UNIT

3 Evolution

Y
ou might think that you are looking at a plant, but
• Evolution is the process of biological this photograph actually shows an insect. The legs
change over time based on the
relationships between species and and abdomen of the orchid mantis (Hymenopus
their environments. coronatus) resemble an orchid flower. In fact, an
• The theory of evolution is a scientific orchid mantis appears so similar to an orchid in full bloom that
explanation based on a large it is nearly impossible to tell one from the other. The insect is
accumulation of evidence. so well camouflaged that it easily catches and eats insects that
• Technology that enables humans to mistake it for a flower.
manipulate the development of species What natural processes can give rise to species of organisms
has economic and environmental that look like other species? What natural processes can give
implications.
rise to the development of species in the first place? How do
biologists explain such events, and what natural mechanisms
Overall Expectations account for them? In this unit, you will be introduced to one of
In this unit, you will... the most important concepts in biology and how it explains the
• analyze the economic and origins of, and changes within, species. This concept is biological
environmental advantages and
disadvantages of an artificial selection
evolution, and the theory that explains and predicts biological
technology, and evaluate the impact change is the theory of evolution by natural selection.
of environmental changes on natural As you study this unit, look ahead to the Unit 3 Project on
selection and endangered species pages 384 to 385, which gives you an opportunity to demonstrate
• investigate evolutionary processes, and and apply your new knowledge and skills. Keep a planning
analyze scientific evidence that supports folder so you can complete the project in stages as you progress
the theory of evolution through the unit.
• demonstrate an understanding of the
theory of evolution, the evidence that
supports it, and some of the mechanisms
by which it occurs

Unit 3 Contents
Chapter 7
Introducing Evolution
What are the natural and artificial
processes that result in the variation seen
within and among species?

Chapter 8
Developing a Theory of Evolution
What is the theory of evolution, and what
evidence is there to support the theory?

Chapter 9
Evolution and Speciation
How do species form, and how do human
activities and the environment affect the
formation and extinction of species?

288
289
UNIT
3 Preparation
Scientific Inquiry

• Scientific inquiry is an ongoing process that involves • A theory is an extensively tested hypothesis that
many steps, including making observations, asking encompasses a large body of information and that
questions, forming hypotheses, making predictions, cannot be rejected after rigorous testing.
conducting investigations, making conclusions, and • Making an inference involves interpreting observations
supporting or rejecting/revising hypotheses. using knowledge from past experience. Inferences are
• Scientific hypotheses are tentative answers to testable important in science in making explanations, but are
questions based on observations. not necessarily backed up by scientific evidence that
• Predictions are “if … then” statements made from comes from conducting a study. These inferences are
observations about what you expect to occur during an then subjected to more study.
investigation.

1. What is science? 5. Use the flowchart of the scientific inquiry process

a. a system of beliefs held by philosophers below to answer the following questions.
b. a possession of knowledge obtained by reading a. What do you do next if the results of your
science books experiment support your hypothesis?
c. an ongoing process for answering questions using b. What do you do next if the results of your
scientific inquiry experiment cause you to reject your hypothesis?
d. a process of testing and validating hypotheses to be The Scientific Inquiry Process
absolutely true
Observations and curiosity
e. an observation that is made using knowledge from stimulate questions.
past experience
Gather information.
2. Which of the following is most important in a
well-controlled experiment? Identify the problem.
a. control groups, experimental groups, and
replication Form a hypothesis or
make a prediction.
b. observations, questions, and predictions
c. observations, guesses, and philosophy Perform an experiment/
d. proof of a hypothesis, predictions, and replication investigation.

e. questions, observations, and lots of hard work Revise prediction Repeat several
Analyze data.
or hypothesis. times.
3. What are the major steps followed during a scientific
inquiry? Draw conclusions.

4. After observing squirrels fighting with each other over

prediction or hypothesis prediction or hypothesis
acorns in the heat during a drought, you make the not supported supported
statement, “Squirrels compete with each other for food
resources, especially when resources are scarce.” This Communicate results.
statement is an example of which of the following?
6. Which of the following is required to establish a
a. a hypothesis scientific theory?
b. a question a. an improved hypothesis
c. an experiment b. state-of-the-art laboratory equipment
d. a theory c. funding from the government
e. a prediction d. a new experimental procedure
e. evidence

290 MHR • Unit 3 Evolution

 Genetics

• Sexual reproduction involves meiosis. During meiosis, • An organism’s genotype is a combination of alleles
the parental chromosomes are reduced and randomly for any given trait, or the organism’s entire genetic
assorted. As a result, gametes are genetically diverse make-up. An organism’s phenotype is its visible
and haploid. physical and physiological traits.
• Random fertilization of unique gametes also adds to • A permanent change in a cell’s DNA is a mutation.
variation in offspring. Mutation is the source of all new alleles. Only
mutations in the gametes can be transmitted to
offspring.
• A gene pool is the total of all the genes in a population.

7. Which of the following processes increases genetic 11. What can alter the order of a gene’s DNA sequence on
variation? a chromosome?
a. cloning a. deletion
b. mitosis b. cytokinesis
c. crossing over c. inversion
d. replication d. trisomy
e. cytokinesis e. non-disjunction
8. Which statement is true about homologous 12. Identify the original source of all new alleles.
chromosomes? 13. Fill in the analogy: genotype is to organism as
a. They can exchange parts during meiosis. a. gene is to individual
b. They contain identical genetic information. b. gene pool is to population
c. They pair up and segregate from each other during c. genotype is to individual
mitosis. d. allele is to individual
d. They are always identical in size. e. gene is to population
e. Crossing over occurs between them during mitosis. 14. Black fur in mice (B) is dominant to brown fur (b).
9. Which of the following statements is true about Short tails (T) are dominant to long tails (t). What is
meiosis? Correct any false statements. the phenotype of an individual mouse that is Bbtt?
a. Pairs of homologous chromosomes synapse 15. In humans, dimpled cheeks is dominant to
together during meiosis. non-dimpled cheeks. Can two dimpled adults have a
b. Crossing over occurs between homologous child without dimples? Explain your answer.
chromosomes during meiosis.
16. Distinguish between the genotype and the phenotype
c. Meiosis leads to two genetically identical daughter of an organism by copying and completing the table
cells. below.
d. Meiosis is important for maintaining the Comparison of Genotype and Phenotype
chromosome number of daughter cells.
Term Description Example
e. Meiosis is the process that produces gametes with a
Genotype
haploid number of chromosomes.
Phenotype
10. When are new combinations of genes produced?
a. during DNA sequencing 17. Why was Mendel’s discovery of a unit of inheritance
b. during mutation (the allele) so important?
c. during mitosis
d. during meiosis
e. during interphase

Unit 3 Preparation • MHR 291

 Populations, Species, and Limiting Factors on Populations

• A population is a group of reproductively isolated • Limiting factors on populations can be biotic and
organisms of the same species that live in the same abiotic.
place at the same time. • Carrying capacity is the maximum population size that
• According to the biological species concept, if a particular environment can support.
two individual organisms can mate under natural • Human alterations to an ecosystem can reduce the
circumstances and they produce offspring that can carrying capacity of the ecosystem for other species.
successfully live and reproduce, then those two Conservation efforts aim to increase the carrying
individuals are the same species. capacity of threatened species.

18. What is a population? 23. The graph below shows the population growth of
a. a group of different species living in different parts a particular population. Use the graph to answer
of the world at the same time the following questions.
b. a group of different species living in the same place Population Growth of a Population
at the same time

Number of Individuals
c. a group of the same species living in the same place
d. different habitats on Earth
e. different ecosystems on Earth
19. Which species concept focuses on the ability of
organisms to interbreed in nature?
a. biological species concept Time

b. binomial species concept a. Growth slows down at a certain point. What is this
c. morphological species concept point called?
d. Linnaean species concept b. What could account for this slowdown in
e. phylogenetic species concept population? Provide one example.

20. A mule is the offspring of a horse and a donkey. Mules 24. What would be the most effective way to control the
are viable but also sterile (that is, unable to reproduce). sudden, rapid growth of a pest species?
Are horses and donkeys members of the same species? a. increase the carrying capacity of the species’
Why or why not? ecosystem
a. Donkeys and horses are not members of the same b. decrease the carrying capacity of the species’
species because mules are sterile. ecosystem
b. Donkeys and horses are members of the same c. kill all the species’ prey
species because mules are viable. d. increase the species’ birth rate
c. Donkeys and horses are not members of the same e. set bait to catch as many organisms as possible
species because mules are not viable. 25. Why might a population exceed the carrying capacity
d. Donkeys and horses are members of the same of the population’s ecosystem initially? Give an
species because mules are sterile. example.
e. Donkeys and horses are members of the same 26. Urban sprawl is an example of a human alteration
species because mules are neither sterile nor viable. to an ecosystem. Copy and complete the chart below
21. Identify two factors that limit the growth of a population. to define urban sprawl and show its effects.
22. Distinguish between a biotic factor and an abiotic Definition Effects
factor by copying and completing the table below.
Comparison of Biotic and Abiotic Factors
urban sprawl
Term Description Example
Biotic factor
Abiotic factor Examples Non-examples

292 MHR • Unit 3 Evolution

 Adaptations

• A characteristic that helps organisms survive and • Adaptations may be structural, such as a long neck or
reproduce in their specific environment is called striped fur. Adaptations may be behavioural and help
an adaptation. an organism find food, protect itself, or reproduce.
Adaptations may also be physiological, such as
breathing adaptations in deep-sea animals.

