling, the string
Hydraulic jars were introduced in the 1940s impact. Any applied force can fire the jar, and became packed off by calcium carbonate buildup
to increase the impact loads, which are limited drillers can vary the final force delivered to the after several lost circulation pills were pumped to
by latching mechanisms of mechanical jars. stuck point. stop fluid loss.14 A combination of backreaming
Hydraulic jars were designed, therefore, not to and impacts from the Hydra-Jar AP tool helped
trip at a preselected threshold. Instead, they Expanding the Limits of Hydraulic Jars free the stuck pipe. The jar fired more than
operate using a piston pulling through a restric- The progress of oil and gas exploration and 200 times over a seven-hour period, with no loss
tion in a hydraulic fluid reservoir in the detent development into deeper waters, more hostile of impact force. The pipe was freed, and drilling
mechanism. When tension or compression is downhole environments and complex wellbore continued to TD without a fishing job, minimizing
applied to the tool in the set position, the fluid geometries has generated demand for tools, lost time and rig expense.
from the high-pressure side of the reservoir is including jars, able to perform reliably, effi-
compressed and passes into the low-pressure ciently and safely under higher downhole Jar Acceleration Tools
side through an orifice between the reservoirs. stresses. Jar manufacturers have responded with For a jar to impart peak impact at any given load,
The orifice causes a fluid flow restriction, result- tools that can perform reliably in a variety of the mandrel must still be accelerating when it
ing in a time delay that enables potential energy drilling environments: on land or offshore and in hits the sleeve. If terminal velocity is reached
to be stored in the drillpipe. Varying the metering vertical, horizontal or deviated and ultradeep or prior to impact, the jar impact will be limited.
rate of the fluid through the orifice affects the high-pressure, high-temperature (HPHT) wells. Because drill collars have been replaced by
magnitude of impact at the stuck point. Hydraulic jars provide significant performance lighter HWDP in many BHAs, it is often the case
The metering stroke is the overall distance and operational benefits over mechanical jars but that working weight is no longer sufficient to gen-
traveled by the hydraulic jar and the fluid.11 When have some limitations. Friction generated by erate enough jar impact or impulse levels. Adding
the stroke reaches a certain distance, the piston resistance to flow through the restriction during a jar accelerator to the BHA significantly ampli-
moves from the restrictive area into a larger area, the metering stroke raises the temperature in the fies jar impact and impulse and reflects shock-
allowing the compressed fluid to flow freely jar. When jars overheat, operators must cease jar- waves downward toward the stuck point (next
around the piston. The jar fires, and pressure ring until the hydraulic fluid cools. To minimize page, left). It also takes stress off the drillstring
between the two sides equalizes. The timing and the effects of the heat buildup, Houston Engineers and surface equipment and protects the topdrive
force with which the jar fires determine the mag- developed the Hydra-Jar AP double-acting from wear.
nitude of the applied tension or compression.12 hydraulic drilling jar (above). The tool includes a The Schlumberger Accelerator AP impact
The driller influences overpull on the jar, which unique temperature compensation design and tool is an example of a jar accelerator tool. It is a
in turn influences the flow rate of the fluid high-temperature seals. compact, high-load rate spring tool that is placed
directly above the jar and the mass of HWDP.

20 Oilfield Review
When a load is applied to a jar accelerator tool releases for impact, the stored potential energy stored in the drillstring because it eliminates the
impact system, the load compresses the fluid, gas in the accelerator is also released. The potential wellbore friction and drag generated over hun-
or spring inside the accelerator tool, thereby energy stored in and released from the accelera- dreds of meters of drillpipe. Using the accelera-
storing potential energy in the tool. The jar and tor tool accelerates the working mass above the tor tool can effectively double the impact force of
accelerator are coordinated so that when the jar jar much more efficiently than does energy a jar (below).

Accelerator with Accelerator with

No Force Applied Force Applied

Inner mandrel

Outer barrel

Piston chamber
filled with Silicon fluid
silicon fluid compressed by
inner mandrel
being pulled up

Piston

1,400

1,200
Impact force, lbf × 1,000

1,000
Hydra-Jar AP drilling jar
Accelerator Reflection point with accelerator tool
800

600
Jar
400
Hydra-Jar AP
drilling jar alone
200
Jar-induced initial
Reflected vibration
vibration wave
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Applied force, lbf × 1,000

Reflection point
> Amplifying jar impact. The accelerator tool consists of an outer barrel and
Stuck point
an inner mandrel connected by a piston chamber filled with silicon fluid (top
left). When a force is applied to the accelerator tool (top right), the silicon
liquid is compressed by the moving piston, storing the energy of the applied
tension and providing extra stretch to the drillstring. When the force is
released, the silicon liquid expands, and, like a spring, moves the piston back
to its original position. This movement amplifies the final impact and impulse
> Stopping vibrations. When a jar is fired, it released (bottom) by a jar as a result of adding the energy stored in the
accelerator to the energy stored in the pipe.
induces an initial wave of vibrations downward
and upward along the drillstring. The downward
wave is reflected upward from the stuck point.
In addition to increasing jar efficacy, an 11. Adelung D, Askew W, Bernardini J, Campbell AT Jr, 13. A transition zone is the area of the drillstring between
Chaffin M, Hensley R, Kirton B, Reese R and Sparling D: the neutral point and the state of either tension or
accelerator effectively prevents the initial “Jars, Jarring and Jar Placement,” Oilfield Review 3, compression. The location of the transition zone varies
waves and reflected waves from reaching the no. 4 (October 1991): 52–61. throughout the drilling process.
drill floor by acting as a hydraulic disconnect 12. Adelung et al, reference 11. 14. Cook J, Growcock F, Guo Q, Hodder M and van Oort E:
within the drillstring. “Stabilizing the Wellbore to Prevent Lost Circulation,”
Oilfield Review 23, no. 4 (Winter 2011/2012): 26–35.

Spring 2012 21
 In contrast to the experience of Apache However, because the accelerator is a telescop- that are sophisticated in their functionality yet
Canada, engineers at Arbaj Energy Services ing component, it absorbed the refractory force easy to use. Simple formulae may aid in the place-
found quick jarring success through use of an that otherwise would have been sent up the drill- ment and use of jars; however, more-complex
accelerator tool. In a well in Oman, the drillstring string to the surface equipment. With the jar and questions cannot be answered with simple engi-
became packed off and stuck when it was picked accelerator combination, the drillstring was neering tools. These questions are best resolved
up 16 m [53 ft] to perform a flow check after freed in 45 min, with no damage to the topdrive. through finite element analysis, which is integral
drilling a long vertical section from 957 m Drilling was able to proceed, and the operator to modern jar placement and analysis software
[3,140 ft] to TD at 3,590 m [11,800 ft]. Circulation, averted a potential sidetrack operation. programs. These programs can help the driller
rotation and upward and downward movement investigate and evaluate the effectiveness of the
were lost. After initial attempts to free the Jar Placement Guidelines jarring operation at various jar locations in the
BHA, the operator replaced a failed drilling jar Jar design and jar placement are the largest BHA (next page).
and intensifier with a Hydra-Jar AP and determining factors in the success or failure of a In the absence of jar placement software, cer-
Accelerator AP impact tool and performed a jarring operation. Yet, since their introduction, tain guidelines have been developed for jar place-
Jar-Pact placement analysis to optimize impact methods of jar deployment have depended more ment. The first step is to consider several basic
and impulse values at the stuck point. on driller experience and common practice than questions:
Based on the results of the Jar-Pact analysis, on engineering analysis—partly because indus- s7HATMECHANISMISMOSTLIKELYTORESULTINTHE
the BHA above the stuck point was backed off try professionals have insufficient understanding drillstring becoming stuck?
one drill collar above the top stabilizer at a depth of the design and dynamics of jars. Because jars s)S THE DRILLING JAR TO BE RUN IN TENSION OR
of 3,536 m [11,601 ft], and the pipe was pulled appear solid, like drill collars, users often assume compression?
out of hole. The Hydra-Jar AP and Accelerator AP they are as strong as drill collars. However, unlike s7HERE IS THE NEUTRAL POINT IN RELATION TO THE
tools were deployed as a fishing assembly, which drill collars, the internal workings of jars are drilling jar when drilling?
was run into the hole and engaged around the complex, with numerous connections and s(OW DOES PUMP PRESSURE AFFECT THE JARRING
stuck BHA. Although the initial plan called for inherent weakpoints. Additionally, the threads action?
jarring downward for eight hours and then on the internal connections of jars are not as s!RE THE "(! DESIGN AND THE DRILLING PARAME-
upward for another eight hours, the stuck BHA strong as the API threads used to connect joints ters within the specifications of the drilling jar
began to move after only one hour of downward of drillpipe. and accelerator tool design constraints?
jarring. Within six hours, a 14-m [46-ft] pocket Jarring success rates vary, but Schlumberger s)S THE WELLBORE INTERVAL OF CONCERN VERTICAL
had been created, enabling the operator to engineers have determined that 65% of failures deviated or horizontal?
regain circulation and rotation of the BHA. The are related to improper jar placement. The differ- s!RE THE DRILLING CONDITIONS DOWNHOLE HOSTILE
successful jarring operation saved Arbaj Energy ence between proper and improper jar place- For example, are temperatures or pressures
Services more than US$ 1.3 million by avoiding a ment can translate to savings or losses of extremely high? Does the mud have high solids
costly sidetrack. hundreds of millions of dollars per year for content? Is hydrogen sulfide [H2S] present or
Although jar accelerators are recommended today’s operators. Yet the intricacies of jar place- suspected?
for use in all types of holes, they are particularly ment are typically misunderstood and often In addition to these basic questions, four fun-
beneficial in high-angle and horizontal wells, overlooked, and published recommendations on damental guidelines help optimize jar place-
plastic salt sections, areas with a high probabil- jar placement, based on proven successes, are ment. The first is to place a minimum of 10% to
ity of differential sticking, wells with a high difficult to find.15 20% of the expected jar overpull as hammer
degree of string drag and in downward jarring Directional drilling companies and their cli- weight above the jar, which ensures that an ade-
applications. Experiences in one West Texas, ents often begin planning a directional well quate weight will produce optimal impacts. This
USA, well serve to highlight the benefits of fore- months in advance with attention to BHA designs hammer weight range has been found to provide
thought. Engineers had deployed a Hydra-Jar AP that will propel the well from its starting point to the ideal mass while maintaining adequate
double-acting hydraulic drilling jar and an TD. However, the jar is often placed in the BHA as velocity for delivering optimal impacts to the
Accelerator AP tool in the toolstring to reduce an afterthought by engineers more concerned stuck point.
potential topdrive damage resulting from jarring with placing the jar so it does not impede drilling The second guideline is never place the jar
operations and to increase the likelihood of suc- than maximizing the impact and impulse that are too close to the neutral point. Many drillpipe fail-
cessfully freeing pipe that they thought might critical to successful jarring. If engineers run a ures occur around the neutral point because
become stuck while drilling an 81/2-in. hole jar placement analysis, they often do so immedi- lateral vibrations tend to be more severe in this
through the Akota Shale section. Heaving shale ately prior to tripping, which greatly reduces area. Additionally, placing the drilling jar too
caused the BHA to become stuck while a connec- chances a jar will be optimally placed.
15. Bouaziz S, Cummings J, Rebellon J, Barton S and
tion was being made, and the rig was unable to The role of engineering analysis in determin- Yankow A: “Advancements in Downhole Drilling Tool
circulate. Jarring began immediately. The energy ing proper jar placement is increasing, as is the Placement for Highly Deviated Wells and ERD
Applications,” paper SPE 144030, presented at the
stored in the accelerator tool added to the energy need for running analysis earlier in the well plan- SPE North American Unconventional Gas Conference
already stored in the drillstring to provide up to ning process. Because the dynamic response of a and Exhibition, The Woodlands, Texas, USA,
June 14–16, 2011.
twice the impact at the stuck point than would drillstring to the various forces associated with 16. Askew WE: “Computerized Drilling Jar Placement,”
have been available without an accelerator. jarring is complex, there is growing industry paper IADC/SPE 14746, presented at the IADC/SPE
Drilling Conference, Dallas, February 10–12, 1986.
demand for jar placement software programs

22 Oilfield Review
Horizontal Hole Placement, Single Jar in Top Curve Horizontal Hole Placement, Single Jar in Lateral close to the neutral point will result in the jar
continuously cycling between compression and
tension, which can accelerate fatigue damage
and decrease operational life; it may also cause
the drilling jar to fire unexpectedly. Maintaining
20% of weight on bit (WOB) between the drilling
jar and neutral point will ensure that the jar is
outside the neutral point transition zone. Jar
Drillpipe Drillpipe placement should be reconsidered when changes
are made to WOB or the BHA.
The third and fourth guidelines are never to
Heavyweight drillpipe Heavyweight drillpipe place stabilizers or other BHA components—if
they have an outer diameter larger than that of
Jar the jar—above the drilling jar, and always to
Drillpipe keep any stabilizer at least 28 m [92 ft] away from
Drillpipe the drilling jar. A jar should never be used as a
crossover between drill collars and HWDP or two
different sizes of collars. High bending stresses
that occur in these locations can increase the
Jar
risk of tool damage.

Next Steps
Horizontal Hole Placement, Dual Jar and The proliferation of highly deviated wells and
Horizontal Hole Placement, Dual Jar Dual Accelerator
extended-reach drilling associated with deepwa-
ter operations and the discovery and development
of shale plays have brought about new and
increased drilling challenges, including the pos-
sibility of pipe becoming stuck in two different
Drillpipe sections of the wellbore. The art and experience
that an oilfield fishing hand brings to fishing oper-
ations have a value that can never be overesti-
Drillpipe Accelerator
mated. However, given the demands, risk and cost
of today’s drilling operations, experience may not
be enough. Experience tends to be based on sur-
face measurements, which may not reflect what is
Transition area, Transition area, happening downhole.16 Conventional knowledge
Jar potential stuck point Jar potential stuck point and assumptions about jar placement may not
apply to these new drilling environments.
While placing a jar in the BHA can act as a
precaution against wellbore damage, lost time
and costs associated with stuck pipe, the place-
Jar Accelerator Jar ment of the jar must be carefully considered and
analyzed for its benefits to be fully realized. As
> Jar placement. High-angle and long-reach wells challenge conventional wisdom and assumptions drillers learn more about the intricacies of jar-
about jar placement that are the legacy of many years of vertical drilling. For example, in horizontal ring, and as jar providers and drilling companies
wells, a single jar can be placed in either the upper curve (top left) or lateral section (top right). collaborate sooner and more strategically in the
Placing a single jar in the upper curve protects the lower BHA and reduces the threat of not getting
enough weight or overpull to operate the jar. However, jarring in the lateral section is relatively well planning process, jarring success rates will
ineffective and impacts at the stuck point are almost always less than needed. Placing the jar in the rise, and damage and costs associated with stuck
horizontal section poses a greater risk of not being able to overcome the hole drag to fire the jar. More pipe events will decline. —JF
recently, operators are commonly placing jars in both the curve and the lateral (bottom left). Dual jar
placement protects both the curve and the lateral while delivering stronger impacts at the stuck point.
Adding an accelerator tool above each jar (bottom right) doubles the impacts of both jars by
minimizing velocity losses caused by drag and increasing the efficiency of the lower jar. When running
the dual jar option, it is important to maintain sufficient spacing between the two jars to avoid
damaging the lower jar with impacts generated by the upper jar.

Spring 2012 23
 The Expanding Role of Mud Logging

Peter Ablard For decades, samples and measurements obtained at the surface have provided mud
Chris Bell
Chevron North Sea Limited loggers with insights into conditions at the bit face. Information captured through
Aberdeen, Scotland mud logging gave operators early indications of reservoir potential and even warned
David Cook of impending formation pressure problems. New sampling and analysis techniques,
Ivan Fornasier
Jean-Pierre Poyet along with advances in surface sensor design and monitoring, are bringing the
Sachin Sharma science of mud logging into the 21st century.
Roissy-en-France, France

Kevin Fielding
Laura Lawton
Hess Services UK Limited The mud logging unit has long been a common against deployment of wireline logging tools. In
London, England wellsite fixture. First introduced commercially in such wells, analysis of mud gas and cuttings often
1939, these mobile laboratories carried little provided the first, and perhaps only, indication
George Haines more than a coffee pot, a microscope for examin- that a formation might be productive. Today,
Houston, Texas, USA ing formation cuttings and a hotwire sensor for although LWD technology is able to give the first
detecting the amount of hydrocarbon gas encoun- glimpses of near-bit conditions in real time,
Mark A. Herkommer tered while drilling. The mud logger’s job was to adverse wellbore conditions sometimes preclude
Conroe, Texas record the depth and describe the lithology of the use of downhole logging tools. In such cases,
formations that the drill bit encountered, then the mud log continues to inform operators of the
Kevin McCarthy
determine whether those formations contained producibility of their wells. At a minimum, the
BP Exploration
any oil or gas. mud log gives the operator an early indication of
Houston, Texas
Outside the logging unit, the mud logger’s zones that merit special attention, additional log-
Maja Radakovic domain ranged from the shale shaker to the drill ging services or production tests.
Sinopec-Addax floor. The shale shaker yielded formation cuttings The mud log serves a variety of functions. As a
Geneva, Switzerland and gas—both liberated by the drill bit—which correlation tool, the mud log’s ROP and total gas
were transported to the surface in the drilling curves exhibit a remarkable correspondence to
Lawrence Umar fluid. Periodic visits to the shaker permitted the gamma ray and resistivity curves, respectively.1
Petronas Carigali Sdn Bhd mud logger to collect cuttings for microscopic Throughout the drilling process, mud logs pro-
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia examination, while a suction line between the vide real-time correlations with logs from neigh-
Oilfield Review Spring 2012: 24, no. 1. shaker and the logging unit carried gas from the boring wells and help the operator track the bit’s
Copyright © 2012 Schlumberger. gas trap to the logging unit’s hotwire gas detec- position in relation to target formations. Because
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Justin tion system. Visits to the drill floor allowed the mud log is based on physical samples, it pro-
Ashar, Kamel Benseddik, Regis Gallard, Willie Stoker
and Craig Williamson, Houston; John Christie, Paris; Gen important exchanges of information between the vides direct, positive identification of lithology
Herga and Denise Jackson, Gatwick, England; Mark Jayne, mud logger and driller. Using basic surface mea- and hydrocarbon content. This information can
Francois Le buhan, Remi Lepoutre, Jacques Lessi, Audrey
Malmin, Keith Ross and Philippe Verdenal, Roissy-en- surements, the mud logger was able to produce a be helpful when formation characteristics make
France, France; Nikhil Patel, Singapore; and Irwan Roze, concise account of drilling activity. wireline or LWD log interpretation complicated
Conroe, Texas.
FLAIR, MDT, PreVue, RFT, StethoScope and Thema are For decades, gas measurements, lithology and or ambiguous. It can also fill gaps where other
marks of Schlumberger. rate of penetration (ROP) provided the earliest such measurements have not been obtained.
1. Like electric logs, most mud logs conform to format indications of reservoir potential. Before the Thus, when integrated with wireline or LWD mea-
standards set forth by the Society of Professional Well
Log Analysts (SPWLA). For mud log standards advent of measurements while drilling (MWD) surements, cores and well test data, the mud log
promulgated by SPWLA: Mercer RF and McAdams JB: and logging while drilling (LWD), mud loggers provides independent evidence for a more com-
“Standards for Hydrocarbon Well Logging,” Transactions
of the SPWLA 23rd Annual Logging Symposium, were able to obtain valuable formation data from prehensive understanding of reservoir conditions
Corpus Christi, Texas, USA, July 6–9, 1982, paper LL. wells in which drilling conditions, formation and geology.
characteristics or well trajectory conspired

24 Oilfield Review
 Drill floor Mud
mixing
pit
Mud pumps

Suction
pit

Sand trap Settling pit

Mud
logging
cabin Reserve pit

The scope of the basic mud logging service The mud logger’s role takes on added impor- From a drilling standpoint, the mud logger’s
has broadened over time, as additional sensors tance when there is a drilling break, or signifi- most important task is gas monitoring. Mud gas
brought more data into the logging unit— cant increase in ROP. Then the mud logger alerts trends that develop while drilling are integral to
expanding in diversity from gas chromatographs the company representative and requests that evaluation of mud balance and identification of
to weight-on-bit and mud pit level indicators. The drilling be stopped until mud and cuttings from potentially overpressured formations. By care-
mud logging service now typically tracks ROP, the bit face can be circulated to the surface. If fully tracking gas and drilling parameters, the
lithology, visual hydrocarbon indicators, total mud analysis indicates the presence of hydrocar- mud logger can recognize impending deviations
combustible gas in mud and individual hydrocar- bons—called a show—the mud logger informs from normal trends and give advance warning so
bon compounds in the gas, along with numerous the geologist, who may elect to core or test the the driller and company representative can miti-
drilling parameters. As a hub for monitoring drill- interval. Geochemists and biostratigraphers also gate the problem by adjusting the density of the
ing operations and rig sensors, the mud logging rely on mud loggers to collect representative drilling fluid or shutting in the well. Thus, the
unit has become a source of crucial information samples needed to make correlations and develop success of a well and the safety of the drilling
for the company representative, the driller and geologic models. operation may hinge on how quickly a mud logger
the geologist. can synthesize and interpret myriad pieces
of data.

