COURSE: Several variables calculus for
non-majors
Topic: Function of several variables
Department of Mathematics
University of Dar es Salaam
Lecture Six
Overview
Vector Differential Calculus
Curvature
Torsion
Gradient of Scalar Field
Vector Differential Calculus
Gradient vector
Directional Derivative
Divergence and Curl
Curvature
The Curvature measures the rate
at which a curve is turning (away
from its tangent line) at any point.
Curvature
Definition
The curvature of C at the point r (s)
is the length of d T̂ /ds there. It is
denoted by the Greek letter
’Kappa’.
d T̂
κ(s) =
ds
Curvature cont. . .
Definition
The radius of curvature denoted
by Greek letter ’Rho’ is the
reciprocal of the curvature
1
ρ(s) =
κ(s)
Curvature cont. . .
The curvature is given by the
vector function r is
0 00
|r (t ) × r (t )|
κ(t ) =
|r 0 (t )|3
Curvature cont. . .
I Smaller circles bend more
sharply and hence have higher
curvature
I The curvature of a straight line
is zero
I The curvature κ is never be
negative
Torsion
Torsion measures the rate at
which the curve is twisting (out of
the plane in which it is turning) at
any point.
Torsion cont. . .
Definition
On any interval κ 6= 0, there exists
a function τ (s) such that
d B̂
= −τ (s)N̂ (s)
ds
The number τ (s) is called the
Torsion of C at r (s)
Torsion cont. . .
I While the curvature is
determined only in magnitude,
torsion is determined both in
magnitude and sign.
I Torsion is positive when the
rotation of osculating plane in
the direction of a right handed
screw moving in the direction of
increases
Torsion cont. . .
Torsion cont. . .
Torsion cont. . .
Torsion cont. . .
Gradient of Scalar Field
Definition
At any point (x , y ), where the first
partial derivatives of the function
f (x , y ), we define gradient vector
∇f (x , y ) = grad f (x , y ) by
∇F (x , y ) = fx (x , y )i + fy (x , y )j
Gradient of Scalar Field cont. . .
The symbol ∇ called ’del’ or
’nabla’ is a vector differential
operator
δ δ
∇ = i f (x , y ) + j f (x , y )
δx δy
Gradient of Scalar Field cont. . .
By using f (x , y ) is
δ δ
∇f (x , y ) = i + j f (x , y )
δx δy
= fx (x , y )i + fy (x , y )j
Gradient of Scalar Field cont. . .
Theorem
If f (x , y ) is differentiable at the
point (a, b) and ∇f (a, b) 6= 0, then
∇f (a, b) is a normal vector to the
level curve of that passes through
a, b
Gradient of Scalar Field cont. . .
Example
If f (x , y ) = x 2 + y 2, find the
gradient at the point (1, 2)
Gradient vector
Geometric properties of gradient
vector
IAt (a, b), f (x , y ) increases more
rapidly in the direction of the
gradient vector ∇f (a, b). The
maximum rate of increase is
|∇f (a, b)|
Gradient vector cont. . .
I At (a, b), f (x , y ) decreases
more rapidly in the direction of
the gradient vector −∇f (a, b).
The maximum rate of decrease
is |∇f (a, b)|
Gradient vector cont. . .
I The rate of change of f (x , y ) at
(a, b) is zero in directions
tangent to level curve of the
passes through (a, b)
Directional Derivative
I The first partial derivative
f1(a, b) and f2(a, b) give the
rates of change of f (x , y ) at
(a, b) measured in the direction
of the positive x − and y −axes
respectively.
Directional Derivative cont. . .
I If we know how fast f (x , y )
changes values as we move
through the domain of f at (a, b)
in some other direction, we
require a more general
directional derivative
I We can specify the direction by
means of non-zero vector
I It is most convenient to use a
Directional Derivative cont. . .
Definition
Let u = ui + v j be a unit vector, so
that u 2 + v 2 = 1. The directional
derivatives of f (x , y ) at (a, b) in the
direction of u is the rate of change
of f (x , y ) with respect to distance
measured at (a, b) along a ray in
the direction of u in the xy −plane
Directional Derivative cont. . .
This directional derivative is given
by
f (a + hu , b + hv ) − f (a
Du f (a, b) = lim
h→0 h
Directional Derivative cont. . .
It is also given as
d
Du f (a, b) = f (a + tu , b + tv ) |t =0
dt
If the derivative on the right side
exists
Directional Derivative cont. . .
Theorem
If f is differentiable at (a, b) and
u = ui + v j is a unit vector, then
the directional derivative of f at
(a, b) in the direction of u is given
by
Du f (a, b) = u .∇f (a, b)
Directional Derivative cont. . .
Given any non-zero vector v we
can always obtain a unit vector in
the same direction by dividing v by
its length. The direction derivative
of f at (a, b) in the direction of v is
therefore given by
v
Dv /|v |f (a, b) = .∇f (a, b)
|v |
Directional Derivative cont. . .
Example
Find the rate of change of
f (x , y ) = y 4 + 2xy 3 + x 2y 2 at (0, 1)
measured in each of the following
directions
a) i+2j b) j-2i c) 3i d) i+j
Divergence and Curl
I Consider a function f (x , y , z )
whose first three partial
derivatives are δδxf , δδyf and δδzf
I The Gradient is given by
grad f (x , y , z ) = ∇f (x , y , z )
δf δf δf
= i+ j+ k
δx δy δz
Divergence and Curl cont. . .
I The rate of change of the vector
field
F (x , y , z ) = F1(x , y , z )i + F2(x , y , z )
is contained in nine first partial
derivatives, three for each of the
three components of the vector
field F
Divergence and Curl cont. . .
δ F1 δ F1 δ F1
δx δy δz
δ F2 δ F2 δ F2
δx δy δz
δ F3 δ F3 δ F3
δx δy δz
Divergence and Curl cont. . .
I From these we get two useful
concepts, divergence of
F (div F ) and
curl of F (curl F )
Divergence and Curl cont. . .
δ F1 δ F2 δ F3
F = ∇F = + +
δx δy δz
is contained in nine first partial
derivatives, three for each of the
three components of the vector
field F
Divergence and Curl cont. . .
I From these we get two useful
concepts
δ F1 δ F2 δ F3
F = ∇F = + +
δx δy δz
is contained in nine first partial
derivatives, three for each of the
three components of the vector
field F
Divergence and Curl cont. . .
δ F1 δ F1 δ F1
δx δy δz
δ F2 δ F2 δ F2
δx δy δz
δ F3 δ F3 δ F3
δx δy δz
Divergence and Curl cont. . .
δ F1 δ F2 δ F3
div F = ∇.F = + +
δx δy δz
Divergence and Curl cont. . .
curl F = ∇ × F
i j k
δ δ δ
= δx δy δz
F1 F2 F3
Divergence and Curl cont. . .
Example
Find the divergence and curl of the
vector field
F = xyi + (y 2 − z 2)j + yzk
Divergence and Curl cont. . .
Divergence Interpretation
The value of divergence of a
vector field F at point P ia a
measure of the rate at which the
field "diverges" or "spread away"
from point P
Divergence and Curl cont. . .
Curl Interpretation
Curl measures the extent to which
the vector field F swirls around
point P
Divergence and Curl cont. . .
I The vector field F is called
Solenoidal in the domain D if
div F= 0 in D
Divergence and Curl cont. . .
I The vector field F is called
Irrotational in the domain D if
curl F= 0 in D
I Every conservative field is
Irrotational