27. Which term describes a structure that helps organisms 30. What kind of adaptation is shown in the
survive and reproduce? photograph below?
a. an adaptation
b. the carrying capacity
c. a species
d. a mutation
e. a fossil
28. What is one major function of camouflage in insects?
a. to make energy
b. to find places to build nests
c. to hide from predators a. a structural adaptation to open small, soft seeds
d. to attract more mates b. a structural adaptation to grasp branches
e. to advertise danger to potential predators c. a structural adaptation to swim in water
29. When a caterpillar is disturbed, it may spray a d. a behavioural adaptation to fight males
distasteful substance from its body. e. an adaptation to crack open large, hard seeds
a. What type of adaptation is being exhibited by the 31. Describe an example of a change in the appearance
caterpillar? or behaviour of an organism that is an adaptation to
b. What is the advantage to the caterpillar? seasonal changes.
32. Give an example of a structural adaptation that allows
a plant to survive in its habitat.

Earth Sciences

• Climates around the world have changed many times • A fossil is the preserved remains of a once-living
over the billions of years of Earth’s history, affecting organism.
natural systems. • Extinction means that a species is no longer alive
on Earth.

33. Which one of the following affects Earth’s climate? 35. The illustration below is a trilobite fossil.
a. flooding d. local weather
b. a small lake e. volcanic eruptions
c. local winds
34. Which of the following is extinct?
a. dinosaurs
b. cockroaches
c. lizards a. What is a fossil?
d. eastern massasauga rattlesnake b. Trilobites are extinct. What does that mean?
e. hornworts

Unit 3 Preparation • MHR 293

 CHAPTER Introducing Evolution
7
Specific Expectations
In this chapter, you will learn how to . . .
• C1.1 analyze, on the basis of research,
the economic and environmental
advantages and disadvantages of an
artificial selection technology (7.2)

• C2.1 use appropriate terminology

related to evolution (7.1, 7.2)

• C2.2 use a research process to

investigate some of the key factors that
affect the evolutionary process (7.1)

• C2.4 investigate, through a case study

or computer simulation, the processes of
natural selection and artificial selection
and analyze the different mechanisms
by which they occur (7.2)

• C3.2 explain the process of adaptation

of individual organisms to their
environment (7.1)

• C3.4 describe some evolutionary

mechanisms and explain how they
affect the evolutionary development
of various species (7.1, 7.2)

There are thousands of species of birds on this planet.

Some birds, such as the macaw shown here, have beaks
that allow them to open the hardest seeds and nuts. Others
eat fish, like the pelican also shown here. Some birds eat
insects, some eat rodents and other small animals, some
eat seeds, and some feed on the nectar from flowers.
Why are there so many variations in birds, and why are
there so many different kinds of beaks? In this chapter,
you will learn about the relationship between different
adaptations of an organism, such as a bird’s beak, and
the organism’s environment.

294 MHR • Unit 3 Evolution

 Launch Activity

Different Beaks for Different Food

There are many species of birds, with a variety of beaks. In this activity,
you will use different objects to simulate different bird beaks and different
varieties of food.

Safety Precautions

• The scissors and ends of some forceps and tweezers are sharp.
• Do not allow the marbles to roll around on the floor. Someone could slip
on them.

Materials
• scissors • large binder clips
• plastic spoons • rubber bands
• tweezers and forceps • toothpicks
• clear plastic cups • seeds
• marbles

Procedure
1. Work in groups of four. Have each person in your group choose a
“beak”—a pair of scissors, a plastic spoon, a pair of tweezers, or a pair
of forceps. Then with your “stomach”—a plastic cup—sit with your
group members on the floor in a circle.
2. Your teacher will place several food items of one kind (marbles,
binder clips, rubber bands, toothpicks, or seeds) in the centre of the
circle, on the floor. When told, hold your beak in one hand and your
stomach in the other, and collect as much food as you can with your
beak. Place the food in your stomach. Stop collecting food when told
to by your teacher.
3. Empty your stomach, and count the number of food items. Record
data for your group in a table like the one below. Give your table a title.
4. Return your food items, and repeat steps 2 and 3 for each of the
remaining food items.

Binder Rubber
“Beaks” Marbles Clips Bands Toothpicks Seeds
Scissors
Plastic spoon
Tweezers
Forceps

Questions
1. What did you notice about your ability to eat with your beak?
2. Compare your data to those of other groups. Did everyone with your type
of beak have the same success rate with the same foods? Why or why not?
3. What do you think would happen to the birds if one or two of the
foods were no longer available?

Chapter 7 Introducing Evolution • MHR 295

 SECTION
Adaptation and Variation
7.1
Key Terms Organisms constantly face environmental challenges that limit their ability to survive.
Severe weather, famine, and competition for food, space, and mates are all challenges
extinct
that organisms may or may not be able to survive. Organisms that survive long
adaptation
enough to reproduce have the opportunity to pass along to their offspring the genetic
mimicry information that helped them survive.
variation The diversity within species and the interactions of organisms with their environment
mutation help explain how populations can change over time and why some species of organisms
selective advantage survive while others become extinct (disappear completely from Earth). In this section,
you will learn how variation within species, and organisms’ interactions with their
environment, helps explain changes in populations from one generation to another.
extinct describes
a species that has
completely disappeared Adaptations and Survival
from Earth
The colouring and structure of the stick insect in Figure 7.1 (A) help camouflage
adaptation a structure, the insect so that it blends in with its environment. The insect is almost invisible
behaviour, or
physiological process to predators because the predators cannot distinguish the stick insect from the
that helps an organism surrounding vegetation. As a result, more of the camouflaged individuals survive and
survive and reproduce in reproduce. As with other species, the stick insect’s adaptations make it well suited to
a particular environment its habitat. An adaptation is a structure, behaviour, or physiological process that helps
an organism survive and reproduce in a particular environment. Camouflage is an
example of an adaptation.
Hibernation is an example of a physiological adaptation. Hibernation allows the
Richardson’s ground squirrel to survive in climates with harsh winters. Hibernating
species reduce their metabolism to save energy. The needle-sharp talons and excellent
vision of an owl are structural adaptations that make owls, such as that in Figure 7.1 (B),
excellent predators in their environment.

A B

Figure 7.1 (A) Camouflage allows this stick insect (Eurycnema goliath) to blend in with its
environment and avoid being eaten by predators. (B) Many owls such as this barn owl (Tyto alba)
can sneak up on their prey because of another adaptation: fluffy feathers make their flight
quite silent.
Infer How could the camouflage of individual stick insects help the survival of a population
of stick insects?

296 MHR • Unit 3 Evolution

Mimicry: A Type of Structural Adaptation
Many harmless species resemble a harmful species in coloration or structure. This
mimicry a structural
phenomenon is called mimicry. Predators that avoid the harmful species will also adaptation in which
avoid the mimic. For example, the viceroy butterfly (Limenitis archippus) is palatable to a harmless species
predators, but the monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) is not. As seen in Figure 7.2, resembles a harmful
the viceroy is similar in structure and coloration to the monarch. By catching and species in coloration or
structure
eating a monarch butterfly, predators learn to avoid both butterflies because the
coloration and structure warn them that this prey tastes bad.

SuggestedInvestigation
ThoughtLab Investigation
7-A, Investigate Mimicry

Figure 7.2 Organisms with

the structural adaptation
of mimicry, such as the
viceroy butterfly (top), have
coloration or structures
that are similar to harmful
or bad-tasting species, such
as the monarch butterfly
(bottom).

Development of Adaptations
How do adaptations develop? Adaptations are the result of gradual, accumulative
variation differences
changes that help an organism survive and reproduce. As you will read later in this between individuals,
section, the changes in characteristics are the result of random, heritable mutations in which may be
genetic material (DNA) that accumulate over generations. Variations are structural, structural, functional, or
functional, or physiological differences between individuals. Not all variations become physiological
adaptations. Environmental conditions determine whether a variation in an individual
has a positive or negative effect, or no effect on the individual’s ability to survive and
reproduce. Individuals possessing a helpful variation are more likely to survive and
have a higher chance of passing this variation on to their offspring. As a result, the
variation will become more frequent and will be considered to be a characteristic, or
trait, of the population.
Interaction with environments is important to adaptation and variation because
environments change: climates change over time, and droughts, floods, and famines
may occur. Human activities, such as deforestation and land cultivation for crops, also
change environments. Thus, a characteristic that may not give an individual organism
a particular advantage now may become critical for survival later in the environment in
which that species lives. This is demonstrated in the example of the English peppered
moth, which is discussed on the next page.