Spring 2012 25
 Mud logging capabilities have evolved over Advances in computing and networking tech- This article describes how a basic mud log is
the years. By the mid-1950s, gas samples were nology, surface sensor design and sample analysis assembled, reviews sampling and analysis tech-
being analyzed by wellsite gas chromatography. are bringing the mud logging unit into the 21st niques used in formation evaluation and dis-
In the 1960s, mud logging companies began offer- century. Today, even more sensors lead into the cusses basic methods for monitoring pressure. An
ing geopressure detection services.2 Automated logging unit, each acquiring data at a frequency of overview of recent sensor technology maps the
event recorders, made possible through use of several times per second. To handle this increase evolutionary path from basic formation evalua-
robust microelectronic components, were incor- in data volume, a context-aware processing sys- tion to advanced analysis of mud gases for geolo-
porated into mud logging processes during the tem—based on computer-generated trend lines gists and well integrity services for drillers.
1970s. During the following decade, mud logging and a library of established models—makes the
units entered the computer age. Computers took data easier for the mud logger and other end users Mechanics of Mud Logging
the burden of printing the log away from the mud to comprehend. Digital images of samples viewed In the oil field, drilling fluid is integral to every drill-
logger, who used to laboriously compile the data under the microscope can be rapidly transmitted ing project. Be it water-base, oil-base or gas-base,
and then draw the log by hand. In addition, com- from the wellsite to the client office. And new drilling fluid is vital to the process of making hole:
puters allowed mud loggers to organize and approaches to gas sampling and analysis have s)TSTREAMSUNDERPRESSURETHROUGHJETNOZZLES
track data from multiple sources without sen- been developed to extract geochemical properties on the drill bit to clean the bit and carry heat
sory overload. at the wellsite. away from the bit face.
s)TTRANSPORTSDRILLCUTTINGSFROMTHEBITFACETO
the surface, thus playing an essential role in
the hole cleaning process.
s)TOFFSETSBOTTOMHOLEPRESSURETOHELPMAINTAIN
Traveling block wellbore stability and prevent the influx of for-
mation fluids that could cause blowouts.
Over time, numerous variations on the basic
Standpipe mixture of clay- and freshwater-base drilling flu-
ids have been developed (and sometimes dis-
Kelly Flowline carded). Well-known variations are based on
Rotary table saltwater, mineral oil, diesel oil, polymers, nitro-
Mud logging unit Gas trap
Drill floor gen, mist and foam. Each type has specific prop-
Suction line Shale shaker
erties that deliver superior performance in
Bell nipple certain drilling environments. And each requires
Blowout preventer special accommodations when it comes to mud
logging: Some require custom sampling tech-
niques; others require special sample rinsing pro-
Mud Suction Shaker Reserve cedures. This section focuses on the simplest of
pump pit pit pit
Casing environments, in which freshwater-base drilling
muds are used.
The practice of mud logging relies heavily on
the mud circulation system, which carries forma-
tion cuttings and fluids to the surface. High-
Drillpipe
pressure mud pumps draw drilling fluid from
surface tanks and direct it downhole through the
drillpipe (left). The mud exits the drillstring
through nozzles at the face of the bit. Pump pres-
sure forces the mud upward through the annular
space between the drillpipe and casing, to exit at
the surface through a flowline above the blowout
Bit preventer. The mud then passes over a vibrating
mesh screen at the shale shaker, where forma-
> Mud circulation system. Drilling mud, drawn from the suction pit and pumped through surface pipe, tion cuttings are separated from the liquid mud.
is sent downhole through the center of the drillpipe. It enters the open borehole through nozzles (not The mud falls through the screens to the mud pits
shown) on the bit. The mud cools and lubricates the bit, then carries away formation cuttings and before being pumped back into the well.
fluids as it moves upward in the annular space between the pipe and borehole wall. At the surface, the As a bit drills through the subsurface, the rock it
mud, formation fluids and cuttings are diverted through a side outlet in the bell nipple and through an
inclined flowline to the shale shaker. A mud agitator, or gas trap, is positioned at the shaker’s header grinds up—along with any water, oil or gas contained
box to liberate gas from the mud. A suction line at the top of the agitator siphons gas off from the mud therein—is carried to the surface by the drilling
and sends it to the mud logging unit for analysis. The mud flows over the shaker, where screens mud. What arrives at the surface and when it arrives
separate the cuttings from the mud, which is returned to the shaker pit.

26 Oilfield Review
are fundamental to the science of mud logging. The
type of material and the timing of its arrival are influ-
enced to varying degrees by drilling practices, lithol-
ogy and pressure.
The mud logger requires samples of formation
cuttings to ascertain the subsurface geology at a
given depth. Therefore, cuttings must be large
enough to trap on the shaker or desilter screens.
On average, rock cuttings are roughly the size of
coffee grounds (right). Their size is controlled
largely by how consolidated the rock is, along
with grain size and cementation of the rock. In
shale, pressure can affect the size of cuttings,
and large elongated cavings of spalling shale that
pop off the borehole wall are a strong indicator of
overpressure. Bit type plays a significant role as
well. Roller cone bits with chisel teeth produce a
coarser grade of cuttings than do those with car-
bide buttons. Polycrystalline diamond compact
(PDC) bits in soft formations typically use large
cutters that produce large cuttings (below right).
Harder formations call for smaller PDC cutters,
which produce smaller cuttings.
> Cuttings sample. Having been cleaned and dried, these shale cuttings will be examined under
The volume of cuttings that flow across the a microscope.
shaker is a function of bit size and ROP.3 Bit size
controls the cross-sectional area of the hole. ROP
controls the thickness of the interval drilled over tings and fluid samples to the formations and and back to the surface is calculated so that the
a given period. These factors are, in turn, affected depths from which they originate. mud logger can anticipate its arrival. The timer is
by pump rate, weight on bit (WOB), rotary speed, One method for determining lag is to calcu- turned off when the tracer reaches the shale
fluid viscosity and mud density, commonly late the amount of time required to displace the shaker. Knowing the pump rate and the inside
referred to as mud weight (MW). total annular volume of drilling fluid. This method diameter of the drillpipe, the mud logger can cal-
To characterize the lithology of a particular calls for the mud logger to factor in the length culate the fluid volume contained within the pipe
interval in a well, the mud logger must account and diameter of the open hole, the capacity and to TD; then, knowing the pump displacement, the
for the transport velocity of the cuttings to cor- displacement of the tubulars—riser, casing and number of strokes to pump the tracer downhole
rectly determine the amount of time it takes the drillpipe—in addition to mud pump output, with can be calculated. The mud logger can convert
cuttings to travel from the bit face to the shale separate calculations performed at each change this to the time it takes the tracer to travel from
shaker. This lag time increases with depth, taking in hole or pipe diameter. However, the calculated the surface to the bit. Subtracting this time from
just a few minutes while drilling the upper sec- result tends to be optimistic, underestimating the total measured time allows computation of
tion of a well, but extending to several hours in hole volume because it does not account for the lag time from the drill bit to the surface.
deeper sections. An accurate determination of rugosity or washouts, which affect mud volume
lag time is crucial for precisely correlating cut- and velocity of flow.
2. Geopressure is synonymous with formation pressure. In
A more reliable method for determining lag
common oilfield parlance, the term refers to an anomalous time may be obtained through use of a tracer that
fluid pressure condition that is above or below the normal
hydrostatic pressure condition for a given depth. Normal
is pumped downhole and detected upon its return
pressure, overpressure or underpressure is either equal to the surface. Various tracer substances have
to, above or below hydrostatic pressure, respectively.
been tested, ranging from oats, corn or rice to
For more on this topic: Barriol Y, Glaser KS, Pop J,
Bartman B, Corbiell R, Eriksen KO, Laastad H, Laidlaw J, paint, calcium carbide nuggets or injected gas—
Manin Y, Morrison K, Sayers CM, Terrazas Romero M and some types are precluded out of concern for their 8 in.
Volokitin Y: “The Pressures of Drilling and Production,”
Oilfield Review 17, no. 3 (Autumn 2005): 22–41. effects on downhole equipment; others are used
Cutting with
3. Whittaker A: Mud Logging Handbook. Englewood Cliffs, only in certain regions.4 In most cases, the tracer tool marks
New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall, 1991.
is simply wrapped in tissue paper, then inserted
4. Calcium carbide [CaC2] reacts with water in the drilling
fluid [CaC2+2H2O→C2H2+Ca(OH)2]. The acetylene [C2H2] into the drillpipe when a connection is made on
produced in this reaction is a gas not normally found in the drill floor. The paper disaggregates on its trip
sediments. The acetylene will, in turn, be picked up at the
gas trap, and its arrival will be noted automatically by the through the drillpipe and the tracer passes
gas detector and gas chromatograph inside the mud through the nozzles in the bit. The mud logger
logging unit. > Cuttings from a PDC bit. Claystone in a mud
starts a timer when the pumps are turned on, and logger’s sieve shows tool marks, evidence of
the time it takes the tracer to circulate downhole shearing action by a PDC bit.

Spring 2012 27
 Clay Shale Sandstone Sand Limestone Dolomite Anhydrite Coal

FG Formation gas CG Connection gas TG Trip gas Oil and gas Oil Gas Bit change, trip Shoe

Chromatograph, ppm
ROP
ft/h Depth, Cuttings, Total Gas, units C1 C2 C3 Mud Weight,

Fluorescence
iC4 nC4 Lithological Description
ft % 0 125 250 375 500 ppg
100 50 0 and Notes
iC5 nC5
0.5k 1k 1.5k 2k 2.5k

1,000k
100k
100

10k
10

1k
7,500 Sandstone: Clr-lt gy-frst, m-f gr,
sbelg-elg, sbang-sbrnd, m srt, tr Glau,
calc mtx, p-m cmt, qtzc i/p, m ind,
fri-m hd, p-fr intgran por, no fluor.
9 7/8-in. casing set at 7,580 ft MD/
6,691 ft TVD. LOT = 14.8 ppg.
In: 10.8 Clay: Lt brn-tan, arg, calc, plas,
7,600 Out: 10.8 sft, sol, slty, rthy, grty.
Shale: Lt gy-lt brn, grnsh gy, arg, calc,
frm-hd, occ sft, p-m cpt, sbblky-blky,
Increase splty-ppy i/p, rthy, grty.
Trip for new bit TG: 1,548 U
6.3 bbl gain MW to 11.3
Sandstone: Clr-lt gy-frst, m-f gr,
sbelg-elg, sbang-sbrnd, m srt, tr Glau,
7,700 Increase calc mtx, p-m cmt, qtzc i/p, m ind,
CG: 35 U fri-m hd, p-fr intgran por, no fluor.
MW to 11.5

CG: 39 U Increase Shale: Lt gy-lt brn, grnsh gy, arg, calc,

MW to 11.7 frm-hd, occ sft, p-m cpt, sbblky-blky,
CG: 45 U splty-ppy i/p, rthy, grty.

Clay: Lt brn-tan, arg, calc, plas,

7,800 sft, sol, stky i/p, rthy, grty.
Sand: Clr-frst, trnsp-trnsl, m-c gr,
WOB 38 to 53 klb occ f, sbelg-sbsph, ang-sbang, m srt,
RPM 78 to 84 tr Glauc, uncons-p cmt, p ind, lse, n por,
Flow 650 gpm Qtz, no fluor.

FG: 427 U
Clay: Lt brn-tan, arg, calc, plas,
7,900 sft, sol, stky i/p, rthy, grty.
Increase
Sand: Clr-frst, trnsp-trnsl, m-c gr,
MW to 12.0 occ f, sbelg-sbsph, ang-sbang, m srt,
FG: 920 U tr Glauc, uncons-p cmt, p ind, lse,
Qtz, no fluor.

8,000
> Excerpt from a basic mud log. A mud log typically displays ROP, depth, cuttings lithology, gas measurements and cuttings descriptions. It may also contain notes
on mud rheology or drilling parameters. This log documents fairly routine drilling, with casing set in a shaly interval at 7,580 ft. After drilling out of casing and
running a leakoff test (LOT), ROP was about 25 to 30 ft/h [7.6 to 9 m/h]. A trip for a new bit at 7,650 ft resulted in 1,548 units of trip gas (TG). During drilling at
near-balanced conditions, small increases in connection gas (CG) were observed following each connection, prompting the driller to raise the mud weight. An
increase in ROP at 7,890 ft signified a drilling break, which was accompanied by increasing sand content and a gas show, which reached a peak of 920 units of
gas (FG). Gas detector results are expressed in parts per million (ppm) of equivalent methane in air on a volume basis, where 10,000 ppm is equal to 1% methane,
or 50 units. The wellsite gas chromatograph typically tracks methane [CH4]—denoted as C1—as well as the following constituents: ethane [C2H6] or C2, propane
[C3H8] or C3 propane [C3H8] or C3 and the normal isopolymers of butane [C4H10] or nC4 and iC4 and pentane [C5H12] or nC5 and iC5.

Lag can also be measured in mud pump needed to pump the tracer downhole to the bit is calculated lag was 1,710 pump strokes, this 6% dif-
strokes. Sensors placed on the mud pumps detect subtracted from the total count to determine the ference in lag time can be attributed to borehole
piston movement and transmit a signal to the number of pump strokes required to circulate the 5. ECD is the effective density exerted at a given depth by
pump stroke counter display in the mud logging mud and cuttings from the drill bit to the surface. circulating fluid against the formation. The ECD is
calculated as:
unit. The counters are set to zero when the tracer Lag is usually measured on a daily basis and at
ECD = d + P/(0.052×D), where d is the mud weight in
is inserted into the drillpipe and are read when each casing point. The calculated lag is useful in pounds per gallon (lbm/galUS); P is the pressure drop in
the tracer arrives at the surface. A pump stroke determining the impact of formation washouts psi in the annulus between depth, D, and surface; D is the
true vertical depth in ft and 0.052 is the conversion factor
counter will add increments only when the pump between measured lag intervals. For example, a from psi/ft to lbm/galUS.
is running; its rate thus reflects the true pumping carbide tracer is placed into the drillpipe during a 6. In this case, swabbing refers to a slight reduction in
annular pressure caused by pipe movement during a
rate, despite interruptions for connections or connection. After 1,800 pump strokes, the gas connection. The amount of gas produced into the
pump maintenance. The number of pump strokes detectors record an acetylene peak. Given that the borehole as a result of swabbing depends on mud
rheology, pipe velocity during movement and pipe and
annulus diameter.

28 Oilfield Review
enlargement. By multiplying pump displacement The mud log provides a condensed record of sub- formation cuttings. Deviations from this ROP
by the difference in pump strokes, it is possible to surface geology, the hydrocarbons encountered baseline may indicate a change in lithology or
determine the total volume of borehole washouts. and notable activities while drilling the well (pre- other downhole variables. For example, a drill-
This volume is also used in extrapolating lag calcu- vious page). ing break may signify a change from shale to
lations beyond the measured lag point. The ROP curve records how much time the bit sand or an increase in bottomhole pressure
In some cases, another type of gas may help takes to penetrate each meter or foot, as deter- caused by crossing a fault. A sudden decrease in
mud loggers keep track of lag. Connection gas is mined by a sensor on the drawworks. The ROP ROP, sometimes called a reverse drilling break,
typically detected when drilling at near-balanced curve can be plotted as a step chart or a continu- may indicate a transition to rock of greater den-
conditions in which pressure exerted by the mud is ous line, increasing from right to left. When dis- sity, or it may signal a problem with the bit.
held close to formation pressure. When a connec- played in this manner, the ROP curve responds to These indicators must be weighed against other
tion is made on the drill floor, the mud pumps are changes in rock type or porosity in much the measurements to ascertain their true cause.
stopped and the pipe is picked up to bring the bit off same manner as a spontaneous potential or The lithology column is based on analysis of
bottom. With pumps off, the effective mud weight is gamma ray curve, making for easy correlation lagged samples of cuttings. Samples are generally
reduced from equivalent circulating density (ECD) between these curves. collected at regular intervals—for example, every
to static mud weight, and the hole is swabbed some- A variety of factors affect ROP, including rock 3 m [10 ft] or every 10 m [30 ft]—and prior to trip-
what as the pipe is picked up.5 These conditions can type, porosity, WOB, MW and rotary speed (rpm) ping out of the hole. They are also collected when
create a reduction in bottomhole hydrostatic pres- as well as bit type, diameter and condition. ROP or gas curves exhibit significant deviations
sure sufficient for small amounts of gas to be pro- Because drilling practices affect ROP as much as from established trends, indicating changes in for-
duced by the formation.6 When present, this geology does, the mud logger makes note of cer- mation characteristics. The lithology column dis-
connection gas is detected at one lag interval after tain drilling parameters next to the ROP curve, plays an estimate of gross lithology as a percentage
a pipe connection. Each occurrence of connection especially when they change. of cuttings, reported in 10% increments.
gas reflects the amount of lag for the depth of the The ROP curve is interpreted in the same The cuttings sample is rinsed and dried, then
bit when the connection took place. manner as a gamma ray log. Typically, a shale examined under a binocular microscope. The
baseline is established through a thick interval sample is then described in terms of lithology,
Basic Formation Evaluation of generally slow, consistent drilling— the shale color, grain size, shape, sorting, porosity, texture
In its most basic form, the mud log is a record of inference can be verified through analysis of and other characteristics relevant to the particu-
the drill rate, cuttings lithology, total combusti- lar rock type (below).
ble gas and individual hydrocarbon compounds
brought to the surface during drilling operations.

Camera

Cuttings Sample Description

1. Rock name
2. Color
3. Hardness, fissility
4. Elements or grains
Clastics Carbonates
a. grain size a. “grain” nature
b. roundness b. “grain” size
c. sphericity
d. sorting
5. Cement and matrix
Clastics Carbonates
a. abundance a. abundance
b. nature b. crystallinity
6. Accessories, fossils
7. Visual porosity estimation
8. Hydrocarbon indications
a. visual (stains and bleeding)
b. direct fluorescence (extent, intensity and color)
c. cut fluorescence (rate, intensity and color)

> Microscopic examination. Rinsed and dried samples are examined under a microscope (left) to provide lithological descriptions (right ) for the mud log.
The inset photograph shows a typical sample with a mix of rock types, dominated by gray claystone with a lesser fraction of clear to off-white sand. In
some logging units, a camera is attached to the microscope. This allows the mud logger to thoroughly document potentially productive zones, uncommon
minerals, distinctive marker beds or even metal shavings (indicative of casing or bit wear) found in the sample.