Chapter 7 Introducing Evolution • MHR 297

 Activity 7.1 Modelling Adaptation

The adaptations that enable species to live within their 5. Repeat this procedure using two other styles of forceps
environments are often difficult or impossible to see. They or tweezers.
develop very slowly, over several generations of the species.
6. Assume that there has been some type of environmental
In this activity, you will use different instruments to simulate
event (for example, a drought or a flood) that has
bird beaks and find out whether small advantages can result
reduced the availability of seed A. To simulate this, leave
in large gains for particularly well-adapted individuals.
only 10 percent of seed A in the tray. Repeat the trials
Safety Precautions and compare the results.
7. Assume there is an environmental event that has
reduced the number of seeds B and C and doubled the
• The ends of some forceps and tweezers may be sharp. number of seed A. Leave only 10 percent of seeds B and
• Do not allow the seeds to fall on the floor. Someone could C in the tray and double the original number of seed A.
slip on them. Repeat the trials and compare the results.
• Tell your teacher if you have any food allergies.
Questions
Materials 1. Graph your results from these trials on graph paper or
• sesame seeds (seed A) • 3 forceps and/or tweezers, each electronically. Go to Constructing Graphs in Appendix A
• lentils (seed B) a different size, length, and style for help with graphing.
• rice (seed C) • graph paper or graphing 2. Describe any correlation between the characteristics of
• tray with edges software the forceps and their ability to pick up particular types
of seeds.
Procedure
1. Read the steps below, and design an electronic table 3. Describe what happened after the first environmental
or a table on paper to record your data. Give your table event when the number of seed A available was reduced.
a title. How might this have affected the subsequent generations
if the forceps were actually a type of bird beak?
2. Mix about 30 to 40 of each type of seed together in a
tray, making sure you have an equal number of each 4. Describe what happened after the second environmental
type of seed. event. Were any of the effects of the first environmental
event reversed? Explain how this might happen in
3. Choose one style of forceps, and record its characteristics natural situations.
in your table. Pick up seeds (of all three types) for 20 s.
Record the number of seeds picked up by type of seed. 5. Natural populations can have good years when
the populations expand and poor years when the
4. Return the seeds to the tray. Repeat the trial two more populations decline. Did your results demonstrate
times, and determine the average number of seeds this phenomenon? How could you have adjusted the
gathered. procedural steps to make it more realistic?

The English Peppered Moth: Variation to Adaptation

The English peppered moth (Biston betularia) is an excellent example of how the
proportions of some inherited characteristics in a population change in response to
changes in the environment. The English peppered moth has three colour variations:
greyish-white flecked with black dots (resembling pepper), black, and an intermediate
colour. The colours of interest in this example are the greyish-white and black, which
are shown in Figure 7.3.
In the past, the black variety was extremely rare. The first known black moth was
caught in 1848 by lepidopterist (moth and butterfly collector) R.S. Edleston. At that
time, it was estimated that black moths made up less than 2 percent of the peppered
moth population near Manchester, England. Yet 50 years later, in 1898, 95 percent of
the moths in Manchester were of the black variety. In rural areas, however, black moths
were less frequent. What caused the sudden increase in the number of black moths in
Manchester? The answer lies in the behaviour and genetic make-up of the moths and in
the environment in which they lived.

298 MHR • Unit 3 Evolution

 Generation O Several Generations Later Figure 7.3 The proportion
of flecked and black moths
in this population of
peppered moths changed
in response to changes in
the environment.
10% 80% Infer What type of
black black adaptation do the
peppered moths exhibit?
Explain your answer.

The Peppered Moth and Pollution

Peppered moths are active at night. During the day, when they rest in the trees, they are
potential prey for birds. Until the mid-19th century, the flecked moths in Manchester
were camouflaged when they rested in the trees that were covered with light-coloured
lichen. The black moths, however, were easily seen and therefore easily preyed upon.
The 50 years in which the black moths gradually became much more common in
Manchester coincided with the Industrial Revolution in England. The air pollution from
all the new factories killed the lichens, and soot began to cover Manchester’s trees. As a
result, the flecked moths were seen and eaten by birds, while more black moths survived
long enough to reproduce and pass on their genes to their offspring. Figure 7.3 shows how
the peppered moth population changed over the course of several moth generations.
The difference between the flecked and black forms of the peppered moth is genetic.
Before the Industrial Revolution, more flecked moths survived and therefore passed
on the genes for flecked colouring in the gene pool. (Recall from Chapter 1 that a gene
pool is the total of all the genes in a population at any one time.) However, when air
pollution increased, more black moths survived with each successive generation and
the ratio of flecked to black moths in the population essentially reversed. It is important
to understand that the ratio of flecked-to-black moths in the population changed over
successive generations—individual moths did not change from flecked to black.
In the 1950s, England enacted clean-air legislation, and lichen began to grow on
trees again. As you might predict, the number of flecked moths increased in industrial
areas such as Manchester. In these areas, 9 out of 10 peppered moths were black in
1959. By 1985, 5 out of 10 were black, and the number dropped to 3 out of 10 by 1989.
It is estimated that by 2019 the black peppered moth will again be as rare in Manchester
as it was before the Industrial Revolution.

Learning Check

1. What is an adaptation? Give one example. 4. Draw a cause-and-effect chart illustrating the
2. Sharks have an excellent sense of smell. Is this peppered moth example.
an adaptation? Explain your answer. 5. Explain the role of the environment in the peppered
3. A black and yellow insect starts buzzing around your moth example.
head. You swat it away, trying to avoid it because 6. Predict how genetic variation in populations can, at
it looks like a stinging insect. It lands on your arm times, have no significant effect on the ability of a
and you see that it is a harmless fly. Explain the fly’s species to survive and reproduce.
adaptation and what the advantage is to the fly.

Chapter 7 Introducing Evolution • MHR 299

 Variation Within Species
You and your classmates are all the same species, but clearly there is a great deal of
variety among the individual members of your species in your class. Why? How
does this variation arise? The answer is in your genes. As you know, offspring have
a combination of genetic material from both parents. Through sexual reproduction,
parents pass on genes to their offspring.
The number of possible combinations of genes that offspring can inherit from their
parents results in greater genetic variation among individuals within a population.
Consider a litter of kittens, like those in Figure 7.4. Usually, all the kittens in a litter
look different because, through sexual reproduction, each one has inherited a different
combination of genetic information from its parents. In other words, the kittens have
inherited different alleles. Some of this genetic information is expressed in each kitten’s
phenotype (physical appearance and behaviour). Other genetic information has no
visible effect but remains part of each kitten’s genetic make-up and can be passed on to
the next generations. Genetic variation in a population results from the variety of genetic
information in all individuals of the population. Another important source of genetic
variation in a population is gene flow. You will learn about gene flow in Chapter 9.

Figure 7.4 The kittens in this litter have different fur colour and patterns, partly because each
kitten inherited a different combination of alleles from its parents.

Mutations Lead to Genetic Variation

How does genetic variation happen in a species or population? Why does genetic
mutation a permanent
change in the genetic variation happen at all? For example, why are the English peppered moths not all
material of an organism; the same colour? Mutations are changes in the genetic material—DNA—of an
the only source of new organism. They provide new alleles in a species and are the only source of new genetic
genetic variation variation when inherited. Mutations happen continuously in the DNA of any living
organism. They can occur spontaneously when DNA is copied (S phase) before a cell
divides. For example, your DNA has about 175 mutations compared with your parents’
DNA because of mutations that occurred as your DNA was copied. Mutagens, such as
ultraviolet radiation, are environmental agents that can also cause mutations in DNA.
When there is a mutation in the DNA, a cell may exhibit new characteristics: the
SuggestedInvestigation cell could die, malfunction, or multiply more than it should, resulting in a cluster of
Plan Your Own Investigation cells that form a tumour. Mutations that significantly alter the shape or structure of
7-B, Variations Great and DNA often adversely affect the well-being of an organism and can be harmful. As you
Small will read on the next page, not all mutations are harmful. Some can even be beneficial.

300 MHR • Unit 3 Evolution

Mutations in Gamete Cells
Some mutations do not appear to have any effect on a cell. Whatever the result, if the
mutation occurs in a somatic cell, the mutation disappears from the population when
the organism dies. If the mutation alters the DNA in a gamete, however, the mutation
may be passed on to succeeding generations as a new allele. For example, if the kittens
in Figure 7.4 have mutations in their egg or sperm cells, these mutations could be
passed on to their offspring. These mutations were not present in their parents’ DNA.
Thus, mutations are the starting point of genetic variation in populations.

Mutations Can Provide a Selective Advantage

Mutations that were once no advantage, or perhaps were even a disadvantage, selective advantage
may become favourable in a changing environment. In this situation, the mutation a genetic advantage
provides a selective advantage. A selective advantage is a genetic advantage of one that improves an
organism over its competitors. Over time, a selective advantage causes the organism organism’s chance of
survival, usually in a
to be favoured in terms of survival and reproduction. In other words, a selective
changing environment
advantage helps an organism survive the changing environmental conditions and
reproduce. For example, the water flea Daphnia, shown in Figure 7.5, normally lives
in water that is around 20°C, and it cannot survive in water 27°C or warmer. However,
a mutation enables some populations of Daphnia to survive in temperatures between
25°C and 30°C. Daphnia without this mutation may not survive and reproduce when
temperatures are high.

Magnification: 20×

Figure 7.5 Some populations of Daphnia have a mutation that allows them to survive
at higher-than-normal water temperatures.

Rapid Reproduction and Selective Advantage

Some organisms reproduce very quickly, such as bacteria, viruses, and many insects.
The reproduction times of these organisms are very short compared with the
reproduction times of most plants and animals. For example, some populations of
bacteria can double in under 10 min.
In populations that reproduce this quickly, a new allele that resulted from a
random mutation that was previously insignificant in the population may provide a
selective advantage to some individuals when the environment changes. As a result,
the organisms that have the new allele may survive long enough to reproduce and pass
the genetic information on to the next generation. In time, the gene that provided the
selective advantage becomes more prevalent in the population. One mutation can, in
some cases, mean the survival of the whole population.

Chapter 7 Introducing Evolution • MHR 301

 Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria
An example of rapid reproduction and selective advantage can be seen with the
Staphylococcus aureus bacterium. Staphylococcus aureus, shown in Figure 7.6, is a
relatively common bacterium that can have minor or major effects on human health,
such as minor skin infections and more serious blood infections. Individual bacteria
reproduce asexually very rapidly. Under optimal conditions, the bacteria can reproduce
every 30 min. Such rapid reproduction helps adaptation to occur very quickly: the
bacteria with an advantageous mutation may survive a changing environment and
reproduce, whereas the bacteria without an advantageous mutation may not. The
surviving bacteria reproduce rapidly. This rapid adaptation often leads to problems
when doctors treat patients with a Staphylococcus aureus infection (or other bacterial
infection) with an antibiotic.
Magnification: 20 000×
An antibiotic is a drug used to treat infections caused by bacteria and other
micro-organisms. Some examples of antibiotics are penicillin and tetracycline. The
Figure 7.6 These problem is that some individual members of the species may have a new allele, from
Staphylococcus aureus a random genetic mutation, that makes them resistant to the antibiotic. Only the
bacteria appear to be individual bacteria with the new allele are able to survive and reproduce. They can then
identical, but some may
have a mutation that pass on the genetic information that resulted in resistance to that particular antibiotic
makes them resistant to to their daughter cells. Individual members of the population do not change during
antibiotics. their lifetime. Rather, over time, the population changes in its ability to resist certain
antibiotics. It is important to emphasize that the populations change, not individuals.

Activity 7.2 Tuberculosis: Adapting Populations of Bacteria

Tuberculosis is an infectious, contagious lung disease 3. Evaluate the impact of an environmental change on the
caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis, vulnerability of
spread by inhaling the bacteria. a. Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria
Tuberculosis was once fairly easy to treat—an
b. a population of prison inmates
antibiotic discovered in 1944 treated the disease effectively.
At one time, medical researchers thought that tuberculosis c. other human populations
could be eradicated through the use of antibiotics. Today, 4. Suggest how the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria
however, new drug-resistant strains of tuberculosis are could be decreased.
causing great concern to medical researchers. In one study,
researchers worked with officials from prison systems to
help stave off the rapid development of drug-resistant
forms of tuberculosis. In this activity, you will evaluate the
impact of an environmental change on the vulnerability
of bacteria and humans.

Materials
• computer with Internet access
• reference books

Procedure
Using the Internet or print resources, research the problem
of tuberculosis in prison systems and answer the following
questions.

Questions
1. Why are medical researchers concerned about treating
patients with tuberculosis?
2. Why does tuberculosis spread so readily in prisons?
This X ray of a male patient with tuberculosis has been
coloured red to show the tuberculosis infection.

302 MHR • Unit 3 Evolution

STSE

Quirks &
Quarks
with BOB MCDONALD

THIS WEEK ON QUIRKS & QUARKS

From Mosquito Control to Malaria Control Related Career

The work of parasitologists
Malaria, which is caused by a parasite of Choosing Targets Carefully is not limited to tropical
the genus Plasmodium, kills about one Only infected adult female mosquitoes of the climates associated with
million people a year. Mosquitoes transmit genus Anopheles transmit malaria parasites. diseases like malaria. Canadian
malaria parasites, so the obvious strategy for These females pick up the parasites while parasitologists study the effects
preventing malaria outbreaks is to eliminate feeding on humans who have malaria. The of various parasites on aquatic
mosquitoes, right? Maybe not. wildlife, terrestrial wildlife,
parasite matures in the mosquito’s system
Since 1897, when scientists first linked and domestic animals. Their
and, after about two weeks—near the end work helps protect all of these
the transmission of malaria to mosquitoes, of a mosquito’s lifespan—the parasites are populations, and humans,
the fight against malaria has been about infectious to humans and can be passed on from disease.
eliminating mosquitoes. The water through a bite.
where they breed has been drained, and Read suggests that only “old” mosquitoes
malaria-prone areas have been sprayed that could be dangerous to humans should
with pesticides, such as DDT. But by be killed, rather than killing all the mosquitoes
1969, knowledge of how adaptations in an area. How would this work?
help organisms survive made it clear that Ageing organisms are always more
eliminating mosquitoes was unlikely. (At the vulnerable to environmental challenges
same time, understanding the importance than younger ones. Read’s lab has tested a
of habitat and of interactions in ecosystems diluted form of a pesticide that kills the older,
made it clear that eliminating mosquitoes weaker members of the mosquito population
might not be a good idea anyway.) without harming the rest. The younger
Can malaria be controlled without mosquitoes, which are harmless when it
disrupting food chains, poisoning the planet, comes to transmitting malaria, are left to
or creating invincible mosquitoes? Quirks & breed (and bite).
Quarks’ Bob McDonald asked Dr. Andrew
Read, a professor of biology and entomology
at Penn State University, in Pennsylvania, U.S.A. New strategies for combating malaria
include targeting only older mosquitoes,
which carry the malaria parasite.

QU ES T I ONS

1. Explain how Read’s method would avoid

creating pesticide-resistant mosquitoes.
Base your explanation on your knowledge
of adaptation, mutation, and reproduction.
2. Use Internet or print career resources to research
the field of parasitology. What essential skills do
you need to be a parasitologist?

Chapter 7 Introducing Evolution • MHR 303

 Section 7.1 RE V IE W

Section Summary
• Adaptations are traits that increase an organism’s chances • Mutations and the resulting phenotypic variations can
of survival and successful reproduction. have a positive, neutral, or negative effect on an organism.
• Adaptations can be structural, behavioural, or If the effect is positive, the variation can accumulate in
physiological. Camouflage and mimicry are two types of the population. The resulting traits are adaptations.
structural adaptation. • Species with very fast reproduction rates, such as bacteria,
• Heritable mutations provide new alleles in a species and can become adapted to changes in their environment
are the starting point for genetic variation in species. quickly. This can lead to populations of bacteria that are
resistant to antibiotics.

Review Questions
1. K/U When the hawkmoth caterpillar (Hemeroplanes) 8. A Using an example, distinguish between a
is disturbed, it pulls in its legs and swells up the front mutation that provides a selective advantage and a
part of its body, as shown in the photograph here. mutation that provides a selective disadvantage.
a. When swelled up, what does the caterpillar resemble? a. Explain selective advantage in terms of distribution
b. What type of adaptation is being exhibited by the of alleles.
hawkmoth caterpillar? b. Under what circumstances could a previous
c. What is the advantage to the caterpillar? disadvantage become an advantage?
9. C Choose a species of animal, and describe two
traits. Explain the adaptive value of both traits. Include
a sketch with your explanation.
10 K/U You read an article that discusses how an
individual lizard “adapted to the conditions in the
desert where it lives.” Do you agree or disagree with
the wording in this statement? Explain.
11. A There are many antibacterial soaps and sprays
2. K/U How do adaptations develop? currently available over-the-counter. Why might your
doctor suggest that you avoid using (or restrict your
3. K/U What is the selective advantage for camouflage
use of) these products?
and mimicry?
12. T/I Within a few weeks of a patient using an HIV
4. T/I Using the terms “mutation” and “selective
drug called AZT, the patient’s HIV population consists
advantage,” explain how the greyish-white and black
primarily of AZT-resistant viruses. Explain this result.
varieties of peppered moth survived the changing
environmental conditions. Hypothesize which colour of 13. K/U What is the source of new alleles?
moth may have appeared first. Explain your reasoning. 14. T/I Refer to the diagram below. A lab researcher put

5. T/I Design an experimental procedure to show that some bacteria in a dish (step 1). The bacteria began to
camouflage in a walking stick insect species is an form colonies (step 2). The researcher made a replica of
adaptation to avoid or reduce predation. Include a the colonies and put the replica of colonies in a new
control group. dish that contained an antibiotic (step 3). Two colonies
survived the antibiotic (step 4). The researcher washed
6. K/U Sexual reproduction and mutation are two
the bacteria in the original dish with the antibiotic,
sources of genetic variation. Describe each type.
and the same colonies survived (step 5). Explain what
7. A In a population of sparrows, most birds have a conclusions would be generated from this experiment.
beak that is about 10 mm long. Some birds, however,
1 2 3 4 5
have beaks that are slightly longer or slightly shorter
than the average. Explain why this variation within the
population is important in terms of survival of
individual sparrows. Dish 1 Dish 1 Dish 2 Dish 2 Dish 1

304 MHR • Unit 3 Evolution

 SECTION
Natural Selection and Artificial Selection
7.2
Natural selection is the process that results when the characteristics of a population Key Terms
of organisms change over many generations. This change happens because individuals
natural selection
with certain inherited traits survive specific local environmental conditions and,
selective pressure
through reproduction, pass on their alleles to their offspring. For natural selection
to occur, there must be diversity within a species. This is what allowed the changes fitness
in proportions of the peppered moths. This is also why some populations of artificial selection
Staphylococcus aureus survived the treatment of a certain antibiotic. biotechnology
monoculture
Selective Pressure
In those populations of Staphylococcus aureus, the individual members of the bacteria
natural selection
population were selected for by their environment. They survived the change in the the process by which
environment around them, which was the application of an antibiotic. Thus, they characteristics of a
could reproduce and pass on the genetic information that coded for resistance to that population change over
particular antibiotic. An abiotic (non-living) environmental condition can be said many generations as
organisms with heritable
to select for certain characteristics in some individuals and select against different traits survive and
characteristics in other individuals. In this way, the environment exerts selective reproduce, passing their
pressure on a population. Selective pressure may result from biotic factors as well, traits to offspring
such as predators, parasites, and competition for resources. selective pressure
As another example of selective pressure, consider a population of young trees— environmental
conditions that select for
in this case, a dense forest with low light, as shown in Figure 7.7. Those individual
certain characteristics
trees that are able to survive in the shade will reproduce and pass on the alleles to of individuals and
survive those conditions. In the next generation, the abundance of the alleles for select against other
these conditions will increase in the population because more of the individuals will characteristics
have survived and reproduced. Over time, the tree population will be able to survive
the shady conditions. Should there be a big increase in the light levels in the trees’
environment, the trait for resisting these conditions will no longer be an advantage.
In fact, if no individuals in the population can withstand increased light levels, the
population may not survive in that environment.