Spring 2012 29
> Fluorescence under UV light. Mineral fluorescence (light colors, left ), often seen in rock samples, is not an indicator of pay. Streaming cut (center ),
however, is produced by an oil-bearing sample placed in solvent. Two faint streams of oil can be seen at the 5 o’clock and 11 o’clock positions on the
sample. As this milky cut streams oil into the solvent, it gives the clear solvent a light blue hue. After the solvent is allowed to dry, any oil residue will
produce a fluorescent ring on the sample glass (right), which is useful for detecting oil in low-permeability samples that do not readily produce streaming
cut. (Photograph courtesy of G. Haines.)

The presence of hydrocarbons may not be green, gold, blue, yellow or white), intensity and by the solvent (above). The mud logger will note
obvious—even under a microscope—so each distribution. Fluorescence color can indicate oil whether the cut is immediate or delayed, to pro-
sample is subjected to a variety of simple tests to gravity, with dark colors suggestive of low–API vide a qualitative inference of permeability.
screen for hydrocarbons. First, the sample is gravity, heavy oils, while light colors indicate Odor is another good indicator of hydrocar-
examined under an ultraviolet (UV) light. high–API gravity, light oils. bons. If the drilling mud is ruled out as the source
Fluorescence is an extremely sensitive test for Because fluorescence may be attributed to a of an oily odor, then the presence of hydrocar-
the presence of hydrocarbons in mud, drill cut- number of causes, the cuttings that fluoresce are bons should be investigated. However, the lack of
tings and cores. Sample fluorescence is evalu- separated from the main sample for further an odor is not diagnostic of an absence of hydro-
ated in terms of color (ranging from brown to examination. Various mud additives, oil in the carbons, especially in gas zones.
rock and certain types of minerals—such as Some rock grains may be stained through
pyrite and calcite—may cause a sample to fluo- exposure to oil. The color of the stain can range
resce. The mud logger must compare mud addi- from dark brown for low–API gravity oils, to col-
tives against rock cuttings to recognize the orless for high–API gravity oils and condensate.
effects of additives. Mineral fluorescence may The amount of staining or bleeding—the slow
closely resemble oil fluorescence, but the differ- discharge of oil—in oil-bearing cuttings or cores
Bubbles
ence can be confirmed by application of a sol- is a qualitative measure of permeability.
vent. Mineral fluorescence will remain Reaction to acid can be a sensitive indicator
undisturbed, whereas hydrocarbon fluorescence of oil in carbonate rock samples, as long as oil-
will appear to flow and diffuse into the solvent as base fluids or hydrocarbons were not added to
Bubble
the oil dissolves. This diffusion is known as cut the mud system. To test for oil, the mud logger
fluorescence, or more commonly just cut. Under applies dilute hydrochloric acid to fragments of
UV light, hydrocarbons may be seen to stream rock in a spot plate (left). The presence of oil is
from the rock pores into the surrounding solvent, indicated by the formation of large bubbles as the
turning the solvent cloudy. If no streaming cut is acid reacts with carbonate in the matrix to free
observed, the sample is left until the solvent has the oil contained within the rock’s pores. In some
> Reaction of carbonate rock to acid. Dilute evaporated and then examined once more under cases, the oil will display an iridescent rainbow
hydrochloric acid dissolves carbonate rock, UV light. A fluorescent ring around the sample on the bubble’s surface.
liberating any oil contained within. As it dissipates,
the oil turns the clear acid brown. The three indicates that hydrocarbons have been liberated
larger bubbles are a result of greater surface
tension caused by the presence of oil.

30 Oilfield Review
 Wettability can be qualitatively assessed. type to another. The quantity of the gas recovered
Failure of a sample to take on water, or the ten- and the ratios of the various gases are useful in R
log
dency of cuttings to float in water, may indicate identifying zones of producible oil or gas.8 60N
that oil is present and that the sample is oil wet.7 d=
12W
However, samples from air-drilled wells may not Basic Pressure Monitoring log 6
wet as a result of small particle sizes and surface Drilling crews around the world have had to con- 10 D
tension effects. tend with abnormally high formation pressures.
A positive result from any of these screening High pressures are encountered in formations in where: d = drillability exponent
tests is considered an oil show, which warrants which an impermeable layer, sealing fault, diapir R = penetration rate, ft/h
N = rotary speed, rpm
immediate notification of the company repre- or other barrier restricts natural fluid flow and W = weight on bit, lbm
sentative and geologist. The mud logger also pressure equilibration. In these overpressured D = bit diameter, in.
watches for gas shows by monitoring the gas formations, fluids trapped in the pores bear part
detection equipment. of the weight of the overlying rock. Overpressure > Formula for d-exponent. The d-exponent
The gas detection system offers near-instan- commonly occurs when low permeability pre- normalizes the variables that can influence the
taneous readings, limited only by the lag time vents pore fluid from escaping as rapidly as drilling rate, making the resulting plot more
from the bit to the surface. Suction lines trans- required for compaction of pore space under the sensitive to pore pressure. (Adapted from Jorden
and Shirley, reference 11). The d-exponent varies
port a constant stream of air and gas from the gas weight of newly deposited overburden sediments.
inversely with the rate of penetration. Variations
trap, located at the shale shaker, to the logging Excess pressure builds as the weight of overbur- on the original equation have been developed
unit. There, sensitive gas detection instruments den squeezes the trapped fluid in a process since its publication in 1966; these variations
process samples extracted from the drilling mud. referred to as undercompaction or compaction account for changes in mud weight or bit wear.
(Rehm and McClendon, reference 12.)
The primary tool is a flame ionization detector disequilibrium. This undercompaction typically
(FID), which can sense hydrocarbon gas concen- occurs where there is a transition from a sand-
trations as low as 5 to 20 ppm. FID results are prone to a shale-prone environment.9 Shale porosity has long been considered a
expressed in parts per million (ppm) of equiva- Detection of overpressured formations is crit- reliable indicator of abnormal formation pres-
lent methane in air on a volume basis, where ical to the drilling process; by providing this ser- sure. Because the weight of overburden causes
10,000 ppm is equal to 1% methane, or 50 units. vice, mud logging plays an important role in well shale to become more compact with depth, ROP
The FID measurements are used to plot the control. Drillers are extremely keen to recognize normally decreases with depth. If the drilling
total gas curve on the mud log. Background impending threats to well control, but the sim- rate increases in shale, the driller and mud log-
gas—a more or less constant, minimum level of plicity of rig floor instrumentation sometimes ger might reasonably suspect that porosity is
gas—establishes a baseline on the total gas makes it difficult to identify subtle changes in increasing and that the bit may be entering an
plot. The level of background gas may be any pressure parameters. An unnoticed failure of a overpressured zone.
value from a few ppm to several percent, sensor or display on the drill floor, a distraction at However, numerous factors influence ROP;
depending on formation and circulating condi- the wrong time or an unexpected change in drill- weight on bit, mud weight, rotary speed, bit size
tions. A gas show is any significant increase in ing routine may prevent a driller from recogniz- and bit condition also affect drilling rate.11 To
detected gas, usually also correlated with a zone ing the onset of a dangerous situation. Using account for these mechanical variables, the mud
of increased porosity or permeability. surface indicators, mud loggers may be able to logger computes a drillability exponent, or
The mud logger consults the gas chromato- identify hazardous operating conditions. d-exponent (above). Some mud loggers use a
graph for more detailed analysis during oil or gas Mud logging crews provide another set of eyes corrected d-exponent (dcs), which factors in
shows. Operating on an automated cycle, the to monitor drilling systems while correlating mul-
7. Wettability is the preference of a solid surface to be in
chromatograph separates the gas stream into dif- tiple drilling parameters. Through examination contact with one liquid rather than another.
ferent fractions according to molecular weight. of cuttings and diligent monitoring of ROP, gas, Intermolecular interactions between the solid surface
and the liquid control wetting behavior.
Cycle time—the amount of time it takes to cycle mud weight, bulk shale density and mud pit vol- For more on wettability: Abdallah W, Buckley JS,
a gas sample through the chromatograph col- ume, mud loggers can frequently detect a transi- Carnegie A, Edwards J, Herold B, Fordham E, Graue A,
Habashy T, Seleznev N, Signer C, Hussain H, Montaron B
umn—may range from less than a minute to sev- tion from normal to potentially dangerous and Ziauddin M: “Fundamentals of Wettability,”
eral minutes, depending on the type of gas pressure conditions. Oilfield Review 19, no. 2 (Summer 2007): 44–61.
separation column used in the chromatograph. As the bit approaches an overpressured for- 8. For more on chromatography and gas ratio analysis:
Haworth JH, Sellens M and Whittaker A: “Interpretation
Commonly detected components fall within the mation, distinct changes in compaction and of Hydrocarbon Shows Using Light (C1–C5) Hydrocarbon
alkane group: methane [C1], ethane [C2], pro- porosity may be observed. Formation pressure Gases from Mud-Log Data,” AAPG Bulletin 69, no. 8
(August 1985): 1305–1310.
pane [C3], butane [C4] and pentane [C5]. The may approach that of the bottomhole pressure 9. Bowers GL: “Detecting High Overpressure,” The Leading
measurement of these light hydrocarbons helps (BHP). When this pressure difference decreases, Edge 21, no. 2 (February 2002): 174–177.
geologists characterize reservoir fluid composi- ROP increases as normally overbalanced bottom- 10. Dickey PA: “Pressure Detection: Part 3. Wellsite
Methods,” in Morton-Thompson D and Woods AM (eds):
tion while drilling. Because each reservoir fluid is hole conditions start to become underbalanced.10 Development Geology Reference Manual. Tulsa: The
composed of different hydrocarbon species with Consequently, ROP is a key parameter in the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, AAPG
Methods in Exploration Series no. 10 (1992): 79–82.
differing molecular weights, the relative propor- detection of overpressured formations. 11. Jorden JR and Shirley OJ: “Application of Drilling
tions of light hydrocarbons change from one fluid Performance Data to Overpressure Detection,” Journal
of Petroleum Technology 18, no. 11 (November 1966):
1387–1394.

Spring 2012 31
 level drops too far, the decrease in the hydrostatic
pressure downhole may allow formation fluids to
enter the wellbore, causing a kick similar to drill-
Rate of d-exponent Formation ing into an overpressured zone.
penetration pressure A kick may also be indicated by an increase
gradient
or decrease in drillstring weight. A small infu-
sion of formation fluid can reduce the buoyancy
Depth

of the fluid in the annulus; a sensitive weight

Normally
pressured zone
sensor may indicate this change as an increase
in drillstring weight. Given a substantial kick,
Transition zone however, formation fluid may enter the borehole
with enough force to push the drillpipe upward,
Overpressured causing a marked decrease in indicated drill-
zone
string weight.
The ability to warn drilling crews of impend-
ing trouble is heavily dependent on the mud log-
Increasing drilling rate, d-exponent and formation pressure gradient
ger’s capacity for monitoring changes in drilling
> Effects of overpressure on drilling rate and d-exponent. Through a normally parameters. This capability could never have
pressured shale interval, ROP (red line) generally decreases with depth. The
been realized without the extra layer of hyper-
d-exponent (blue line) tends to increase with depth, following a normal
compaction trend. Deviations from these trends may be related to vigilance derived from numerous sensors
undercompaction and may signal that the bit is encroaching on an installed at critical points around the rig.
overpressured zone.
Moving into the 21st Century
Early mud loggers grew attuned to the sounds of
the drilling rig and could often tell what was hap-
pening simply by the clang of the driller’s tongs,
changes in mud weight or bit wear.12 After calcu- rise as a result of methane dissolved in the pore the revving of the drawworks engine and the
lating the d-exponent to normalize the ROP, the water of some overpressured shales. Gas escap- squeal of the driller’s brake. Any variation in the
mud logger can view drillability as a function of ing from the cuttings is detected at the mud log- normal routine and rhythms of the rig was cause
rock strength and the density of the drilling fluid. ging unit as an increase in total gas. This indicator for investigation. Today, robust, highly sophisti-
As compaction and rock strength increase may be misleading, however, because increases cated sensors acquire data at several times per
with depth, the d-exponent increases when drill- in total gas may result from oil- or gas-bearing second while a context-aware processing system
ing through a uniform lithology with no changes formations or organic-rich shales. The increase helps the mud logger piece it all together.
in mud overbalance or bit performance. A plot of in porosity that is characteristic of undercom- Through the years, an impressive array of sen-
the d-exponent with depth should roughly mirror pacted shales causes lower shale density than is sors has been developed or adapted for use by
the ROP, showing an inverse relation to the drill found in normally compacted shales. The mud advanced mud logging companies. One such com-
rate (above). A drilling break would plot as a logger uses a density measuring device in the log- pany, Geoservices, a Schlumberger company, is
reversal in the slope of the d-exponent. ging unit to determine the density of shale cut- an industry leader in mud logging technology.15
The arrival of gas in the mud is another indi- tings at regular intervals.13 Over its 53-year history, Geoservices has devel-
cation of compaction disequilibrium. If formation An increase in return flow, coupled with rising oped or acquired a wide variety of sensors to mea-
pressure exceeds the pressure applied by the col- levels in the mud tanks, indicates a reflux of drill- sure and record critical drilling performance and
umn of mud, formation fluids will begin to flow ing fluids, with greater volumes of mud flowing circulation system parameters. Most sensors are
into the wellbore. A rapid influx of fluids is called out of the hole than were pumped into it. Pit level intrinsically safe for operating in hazardous con-
a kick, and marks the beginning of serious well and flow rate sensors monitored at the drill floor ditions and must be robustly constructed to
control problems. If formation fluid—especially and logging unit will trigger an alarm when they ensure reliable operation in harsh drilling envi-
gas—flows into the wellbore unabated, the detect a mud level change, prompting the drilling ronments and climates. Sensor signals are con-
effects will soon cascade. The influx will lower crew to shut off the mud pumps, check for flow verted from analog to digital as close to the
the overall mud column weight, reducing the and prepare to close the blowout preventer.
12. Rehm B and McClendon R: “Measurement of Formation
effective pressure against the flowing formation, At the opposite end of the spectrum is a Pressure from Drilling Data,” paper SPE 3601,
thereby permitting the formation to flow at a decrease in mud levels, which indicates that the presented at the SPE Annual Meeting, New Orleans,
October 3–6, 1971.
greater rate, leading to a blowout. mud pumps are sending more fluid downhole Lyons WC (ed): Standard Handbook of Petroleum &
Mud loggers must try to interpret overpres- than is being circulated back to the surface. This Natural Gas Engineering, vol 2. Houston: Gulf
Professional Publishing (1996): 1045.
sure clues from a number of parameters. An lost circulation may indicate that the formation
13. Dickey, reference 10.
increase in the temperature of the mud returns has fractured and can have serious repercussions, 14. For more on mud loss prevention and remediation:
may result from faster drilling and increased cav- depending on the rate of fluid loss.14 If the mud Cook J, Growcock F, Guo Q, Hodder M and van Oort E:
“Stabilizing the Wellbore to Prevent Lost Circulation,”
ings in undercompacted shales. Gas levels may Oilfield Review 23, no. 4 (Winter 2011/2012): 26–35.
15. Geoservices was acquired by Schlumberger in 2010.

32 Oilfield Review
sensor as possible to prevent problems associ- Density sensors provide rapid, accurate mea-
ated with analog signal transmission and a multi- surements of drilling fluid density; they can
tude of cables running across the rig floor. detect slight changes in mud weight, enabling
Pressure sensors measure a variety of crucial the mud logger to alert the drilling crew to an
parameters. These sensors can be fitted to key influx of lower-density formation fluids into the
pieces of rig equipment to obtain measurements well. The density sensors are also used to monitor
such as weight on hook, WOB, rotary torque, the addition of weighting material or fluid to the
standpipe pressure, casing pressure and cement mud system. Mud density is measured by two
unit pressure. pressure sensors immersed at different depths in
By measuring small movements of the draw- the mud pit and calculated from the pressure dif-
works drum, the drawworks sensor helps the mud ferential and depth between the sensors. > Drawworks sensor. This sensor consists of a disk
logger track the movement of the drillstring and Three types of flow sensors are available for that rotates in harmony with movements of the
cable drum. Movements of the disk are detected
the position of the bit while drilling or tripping continuous monitoring of drilling fluid flow: by proximity sensors, which send pulses to the
(right). This sensor is fitted onto the main shaft s4HE MUD mOW PADDLE MEASURES THE HEIGHT OF main processor in the logging unit.
of the drawworks. Drawworks sensor outputs the mud in the mud return flowline. When con-
help the mud logger determine drilling rate, hook nected to the logging system computer, the sen-
position and bit position. sor provides a continuous chart of relative
Noncontact proximity sensors monitor pump height. The mud logger can set alarms for flow
strokes and rotary speed. Pump strokes are used height above and below preselected limits.
to calculate mud flow rates, which are essential s4HEELECTROMAGNETICmOWMETERISAVOLUMETRIC creating a potential difference between the
for optimization of drilling hydraulics, estimation flowmeter that operates on the principle of two electrodes that is proportional to the fluid
of lag time and various kick control functions. magnetic induction. It can be installed on the flow rate. The electromagnetic flowmeter
Monitoring of rotary speed (rpm) is necessary for standpipe to measure flow into the well and on operates in water-base muds or in muds in
assessing drilling performance and calculating the return flowline to measure flow out of the which the continuous phase is conductive.
the d-exponent. The proximity sensor emits an wellbore. Each sensor unit replaces a short Connection to the logging system computer
electromagnetic (EM) field and uses EM induc- section of the pipe on which it is mounted. enables real-time monitoring and permanent
tion to detect the passage of a metal activator. Each sensor consists of a pair of circular recording of the flow parameters as well as
Variations in rotary torque often provide the electrodes flush with the inside of the pipe. automated calculation of differential flow,
first indications of problems with downhole drill- When the sensor is energized, a magnetic field which is essential for reliable detection of
ing equipment. For a given rotary speed, a grad- is established at right angles to the pipe axis, small-volume kicks or losses.
ual increase in torque might signal that the drill
bit is worn and should be replaced. Mud loggers
can also use torque variations to identify forma-
tion changes while drilling. A rotary torque sen-
sor uses a transducer, which is clamped around
the cable feeding the electric motor that powers
the rotary table or topdrive. The electric current
drawn by the motor is proportional to the rotary
torque applied to the drillstring. Mud pit
Detection of changes in mud pit level is key to
the safety of the drilling process. The ultrasonic
pit level sensor is positioned over the mud pits
and measures fluid level. This sensor emits an
ultrasonic wave that reflects off the surface of the
liquid (right). This sensor is light, compact, accu-
rate and highly reliable, requiring no moving or
immersed parts. Precise measurement of the
time it takes for the ultrasonic signal to return to
the sensor gives the distance between the sensor
and the level of liquid in the pit. On floating rigs,
multiple sensors may be installed in each pit to
account for variations in mud level caused by
ocean wave motion. > Pit level sensor. This device (inset) emits a series of ultrasonic pulses to
detect changes in fluid level in the mud pit.