Figure 7.7 The forest shown here is very dense, so little sunlight reaches the ground, where
young trees are growing. Populations become adapted to their environment over many
generations through natural selection. The environmental pressures result in some individuals
being more likely to survive and pass along their genetic traits to their offspring. The trees able
to grow in an environment with low light levels will likely reproduce and pass on the alleles that
helped them survive to their offspring.

Chapter 7 Introducing Evolution • MHR 305

 Natural Selection Is Situational
Natural selection does not anticipate change in the environment. Natural selection has
no will, purpose, or direction. Instead, natural selection is situational. A trait that at one
time in one situation seems to have no apparent relevance to survival may be the trait
that, at a different time in a different situation, helps certain individuals in a population
survive and reproduce. The alleles for this trait will then be inherited by the offspring of
the survivors. As a result, over many generations, there will be more and more individuals
that inherit the allele for the trait that helps them survive the change in environment.
Those individuals form a population that is better adapted to their environment.
When discussing natural selection, the word fit or fitness is often used. Fitness
fitness the relative
contribution an in this sense describes the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the
individual makes to next generation by producing offspring that survive long enough to reproduce. A
the next generation by high degree of fitness means that an organism will survive and reproduce, thereby
producing offspring that passing on its advantageous genes to its offspring, and those offspring will survive
will survive long enough
to reproduce long enough to reproduce. Fitness is often described as the number of reproductively
viable offspring that an organism produces in the next generation. An organism with
many viable offspring has high fitness, whereas an organism that has few or no viable
offspring has low fitness. High and low reproductive rates are relative to the typical
number of offspring for the species.

Activity 7.3 Modelling Natural Selection

A certain bear likes to eat berries. In the bear’s environment, your bag, then eat whatever blueberries you do have
there are two kinds of berries: blueberries and raspberries. plus one to three raspberries (red counters) for a total of
The blueberries are sweet and easy to pick. The raspberries four berries.
are sour and difficult to pick because the bushes are filled
4. A season passes. Each berry left in your bag produces
with thorns. Therefore, in this environment the bear chooses
four new berries of the same colour, for a total of 20 for
blueberries over raspberries. All the berries ripen every
the next season. Replenish your supply of berries from
summer. In this activity, you will be the bear and model
your teacher to make up the correct complement of
natural selection.
berries for the next season.
Materials 5 Repeat steps 3 and 4 for three more populations/seasons
• 80 blue counters per student • plastic container of berries.
• 10 red counters per student • graph paper or graphing
6. Graph each population result. Go to Constructing Graphs
• paper bag software
in Appendix A for help with graphing.
Procedure
Questions
1. Work in groups of four. Your teacher will give you a bag
1. What happened to each population of berries?
of 20 “berries.” In a data table, record the total number
Explain your answer.
of berries, the number of blueberries, and the number
of raspberries. Give your table a title. Allow for four 2. Is this an accurate model for natural selection?
populations of berries. Explain your answer.
Total Number Number of Number of 3. Evaluate your
of Berries Blueberries Raspberries prediction.
Population 1
(Season 1)

2. Read all the steps and predict what will happen to the
numbers of berries.
3. Each bear in the group “eats” four berries each year.
Following the pattern described above, where bears
prefer blueberries over raspberries, to “eat” four berries,
remove four counters and place them in a container.
If you do not have four blueberries (blue counters) in

306 MHR • Unit 3 Evolution

 Learning Check

7. Define natural selection. 10. How does natural selection influence adaptation?
8. “A population changes by natural selection.” Explain 11. Using the example shown in Figure 7.7, make a
what this statement means. Include an example. graphic organizer, such as a flowchart, to show the
9. Why does genetic variation make it possible for steps by which natural selection favours a population
changes in populations to occur through natural of plants to grow in a shady environment.
selection? Explain your answer. 12. Explain the concept of fitness in relation to natural
selection.

Artificial Selection
In the peppered moth example, change occurred naturally in the population in response
artificial selection
to changes in the environment due to the selective pressure exerted by natural selection. selective pressure
However, people have been artificially selecting organisms for particular traits for exerted by humans on
thousands of years. In Chapter 4, you learned about selective breeding technologies used populations in order
to improve the genetic quality of farm animals. Selective breeding is a form of artificial to improve or modify
particular desirable traits
selection. Selective breeding and artificial selection are a type of biotechnology.
biotechnology the
Biotechnology is the use of technology and organisms to produce useful products. use of technology and
Artificial selection has had a large impact on human survival. Most of the food organisms to produce
we eat—grains, fruits, vegetables, meat, and milk—comes from species that have been useful products
selectively bred. For instance, artificial selection has resulted in cows that produce more
milk. Some varieties of chicken are bred to grow rapidly and have large muscles for
increased amounts of meat. Other varieties of chicken have been bred to produce large
numbers of eggs. Some animals, such as domestic cats, are bred for their appearance.
Figure 7.8 shows some of the varieties of cats that have been bred by artificial selection.
All domestic cats are the same species, Felis domesticus, so they can interbreed and
produce viable offspring. Over many generations, breeders can change how a particular
cat breed looks.
Figure 7.8 By selecting
the parents that carry
the genetic material that
breeders are interested in,
cat breeders have produced
cats with distinctive
features. All the cats shown
here carry the same kinds
of genes (for example, for
fur, size, and ear length).
However, the alleles for
these genes differ among
the cats, allowing humans
to select for or against
particular characteristics.

Siamese cat Egyptian sphynx cat Persian cat

The key difference between natural selection and artificial selection is that in natural
selection, the environment plays the role that humans play in artificial selection.
In natural selection, the environmental conditions determine which individuals in
a population will survive and reproduce in the current conditions. This, in turn,
affects the gene pools of individuals of future populations because the genes from the
surviving individuals are passed on to their offspring.

Chapter 7 Introducing Evolution • MHR 307

 Artificial Selection and Food Crops
The food crops that we depend on for most of our diet—rice, corn, wheat, and
vegetables—are the result of selective breeding. Figure 7.9 shows how one example—
the wild mustard plant (Brassica oleracea)—has been modified by selective breeding to
create many common food crops, including broccoli, Brussels sprouts, and cauliflower.
Plant breeders began to modify the traits of Brassica oleracea over 4000 years ago in
Europe and Asia, where the wild mustard plant is a native species. The traits of the
artificially selected varieties all differ from the wild plant, but they are members of
the same species and can interbreed and produce viable offspring. You may have seen
brocciflower in your grocery store, which is a cross between cauliflower and broccoli.
We breed food crops to increase their nutritional value and harvest yield. We also
breed them to be drought-resistant or pest-resistant. Artificial selection has its limits,
though: if plants are bred to grow quickly, they may not tolerate poor soil conditions.
Crop breeders now understand that selective breeding must be balanced to maintain
genetic variation within the crops and the ability of the plants to respond to conditions
of environmental change.

Wild mustard plant

(Brassica oleracea)

Brussels
Strain Kohlrabi Kale Broccoli Cabbage Cauliflower
sprouts
Flower buds Lateral Terminal
Modified trait Stem Leaves Flower buds
and stem leaf buds leaf bud

Figure 7.9 These six agricultural plants look very different from each other, but they carry much
of the same genetic material as the wild mustard plant. The differences between them affect the
formation of flowers, buds, stems, and leaves.

308 MHR • Unit 3 Evolution

The 1896 Illinois Experiment Station
The previously mentioned factors that affect artificially selected crops—decreased
variation and a decreased ability to respond to conditions of environmental change—
are not always important to breeders, particularly when they are selecting for
economically important agricultural crops. Figure 7.10 shows the results of a selective
breeding experiment begun at the Illinois Experiment Station in 1896. This study began
with 163 ears of corn that had oil contents ranging from 4 to 6 percent. In each of
80 succeeding generations, corn plants were divided into two separate groups. In one
group, members with the highest oil content in the kernels were chosen as parents of the
next generation. In the other group, members with the lowest oil content were chosen.
After many generations, the oil content in the first group rose to over 18 percent. In the
other group, it dropped to less than 1 percent. Corn oil is an agriculturally important
product. Over the course of many generations, selective breeding has had a major
impact on the amount of corn oil made by the two groups of plants.

Selective Breeding for Oil Content in Corn Plants Figure 7.10 This graph
shows the results of
20 selective breeding for oil
High oil content
18 Low oil content content in plants. In this
16 example, corn plants were
Percentage Oil Content

14 selected for breeding

based on high or low oil
12
content of the kernels.
10
Compare and Contrast
8
Figures 7.9 and 7.10. What
6
general effects of selective
4 breeding do you observe?
2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
Generations

Activity 7.4 Selective Breeding

Ten thousand years ago, corn as we know it did not exist. Procedure
Only the original ancestor of corn—a weedy grass called Compare the cob of wild teosinte and modern corn shown
teosinte—could be found growing naturally. Humans have in the photograph. Compare and contrast the features of the
selectively bred teosinte for so long that the characteristics two plants.
of our modern artificially selected, or domesticated, corn
bear almost no resemblance to the original corn ancestors. Questions
1. Based on your comparison of the two types of plants,
Materials what traits do you think early plant breeders selected for?
• computer with Internet access
modern corn 2. Create a flowchart that shows a series of steps humans
• reference books
may have followed to produce modern corn from
teosinte. Include the terms “variation,” “inherited,” and
“selected” in your answer.
reventador chapalote
maize maize 3. All the major crops that we depend on for food have
been domesticated over thousands of years. These
crops include rice, wheat, varieties of squash, tomatoes,
pollo maize potatoes, and varieties of beans. Choose one of these
teosinte crops, or a domesticated plant or animal of your choice,
and research your selection using Internet and print
resources. Sketch the original ancestor and the modern
offspring. Compare the original and current forms.
Describe at least three traits that humans appear to
have selected for.

Chapter 7 Introducing Evolution • MHR 309

 Consequences of Artificial Selection
Artificial selection, like all technologies, has negative as well as positive consequences.
For example, English bulldogs like the one in Figure 7.11 are selectively bred for
different traits, such as their flat faces. This trait results in severe respiratory problems.
Hip dysplasia, a type of arthritis common in German shepherds and other large dog
breeds, is also an unfortunate consequence of artificial selection for one trait.
Some artificial selection techniques, such as genetic engineering (Chapter 4),
have been used to introduce new genetic information into domesticated organisms.
However, one of the main goals of domestication is to produce organisms that are all
similar. To make plants similar, it is necessary to reduce genetic diversity. Plants are
Figure 7.11 Many specialized through selective breeding to produce the qualities that growers want, so
individual bulldogs suffer plants that have been selectively bred lack genetic diversity.
from breathing problems. For example, most agriculture in the world is based on extensive plantings of the
same varieties of a species over large expanses of land, like that shown in Figure 7.12. This
agricultural practice is called monoculture. It is certainly easier to manage fields in which
there is only one kind of plant growing. This is particularly true today when herbicides,
monoculture extensive insecticides, and fertilizers are manufactured specifically to meet the needs of specific crop
plantings of the same species. However, with monoculture comes a significant risk. Because these organisms are
varieties of a species over
large expanses of land so similar, if a new disease infests the crop population, most of the individual plants will
be affected in the same way and the whole population could be killed or severely damaged.

Figure 7.12 This

monoculture shows the vast
expanse that is covered by
one crop (wheat), made up
of plants that are artificially
selected to be similar.

Gene Banks
In order to protect against such disasters, gene banks have been established. Gene
banks contain populations of early ancestors of modern plants—our most important
food plants came from wild ancestors with genetic combinations that allowed them to
survive and reproduce in their environment. These specimens have been collected in
the wild and from prehistoric archaeological sites. Seeds can survive for long periods of
time, so they can be recovered from early settlements. By preserving these organisms,
their genetic diversity is available for introduction into modern plants if need arises.

From Diversity to a Theory of Evolution

In this chapter, you learned how variation within species helps explain biological
changes in populations from one generation to another, and how populations of
organisms adapt to changes in the environment over the short term. As you will learn
in Chapter 8, adaptations result in evolution over the long term. You will also learn
how the theory of evolution by natural selection was developed and how the theory is
supported by evidence.

310 MHR • Unit 3 Evolution

 Section 7.2 RE V IE W

Section Summary • Agricultural crops are selectively bred for different

characteristics, such as being drought-resistant or
• Natural selection is the mechanism by which populations
pest-resistant. However, selective breeding comes at the
change. Individuals within a population may survive if
expense of decreased variation. Decreased variation
they have an inherited trait that gives them a selective
leads to a reduced ability to respond to a changing
advantage. They can then go on to reproduce and pass on
environment.
their advantage to their offspring.
• Monoculture is the agricultural practice of planting
• Selective breeding is artificial selection applied by
large expanses of uniform varieties of the same species.
humans to populations in order to improve or modify
Monoculture is risky because the organisms are so similar
particular desirable traits.
that they could all be killed or damaged by a new pest.

Review Questions
1. K/U What is natural selection, and how can it lead to 12. A Explain why it might be important for farmers
changes in populations? to plant monocultures.
2. K/U Explain the term selective pressure as it relates to 13. T/I The medium ground finches (Geospiza fortis) of
changes in populations. the Galapagos Islands use their strong beaks to crush
3. A Explain how the ability of a population of seeds. They prefer the small seeds that are abundant
insects to withstand the effects of an insecticide is an during wet years. During dry years, fewer small seeds
example of natural selection. are produced. Therefore, the finches also have to eat
larger seeds, which are more difficult to crush.
4. K/U How does natural selection influence
Researchers have been measuring the depth (dimension
adaptations?
from top to bottom) of the finches’ beaks, which relates
5. K/U Chipmunks typically have four or five babies
to strength. The deeper the beak, the stronger it is. Refer
in each litter, and they bear one litter per year. One to the graph below, and answer the following questions.
chipmunk has a litter with eight babies, and she has
two litters per year. All the babies survive. Does this Changes in Beak Depth
of Geospiza fortis over Eight Years
individual have high or low fitness? Explain.
10.0
Beak Depth (mm)

6. A You usually buy blueberries from the local

grocery store, but one year you pick wild blueberries. 9.5
They taste delicious, but they are much smaller than
9.0
the blueberries you get at the store. Explain why.
7. K/U How is artificial selection different from natural 0
1 4 6 8
selection? Year
8. K/U Give an example of how people have used
a. Years 1, 4, and 6 were drought years. Year 8 was wet.
selective breeding to create a new variety of plant.
What do you notice about the average beak depth
Describe two possible consequences of the new variety.
in the finch population during dry years compared
9. T/I Evaluate the following statement: “Natural with wet years?
selection works like a copy editor; it works only with b. How do the data relate to selective pressure and
what is already present in a population.” (Note: Copy natural selection?
editors check written material before it is set into type,
14. C Analyze the advantages and disadvantages of
to correct errors in grammar, spelling, usage, and style.)
an artificial selection technology, such as selective
10. C Create a diagram or a presentation that explains breeding, in the medium of your choice, such as an
why genetic diversity in domesticated plants and interactive web page, a computer slide presentation, or
animals is reduced. a poster. Make sure to give a concrete example, such as
11. T/I Explain why a new disease that affects plants the selective breeding of vegetables, and to consider
could cause great damage to our ability to produce food. different perspectives, such as economic and
environmental views.

Chapter 7 Introducing Evolution • MHR 311

 ThoughtLab 7-A
INVESTIGATION
Skill Check

✓
Initiating and Planning
Performing and Recording
Investigate Mimicry
Mimicry is a result of natural selection—one species of organism changes
✓ Analyzing and Interpreting
over time to look similar to another species. Mimicry has benefits for one, and
✓ Communicating
sometimes both, species involved. In this investigation, you will investigate
mimicry in different organisms.
Materials
• computer with Internet access Pre-Lab Questions
• reference books 1. What is the difference between mimicry and camouflage?
2. Would you expect a fierce predator to mimic another organism? Provide
an example.
3. Many humans use make-up to change their appearance. Is this an example
of biological mimicry?

Question
Why do some species mimic another species?

Organize the Data

1. Examine the pairs of photographs shown on the facing page. Consider how
similar the organisms look.
2. Create a data table, on paper or electronically, like the one below to record
the results of your investigation. Consider the types of characteristics that
you can look for, and add as many characteristics as possible to the table.
Data for Investigation
Characteristic Species 1 Species 2
Geographic range
Preferred food
Known predators
Size
Coloration
Behaviour

3. Using Internet and print resources, research one of the pairs of organisms
and complete the table. Record your research sources in your notes.

Analyze and Interpret

Go to Developing Research Skills in 1. Describe the similarities between the two species.
Appendix A to learn more about
using Internet and print resources. 2. Describe the differences between the two species.

312 MHR • Unit 3 Evolution

 A B

Scarlet kingsnake (Lampropeltis triangulum elapsoides) Poisonous coral snake (Micrurus dissoleucus)

C D

Mimic octopus (Thaumoctopus mimicus) Lionfish (Pterois volitans)

E F

Hoverfly (Syrphus ribesii) Wasp (order Hymenoptera)

Conclude and Communicate Extend Further

3. Do the similarities you found give an advantage to one
of the species that it otherwise would not have? 6. INQUIRY Suggest ways you could determine if two
4. How does natural selection influence mimicry? similar species are mimics in nature.

5. Create a presentation that describes your two species 7. RESEARCH Some mimics do not look alike. Instead,
and clearly shows how one species mimics the other. they share other characteristics. Perform research to
Hypothesize the steps that might have happened over find one of these examples, and write a summary of
time that resulted in the mimicry. your results. Some suggestions are auditory (sounds)
and egg mimicry.