Spring 2012 33
 No flow Flow inlet No flow Top view

Inlet pickoff

Inlet side
Outlet pickoff Magnet

Flow outlet

Sine wave Outlet side

No flow Flow

Inlet pickoff

Δt
Inlet side
Outlet pickoff

Inlet side

Out of phase
In phase

Outlet side
Outlet side

> Coriolis flowmeter. Coriolis meters are installed in the flowline. When there is no flow, current through
the pickoffs (top left ), generates sine waves on both inlet and outlet sides of the meter (bottom left and
top right ) that are in phase with each other. Fluid moving through the tubes causes them to twist in
opposing directions (bottom right ) and also causes the sine waves to go out of phase by a factor Δt,
which can be converted to mass flow rate.

s4HE #ORIOLIS mOWMETER ACCURATELY MEASURES BOX TO OBTAIN mOWLINE TEMPERATURE DESIGNATED Advanced Services
MASSmOWTEMPERATUREANDDENSITYOFACIRCU- AShTEMPERATUREOUTv &ROMTHEDIFFERENCEBETWEEN .EW SENSOR TECHNOLOGY IS PAVING THE WAY FOR
LATING mUID GAS OR SLURRY AT LOW TO MODERATE hOUTvANDhINvVALUESTHETEMPERATUREGRADIENTCAN IMPROVING DRILLING PERFORMANCE AND INCREASING
PRESSURES 4HE SENSOR TYPICALLY INSTALLED ON A BECALCULATEDTOHELPLOGGINGCREWSLOCATETRANSITION THE VALUE OF THE DATA EXTRACTED FROM THE MUD
BYPASS CHANNEL ADDED TO THE RETURN mOWLINE ZONESANDOTHERGEOLOGICBOUNDARIES 'EOSERVICES MUD LOGGING TECHNOLOGY IS FOCUSED
USES THE #ORIOLIS EFFECT TO MEASURE mOW 4HERESISTIVITYSENSORMEASURESDRILLINGmUID ON TWO MAIN AREAS FORMATION EVALUATION AND
ABOVE  &LUID ENTERS THE SENSOR AND PASSES ELECTRICALRESISTIVITYWHICHREmECTSTHESALINITYOF DRILLINGSUPPORT
THROUGHAPAIROFmOWTUBESWHICHAREFREETO THEmUID4HESENSORSAREINSTALLEDINTHESUCTION &ORMATION EVALUATION SERVICES CAN NOW GO
VIBRATE AND TWIST UNDER THE INmUENCE OF THE PIT AND SHALE SHAKER HEADER BOX -UD SALINITY BEYOND ANALYSES OF ROCK CUTTINGS AND mUIDS TO
mUIDmOW&LOWISMEASUREDBYQUANTIFYINGTHE MAY CHANGEWHENDRILLINGTHROUGHBEDDEDSALTS IDENTIFYLITHOLOGYANDPOTENTIALPAYZONES4OSUP-
AMOUNTOFTWISTINTHEmOWTUBESWHICHISPRO- ORSALTDOMESWHENPASSINGTHROUGHFAULTZONES PLYADVANCEDMUDGASSAMPLINGANDCHROMATOG-
PORTIONALTOTHEMASSmOWRATEOFTHEmUID4HE ANDWHENDRILLINGZONESOFTRANSITIONTOABNORMAL RAPHY'EOSERVICESHASDEVELOPEDTHE&,!)2mUID
DENSITY OF THE mUID IS OBTAINED BY MEASURING PRESSURES WHERE FORMATION WATER mOWS INTO THE LOGGINGANDANALYSISSERVICEFORWELLSITEGEOCHEM-
THERESONANTFREQUENCYOFVIBRATIONOFTHEmOW MUD COLUMN 4HIS SYSTEM ENABLES ACCURATE AND ICALEVALUATION$RILLINGSUPPORTSERVICESPROVIDE
TUBES4HEMEASUREDVALUESAREAUTOMATICALLY LINEAR MEASUREMENT OF CONDUCTIVITY FROM  TO ALEVELOFANALYSISOFSURFACEDATAˆBEYONDTHATOF
COMPENSATEDFORTEMPERATURECHANGES M3 BASICPRESSUREMONITORINGSERVICESˆTOENHANCE
4HE TEMPERATURE OF THE CIRCULATING DRILLING 4ODAYS MUD LOGGING UNITS MONITOR A WIDE SAFETY AND OPTIMIZE DRILLING OPERATIONS 4HE
mUID CAN PROVIDE CLUES TO CHANGING DOWNHOLE RANGEOFSURFACESENSORSUSEDTOASCERTAINDOWN- 0RE6UEREAL TIMEGEOPRESSURESERVICEISDESIGNED
CONDITIONS 4EMPERATURE SENSORS ARE USUALLY HOLE CONDITIONS OR EVALUATE RIG PERFORMANCE TOHELPREDUCETHERISKSOFKICKSMUDLOSSESAND
PLACED IN THE SUCTION MUD PIT DESIGNATED AS 4HESESENSORSENABLETHEMUDLOGGERTORECOGNIZE OTHERWELLCONTROLPROBLEMS!ND4HEMADRILLING
hTEMPERATUREINv ANDINTHESHALESHAKERHEADER CHANGINGCONDITIONSTHATCOULDENHANCEORJEOP- OPERATIONSSUPPORTANDANALYSISSERVICEPROVIDES
ARDIZEAPROSPECT

34 Oilfield Review
up-to-date analysis of drilling mechanics, hole Swivel
FLEX out
condition and rig performance. Hose
Mud
FLAIR advanced mud gas logging—During Kelly pump
the past 10 years, advances in mud logging tech- Analyzer
nology have significantly improved the quality Results
and utility of wellsite formation evaluation data. Fluid coming from the well
Shale
Today, high-resolution gas chromatography and shakers
Mud pit
mass spectrometry provide data and interpreta-
tive capabilities that enable quantitative evalua-
tions of key formation parameters. FLAIR fluid Drillstring FLEX in Fluids data interpretation
logging and analysis in real time gives early infor- Gas chromatograph Facies determination
Cuttings Fluid composition
mation pertaining to formation fluid composi- Mass spectrometer
tion. Integration of FLAIR data with data Bit
obtained by other formation evaluation tech-
Fluid pumped back into the well
niques enables more-accurate assessments of
hydrocarbons in the formation. > Arrangement of FLEX extraction units. Using specialized gas extraction units placed in the discharge
The FLAIR system analyzes hydrocarbons and suction lines, the FLAIR analysis system compares the two gas streams to correct for any recycled
gas that the mud system’s degassing units failed to remove.
extracted from the drilling mud under constant
thermodynamic conditions. These hydrocarbons
are continuously analyzed to obtain a quantitative
evaluation of the light gases C1 through C5, while
also providing qualitative information on heavier
components C6 through C8, including methylcyclo- inherent energy in the system to efficiently liber- Comparisons between pressure-volume-tem-
hexane and the light aromatics benzene and tolu- ate the heavier gas components from the mud. perature (PVT) analysis of actual downhole fluids
ene.16 Other nonhydrocarbon components, such as Traditional mud gas extractors that do not heat with results obtained through FLAIR analysis of C1
helium, hydrogen, carbon dioxide and hydrogen the sample may yield inaccurate data because to C5 components show a close match. This capa-
sulfide can also be monitored. more of the gas is left in the mud during the bility was demonstrated during a collaboration
Specialized mud gas extraction equipment is extraction process. between Shell and Geoservices, in which PVT and
a key component of the FLAIR system. The FLEX With the FLEX extraction process, the FLAIR data from Gulf of Mexico wells were found
fluid extractor continuously samples mud from FLAIR mud gas logging system operates under to be comparable, whereas a traditional mud gas
the flowline as the mud returns from the well. constant thermodynamic conditions, enabling logging system consistently underestimated the
The FLEX extractor heats mud samples to a con- calibration of the extraction efficiency for the concentrations of the C2+ gas species.17
stant temperature under constant pressure and C1 to C5 components. The heavier hydrocarbons, Among other capabilities, the FLAIR service
volume conditions. This method provides a C6 to C8, are not as easily extracted, but their can help geoscientists differentiate between dif-
steady air-to-mud ratio inside the extraction presence can be detected qualitatively. The cali- ferent fluid types. As a bit penetrates a reservoir,
chamber, creating an extremely efficient and bration is coupled with a correction that an increase in gas density measured at the sur-
repeatable process. The capability to heat the accounts for any gas that might have been recy- face may indicate a transition from gas cap to
sample can be particularly important in deepwa- cled through the mud system. This is achieved oil leg. This increased density is caused by a
ter environments, where mud return tempera- by placing a second FLEX unit in the pump suc- proportional increase in heavier gases (C3+)
tures may range from 10°C to 15°C [50°F to tion line, the point at which the mud is pumped compared with the lighter C1 and C2 components.
59°F]. At low temperatures, there is not enough back into the well (above). In this manner, the Measurements of heavy components and their
fraction of hydrocarbons recycled with the mud relative proportions to the light fraction are used
16. Light hydrocarbons such as C1 to C5 are easily removed
by the mud gas extraction process, so their concentrations and pumped back into the well can be quantita- to calculate the hydrocarbon balance (Bh) and
can be assessed quantitatively. The heavier C6 to C8 tively measured. Correction for recycled gas is wetness (Wh) ratios, which help geoscientists
hydrocarbons are more difficult to remove from the
fluid by this process. Their presence can be detected possible because the extraction conditions are discriminate between oil and gas.18
but not easily quantified, so a qualitative measurement the same for both FLEX units. The FLAIR service was run on an offshore UK
is provided.
17. McKinney D, Flannery M, Elshahawi H, Stankiewicz A, Extracted hydrocarbons are fed to an appraisal well drilled for Hess Corporation and
Clarke E, Breviere J and Sharma S: “Advanced Mud Gas advanced gas chromatograph–mass spectrome- partners Chevron, DONG Energy and OMV. Two of
Logging in Combination with Wireline Formation Testing
and Geochemical Fingerprinting for an Improved ter (GCMS) analyzer, which detects and analyzes the operator’s key objectives for the well were to
Understanding of Reservoir Architecture,” paper gases at the parts-per-million (or micrograms- confirm the volume of hydrocarbons in place
SPE 109861, presented at the SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Anaheim, California, USA, per-gram) level. The mass spectrometer enables within the main reservoir and to investigate the
November 11–14, 2007. the FLAIR analyzer to detect and differentiate presence of hydrocarbons in certain formations
18. Bh = [(C1 + C2) / (C3 + iC4 + nC4 + C5)]. between coeluting peaks created by the various above and below this reservoir. After the pilot
Wh = [(C2 + C3 + C4 + C5) / (C1 + C2 + C3 + C4 + C5)] × 100.
For more on these ratios and their interpretation: ion currents that characterize components hole was successfully drilled, a sidetrack was
Haworth et al, reference 8. extracted from the mud. This leads to a very short drilled and the well was landed horizontally in
analysis time—85 s for analysis up to C8, includ- the main reservoir target interval, designated as
ing differentiation of several isomers.

Spring 2012 35
 C1/C2 The FLAIR service also helped the operator
evaluate a formation’s potential for producing oil
or gas. The ratio of heavy to light fractions was
used to calculate the hydrocarbon balance and
iC4/nC4 C1/C3
wetness ratios. Another potential indicator was
Fluid facies, % C1
the appearance of methylcyclohexane [C7H14], a
2a: 90% member of the naphthenic family that usually is
2b: 92% present in the liquid phase (next page).
3a: 95% to 96% In addition, the operator sought to distin-
3b: 92% to 93% guish between biodegraded and nonbiodegraded
C3/C4s C1/C4s 3c: 90% to 91% fluids in the reservoir. Biodegradation can affect
3d: 88% to 89% both the quality of hydrocarbons and their pro-
3e: 86% to 87% ducibility.19 Among other effects, biodegradation
C2/C4s 3f: 85% to 86% can raise oil viscosity, decrease API gravity and
increase asphaltene, sulfur and metals content.
> Fluid facies characterization. Variations in fluid composition produce
distinctive star plots that can be classified as different fluid facies. This star
In addition, biogenic gas may override oil in a res-
diagram highlights different levels of heterogeneity. The lightest fluid was ervoir, moving updip to disrupt existing reservoir
encountered in the 3a facies, whereas heaviest fluids were found in facies fluid gradients. This influx modifies the gas/oil
3e and 3f. ratio, creating compositional variations. Gradient
disruptions from charging and recharging may
indicate the presence of compartments.
the S3 horizon. The sidetrack well raised a num- these zones helped the operator divide them into In a study conducted prior to spudding the
ber of questions pertaining to vertical connectiv- distinctive fluid facies. These facies were defined well, Hess evaluated PVT analyses obtained
ity, fluid variability, presence of altered and by graphing gas ratios on star diagrams—multi- from offset wells to assess the effects of bio-
unaltered fluids and geosteering uncertainties variate plots in polar coordinates—to depict degradation in the reservoir. These analyses
within the horizontal section. chemical composition and highlight their differ- helped to identify markers that could prove
Hess investigated potential hydrocarbon ences (above). Based on these analyses, the useful in recognizing alterations resulting
zones where gas peaks were recorded above operator identified several distinct fluid facies from biodegradation. The study indicated that
background level. FLAIR analysis of gases from from different horizons within the well. specific ratios of heptane [nC7], methylcyclo-
hexane [C7H14] and toluene [C7H8] were com-
mon to the wells in which biodegradation was
observed. The C2/C3 ratio was found to be
2.500
another useful indicator of early-stage biodeg-
radation because C3 is one of the first compo-
Upper reservoir nents that bacteria attack and remove; in a
later stage they remove the C2.
1.875
FLAIR analysis provided quantitative compo-
Deeper reservoir sition only in the C1 to C5 range and provided
qualitative evaluations of the heavier hydrocar-
bons. In the Hess well, these results showed low
values of the nC7/C7H14 ratio, which is in line with
C2 /C3

1.250 biodegradation effects observed in reservoir flu-

ids from offset wells. When extremely low values
of toluene were detected—close to the sensitiv-
ity of the analyzer—a change in the analysis rou-
Biodegraded fluid, pilot hole tine was called for. The C7H8/nC7 ratio was
0.625 replaced by a C2/C3 ratio, providing a clear dif-
Biodegraded fluid, sidetrack well
Nonbiodegraded fluid, sidetrack well ferentiation between biodegraded and unaltered
fluids (left).
19. For more on biodegradation in the reservoir: Creek J,
Cribbs M, Dong C, Mullins OC, Elshahawi H, Hegeman P,
0 O’Keefe M, Peters K and Zuo JY: “Downhole Fluids
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 Laboratory,” Oilfield Review 21, no. 4 (Winter 2009/2010):
nC7/C7H14 38–54.
> Recognizing fluid differences. Hess scientists identified two distinct fluid
families, based on the level of fluid alteration. The hydrocarbon ratio analysis
confirmed the fluid in an upper reservoir was biodegraded, whereas the fluid
in a deeper reservoir in the well was unaltered.

36 Oilfield Review
 Vertical Depth
X,100 ft X,700
Gamma Ray C3 nC4 nC5 nC7 C7H14 Bh

Fluid Facies
Formation –50 gAPI 150 0 ppm 500 0 ppm 150 0 ppm 100 0 ppm 100 0 ppm 250 0 100
Lithology

C1 C2 iC4 iC5 nC6 C7H8 Wh

0 ppm 10k 0 ppm 500 0 ppm 150 0 ppm 100 0 ppm 100 0 ppm 50 0 100

R2 2a

Oil
2b
2a
R3 2b

S1 3a Coall gas
Coa
3b
3c
S2 Oil

T1 3a Coall gas
3b

T1 3a
Coall gas
3b

3d

3e

Oil

3e
S3

3f

Lithology

Clay Sand Coal

Fluid facies, % C1

2a: 90% 2b: 92% 3a: 95% to 96% 3b: 92% to 93% 3c: 90% to 91% 3d: 88% to 89% 3e: 86% to 87% 3f: 85% to 86%

> Fluid facies log. Precise hydrocarbon measurements are obtained through FLAIR gas analyses and are used to distinguish between fluids produced from
different reservoir intervals. The resulting fluid facies are numbered sequentially, with a letter indicating subfacies (Track 3 and legend). Measurements of
the C1 to C7 components (Tracks 4 to 8) are used to calculate hydrocarbon balance (Bh) and wetness (Wh) ratios (Track 10). In this well, methylcyclohexane
[C7H14] was also useful in determining the presence of a liquid phase (Track 9). The R2 and R3 formations (Track 2) are characterized by fluid facies 2, while
the other formations contain fluids from facies 3. The targeted S3 reservoir was fairly homogeneous, its fluids being relatively light in the C1 to C5 range, but
with a proportionally higher abundance of C7H14, which suggested the presence of a liquid phase. The coal seams S1 and T1 were consistently
characterized by high gas levels, with the gas ranging between 95% and 96% C1—but without methylcyclohexane.

Spring 2012 37
 200

200
Resistivity Shallow

Resistivity Deep
Resistivity decrease

ohm.m

ohm.m
150 0.2

15k 0.2
Gamma Ray
gAPI

ppm
C1
–50

S2

S3
T1

T1
Formation

Lithology

> LWD log. During drilling through the reservoir section, FLAIR gas analysis (Track 3) helped to ease concerns about
a decrease in resistivity. FLAIR analysis confirmed that the well had not exited the reservoir zone.

The FLAIR services also proved useful as an After creating a 3D seismic interval velocity regimes. The sonic velocity, density and resistiv-
aid to geosteering. While the horizontal sec- model from local and regional seismic data, the ity logs are especially useful for pore pressure
tion was being drilled, a decrease in resistivity pressure specialists calibrate the model using and fracture gradient interpretation. Although a
was observed within the reservoir zone acoustic logs and checkshot surveys from offset number of factors—such as washouts, formation
(above). This drop might have signaled an wells.20 Next, they conduct a velocity volume analy- fluid type and anisotropy—can influence log
impending roof or base exit from the targeted sis, computing normal compaction trends (NCTs) response, in general, these tools respond to
section, or it might have indicated that the bit and creating pore pressure and wellbore stability changes in rock porosity.
was entering the water leg of the reservoir. models. Leakoff test data from offset wells provide When PreVue engineers observe a porosity
However, fluid facies analysis performed in control points for modeling the fracture gradient. increase as depth increases, they immediately
real time showed that the fluid remained These models help the PreVue pressure engineers notify the driller and company representative.
unchanged, indicating that the wellbore had identify potential zones of abnormal pressure, Quick detection of influx and changing gas con-
not exited the oil zone. The resistivity decrease determine kick tolerances, develop mud weight tent is a critical task for the PreVue engineer.
was attributed to increasing irreducible water windows and project where casing points should A typical response would be to increase mud
saturation within the oil zone. be set (next page). weight until the influx is under control. However,
PreVue real-time geopressure service—The Once drilling commences, PreVue wellsite this strategy is not without risk, such as uninten-
PreVue services provide prespud pressure predic- pressure engineers closely monitor ROP and gas tional fracturing of the formation that can result
tion along with wellsite monitoring of pore pres- readings as well as LWD and MWD logs; they in sudden mud loss. Increasing the mud weight
sure and wellbore stability. Far in advance of rig update pressure plots, revise trend lines and watch may create new fractures or open existing frac-
mobilization, pressure specialists collect data for variations from the predrill model. Using this tures and force mud into the formation. In per-
from nearby offset wells and seismic surveys. information, they can apprise the wellsite com- meable formations, this can lead to fluid loss.
They analyze well logs, pressure tests and mud pany representative of impending problems. Apart from the cost of losing expensive drilling
reports to create a vertical stress model of each As drilling proceeds, LWD provides important fluid, significant mud loss from the annulus can
wellbore, then correlate velocity and log response data for interpreting changes in pressure lead to lower hydrostatic pressure and result in a
to wellbore pressure anomalies. difficult well control situation.
20. Following normal compaction trends, seismic interval Ismail Z, Azian Bt A Aziz I, Umar L, Azree B Nordin N, Harrold T and Raikes S: “Well-Positioned Seismic
velocities increase with depth. Decreases in velocity Nesan TP, Rodriguez FR, Zapata FG, Garcia G, Waguih A, Measurements,” Oilfield Review 14, no. 1
with depth may be used to identify potential zones of Subroto B and Dow B: “Automated Managed Pressure (Spring 2002): 32–45.
abnormal formation pressure. Drilling Allows Identification of New Reserves in a Arroyo JL, Breton P, Dijkerman H, Dingwall S, Guerra R,
21. Umar L, Azian I, Azree N, Ali ARM, Waguih A, Rojas F, HPHT Exploration Well in SB Field, Offshore Malaysia,” Hope R, Hornby B, Williams M, Jimenez RR, Lastennet T,
Fey S, Subroto B, Dow B and Garcia G: “Demonstrating Paper IADC/SPE 151518, presented at the IADC/SPE Tulett J, Leaney S, Lim TK, Menkiti H, Puech J-C,
the Value of Integrating FPWD Measurements with Drilling Conference and Exhibition, San Diego, California, Tcherkashnev S, Ter Burg T and Verliac M: “Superior
Managed Pressure Drilling to Safely Drill Narrow March 6–8, 2012. Seismic Data from the Borehole,” Oilfield Review 15,
Mud Weight Windows in HP/HT Environment,” paper 22. For more on look-ahead VSP methods: Borland W, no. 1 (Spring 2003): 2–23.
SPE/IADC 156888, presented at the SPE/IADC Codazzi D, Hsu K, Rasmus J, Einchcomb C, Hashem M, Blackburn J, Daniels H, Dingwall S, Hampden-Smith G,
Managed Pressure Drilling and Underbalanced Hewett V, Jackson M, Meehan R and Tweedy M: Leaney S, Le Calvez J, Nutt L, Menkiti H, Sanchez A
Operations Conference and Exhibition, Milan, Italy, “Real-Time Answers to Well Drilling and Design and Schinelli M: “Borehole Seismic Surveys: Beyond
March 20–21, 2012. Questions,” Oilfield Review 9, no. 2 (Summer 1997): 2–15. the Vertical Profile,” Oilfield Review 19, no. 3
Breton P, Crepin S, Perrin J-C, Esmersoy C, Hawthorn A, (Autumn 2007): 20–35.
Meehan R, Underhill W, Frignet B, Haldorsen J,