Chapter 7 Introducing Evolution • MHR 313

 Plan Your Own 7-B
INVESTIGATION
Skill Check
✓

✓
Initiating and Planning
Performing and Recording
Variations Great and Small
Variations, or diversity, within a species can help populations survive
✓ Analyzing and Interpreting
environmental changes. Diversity within a species can be monitored genetically,
✓ Communicating
or it can be demonstrated by measuring individuals within a population. Most
traits in a population vary in a continuous way from one extreme to the other.
Safety Precautions A plot of the distribution of the trait in a population often produces a bell-
• Do not allow the seeds to fall on shaped curve. The curve shown below represents the distribution of height
the floor. Someone could slip in a typical adult population. The population consists of a heterogeneous
on them. group of adults from a variety of races and ethnicities. Most individuals have
measurements in the centre of the curve—they are average height. Only a few
Suggested Materials are very tall or very short, so very high and very low measurements are at
• bean seeds or peas the sides of the curve.
• graph paper
Height in a Typical Adult Population
• ruler
60
• computer with spreadsheet
software 50
Number of Adults

• electronic balance 40

30

20

10

0
120 150 180 210
Height (cm)

In this investigation, you will design an experiment to measure a particular

characteristic in two populations: plant seeds and humans. These are very
different organisms, but both populations have characteristics that are
determined by inherited genetic diversity. So, they should follow the same
patterns of distribution.

Pre-Lab Questions
1. Why is genetic variation important for species to survive environmental
changes?
2. Would you expect the distribution of clothing colours in your class to
produce a bell-shaped curve?
3. Are you measuring the genotype or the phenotype in this investigation?

Question
Are there measurable differences in size among individuals of the same species?

Hypothesis
Make and record a hypothesis about how a particular characteristic might
Go to Scientific Inquiry in Appendix A to
be distributed throughout a population. For example, would it be evenly
learn more about planning an investigation. distributed?

314 MHR • Unit 3 Evolution

Variation in Length Variation in Mass
1. With your group, design an investigation to determine 8. With your group, design an investigation to determine
the variation in the length of the human thumb the variation in the mass of plant seeds.
or the width of a human hand. Choose a method 9. Repeat steps 2 to 7 for investigation of plant seed mass.
of measuring the characteristic, and ensure that it
is standardized for every measurement you make. Analyze and Interpret
For example, the width of the human hand can be 1. Identify the range of the data that you collected for
measured by using a ruler to measure from the outside each investigation.
of the base of the thumb to the outside of the base of
the little finger. Regardless of exactly where you choose Conclude and Communicate
to make your measurements, ensure that you apply it 2. What can you conclude about the variations within a
consistently for all measurements of that characteristic population? Is there a typical length or mass? Or is the
so the measurements will be comparable. frequency the same for each data range?
2. State and record a hypothesis for the investigation. 3. Would you get a greater or smaller variation in the
3. As a group, decide how you will make the appropriate range of data if all individuals sampled came from
measurements and how many samples you will need. the same parents; for example, if all the seeds you
Also, decide whether to pool your data with other measured originated from the same plant?
groups. (Keep in mind that the larger the sample size, 4. What advantage would size (either large size or small
the more reliable the results are.) size) give to the population studied? (For example,
4. Design a table similar to the one shown below to what advantage would large size give to a seed?)
record data for each investigation.
Sample Data Extend Further
Data Range (mm) Frequency
5. INQUIRY Choose two different species (say, one
0–10 1
plant and one animal) from your neighbourhood.
10–20 3
List at least two variable traits that you could
20–30 6 measure for each species and propose a method
30–40 3 for measuring them.
40–50 2 6. RESEARCH Choose one variable trait in human
populations, and research to find the minimum,
Sample Histogram
maximum, and average measurements. Is there an
6
advantage or disadvantage associated with either
5 of the upper or lower limits?
Frequency

4
3
2
1
0
0–10 10–20 20–30 30–40 40–50
Data Range (mm)

5. Identify the variables that you will control to ensure

that your data are reliable.
6. Show your experimental plan to your teacher
before beginning your investigation. Conduct your
investigation and record your results.
7. A frequency histogram, such as the one shown
above, is a representation of a frequency distribution.
Use spreadsheet software to construct a frequency
histogram of the data you collected.

Chapter 7 Introducing Evolution • MHR 315

STSE
Case Study
Artificial Selection Technology and Food Crops
Thumbs Up or Thumbs Down?

Scenario

You and two friends want to volunteer with an organization Key Assumptions of USC Canada
working to ensure food security in less developed countries. Related to Food Security
Food security means having access to sufficient safe and • Farmers are knowledgeable producers who find it difficult
culturally acceptable food. You go to a food security “fair.” to maintain the diversity at the heart of their food security.
You visit the USC Canada booth first. USC Canada’s • Local, traditional crop varieties are affordable, often
mandate is to promote food security for small-scale farmers nutritionally superior to, and better adapted to challenging
in developing countries. The representative explains that USC growing conditions than non-native varieties.
emphasizes farming that promotes biodiversity, maintains • Farmers are local experts and play as important a
crop diversity, and preserves the environment of the farmers role in enhancing productivity as agricultural
and their crops. USC Canada supports the establishment of scientists.
community seed banks helping communities conserve local, • Conservation through the use of a
traditional crops. It has partners in many countries, including variety of plants and plant selection
Bolivia, Ethiopia, Honduras, and India. is vital to the survival of our planet’s
For example, in the 1970s, USC Canada gave farmers in biodiversity.
Ejere, Ethiopia, a high-yielding variety of seeds after they
suffered a massive crop loss. Among other problems, the At another booth, representatives from Green
crops needed expensive fertilizers and pesticides, which Planet, Green Food, show a video that raises
were causing the soil to degrade. USC Canada reintroduced several issues:
a variety of local seeds that produced crops without special • The claims that GM crops require less
fertilizers and pesticides. The farmers also created a seed herbicide usage and produce higher yields
bank, seen below. have not been verified.
The USC representative notes that many genetically • There may be danger to the genetic structure
modified (GM) crops require expensive fertilizers and of the plants themselves.
pesticides to grow. An additional risk comes from introducing • Plants may become resistant to all efforts to
large-scale planting of one type of plant. This practice can genetically modify them.
lead to the loss of biodiversity as the traditional crops are • The genes from GM plants may spread to other
replaced with a monoculture agriculture. GM seeds may also plants, creating uncontrollable superweeds and
reduce the natural ability of that species to reproduce and, superbugs.
in turn, negatively affect biodiversity. • The GM crops may trigger new allergies.

Every year, the farmers deposit seeds in the bank from The brinjal plant (eggplant) on the left has been infested
a variety of their crops to ensure genetic diversity in the by an insect. The brinjal plant on the right has been
plants and to maintain the ecosystem. genetically modified to be resistant to the insect.

316 MHR • Unit 3 Evolution

 Research and Analyze
1. The villagers in Ejere noticed that artificial selection
technology helped increase the crop yield while

20 decreasing the need for chemicals in the fields.

Companies that produce GM seeds claim that a
decreased need for chemicals is a benefit of using

20 some GM crops. What are the advantages of using

fewer chemicals? How, then, would you choose
which seeds to use—GM seeds or non-GM seeds?
by Ontario Biotechnology Inc.
You and your friends visit a booth run 2. The USC Canada representative claimed that
health-care, agricultural, food,
(OBI). It represents and advocates for artificial selection technology restricts the natural
echnology.
and research groups involved in biot ability of a species to reproduce, and thereby
A representative at the OBI boo th tells you that biotechnology
negatively affects biodiversity. Research to find out
ers in many countries around
is crucial to global food security. Farm whether this claim is accurate. If artificial selection
s. When they plant herbicide-
the world are planting with GM seed technology does restrict the ability of a species to
er and control weeds better,
tolerant varieties, they can plant earli reproduce, how would this affect your assessment
You also learn that Canadian
which translates into higher yields. of the use of artificial selection technology?
that controls how plants minimize
researchers have identified a gene
h could be very important, given
water loss in hot temperatures, whic 3. Think about why there are so many conflicting
changing climates. views and “facts” about artificial selection
ple cultivating more land
The representative argues that peo technology and its value. With a partner, discuss
the main cause of loss of
in order to meet their food needs are whether there might be a pattern to who advocates
using GM seeds produce greater
habitat and diversity. Plants grown for artificial selection technology and who cautions
n. Therefore, GM plants can
yields on land already under cultivatio against it. What conclusions did you arrive at? Write
new land does not need to be
help preserve biodiversity because a statement about what factors people should take
t clear weeds before planting
cultivated. In addition, farmers mus into account when considering data-based “facts.”
as soybeans. With weed-resistant
many types of non-GM plants, such
the soil and the weeds can Take Action
GM plants this is unnecessary. Since
moisture, and water and wind
be left undisturbed, the soil retains 1. Plan You and your friends plan to spend your
erosion are reduced. summer volunteering together, so you need to
booth. Here, Scientists
You and your friends visit one more come to an agreement about whether you favour
crops are valuable for food
for Food Security also argue that GM using artificial selection technology. Together,
ts, “Farmers can use GM seeds
security. The representative commen analyze the following issues:
d nutritional content, and
to produce hardier crops with improve • Which method seems to have the most benefits,
ter supply of food. This means
they will also be able to produce a grea and what are they?
ilies and communities, they
that, as well as providing for their fam
s for Food Security highlight • Which method seems to have the most risks, and
might have a surplus to sell.” Scientist
what are they?
the following benefits:
• Does either method have implications that rule it
• improved nutritional quality
out completely?
• resistance to pests and disease
e and temperature
• tolerance of extremes of moistur Share any biases you might have, your points of
r the initia l expense
• long-term benefits afte view on artificial selection technology, and the
results of any research you have done. Try to come
to an agreement on your views, and present your
analysis in a table. Include a statement that reflects
“Genetic modification is analogous to nuclear the group’s decision. Go to Analyzing STSE Issues in
Appendix A to learn more about analyzing issues.
power: nobody loves it, but climate change
2. Act When you and your friends have reached a
has made its adoption imperative.” consensus, write a letter to the organization of
—Economist Paul Collier of Oxford University your choice explaining why you agree with their
mandate. Offer to volunteer your time with them.