38 Oilfield Review
 Turning on mud pumps raises the pressure of Drilling progress toward the pore pressure mic velocity. Both cases indicated that the range
the mud, and this phenomenon can be regarded ramp was tracked by integrating LWD resistivity for increase in pore pressure gradient was around
as a virtual increase in the mud density. logs and d-exponent plots, along with emphasis 1 lbm/galUS. This gave the drilling team a clearer
Management of this gap between the effective on gas measurements and trends. Prior to drilling picture of what lay ahead and reinforced confi-
static density (pumps off) and effective circulat- into the pressure transition zone, the operator dence in the computed model.
ing density (pumps on) and its relationship to the ran a zero-offset VSP to update previous esti- The interval between intermediate casing
formation pressure and rock strength is a key to mates of pore pressure. Based on this VSP data, and TD in the SBD-2 well was drilled in two
successful drilling. The objective of the PreVue high- and low-pressure cases were developed sections. The first of these was drilled using a
service is to balance the mud density—both with the same normal compaction trend line 10½-in. bit and a 12¼-in. underreamer. After
static and circulating—between the formation used to generate pore pressure curves from seis- 9 5/8-in. casing was set, the second section was
pressure and the rock strength.
In 2011, Petronas Carigali Sdn Bhd drilled the
high-pressure, high-temperature SBD-2 well, in
the Malay basin offshore Malaysia. Based on pre- Kick Tolerance
vious experience in the area, drillers expected 0 ppg 23
that they would have to contend with a narrow Fracture Gradient
mud weight window constrained by pore pressure 0 ppg 23
and fracture pressure.21 An earlier offset well, the Normal Compaction Trend Pore Pressure
SBD-1, experienced pressure problems accompa- 0.2 ohm.m 20 0 ppg 23
Pore Pressure Indicator Overburden Gradient
nied by heavy mud losses, which prevented the
0.2 ohm.m 20 0 ppg 23
well from reaching its objective.
Depth, Resistivity Normal Hydrostatic Gradient
Using logs from the SBD-1 well, Petronas
ft 0.2 ohm.m 20 0 ppg 23
geologists were able to identify the onset of
abnormal pore pressure. Before spudding the Casing
SBD-2 well, Petronas wanted to determine the 1,000

depth of the transition from a lower pressure gra- Casing Leakoff

2,000
dient to a higher pressure gradient. PreVue pres- test
sure specialists analyzed seismic data to
3,000
ascertain the top and base of this pressure ramp.
A 3D seismic volume of the area was analyzed and 4,000
the velocity data from offset wells were extracted
and compared with wireline and LWD data. These 5,000
data were used to compute overburden gradients
and normal compaction trends in offset wells, 6,000
which were then integrated into a velocity model
across the prospect location. Velocity values from 7,000
the prospect location and other sites were ana-
lyzed to determine the depth at onset of abnor- 8,000 Casing Leakoff
mal pressure and the magnitude of pressure. The test
difference between pore pressure and kick toler- 9,000
ance left the driller with an extremely narrow Casing Leakoff
10,000 test
equivalent mud weight window of just 1 to
1.5 lbm/galUS [0.12 to 0.18 g/cm3].
11,000
During subsequent planning sessions, the
operator elected to obtain borehole vertical seis-
12,000
mic profile (VSP) data after each casing run. This
intermediate VSP data from the wellbore could be
obtained in the relatively safe environment of the > Predrill analysis of an offset well log. Overpressured zones or intervals of inhibited compaction are
SBD-2 cased hole. Moreover, it would allow the characterized by increased porosity, which can be identified through log responses from nearby offset
project team to make time-depth conversions in wells. Pore pressure indicators (red dots, Track 1) are based on average shale resistivity (black) and
help to establish a normal pore compaction trend line (green). Deviations from the normal compaction
their original model, which relied on surface seis-
trend may indicate abnormal pressure. PreVue pore pressure studies evaluate seismic data and logs,
mic data. The VSP data would also allow the opera- leakoff tests and mud reports from offset wells to predict the onset of abnormal pressure, its
tor to identify any changes in the model and could magnitude and the range of mud weights that can be used to control it. In this example, deviations
be used as a tool for gauging the pore pressure from the normal compaction trend start at about 8,800 ft. The equivalent mud weight curves (Track 2)
display a corresponding pressure behavior. Kick tolerance (light blue) is dictated by the weakest
profile ahead of the bit. This valuable look-ahead
formation exposed in open hole. The fracture gradient (dark blue), pore pressure (green), overburden
information would guide the drilling team’s strat- gradient (red) and normal hydrostatic gradient (black) have been calculated to establish an allowable
egy for drilling the well to its target.22 mud weight window (hatched) bounded by the kick tolerance and pore pressure curves.

Spring 2012 39
drilled to TD using an 8½-in. bit and a 9½-in. under- estimated pore pressure profile and ECDs were PreVue engineers also used gas measure-
reamer. The underreamers increased the annular maintained close to the fracture gradient. Any pres- ments to obtain accurate indications of mud bal-
volume, which reduced circulating pressures in the sure increase in which downhole ECD exceeded ance. As the well neared TD, gas peaks were
annulus and lowered the ECD, thus counteracting kick tolerance resulted in seepage losses and thus observed following pump stoppages. PreVue engi-
the effects of the heavy muds. Throughout this inter- gave the drilling team a reliable indicator for main- neers analyzed these gas increases and found
val, the mud weight was maintained close to the taining downhole pressures. that, instead of a troublesome influx resulting
from low mud weight, these gas peaks were
caused by well breathing.
Normal Hydrostatic Gradient Well breathing may be observed in some wells
8 ppg 23 following brief stoppages of the mud pump. When
Interval Velocity Pore Pressure Gradient, Low-Pressure Case mud weight approaches the equivalent of the
8 ppg 23
fracture gradient, small fractures can develop in
Pore Pressure Gradient from Deep Resistivity
8 ppg 23
weak formations or along the interface between
Interval Velocity Pore Pressure Gradient, High-Pressure Case rock layers. While mud pumps are turned on, the
8 ppg 23 fractures may open, allowing drilling fluid to
Mud Weight In enter. Light gases diffuse from the formation into
8 ppg 23 the drilling fluid. When the pumps are turned off
Equivalent Circulating Density briefly, such as during a pipe connection, the
8 ppg 23 fractures slowly close, forcing the mud with
Interval Velocity Fracture Gradient, Low-Pressure Case
gas to flow back into the hole. When the drilling
8 ppg 23
Fracture Gradient from Deep Resistivity
fluid circulates to the surface, it registers as an
8 ppg 23 increase in total gas. However, on the chromato-
Interval Velocity Fracture Gradient, High-Pressure Case graph, it is characterized by an increase in C1 and
8 ppg 23 C2 gases, with little change in C3, C4 and C5 gases.
Depth, Overburden Gradient Average To maintain mud weight within the narrow
m 8 ppg 23 pressure window, managed pressure drilling
(MPD) techniques were used for early kick detec-
X,100
tion, maintaining constant bottomhole pressure
X,200 control and conducting dynamic flow checks and
X,300
dynamic formation integrity tests (FITs).23 When
engineers compared the VSP look-ahead pore
X,400 pressure curves with actual pressure readings
X,500 from an MDT modular formation dynamics tester
and StethoScope formation pressure-while-drill-
X,600
ing tool, they found that the readings closely
X,700 matched each other (left). After TD was reached,
the wellbore was displaced with kill mud and the
X,800
well was completed successfully.
X,900 Thema drilling operations support and anal-
Y,000 13 3/8-in. shoe ysis service—The Thema service processes real-
LOT
time, high-frequency data streams from a number
Y,100 FIT
of sensors around the rig to provide up-to-date
Y,200 11 3/4-in. liner LOT analysis of hole condition, drilling efficiency, well
Mud gain
5 bbl FIT pressure balance and rig performance. This infor-
Y,300
mation is displayed on customizable screens
Y,400 9 5/8-in. shoe Mud gain installed at the logging unit and the company rep-
1.9 bbl Mud losses LOT
Y,500 resentative’s workspace; it can also be accessed
remotely from the operator’s offices.
Y,600
Dynamic FIT In hole condition mode, Thema engineers
Y,700 Mud losses analyze wellbore stability and hole cleaning effi-
Mud losses Dynamic FIT ciency in real time. The drillstring weight is
recorded while it is static, rotating or reciprocat-
Casing depth Kick or flow MDT or StethoScope pressures Leakoff test Lost circulation zones
ing. This program can also process input from
> Final composite log. Look-ahead estimates of pore pressure from VSP analyses are confirmed by cuttings flowmeters. Data are presented in depth
actual pressure readings from MDT and StethoScope tools. Mud weight was kept as low as possible
or time, enabling the user to rapidly establish a
to keep the ECD from exceeding the fracture strength of the rock. In spite of this effort, some mud
losses were experienced. The plots show that mud pressures (red) were maintained close to the sequence and correlation between events. These
estimated pore pressures.

40 Oilfield Review
 1.0

0.8 Heave Compensator

0.6

0.4

0.2
Height, m

–0.2

–0.4

–0.6

–0.8

00:02 00:06 00:10 00:14 00:18 01:00 01:04 01:08 01:12

Time, min:s
> Heave versus compensation. Using Thema service data, Geoservices personnel tracked a drillstring vibration problem on a well in the Campos basin off
the coast of Brazil. A comparison between the magnitude of heave and compensation (left ) showed deficiency in heave damping, which was subsequently
corrected (right).

data are analyzed to derive industry-standard val- To monitor rig performance, the Thema Analysis of sensor data helped Geoservices
ues for torque, ECD, pickup, slack-off and free- service automatically tracks and displays a personnel track the problem to its root cause:
rotating weights. specific combination of parameters, such as Drilling energy was being dissipated through
The drilling efficiency mode evaluates vari- connection time or net drilling time per stand. shock and torsional resistance as a result of
ous drilling parameters to assess bit behavior The duration of each activity is logged, heave motion (above). As is typical of semisub-
and wear. Surface sensors monitor the fre- enabling assessment of the rig performance mersibles, the rig used heave compensators to
quency and magnitude of axial vibration caused during various operations such as drilling, slid- reduce vertical drillstring movement caused by
by bit bouncing and stick-slip torsional vibra- ing, tripping and circulating. The wellsite data the rise and fall of ocean waves.
tions. These inputs are used to anticipate poten- specialists work with Thema engineers at the By fine-tuning the damping motion of the
tial problems such as bit balling, drillstring operator’s office to provide timely updates to heave compensator, the drilling contractor was
vibration and bit wear to optimize drilling rig site and office project members. able to mitigate the problem and boost ROP
parameters. The drilling efficiency mode may The Thema service was recently called on to while reducing stress on the drillstring. The ROP
help improve ROP and increase the life of down- determine the cause of poor drilling rates in increased from 16 m/h to 45 m/h [148 ft/h]—
hole and surface equipment. wells off the coast of Brazil. During a three-year exceeding the 40-m/h average of neighboring
The Thema service helped one operator in the drilling campaign, the operator utilized wells by more than 10%. These results prompted
Middle East enhance core recovery in a forma- Geoservices mud logging and Thema services on the operator to implement the same monitoring
tion susceptible to breakage. Breaks in core several wells drilled from semisubmersible rigs in and mitigation practices on the five rigs the com-
cause two main problems. First, the operator has the Campos basin. While most of these wells were pany employed in the area. In light of these
difficulty in recovering representative samples of drilled and completed on schedule, a few were results, the operator plans to use the Thema ser-
the formation. Second, broken core causes gaps taking longer than expected to reach TD, owing vice in future wells.
in the core recovery footage count, which can to dramatic decreases in ROP. The scope of services offered by mud logging
severely degrade the quality of interpretation of In contrast to neighboring wells with ROPs companies continues to expand as new sensors
any core that is eventually recovered. averaging 40 m/h [130 ft/h], some wells attained and analytical tools are developed. In response,
Analysis of drilling sensor data from the first only 16 m/h [52 ft/h]—a 60% reduction. An eval- the mud logger has taken on an important role in
coring run revealed the core was being sub- uation of drilling performance indicated that providing the operator and drilling crew with
jected to severe torsional vibrations inside the ROP was hampered by vibration. However, the information that is crucial to the success of the
core barrel, resulting in a poor-quality core with driller was unable to identify the exact cause of well and to the safety of the rig. In addition to
many breaks and fractures. During a subsequent the problem. formation evaluation experts, the mud logging
coring operation, the Thema service was used to On one well, the Thema service was used to unit must now accommodate specialists who are
manage drilling parameters and minimize drill- record responses of various drilling perfor- responsible for drilling efficiency and well safety.
string vibration. The operator obtained a clean, mance sensors located around the rig. The By linking a wide array of surface sensors to rapid
unbroken core, thus validating the Thema anal- Thema system acquires data at up to 50 Hz, analytical capabilities and operational expertise,
ysis and recommendations. enabling rapid correlation of sensor responses the mud logging unit is fast becoming the nerve
to various drilling parameters. Among the center of the drilling rig. —MV
23. For more on managed pressure drilling: Elliott D,
Montilva J, Francis P, Reitsma D, Shelton J and Roes V: inputs were data from sensors to detect motion
“Managed Pressure Drilling Erases the Lines,” on the riser tensioner, heave compensator and
Oilfield Review 23, no. 1 (Spring 2011): 14–23.
topdrive block.

Spring 2012 41
 Offshore Permanent Well Abandonment

Worldwide, government and regulatory officials are informing the offshore oil and gas
industry that unproductive wells must be immediately sealed to permanently remove
these potential environmental threats. Service companies are developing tools and
methods to limit the economic impact of fulfilling these obligations.

Lucas W. Abshire
Broussard, Louisiana, USA

Praful Desai
Houston, Texas, USA

Dan Mueller
ConocoPhillips
Houston, Texas

William B. Paulsen
ATP Oil & Gas Corporation
Houston, Texas

Robert D. B. Robertson
Torodd Solheim
Stavanger, Norway

Oilfield Review Spring 2012: 24, no. 1.

Copyright © 2012 Schlumberger.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Hani Ibrahim
and Eric Wilshusen, Houston.
2M, Hydra-Stroke and Shortcut are marks of Schlumberger.

1. Smith I, Olstad E and Segura R: “Heightened Regulations

Create Demand for Well Abandonment Services,”
Offshore 71, no. 10 (October 2011): 70–73.
2. King GE: “Plug and Abandonment—Producing Well,”
George E. King Engineering, Inc. (March 14, 2009),
http://gekengineering.com/Downloads/Free_Downloads/
Plug-and_Abandonment_Basics.pdf (accessed March
14, 2012).

42 Oilfield Review
Subsea fields are reaching the end of their pro- able to reenter the original mother bore and drill
ductive lives in the North Sea and the Gulf of a sidetrack well off the whipstock to an untapped
Mexico, where the offshore oil and gas industry section of the reservoir.
first moved into waters deep enough to require The steps required of operators to qualify
floating drilling and production units. As a conse- their offshore wells as permanently abandoned
quence, and spurred by environmental concerns vary widely with regulatory jurisdiction. For
and official regulatory agencies, operators are example, an offshore platform well in Norway is
poised to plug and abandon (P&A) a substantial far more costly to abandon than one in the
number of wells in both those regions in the next Middle East because meeting the standard of
few years. permanency set by regulators of the former
This proliferation of present and future requires more expensive operations than do
P&A needs is turning what has been a niche those of the latter.
market into a multibillion dollar industry for As a consequence of the high cost of offshore
offshore service companies. In the UK sector of operations, prudent operators consider the cost
the North Sea alone, it is estimated that more of permanently abandoning a well and its sup-
than 500 structures with about 3,000 wells porting infrastructure during the field planning Cement
plug Formation
are slated for permanent abandonment in the stages. Abandoning subsea wells can cost millions
near future. By some estimates, as many as of dollars per well, particularly when the task
12,000 wells are no longer producing in the must be performed from a deepwater drilling ves-
Gulf of Mexico, qualifying them all as P&A can- sel. Operators planning to permanently abandon
didates.1 In the Norwegian sector of the North a well are therefore driven by the sometimes com- Annulus Casing shoe
Sea, more than 350 platforms and more than peting interests of safety and economics. > Basic plug. A requirement for a permanent well
3,700 wells eventually must be permanently This article discusses the final steps of aban- barrier is that it must include all annuli, extending
abandoned. Additionally there are more than donment operations unique to offshore wells and to the full cross section of the well and seal both
200 structures slated for decommissioning off- describes the tools being developed to meet the vertically and horizontally. In this illustration, the
cement plug is sealing vertically inside the casing
shore the Netherlands, Denmark, Ireland, Spain needs of permanency while providing cost effi- and sealing both horizontally and vertically in the
and Germany. ciencies. Because official governing bodies of the casing-formation annulus above the casing shoe.
The basics of P&A operations vary little, North Sea and Gulf of Mexico recently have made
whether the well is on land or offshore. Operators decommissioning a priority and because the two
remove the completion hardware, set plugs and represent the largest mature offshore arenas in
squeeze cement into the annuli at specified the world, this article focuses on operations in
depths across producing and water-bearing zones those areas. Similarly, legislators governing oper- When operators abandon a well, they are
to act as permanent barriers to pressure from ations in the North Sea and Gulf of Mexico are obliged to leave it in a condition that protects
above and below in addition to protecting the for- themselves more experienced in this work than both the downhole and surface environment in
mation against which the cement is set (above are their counterparts elsewhere around the perpetuity. In all parts of the world, sometimes
right). Operators remove the wellhead last. world. Consequently, these official bodies are numerous regulatory bodies of overlapping
Today, regulators are increasingly demanding likely to both drive and incorporate new technol- responsibilities define procedures and qualifica-
that operators remove sections of casing so that a ogy in future regulations that are realistic in tions of a permanent well abandonment. In the
cement plug may be set that is continuous across terms of the operators’ bottom lines while ensur- Gulf of Mexico, for example, depending on dis-
the entire borehole in a configuration often ing that taxpayers not be burdened with repair tance from shore and water depth, operators may
referred to as rock to rock. costs for wells that, decades later, turn out not to have to meet requirements set by agencies from
Similarly, both onshore and offshore, the be truly permanently abandoned. both federal and state jurisdictions.
decision to P&A a well is invariably based on eco- Despite disparities between regulators around
nomics. Once the production rate has fallen Attacking the High Cost of P&A the world, the intent of all P&A operations is to
below the economic limit—that point at which The inability to recover 100% of all the oil and gas achieve the following:
production levels deliver income that is less than trapped in formation rocks is due in part to eco- sISOLATEANDPROTECTALLFRESHANDNEARFRESHWA-
or equal to operating expenses—it becomes pru- nomics and in part to constraints imposed by ter zones
dent to abandon the well. In some instances, technology and geology. In all cases, some hydro- sISOLATEANDPROTECTALLFUTURECOMMERCIALZONES
although considerable reserves may remain, the carbon will be left behind because the cost to sPREVENT LEAKS IN PERPETUITY FROM OR INTO THE
cost to repair a well problem is more than the bring it to surface is higher than the price it will well
projected income from potential production from bring at market; other pockets of oil and gas sREMOVE SURFACE EQUIPMENT AND CUT PIPE TO A
a reworked well. On the other hand, in some off- remaining in the reservoir will never be recov- mandated level below the surface.2
shore wells, engineers are able to permanently ered because even technologies such as water
plug an offshore completion below a certain injection, which are used to force hydrocarbons
depth, remove one or more intermediate casing to the wellbore after natural drives are depleted,
strings and set a whipstock. The operator is then eventually become ineffective or uneconomic.

Spring 2012 43
 P&A operations offer permanent solutions to
Situation Procedure wells that are no longer profitable or that have
developed problems that cannot be economically
Zones in open hole Set cement plug(s) from at least 100 ft [30 m] below the bottom to 100 ft above
the top of oil, gas and freshwater zones to isolate fluids in the strata. repaired. However, offshore, it is a common prac-
tice for operators to permanently abandon the
Open hole below casing Perform one of the following:
zones within a well before completing and pro-
<
Set, by the displacement method, a cement plug at least 100 ft above
and below the deepest casing shoe. ducing others. Additionally, offshore develop-
<
Set a cement retainer with effective backpressure control 50 ft [15 m] to ment plans often call for lower sections of
100 ft above the casing shoe, and a cement plug that extends at least 100 ft depleted wells to be permanently abandoned to
below the casing shoe and at least 50 ft above the retainer.
<
Set a bridge plug 50 to 100 ft above the shoe with 50 ft of cement free a slot in subsea templates and platforms
on top of the bridge plug for expected or known lost circulation conditions. through which another well may be drilled to an
untapped section of the reservoir. This practice is
Perforated zone that is Perform one of the following:
currently open and not previously <
Use a method to squeeze cement to all perforations. termed slot recovery.
squeezed or isolated <
Set, by the displacement method, a cement plug at least 100 ft To permanently abandon a well, operators
above to 100 ft below the perforated interval, or down to a casing plug, must leave behind a wellbore that is configured
whichever is less.
<
If the perforated zones are isolated from the hole below, use any according to local regulations for plug type,
of the five plugging methods specified below instead of the two specified in length and depth (left). Operators remain
this section, immediately above. responsible for an abandoned well long after the
■
Set a cement retainer with effective backpressure control 50 to 100 ft
above the top of the perforated interval and a cement plug that extends at
wellbore has been cemented and the surface
least 100 ft below the bottom of the perforated interval with at least 50 ft equipment removed. In the event a seal fails and
of cement above the retainer. well fluids leak to the surface or crossflow is
■
Set a bridge plug 50 to 100 ft above the top of the perforated interval
with at least 50 ft of cement on top of the bridge plug.
detected, the operator is liable for the problem.
■
Set, by the displacement method, a cement plug at least 200 ft [60 m] in length, To meet P&A obligations, the oil and gas
with the bottom of the plug no more than 100 ft above the perforated interval. industry has developed methods and materials
■
Set a through-tubing basket plug no more than 100 ft above the
designed to provide long-term zonal isolation
perforated interval with at least 50 ft of cement on top of the basket plug.
■
Set a tubing plug no more than 100 ft above the perforated interval even when downhole conditions change over
topped with a sufficient volume of cement so that it extends at least 100 ft time.3 In efforts aimed at reducing the expense of
above the uppermost packer in the wellbore with at least 300 ft [90 m] of
offshore abandonment operations, operators and
cement in the casing annulus immediately above the packer.
regulators continue to change the way traditional
Casing stub with the stub end Perform one of the following: P&As are performed, and service companies
within the casing <
Set a cement plug at least 100 ft above and below the stub end.
strive to stay abreast of these changes and to
<
Set a cement retainer or bridge plug at least 50 to 100 ft above the stub
end with at least 50 ft of cement on top of the retainer or bridge plug. develop tools and techniques to facilitate them.
<
Set a cement plug at least 200 ft long with the bottom of the plug no Minimizing these costs, without sacrificing the
more than 100 ft above the stub end. integrity of the abandoned well, is critical to
Casing stub with the stub end Set a plug as specified in the openhole sections, above, as applicable. operators who must make these significant
below the casing investments with no hope of financial return.
Depending on water depth, offshore well
Annular space that Set a cement plug at least 200 ft long in the annular space; for a well
communicates with open hole and completed above the ocean surface, pressure test each casing abandonment can be staged from a fixed plat-
extends to the mudline annulus to verify isolation. form such as jackup rig, from a large floating
platform such as a semisubmersible drilling rig
Subsea well with unsealed Use a cutter to sever the casing; set a stub plug as specified in
annulus casing stub sections, above. or from a support vessel with dynamic position-
ing. In UK waters, abandonment from a fixed
Well with casing Set a cement surface plug at least 150 ft [45 m] long in the smallest casing that
platform is the least expensive—about US$ 1 to 2
extends to the mudline with the top of the plug no more than 150 ft below
the mudline. million per well. By contrast, abandonment oper-
ations using a semisubmersible or dynamically
Fluid left in the hole Maintain fluid in the intervals between the plugs that is dense enough to exert a positioned floating drilling unit typically cost
hydrostatic pressure that is greater than the formation pressures in the intervals.
operators US$ 5 to 6 million per well, and the
Permafrost areas Leave, in the hole, fluid that has a freezing point below the temperature cost of support vessel–based abandonments falls
of the permafrost and a treatment to inhibit corrosion and use cement plugs between those two extremes (next page, left).4
designed to set before freezing and that have a low heat of hydration.
In Norway, the cost of permanent well abandon-
> US P&A regulations guide. Depending on a well’s location, depth, condition and other parameters, ment is significantly higher to meet both the
operators are obliged to perform and document specific steps that are outlined by the regulating body operators’ self-imposed standards and regula-
for the area. This table shows samples of the procedures to be performed so that a well in the Gulf of tors’ requirements.
Mexico is deemed permanently plugged. The procedure called for depends primarily on the well
configuration prior to plugging and is set by the US Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement.
[Adapted from the Electronic Code of Federal Regulations: “Permanent Well Plugging Requirements,”
http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=06d320a6f4723641d7d1b83be409c10d&rgn=div
8&view=text&node=30:2.0.1.2.2.17.93.11&idno=30 (accessed March 28, 2012).]

44 Oilfield Review
 CSO Seawell

Rigid riser

Subsea
intervention
lubricator

Subsea tree

> Subsea lubricator. In the 1970s, Schlumberger

introduced a subsea intervention lubricator that
could be landed on a subsea tree and connected
via a rigid riser to a dynamically positioned
vessel. This allowed operators to perform light
slickline, wireline or coiled tubing well
interventions without deploying a costly offshore
floating drilling unit. The capability to cost
effectively reenter subsea wells greatly reduced
well maintenance costs and allowed engineers
to perform necessary work more frequently, thus > Subsea completions. To minimize demands on surface support facilities in
extending well life.
deep water, operators place subsea wellheads (yellow) on the ocean floor.
Bundled flowlines and umbilicals (green) carry production and electric and
hydraulic control and monitoring signals between wellheads; fluids and
As the upstream oil and gas industry moved signals travel to the production facility at the surface via risers (red). This
into deeper water, it sought ways to temper system allows engineers to deploy smaller and fewer high-end deepwater
support vessels for service in large areal fields.
steeply rising capital and operating expendi-
tures. In deep water, where numerous satellite
jackets are impractical, one approach is to com- 3. For more on P&A procedures: Barclay I, Pellenbarg J, “Ensuring Zonal Isolation Beyond the Life of the Well,”
plete subsea wells with wellheads that are on the Tettero F, Pfeiffer J, Slater H, Staal T, Stiles D, Tilling G Oilfield Review 20, no. 1 (Spring 2008): 18–31.
and Whitney C: “The Beginning of the End: A Review of 4. Liversidge D, Taoutaou S and Agarwal S: “Permanent
seabed and connected to a field platform via Abandonment and Decommissioning Practices,” Plug and Abandonment Solution for the North Sea,”
flowlines strung along the seafloor. Subsea well- Oilfield Review 13, no. 4 (Winter 2001/2002): 28–41. paper SPE 100771, presented at the SPE Asia Pacific Oil
head valves and instruments are monitored and For more on long-term zonal isolation: Bellabarba M, and Gas Conference and Exhibition, Adelaide, South
Bulte-Loyer H, Froelich B, Le Roy-Delage S, van Kuijk R, Australia, Australia, September 11–13, 2006.
manipulated through bundled hydraulic and Zeroug S, Guillot D, Moroni N, Pastor S and Zanchi A:
electric lines called umbilicals (above right).

Spring 2012 45
 Most subsea wells are completed with three
or more casing strings of progressively smaller
diameters and are usually bonded to each other
by a cement sheath in the annulus. Typically, dur-
ing the abandonment process, three or more
drillpipe trips are required to remove each casing
Bumper sub string. The first trip is made to retrieve the casing
and hanger seals from the wellhead. The casing is
then cut during a second trip, and a third trip is
required to pull the casing and casing hanger
from the well. Following recovery of these inter-
mediate strings, the conductor casing is cut and
the wellhead retrieved.
Rig time for these operations is considerable;
in deep water, each trip commonly takes 8 to
10 hours.5 To reduce time and thus cost of cutting
and pulling strings of intermediate casing from a
subsea well, SERVCO has developed the Shortcut
deepwater plug and abandonment system (left).
It is designed to latch and retrieve the seal
assembly and then sever a single string of casing,
Hydra-Stroke engage it for removal and retrieve the wellhead
bumper sub
seal assembly in a single operation.
The Shortcut system is run in the hole on
drillpipe and has a mechanical spear fishing tool
that can be engaged near the point at which the
cut is being made. Once the casing is cut, the
fishing tool can be released and moved to the top
Mud motor
of the severed casing string and reset. The recov-
ered casing is hung in the rotary table while the
spear is released and the workstring is racked
Shortcut spear back out of the way, which allows the casing to be
handled safely and efficiently as it is being
removed from the wellbore. A retrieval tool may
be included in the system to enable removal of
Collets the wellhead seal assembly. A key component of
Hydraulic pipe cutter the system is the SERVCO hydraulic cutting tool,
whose knives can extend the maximum sweep
diameter created by the often eccentric configu-
ration of cemented pipe (next page, top).
To cut and pull a string of casing, engineers
first engage the wellhead seal assembly with
Cutter arms the retrieval tool and strip the seal assembly
up into the riser. The casing cutter is then posi-
tioned at the appropriate depth and the spear
is engaged and used to place the string in ten-
sion. Pumps are turned on and drillstring rpm
rates are slowly increased to turn the mud
motor rotor, which rotates the cutter.
> Cut and pull. The Shortcut deepwater P&A system uses a hydraulic cutter The driller monitors the differential pressure
to sever the casing and a spear to latch it. The collets of the Shortcut spear across the positive displacement motor; when
are extended to engage the casing near the cut point until the cut is data indicate a fluid pressure drop, the cut is
complete. The spear is then released and pulled to the top of the casing
section where it is reengaged. This ability to change the position of the complete. The driller then slacks off and manipu-
spear allows it and the drillstring it is run on to be racked out of the way lates the drillpipe to disengage the spear, which
while the casing is being pulled. The cutter arms are rotated by fluid is pulled to just below the wellhead where it is
pumped through the mud motor. The bumper sub attachment allows the rig
operator to jar the casing if necessary.

46 Oilfield Review
reengaged. The casing is then pulled from the Best Case Worst Case
well, and the seal assembly and retrieval tool are
laid out on the surface. The driller continues to
pull out of the hole until the casing hanger is
landed on the rotary and the spear can be disen-
gaged and racked back in the derrick so that cas-
ing lay down may proceed.
A similar tool, the SERVCO 2M cut-and-pull
system, is also a single-trip system primarily used
to cut and retrieve 20- and 30-in. casings and sub-
sea wellheads. This tool is able to pull the casing 1.53 in. 3.78 in. 5.31 in. 3.06 in. 3.78 in. 6.84 in.
alone or the casing and wellhead together, and 10.62-in. sweep necessary 13.68-in. sweep necessary
because it is designed to latch the wellhead and
> Eccentric casing. Cutting two strings of casing can be complicated when
casing in noncritical areas and thus avoid seal the distance from center to casing wall is extended by eccentricity. In this
bores in casing hangers, the recovered parts need case, a 7-in. casing is inside a 9 5/8-in. casing string. When the two are
not be machined before reuse. perfectly centered (left), the largest diameter the cutting knife must reach is
Because the cutting assembly may be run on a 10.62 in. In extreme cases, the 7-in. casing is tightly pressed against the inner
wall of the 9 5/8-in. casing (right), thus the knife must sweep a 13.68-in. diameter.
single stand of 8-in. drill collars, the 2M system
reduces workstring handling time and eliminates
the need for a marine swivel typically required
for these operations (below right). The cut-and-
pull system consists of a standard or rotating
spear, hydraulic pipe cutter and nonrotating sta-
bilizers placed above and below the pipe cutter.

Slot Recovery Power

Most P&A operations are an unavoidable cost of swivel head
doing business and offer no return on the capital
invested in them. However, slot recovery opera-
tions are a different story because such opera-
tions provide access to untapped reserves that
will extend the life of the field. Not only does this Power
swivel stand
operation result in more revenue from produc-
tion, but as the field ages it helps extend the life
of the platform and other infrastructure that rep-
resent very large preproduction capital expendi-
tures. Because slot recovery is performed in Ultrahigh-torque
power tongs
maturing fields, operators tend to be concerned
with cost cutting when accessing these second- Control
ary targets. One key to controlling the costs of panel
these new wells is reining in the P&A portion of
slot recovery costs by reducing the number of
trips required to cut and retrieve the multiple
casing strings that prevent installation of a
new well.
5. Going WS and Haughton D: “Using Multi-Function Fishing
Tool Strings to Improve Efficiency and Economics of
Deepwater Plug and Abandonment Operations,” paper
SPE/IADC 67747, presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling
Conference, Amsterdam, February 27–March 1, 2001.

> Rigless well abandonment package. The SERVCO power swivel stand consists of hydraulic jacks
with 445-kN [100,000-lbf] pulling capacity power swivel, control panel, power tongs and a mast with
which to swing the tongs in and out of position. The stand is positioned over the well; once a string of
casing is pulled to the surface by a spear fishing tool, it is connected to the power swivel head. The
hydraulic jacks lift it out of the well to the next connection; the power tongs break the connection. The
stand allows the crew to rack back the spear and drillstring. This system replaces the alternative
method using a spear and drillstring to retrieve each stand of casing.

Spring 2012 47
 through collapsed tubing—and sidetracking piston bore. Initially the stinger remains in the
from a kickoff point some distance above this piston bore, creating a flow restriction and a
new plug, which must be across all annuli and higher activation pressure. When the cut is com-
sealed against the formation. A simplified version plete, the piston moves downward, resulting in
of the procedure requires the following: removal of the flow restriction and a drop in pres-
sINSTALLING A PRESSURE BARRIERˆUSUALLY ONE OR sure of 1.4 to 2.1 MPa (200 to 300 psi) that is dis-
Intermediate casing more cement plugs—in the production tubing played at the surface.
below the packer Developers used proprietary tungsten carbide
sREMOVINGPRODUCTIONTUBINGABOVETHEPACKER inserts positioned on the cutters to provide the
sINSTALLING A SECOND BARRIER ABOVE THE LOWER optimal cutting angle. They also designed the tool
completion inside the production casing for an operational sequence—complete the cut
sCUTTING AND PULLING AND IF NECESSARY MILLING and activate the spear to grip and pull the casing
the production casing to below the kickoff segment—that was repeatable in a single down-
point hole trip. To do this, engineers developed a
sSIDETRACKING THE WELL THROUGH INTERMEDIATE hydraulic spear compatible with the MCPC tool
Production casing casing. that is activated at a higher flow rate than that
Conventional systems for this work involve required to activate the MCPC. This ensures that
multiple trips to run cutting and fishing tools and only the spear is activated and the correct cut-
retrieve casing sections. Usually, the well has pull sequence will take place.
been in place for many years, so cutting and pull- The tool was field tested on a slot recovery
ing the casing may be difficult because of a firm operation on the Norway Continental Shelf.
cement bond, barite settling from drilling fluid in Rather than test the viability of the single trip
the annulus or a combination of the two.6 Pulling method, the operator chose to cut and pull 9 5/8-in.
units may be unable to overcome the strong bonds casing in two trips. Initial cuts were made at
Packer created by cement or barite. As a result, the cut- 861 m [2,825 ft] and 983 m [3,225 ft] using a stan-
ting and pulling operation may require several dard SERVCO pipe cutter. The first section, from
trips and cuts for each string before an interval is wellhead to 861 m, was pulled successfully with
found that is free of binding cement or barite. an overpull of 320,000 lbf [1,420 kN]. The second
Landing nipple
To address this possible eventuality, a team of section from 861 m to 983 m was pulled success-
engineers reviewed the conventional tools used fully with 700,000 lbf [3,110 kN] overpull using a
Perforated
production tubing for these jobs. They found that the standard kit downhole pulling tool.
could make only a limited number of cuts down- The operator’s next objective, based on the
Perforations hole. Based on these findings, the team designed previous two cuts, was to validate the selective
a pipe cutting tool with three sets of tungsten- cutting capabilities of the MCPC with six cuts in
Wireline entry carbide cutters, which can be activated indi- a single run at 1,602; 1,509; 1,409; 1,300; 1,068
guide vidually and remotely. This capability allows and 1,031 m [5,256; 4,951; 4,623; 4,265; 3,504 and
operators at least three attempts to cut the cas- 3,383 ft] using the MCPC tool.
ing without having to pull out of the hole for fresh All cuts were completed, requiring from 10 to
knives. An indicator in the tool confirms to 14 min each. The pressure drop displayed on the
observers on the surface that the cut is com- rig floor pressure gauge clearly indicated at every
pleted. A hydraulic spear and packer assembly cut that the tool had functioned as intended and
> Offshore completion. Lower completions that being developed for future inclusion in the BHA that the casing was cut. Based on inspections of
must be pulled from the hole as part of slot recovery will allow engineers to pull and circulate fluid the tool at the surface, it was clear that all three
procedures typically consist of packers to isolate
production zones and the tubing-casing annulus, behind the production casing.7 sets of cutters had been deployed.
landing nipples for deploying slickline intervention The product of this design effort is the multi- The casing from 983 m to the cut at 1,031 m
tools and perforated production tubing. cycle pipe cutter (MCPC) system (next page, top). was then pulled free and removed from the well-
It incorporates an indexing piston assembly that bore with an overpull of 940,000 lbf [4,180 kN]
moves in response to applied drilling fluid pres- using a standard spear and a hydraulic jacking
sure and is used to engage and guide the tool’s unit. The casing section from 1,031 m to 1,068 m
Typically, in addition to the conductor, or sur- axial and rotational movements. A combination of was again pulled free using the same spear and a
face, casing string, offshore wells include inter- an indexing mechanism and flow fluctuations downhole jacking unit, but this time saw an over-
mediate and production casing strings, allows the engineer to selectively activate one of pull of 640,000 lbf [2,850 kN]. Again, this section
production tubing and a production packer three sets of cutters and the hydraulic spear and was pulled to surface and the spear assembly was
(above). The section of the well below the packer packer assembly. Those cutters not engaged are run once more to retrieve the 1,068- to 1,300-m
is referred to as the lower completion. Slot recov- securely collapsed within the body of the tool. section. It was confirmed, however, after pulling a
ery consists of plugging and abandoning the A pressure drop indicator at the top end of maximum of 1,052,000 lbf [4,680 kN] that the cas-
lower completion—which often includes working the tool consists of a stationary stinger within the ing section was too long to allow retrieval in one

48 Oilfield Review
piece and had to be subsequently cut at 1,104 m
[3,622 ft] and 1,202 m [3,944 ft]. These two cuts
were performed with a standard pipe cutter. Indexing mechanism
The three resulting sections of casing were
pulled free using the standard spear and downhole
Activating cams
jacking unit with an overpull of 820,000; 930,000 and
440,000 lbf [3,650; 4,180 and 1,960 kN], respectively.
When attempting to pull the 1,300- to 1,409-m
Pressure drop indicator
section of casing, engineers discovered that the
casing would not pull free with a maximum of
1,052,000 lbf overpull.
The team then decided to make six more cuts
Knife blades
to shorten the remaining pieces of casing to be
removed. These cuts were performed with the
MCPC in one run at 1,570; 1,545; 1,472; 1,436; 1,372
and 1,335 m [5,151; 5,069; 4,829; 4,711; 4,501 and
4,380 ft]. As with the first six cuts, the MCPC tool
performed as intended, and cutting times were > Multicycle pipe cutter (MCPC). Through changes in pump pressure, operators are able to position
between 6 and 14 min each. In all, engineers esti- activating cams so that they act to extend one set of knife blades on the MCPC while the others remain
retracted. Varying mud pulse signals cause the cycle indexing mechanism to engage a hydraulically
mated using the MCPC method delivered to the activated, mechanically actuated casing spear (not shown) while simultaneously retracting all blades.
operator a savings of about 1.5 days and When the cut is complete, a piston moves downward to a piston stop (not shown), creating a larger
US$ 200,000 over conventional methods. flow area through the pressure drop indicator. The resulting pressure drop is displayed at the surface,
The remaining pieces have not yet been serving as confirmation that the cut is complete.
retrieved from the wellbore because the cus-
tomer decided to temporarily suspend operations
on this well for various reasons not related to the
MCPC operations. The operator will return to the
well and continue pulling the remaining sections
in the near future.

Perforate, Wash and Cement

A crucial requirement of a permanent abandon-
ment procedure is placement of a cement plug
across the wellbore and in the annuli of the lower
casing sections remaining in the well once upper
sections have been pulled. In the majority of these
cases, the procedure is to mill a window through
all casing strings through which cement may be Intermediate casing
and production
pumped into the annuli and against the exposed casing window
Intermediate
formation (right). This procedure also removes casing
any cement, settled mud or other debris from
between the casing and the formation that could
prevent the required multidirectional sealing.
A potential drawback to this practice arises
from the fact that a highly viscous drilling fluid Cement
must be used during the milling operation to lift
Production
the metal cuttings, commonly known as swarf, to casing
the surface. Swarf-laden fluids have a density that Production casing
is usually considerably greater than the formation window

can withstand before fractures are induced. The > Milled windows. Casing strings of lower completions that are poorly
resulting equivalent circulating density (ECD) is cemented but cemented in a manner that renders them irretrievable (left),
must be milled. One trip is required to mill the production casing (middle) and
more than sufficient to cause lost circulation then separate trips are required for any intermediate casings (right) until all
6. Hekelaar S, Gibson K and Desai P: “Increasing Reliability annuli and the formation are exposed. This allows the operator to cement each
of Cutting/Pulling Casing in a Single Trip,” paper annulus according to permanent P&A requirements before drilling the sidetrack.
SPE 145494, presented at the Offshore Europe Oil
and Gas Conference and Exhibition, Aberdeen,
September 6–8, 2011.
7. Hekelaar et al, reference 6.

Spring 2012 49
 12 By August 2011, operator ConocoPhillips had
completed 20 PWC plug installations in the
10
North Sea. Through experience and operational
improvements using the PWC method, the opera-
Time saved, d 8
tor progressively whittled down time required to
6 set a permanent plug to 2.6 days. By comparison,
10.5 in the course of six conventional operations, the
4 operator required an average of 10.5 days to set a
6.0 permanent downhole plug (left). As a result, the
2 4.3
2.6
company calculated a savings of 124 rig days over
0
the course of the 20 PWC wells.9
Section milling Three-trip PWC Two-trip PWC Single-trip PWC
> Time saved during perforate, wash and cement (PWC). With continual
A New Timeline
operational improvements, engineers reduced the average plug-setting time Because of increasing concerns over the many
from 10.5 days to 2.6 days for a single run PWC plug. Over the history of 20 wells no longer in production but not yet perma-
jobs, engineers estimated a savings of 124 rig days. (Adapted from Ferg et nently sealed, regulators in the mature offshore
al, reference 9.) areas of the Gulf of Mexico and the North Sea are
pressing for action. This promises to immediately
create enormous demand for abandonment ser-
problems in the exposed zones.8 Additionally, sur- tool is run to plug-setting depth where the guns vices in those markets. The overall cost of decom-
face equipment may be easily damaged when are fired and automatically dropped. Fluid is then missioning on the UK Continental Shelf is
metal-laden fluid passes through it. circulated and conditioned to match wellbore estimated at about US$ 48.6 billion by 2050, with
As a consequence, these operations are time pore pressure conditions. A ball is dropped, which US$ 7.2 billion expected to be spent in the next five
consuming and can be difficult to perform safely seals off the bottom of the wash tool and opens a years. Well plugging will account for more than
and effectively. Additionally, it is difficult to test sliding sleeve to direct circulation between the US$ 2.6 billion spent by 2016.10 North Sea operators
the effective plug seals through the two methods wash cups. Washing is done across the perforated have indicated these are modest estimates and
typically deployed in section milled casing: leav- interval from top to bottom. Circulating fluid that they expect to pay tens of millions of dollars in
ing the top of the cement inside the casing above cleans the annular space through the perforations P&A costs per well plus the cost of decommission-
the milled window and leaving the top of the between the wash cups and the annular space ing surface facilities and other infrastructure.
cement in the open hole. above the top wash cup. Because there is no profit to be gained from
To test the former, the plug is tagged, weight When the tool reaches the bottom perfora- abandoning a well, operators look to service com-
tested and then pressure tested. These tests tion, the washing continues while the tool is panies to limit the economic downside of these
assess the quality of cement inside the casing moved upward. The wash tool is then run back to obligatory operations. And because the tangibles,
and make no determination of quality of cement the bottom of the perforations and a cement such as cement and reamers, are relatively inex-
in the casing annulus or in the open hole. In the spacer is pumped between the wash tool cups pensive and nearly fixed in amount and quality,
latter test, the plug can be tagged to verify posi- and into the annular space as the tool is pulled the service industry challenge is to develop
tion, but in most cases, it is impossible to pres- upward. A ball is dropped and landed, discon- advantages by improving the intangibles—the
sure test it. necting the wash tool from the cement stinger. methods that save time and money during perma-
One response to these challenges has been The wash tool is then pushed to below the perfo- nent abandonment exercises.
the introduction of a system known as perforate, rations. The wash tool cups are designed to main- The number of wells ready for these final pro-
wash and cement (PWC). This technique removes tain contact with the casing inner wall and are cedures may rise with time because while opera-
debris from the annulus through perforations, then used as a base for cementing operations. tors work to permanently abandon their backlog
which eliminates milling debris and a high ECD The cement stinger is pulled above the top perfo- of idle wells, many wells being drilled today will
to remove swarf. ration and the casing cleaned a final time through have a shorter productive life than wells drilled
The PWC method uses a tool made of pipe- the workstring before the interval is cemented in the past. Earlier offshore wells captured hydro-
conveyed perforating guns attached below a wash through the stinger. The cement is then squeezed carbons from large accessible reservoirs, while
tool, which is below a cement stinger. The PWC into the perforations. many of the remaining reservoirs are substan-
The workstring can then be used to wash tially smaller and will have shorter life spans that
8. For more on lost circulation: Cook J, Growcock F, Guo Q,
Hodder M and van Oort E: “Stabilizing the Wellbore to downward to the top of the cement for tagging will make them abandonment candidates after
Prevent Lost Circulation,” Oilfield Review 23, no. 4 and pressure testing. If the plug needs to be fewer years of production than their predeces-
(Winter 2011/2012): 26–35.
9. Ferg TE, Lund H-J, Mueller D, Myhre M, Larsen A, tested, the operator can drill out the cement sors. Additionally, regulators have made it clear
Andersen P, Lende G, Hudson C, Prestegaard C and plug, pressure test the annulus and then set a that the time between the end of a well’s life and
Field D: “Novel Approach to More Effective Plug and
Abandonment Cementing Techniques,” paper plug inside the casing, which can be tagged and its permanent sealing will now be shorter than in
SPE 148640, presented at the SPE Arctic and Extreme tested according to regulators’ requirements. the past. Given these new parameters, it behooves
Environments Conference and Exhibition, Moscow,
October 18–20, 2011. operators to plan for a well’s final days even as
10. Chesshyre M: “Braced for the North Sea ‘Bow Wave’,” they spud it. —RvF
Offshore Engineer 36, no. 11 (November 2011): 33–37.

50 Oilfield Review
 Contributors

Peter Ablard is an Appraisal Geologist for the West of David Cook is the Vice President Operations for Mud industry, he has worked in a variety of technical and
Shetland Exploration and Appraisal group for Chevron Logging for Geoservices, a Schlumberger company, in managerial roles. Kevin obtained a first class BSc (Hons)
North Sea Limited. He holds a BSc degree in geology Roissy-en-France, France. Prior to his current position, degree in geology from the University of Sheffield,
from The University of Edinburgh, Scotland, and an he was the Geoservices vice president of sales and South Yorkshire, England, and a PhD degree in geo-
MSc degree in integrated petroleum geoscience from marketing. David began his career as a mud logger on chemistry from The University of Edinburgh, Scotland.
the University of Aberdeen. Since graduating, Peter an offshore drilling rig in South Korea in 1989. He has Ivan Fornasier is Manager of the Schlumberger
has worked for Chevron, based in Aberdeen, in the more than 23 years of experience in mud logging as a Geoservices Expertise Center (GEC) for Formation
areas of development, appraisal and exploration. field engineer, pore pressure specialist, and for the last Evaluation, in Roissy-en-France, France. He started his
Lucas W. Abshire is a Business Development Manager 15 years, in various line management positions in Asia, career in 1995 as a mud logger for Geoservices, then
for Schlumberger in Broussard, Louisiana, USA. He is Latin America and the Middle East. He holds a BSc became a data engineer before specializing in FLAIR*
responsible for North America fishing, well abandon- degree (Hons) in geology from the University of technology. In 2009, he moved to the Geoservices main
ment and pipe recovery product lines. Lucas previously Portsmouth, Hampshire, England. office to serve as a fluid specialist, and moved to his
worked as a field engineer for three years before Bob Costo, who began working for Schlumberger in current position a year later. Ivan holds a bachelor’s
obtaining his current position. He received his BS 2005, is an Engineering Manager in charge of develop- degree in geology from the University of Naples
degree in civil engineering from the University of ment of BHA, surface equipment and tubular products. Federico II, Italy.
Louisiana, Lafayette, USA. He is a registered profes- Currently based in Houston, he spent 10 years with George Haines has worked in various capacities for
sional engineer in the state of Louisiana. Hughes Christensen prior to joining Schlumberger. Geoservices since 1981. After attending the University
Jeff Alford, based in Houston, is the North America Bob earned a BS degree in mechanical engineering of Pittsburgh at Johnstown, Pennsylvania, USA, he
Land Acoustic Domain Champion for PathFinder, a from The University of Texas at Austin. worked as a mud logger and data engineer in the
Schlumberger company. In addition to supporting John Crowe, who works in Luanda, Angola, is the Rocky Mountain region of the US and then took assign-
operations at the field and client level, he is involved Formation Evaluation Team Leader for Chevron ments in Central and South America, Europe and
in developing geophysical and geomechanical Cabinda Gulf Oil Company Ltd and is responsible for North and West Africa. He has served as a mud logging
solutions for drilling, formation evaluation and formation evaluation support for both shelf and deep- trainer, a technical writer and a recruiter. Based in
completion problems with a focus on unconventional water operations. He began his career in 1980 with Houston, George is currently the Health, Safety and
resources. Since joining Schlumberger in 1981, he has Chevron Overseas Petroleum Inc in San Francisco, Environment Manager for Geoservices North America.
participated in the development and testing of the California, USA, and has more than 19 years of experi- Mark A. Herkommer manages the PreVue* service
sonicVISION*, SonicScope*, Ultrasonic Imager, Dipole ence with Chevron in Nigeria, Kuwait, Spain and Angola. line for Schlumberger in Conroe, Texas, and is actively
Sonic Imager, Sonic Scanner* and Isolation Scanner* He worked as a research scientist for 11 years at involved in all pressure-related phases of well planning
tools. He currently serves on the SPWLA board of Chevron Oil Field Research Company and Chevron and drilling. Prior to joining Schlumberger, he was the
directors as Vice President Information Technology. Petroleum Technology Company in La Habra, California, owner and president of Petrospec Technologies, which
Chris Bell, who has worked with Chevron for more where he specialized in basin modeling, wireline and specializes in solutions to pore pressure, fracture gra-
than 30 years, is currently an Operations Geologist in LWD resistivity tool modeling and in numerous wireline, dient and wellbore stability challenges in offshore
the Chevron North Sea Limited Onshore Europe team LWD and horizontal well logging applications. John operating environments. Mark is a licensed profes-
in Aberdeen. For most of his career, he has been holds a BS degree in mining geophysics from Columbia sional geoscientist in Texas. He obtained a BS degree
involved in wellsite geology and geological and geo- University, New York City, and a PhD degree in marine in geology from Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti,
physical operations, well planning and geosteering. He geophysics from the Massachusetts Institute of USA, and an MS degree in applied mathematics from
is focused on the development and deployment of new Technology, Cambridge, and Woods Hole Oceanographic The University of Texas at Dallas. He has authored
technology and strategies to enhance reservoir charac- Institution, both in Massachusetts, USA. more than 70 publications related to the geosciences
terization and optimally placed wells. Chris began his Larry W. Cunningham, Schlumberger Senior Vice and mathematics.
career in the early 1970s as a cartographer; he worked President of Impact Tools, has 38 years of experience Laura Lawton is a Senior Geologist at Hess Services
for Marathon Oil Corporation starting in 1978 and in BHA tools. He is based in Houston. He was previously UK Limited in London. She has worked at Hess for five
joined Chevron in 1981. Chris obtained a BSc degree employed by Dailey Petroleum Services Corporation, years on a range of exploration, appraisal and produc-
(Hons) in geology and an MSc degree in sedimentation National Oilwell Varco and Smith International. From tion projects in Europe and North Africa. Laura earned
and stratigraphy at Birkbeck University of London. 2003 to 2008, he was the president of Sup-R-Jar LLC. an MSc degree in petroleum geoscience from Imperial
Matt Blyth, who has been the LWD Acoustics Domain Larry earned a BA degree in history from Southwest College, London, and an MSc degree in natural sci-
Champion for Schlumberger North America Offshore Texas State University, San Marcos. ences from the University of Cambridge, England.
operations since 2009, is based in Houston. His primary Praful Desai is a Senior Engineer for the Schlumberger Julio Loreto is the D&M Data Quality Manager and
role is in technical sales and operations support for Drilling Tools & Remedial segment in Houston, where Acoustics Technology Product Champion for
LWD acoustics operations in the Gulf of Mexico, Atlantic he works on special projects. Praful began his career Schlumberger. Based in Sugar Land, Texas, his primary
and Eastern Canada and Alaska. Before joining with Smith International Inc in California in 1979 and responsibilities are the assessment of current and
Schlumberger in 1997, he worked as a civil engineer for has more than 30 years of experience with Smith in future market needs for development of new technolo-
water supply infrastructure projects in the UK. Since drilling, fishing, remedial, wellbore departure and well gies in LWD acoustics. He joined Schlumberger in 1997
joining Schlumberger, he has had a variety of roles in abandonment tools and services. He received his BS as an MWD and LWD engineer and has worked in West
Canada and the US before becoming an instructor at the degree in mechanical engineering from Trine Africa and the Gulf of Mexico. From 2005 to 2011, he
Drilling & Measurements (D&M) Sugar Land Learning University, Angola, Indiana, USA, and an MS degree in was D&M operations manager in Venezuela, Alaska and
Center in Texas, USA. Matt received bachelor’s and mas- mechanical engineering from California State Mexico. Julio holds a BS degree in electronics engineer-
ter’s degrees in engineering from the University of University, Los Angeles. ing from Universidad Simón Bolívar, Caracas.
Cambridge, England. Kevin Fielding is a Senior Staff Geologist with Hess Glenn Joseph Martin is a Global Business Manager
Services UK Limited. He works in the Hess London with Schlumberger in Houston. Glenn has 35 years of
Office for the Global New Business Development team; experience with impact tools. He began working with
previously he worked for Hess predevelopment, devel- Smith in 1998 as a business development manager.
opment and production teams in northwest Europe.
During his 20-year career in the upstream oil and gas

Spring 2012 51
Kevin McCarthy is a Petroleum Systems Analyst/ Cupiagua development project in Colombia. He cur- Sachin Sharma joined Geoservices in 1997 as a mud
Geochemist with BP Exploration in Houston. From rently works for ATP Oil & Gas Corporation in Houston, logging geologist and pore pressure engineer, working
2008 through 2011, he served as a geochemist with as a Production Superintendent. William manages the mainly in Southeast Asia. In 2003, he became a FLAIR
Schlumberger in Houston and at the Heavy Oil Regional decommissioning of pipelines, wellbores and platforms field engineer when the service was launched and two
Technology Center in Calgary. He was a research assis- and is responsible for through-tubing recompletions and years later established the GEC in the UK. He later
tant at Tufts University in Medford, Massachusetts, workovers on shelf properties; he is involved in deepwa- worked as a GEC manager in Roissy-en-France, where
where he analyzed aqueous and soil samples in support ter riserless well interventions planning. he now works as a Schlumberger Product Champion for
of the US National Aeronautics and Space Vivian Pistre, based in Sagamihara, Japan, is Formation Evaluation, Surface Data Logging Services.
Administration Phoenix Mars Mission; he was also a Geophysics, Acoustics and Geomechanics D&M Sachin attained his master’s degree in geology from the
hydrologist consulting on water management issues in Domain Head for Schlumberger, a position he has held University of Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Sarasota County, Florida, USA. Working with Woods Hole since 2010. He began his career with Schlumberger in Torodd Solheim, based in Stavanger, is a Schlumberger
Oceanographic Institute in Massachusetts, he 1982 and has worked as a field engineer, operations Senior Product Line Manager, Fishing and Remedial for
researched deep sea hydrothermal vents as a scientist manager and log analyst in a number of locations, Europe and Africa. He was previously operations sup-
diver in the manned submersible Alvin. Kevin has a including Africa, Latin America and Europe. Since port manager for Europe and CIS. He began his career
master’s degree in geochemistry with a special focus on 1996, he has been involved in the development of wire- with The Red Baron Ltd as fishing supervisor, and his
hydrogeology from the University of South Florida in line and LWD sonic tools, primarily at the experience includes all aspects of fishing, plug and
Tampa, and a bachelor’s degree in geology from Salem Schlumberger Kabushiki Kaisha Center in Japan. abandonment and wellbore departure operations world-
State College in Massachusetts. Vivian earned a BS degree in engineering and an MSc wide, including supervising abandonment operations in
José Mercado, a Schlumberger Global Product degree in computer science and artificial intelligence North Sea fields. Torodd earned a bachelor’s degree in
Engineer in Houston, provides technical advice and from École Nationale Supérieure d’Électronique, education from the University of Stavanger.
assistance to sales and operations of all Smith Services d’Électrotechnique, d’Informatique, d’Hydraulique et Ed Tollefsen is Business Development Manager for
products and services. He began his career with Smith des Télécommunications, Toulouse, France. PathFinder in Houston where he supports LWD and
International in 1998 as a QHSE regional manager in Jean-Pierre Poyet is Vice President of Technology for MWD technology development, use and education.
South America. He earned a BS degree in civil engi- Geoservices in Roissy-en-France, France. Throughout Prior to his current position, he served as business
neering technology from Wentworth Institute of his oilfield career, he has experience in engineering, development manager for Schlumberger D&M in North
Technology, Boston, Massachusetts, and an MS degree research, marketing and operations with Schlumberger America. His career with Schlumberger began in 1990
in structural steel design from Universidad Central de Wireline and Testing. For the past decade, he has worked as a field engineer with wireline evaluation services,
Venezuela, Caracas. for Geoservices in mud logging, slickline and multi- formation testing and seismic acquisition. He served as
Saeed Mohammed is the LWD Acoustics Domain phase flow production activities. When Geoservices a staff engineer and field service manager for Gulf
Champion for Schlumberger D&M and is based in was acquired by Schlumberger, Jean-Pierre served as Coast Special Services, Belle Chase, Louisiana, USA,
Al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia. He began his career in the oil Geoservices deputy general manager. He received an where his primary responsibility was design changes to
industry in 1993 as a seismologist in the Borehole engineering degree from École Centrale de Lyon, offshore units. While there, Ed also served as wireline
Geophysics Division of Seismograph Service Limited. France, and a PhD degree in astrophysics from US land seismic and special services operations man-
In 2001, he joined Schlumberger; for the majority of his Columbia University, New York City. ager. He received a BS degree in computer engineering
career, he has focused on borehole acoustics measure- Maja Radakovic is a Drilling Performance Engineer from the Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, USA.
ments and is currently involved in field testing LWD for Sinopec-Addax in Geneva, Switzerland. Prior to her Lawrence Umar started his oilfield career in 1991
sonic tools. Saeed has a degree in applied geology from current position, she worked in Roissy-en-France for with Sarawak Shell Berhad. In 2000, he joined Lundin
Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi, Nigeria, Schlumberger as a Geoservices product champion for Petroleum before moving to Petronas Carigali Sdn Bhd
and an MS degree in petroleum geology from University drilling support products related to mud logging. She the next year. He started as a wellsite drilling engineer
of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria. spent three years at the GEC in Roissy-en-France to and progressed to project drilling engineer, senior
Brian Mohon is a Schlumberger BHA Tool Design assist with development, growth and sales of the drilling supervisor, operations engineer and eventually
Engineer in Houston. His responsibilities include new Thema* service and was also in charge of Brazil opera- Drilling Superintendent, a position he has held for the
product development and technical support for various tions. She joined Geoservices in 2006, starting as a last 13 years. As a drilling superintendent, he has man-
downhole tools, including drilling jars. He received his mud logger and data engineer, and worked primarily in aged drilling operations on jackup rigs, semisubmers-
BS degree in mechanical engineering from Texas Tech the UK sector of the North Sea. Maja obtained her ibles, drillships, tender barges, semisub tenders and
University, Lubbock. master’s degree in geotechnics from the Faculty of land rigs. He has been involved in drilling various well
Dan Mueller is a Cementing Specialist for the Mining and Geology, University of Belgrade, Serbia. types, including horizontal, multilateral, splitter,
ConocoPhillips Global Wells Drilling Engineering Robert D. B. Robertson joined Smith International in extended-reach drilling, carbonate gas, slimhole mono-
Group in Houston. He has 33 years of experience in 2007 as an operations manager. Based in Stavanger, he bore and HPHT wells using technologies such as
cementing operations, technical sales, research and has been a Schlumgerger Global Product Engineering expandable tubulars, casing drilling, twin and triple
applied technology. He was past chair of an API sub- Advisor since 2011. Robert is responsible for product wellheads and managed pressure drilling. He is based
committee (SC-10) on well cements and currently development, reliability and technical follow up of the in Kuala Lumpur.
serves as chair of both the editorial group of the ISO fishing and remedial product line with an emphasis on Liangjun Xie is a Schlumberger Senior Application
technical committee on well cements and the API global plug and abandon technology. Developer in Houston. Since 2008, when he joined
SC-10 publications committee. He authored the ISO Adrian Rodriguez-Herrera is a Schlumberger Reservoir Smith International, he has developed soft string and
standards Testing of Deepwater Well Cement Geomechanics and Development Engineer, based at the stiffness string mechanical models for torque and
Formulations and Methods for Determining the Reservoir Geomechanics Center of Excellence, drag, established the hydraulic model for swab and
Static Gel Strength of Cement Formulations. He was a Bracknell, England. Since 2009, he has worked in the surge and developed the vibration model for jar place-
2000/2001 SPE Distinguished Lecturer, has published design and development of geomechanical workflows ment. Previously, Liangjun was an R&D engineer with
more than 30 technical papers and has been awarded involving 3D numerical modeling. He supports oil and Jiangnan Shipyard Company Ltd in Shanghai for three
10 US patents. Dan holds a BS degree from the gas field management projects aimed at the efficient years. He has a BS degree in naval architecture from
University of Oklahoma, Norman, USA. integration of seismic, structural and log data for geo- Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan,
William B. Paulsen began his career in 1977 with the mechanical applications. Adrian began working for China, a master’s degree in electrical engineering and
Red Adair Company in Houston. He then worked as a Schlumberger in 2008 at the Schlumberger Heavy Oil a doctoral degree in systems engineering from
drilling, completions, workover and production opera- Center of Excellence, Puerto La Cruz, Venezuela, where Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, USA.
tions supervisor at Corpus Christi Oil & Gas Company. he focused on reservoir engineering and simulation. He An asterisk (*) is used to denote a mark of Schlumberger.
In 1997, he began as a petroleum consultant for BP has a BS degree in petroleum engineering from the
Exploration, where he was responsible for field supervi- Universidad de Oriente, Maturín, Venezuela.
sion of remedial well operations in the BP Cusiana and

52 Oilfield Review
NEW BOOKS Coming in Oilfield Review

s 0ART3IXˆ2OADTOTHE&UTURE Contents: Going to Extremes. High-pressure,

Carbohydrate Man, Internal Fire, The s !$REAMOF!RISTOTLE high-temperature (HPHT) wells pres-
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s 4HE2ISEOF)SLAM
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Daniel Yergin
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New York, New York 10014 USA
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global energy as the engine of geopoliti- HTTPWWWNYTIMESCOMBOOKS Al-Khalili . . . retraces this vital have been especially useful in help-
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follow-up to his 1991 book The Prize: 3EPTEMBER  thought. His enthusiasm, interjection acterize these zones. This article
The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and of personal anecdotes, and conversa- describes detailed case studies of
Power, for which he won a Pulitzer tional style will make the story successes using seismic methods to
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from the Mideast to Capitol Hill, Yergin help operating companies make
explores the decisions and choices that decisions about well placement in
. . . . The book is marred by the
are shaping our energy-dependent author’s repeated admonitions to fractured reservoirs.
future. He also describes the history of acknowledge the value and worth of
nuclear energy, coal, electricity and the Islamic tradition, by comparisons Drilling Automation. For the past
natural gas and investigates biofuels of the ‘greatness’ of this or that 10 to 20 years, many newly built rigs
and wind and solar energy, explaining Islamic figure with one from the Latin have included automated drill floor
why these are crucial to the world’s West, and, ironically, by assessments hardware such as iron roughnecks
energy future. of the work of Islamic figures based, and pipe-handling equipment to
not in their historical and intellectual increase safety and operational con-
Contents: context, but in their closeness to or
sistency. Drilling automation seeks to
s )NTRODUCTION presaging of modern ideas.
optimize the drilling process as a
s 0ART/NEˆ4HE.EW7ORLDOF/IL The House of Wisdom: How "ANTZ$ChoiceNO/CTOBER  whole. This article looks at how the
Russia Returns, The Caspian Derby, Arabic Science Saved Ancient industry is linking the rig to auto-
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Knowledge and Gave Us the mated downhole systems in efforts to
The Petro-State, Aggregate agree that more attention should be
Disruption, War in Iraq, The Renaissance given to the Arab contribution to the lower reservoir access costs and out-
Demand Shock, China’s Rise, China Jim al-Khalili preservation and expansion of knowl- perform manual operations.
in the Fast Lane The Penguin Press, a division of edge at this critical period, and the
Penguin Group Inc. author has done so in considerable Microbes. Microbes and humans
s 0ART4WOˆ3ECURINGTHE3UPPLYIs 375 Hudson Street
the World Running Out of Oil?, detail and with rising passion. . . . By have existed as both enemy and ally
New York, New York 10014 USA recounting Arabic science’s luminous
Unconventional, The Security of for millions of years. That dual
2011. 336 pages. US$ 29.95 past, al-Khalili says he hopes to instill
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Persian Gulf, Gas on Water, The a sense of pride that will ‘propel the Microbes can plug formations and
Natural Gas Revolution importance of scientific enquiry back
The author describes the scientific cause corrosion and reservoir sour-
to where it belongs: at the very heart
s 0ART4HREEˆ4HE%LECTRIC!GE innovations—in medicine, mathemat- of what defines a civilized and ing, but they can also enhance oil
Alternating Currents, The Nuclear ics, optics, astronomy and chemistry— enlightened society.’ recovery. New, analytical methods
Cycle, Breaking the Bargain, Fuel of the Islamic world from the ninth are giving scientists insights into
Choice through the fourteenth centuries and 7ILFORD*.h4HE-USLIM!RTOF3CIENCEv
this unseen world. As a result, new
reveals how they underpinned and The New York Times-AY HTTP
s 0ART&OURˆ#LIMATEAND#ARBON WWWNYTIMESCOMBOOKSREVIEW
applications are emerging that will
Glacial Change, The Age of enabled the European Renaissance.
BOOK REVIEW THE HOUSE OF WISDOM BY JIM AL help producers more effectively con-
Discovery, The Road to Rio, Making These discoveries, principles and
evidence-based approaches were, the KHALILIHTML?RPAGEWANTEDALLACCESSED trol and harness microbial behavior.
a Market, On the Global Agenda, In /CTOBER 
Search of Consensus author posits, obscured by later Western
versions of the same principles. The
s 0ART&IVEˆ.EW%NERGIESRebirth author also explores why and how the
of Renewables, Science Experiment, Arab world entered its own dark ages
Alchemy of Shining Light, Mystery after centuries of enlightenment.
of Wind, The Fifth Fuel—Efficiency,
Closing the Conservation Gap

Spring 2012 53
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Engineering & Technology category. )SA&UNCTIONOFr, zANDt New York, New York 10019 USA
s )NlNITEAND3EMI )NlNITE 2011. 448 pages. US$ 27.00
Contents:
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54 Oilfield Review
DEFINING PERFORATING

Detonation for Delivery

Tony Smithson
Editor

Perforating—the act of blasting holes through steel casing, cement and

formation rock—happens in an instant, and yet, the long-term viability and
Leg Rubber Match Filament RDX Lead RDX Detonator
profitability of most oil and gas assets depend on it. Perforating guns carry wires plug ignition azide cord
explosive shaped charges downhole, where they are detonated to create pellet
tunnels that act as conduits through which reservoir fluids flow from the
formation, into the wellbore and up to the surface.
In the 1920s, E&P companies began the practice of cementing metal
Two 27-ohm Lead azide Booster section
pipe in the wellbore. The cement supported the casing and isolated produc- safety resistors primer
ing intervals from other zones. Although effective, the practice created a
dilemma for operators: how to reach the hydrocarbons on the outside of the
> Electrical detonator. There are many varieties of detonators; some are
pipe. Bullet guns were originally used to mechanically punch through the electrically initiated, others are set off by pressure or mechanical shock and
pipe and cement, but their penetration and effectiveness were limited. do not require electrical power. Engineers set off electrical detonators such
Shaped charge technology, based on military antitank weaponry, was intro- as the one shown by applying current to the leg wires. This heats a filament
duced to the oil field in 1948. It revolutionized well completions. wire, causes a pellet to ignite and begins a chain reaction as lead azide and
RDX in the primer and booster sections set off the detonator cord. Lead
A shaped charge has an outer shell that houses a primer igniter and azide is a type of primary explosive; RDX is a type of secondary explosive.
explosive material, which are held in place by a conical liner (below). The The safety resistors attached to the leg wires serve two functions: They
igniter acts as the link between the detonator cord and the explosives in inhibit the flow of induced current in the wire and provide a known value of
resistance, which can be checked with a safety meter to confirm that there
is continuity through the filament in the ignition pellet.
Perforating gun
Reservoir the shaped charge. The liner does more than hold the explosives in place;
Detonator cord
its conical shape creates a high-pressure jet of energy, which penetrates
Perforating gun
Liner Detonator cord
the casing, cement and formation.
Primer igniter Casing Perforating involves the use of high-order explosives, which must be han-
Explosive Shaped charge dled with great care. Most explosives used for perforating are referred to as
Cement secondary explosives, meaning another source must initiate their detonation.
Before detonation A blasting cap detonator usually begins the chain reaction; the detonator may
Detonation front be electrically or mechanically initiated. Conventional blasting caps are elec-
trically initiated when a current passes through a filament, which ignites a
Jet tip match that sets off a lead azide primary explosive charge (above). Mechanically
initiated blasting caps are also referred to as percussion detonators. The
blasting cap is connected to the detonator cord, which creates the shockwave
Jet tail
that sets off the shaped charges in the perforating gun, all of which culmi-
nates in the creation of perforation tunnels.
Electrical detonators have proved to be quite reliable, but a number
of safety practices have been developed to prohibit the unintentional
Jet tip detonation of the caps. Such practices include grounding electrical sys-
tems and shutting off power during the arming of guns. Today, radio trans-
missions pose one of the greatest dangers to conventional blasting caps
because these transmissions may induce current in the detonator wires.
After detonation When perforating with conventional blasting caps, wellsite personnel
> Shaped charge detonation. A shaped charge (top left) consists of a small must shut down radio transmitters, which include cell phones.
primer igniter, an outer casing, explosive material and a conical liner. The Because today’s wellsites rely on continuous communication via radio,
detonator cord connects individual shaped charges (upper right) and, when shutting down all transmissions is problematic. To address this drawback to
detonated, begins a chain reaction in which the liner focuses the energy of using conventional detonators, engineers designed a detonator that con-
the explosives into a jet (middle left). This generates a tremendous high-
tains no primary explosives and has a power threshold of 3 megawatts to
velocity pressure wave. The jet tip travels at 7,000 m/s [22,965 ft/s] and
exerts as much as 103 GPa [15 × 106 psi], creating perforation tunnels that initiate detonation; a conventional blasting cap detonator has a power
penetrate the casing, cement and the formation (bottom right). threshold around 1 watt. When operators use this new detonator, radio
transmissions can continue safely during the arming of guns because stray
Oilfield Review Spring 2012: 24, no. 1. voltage or induced current cannot initiate detonation.
Copyright © 2012 Schlumberger.

Spring 2012 55
DEFINING PERFORATING

Perforating guns come in a variety of sizes and configurations. The two

primary categories of gun systems are through-tubing guns and hollow-
carrier, or casing, guns (below). Hollow-carrier guns are larger than
through-tubing guns and facilitate bigger charges, more phasing options
and higher shot density. Phase is the angle between individual charges,
expressed in degrees, and shot density is the number of holes per unit of
length. Completion hardware in place and reservoir properties usually dic-
tate the type of gun system used. However, operators may install a particular
type of completion to accommodate a perforating system that is suitable for
a specific reservoir.
In wells that contain tubing, operators use small-diameter through-tub-
ing guns. These systems consist of either expendable gun systems that leave
debris in the wellbore after detonation or retrievable gun systems with a
mounting strip that can be recovered after detonation. Through-tubing guns
can be used in underbalanced conditions, in which hydrostatic borehole
pressure is lower than formation pressure. After detonation, formation flu-
ids flow into the well, flushing debris from the newly formed perforation
tunnels. The well can be immediately flow tested or put on production. With
through-tubing guns, operators can add perforations to producing intervals,
or open new zones without the expense of removing the tubing. If the guns
> High shot density casing gun after perforating.
are to be retrieved after perforating, the well is usually perforated in an
overbalanced condition, in which the borehole pressure is higher than for-
mation pressure. If the well is perforated underbalanced with casing guns,
the operator must kill the well to retrieve the guns. Wireline-conveyed perforating has several advantages. For instance,
Perforating guns are conveyed in the well using a variety of methods. operators have flexibility in choosing a gun system, and operations can be
Tubing-conveyed perforating (TCP) guns are attached to tubing and run in performed with or without a rig on location. Because the wireline cable
the well using a drilling or workover rig. TCP guns offer benefits such as provides communication between the downhole gun and the surface, wire-
leaving the tubing in place after perforating underbalanced, along with the line perforating offers acurate depth correlation. Through-tubing perforat-
improved performance and flexibility provided by using hollow-carrier guns. ing almost always relies on wireline for conveyance. Limitations of wireline
Because wells can be perforated underbalanced, flow to surface may be ini- perforating include gun length and weight and wellbore geometry. Slickline
tiated immediately. Long intervals and widely separated zones can be simul- perforating, which is becoming increasingly popular, offers a cost-effective
taneously perforated using this method; other techniques require multiple and efficient alternative to conventional wireline perforating and TCP guns.
trips into the well. One drawback to the use of TCP guns is that a drilling or However, slickline units do not provide power from the surface to set off
workover rig is required to run the guns into and out of the well. If the guns blasting caps, and slickline perforating does not offer the same level of
are to be retrieved, the well must be killed. depth-correlation accuracy as wireline perforating.
Although operators consider many factors when designing a perforating
program, the reservoir generally dictates which system will be used. For
Perforating Guns
instance, formations that are prone to producing sand perform better with
Shaped charge Detonator cord Detonator high shot density and large holes (above). Operators often perforate with
large-diameter TCP guns that produce many holes per linear foot. Depth of
penetration for these types of formations does not affect well performance.
Formations damaged during drilling and completion, however, perform bet-
Gun housing ter with deep penetrations that extend beyond the damaged zone. Deeper
penetration, however, comes with the disadvantage of smaller diameter per-
Detonator Detonator cord
foration holes. Underbalanced perforating in wells with formation damage
may also improve well performance.
The act of perforating may be over in an instant, but engineers and scien-
Shaped charge Metal mounting strip
tists realize its importance for the long-term viability of a well. They continue
to develop perforating techniques based on improvements in equipment
> Casing and through-tubing guns. Perforating guns come in a variety of design and deployment systems. Engineers are also using advanced modeling
shapes and sizes. Casing guns (top) house large shaped charges and offer
and testing of existing perforating systems to improve results. The ultimate
flexible phasing (orientation) and shot density options. Through-tubing guns
(bottom) are designed to pass through tight restrictions while maximizing objective is to allow oil and gas to flow from the formation to the surface in a
shaped charge size. For the retrievable through-tubing gun shown, only a metal safe and secure manner.
strip where the shaped charges are attached remains after gun detonation.

56 Oilfield Review
SCHLUMBERGER OILFIELD REVIEW SPRING 2012 VOLUME 24 NUMBER 1