Chapter 7 Introducing Evolution • MHR 317

Chapter 7 SUMMARY

Section 7.1 Adaptation and Variation

Sexual reproduction and inherited mutations contribute • Adaptations can be structural, behavioural,
to adaptation and variation in individuals in populations. or physiological. Camouflage and mimicry are two types
of structural adaptation.
KEY TERMS
• Heritable mutations provide new alleles in a species and
adaptation
are the starting point for genetic variation in species.
extinct
mimicry • Mutations and the resulting phenotypic variations can
mutation have a positive, neutral, or negative effect on an organism.
selective advantage If the effect is positive, the variation can accumulate in the
variation population. The resulting traits are adaptations.
• Species with very fast reproduction rates, such as bacteria,
KEY CONCEPTS can become adapted to changes in their environment
• Adaptations are traits that increase an organism’s chances quickly. This can lead to populations of bacteria that are
of survival and successful reproduction. resistant to antibiotics.

Section 7.2 Natural Selection and Artificial Selection

Natural selection is the mechanism by which advantage. They can then go on to reproduce and pass on
populations change, and artificial selection technology their advantage to their offspring.
has advantages and disadvantages. • Selective breeding is artificial selection applied by humans
to populations in order to improve or modify particular
KEY TERMS
desirable traits.
artificial selection
biotechnology • Agricultural crops are selectively bred for different
fitness characteristics, such as being drought-resistant or
monoculture pest-resistant. However, selective breeding comes at the
natural selection expense of decreased variation. Decreased variation leads
selective pressure to a reduced ability to respond to a changing environment.
• Monoculture is the agricultural practice of planting
KEY CONCEPTS large expanses of uniform varieties of the same species.
• Natural selection is the mechanism by which populations Monoculture is risky because the organisms are so similar
change. Individuals within a population may survive if that they could all be killed or damaged by a new pest.
they have an inherited trait that gives them a selective

318 MHR • Unit 3 Evolution

Chapter 7 REVIEW

Knowledge and Understanding 6. Based on the peppered moths example, what do

Select the letter of the best answer below. you expect occurs in moths that rest on birch trees
1. Which best describes selective advantage? (light-coloured bark) in a polluted environment that
a. a characteristic that reduces an organism’s chance darkens the tree trunks?
of survival a. Fewer light-coloured moths survive.
b. the process by which populations change b. Fewer dark-coloured moths survive.
biologically over time as organisms pass their c. The number of dark- and light-coloured moths
traits to offspring stays the same.
c. the process by which individuals change biologically d. There will be an increase in the numbers of light-
over time as organisms pass their traits to offspring and dark-coloured moths.
d. a characteristic that improves an organism’s chance e. The number of medium-coloured moths increases.
of survival 7. What term describes the relative contribution an
e. environmental conditions that select for certain individual makes to the next generation by producing
characteristics of individuals and select against offspring that will survive long enough to reproduce?
characteristics that are not adaptive a. mutation
2. Which best describes selective pressure? b. variation
a. a characteristic that reduces an organism’s chance c. gene
of survival d. fitness
b. the process by which populations change biologically e. adaptation
over time as organisms pass their traits to offspring 8. What is the source of new alleles in a species?
c. the process by which individuals change biologically a. selective pressure
over time as organisms pass their traits to offspring b. natural selection
d. a characteristic that improves an organism’s chance c. mutation
of survival d. adaptation
e. environmental conditions that select for certain e. selective advantage
characteristics of individuals and select against
other characteristics that are not adaptive Answer the questions below.
3. Which of the following is an example of mimicry? 9. How does genetic variation affect change in
a. a toxic chemical excreted by a stinging nettle plant populations?
b. a syrphid fly that looks like a wasp 10. Describe the long-term effects a mutation could have
c. the migration of Arctic geese in a human population. Include an example.
d. the venom of a rattlesnake 11. How might the colour of a field mouse affect its
e. the courtship display of the red-winged blackbird survival?
4. Which of the following is an example of natural 12. Describe how the case of the peppered moths
selection? demonstrates natural selection.
a. the speed of a racing greyhound dog 13. Explain how variations within a species are affected by
b. the long fur of a Persian cat natural selection.
c. the high oil content of some types of corn crops 14. How can a mutation present in a small population
become quickly passed on to, and become
d. antibiotic-resistant bacteria
advantageous to, the population?
e. crops modified to be pest-resistant
15. Will all mutations affect the biological change of a
5. What is an end product of natural selection? population?
a. mutation
16. Explain why there are varieties of houseflies that
b. adaptation
are not killed by a popular pesticide. Under what
c. monoculture conditions is such resistance considered to be a
d. environmental change selective advantage?
e. artificial selection

Chapter 7 Introducing Evolution • MHR 319

Chapter 7 REVIEW

Thinking and Investigation 20. Two hypotheses that predict why some beetles
17. Most eagles in a certain population have talons that are survive applications of an insecticide are illustrated
20 cm long and very sharp. Some eagles, however, have in the diagram below. Hypothesis 1 says that in a
talons that are slightly longer or slightly shorter than population of beetles, some beetles exist that are
average. Explain why this variation within a population resistant to an insecticide. These individuals go on
is important to the process of natural selection. to reproduce generations of beetles that are resistant
to the insecticide. Hypothesis 2 says that individual
18. Review the data shown in the table.
beetles develop a mutation that protects them from
Antibiotic Introduction and Identified Resistance
the insecticide. These individuals go on to reproduce
by Staphylococcus aureus
generations of beetles that are resistant to the insecticide.
Year First Reports of Which hypothesis is correct? Explain your answer.
Antibiotic Introduced Resistance in Patients
Penicillin 1943 1947
Resistant Non-resistant
Streptomycin 1947 1947
Tetracycline 1952 1956
Resistant
Erythromycin 1955 1956 Non-resistant
Vancomycin 1956 1987 Non-resistant
Methicillin 1959 1961
Mutation
Gentamicin 1967 1970
Ciprofloxacin 1988 1990 Hypothesis 1 Hypothesis 2

a. Which antibiotic was easiest for populations of 21. The graph below shows the results of artificial selection
Staphylococcus aureus to develop resistance to? for oil content in maize kernels.
Support your answer. Selection in Maize Kernel Oil
b. Which antibiotic was the most difficult for 25 IHO
populations of Staphylococcus aureus to develop RHO
resistance to? Support your answer. 20 SHO
ILO
Percent Oil

19. Over 80 percent of the gene pool of thoroughbred 15 RLO

horses currently racing can be traced back to three 10
known ancestors from the 18th century. The graph
below shows the winning times, from 1910 to 2010, 5

of horses that competed in the Kentucky Derby, an 0

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
annual horse race in the United States. Generation
Kentucky Derby Winning Times
a. Which types of maize were selected for high oil
130
content?
b. Which types of maize were selected for low oil
Winning Time (s)

125 content?
120 c. What might be happening to the maize RLO?
22. How would you test the hypothesis that larger finches
115
on the Galapagos Islands have a greater survival rate in
wet years than in dry years? What factors would you
00

20

40

60

80

00

10

measure?
19

19

19

19

19

20

20

Year 23. Outline a breeding program that would help you

a. What do you observe about the horses’ performance develop a cow that produces more milk.
times since around 1940? 24. Describe, with an example, how you would measure
b. What might explain your observation from part (a)? variation in a trait among members of a population.
Why do you think it is better to sample individuals that
are not siblings?

320 MHR • Unit 3 Evolution

Communication 34. You are hiking and your observant friend points out
25. Evolution is the process of biological change a green-coloured leaf-eating insect that is resting on
over time based on the relationships between some plant leaves. What kind of adaptation is the
species and their environments. Summarize how genetic insect exhibiting?
variation is involved in biological change over time. 35. Why might a plant breeder be interested in knowing
26. In a graphic organizer, explain the differences between how certain traits are inherited?
adaptations and variations. Refer to Using Graphic 36. In the United Kingdom, observers are watching
Organizers in Appendix A for help choosing a graphic changes in populations of the blackcap warbler.
organizer. Research the blackcap warbler in the United Kingdom
27. Technology that enables humans to using Internet and print resources. Find out how the
manipulate the development of species has species is changing and two reasons why it is changing.
economic and environmental implications. Explain in 37. The characteristics of today’s farm animals, such as
a flowchart how selective breeding can affect the cattle, pigs, and chickens, differ from those of earlier
economy. farm animals. Choose one type of farm animal, and
28. In a graphic organizer such as a main idea web, research the animal using Internet and print resources.
compare the different types of adaptations. a. In what ways do the characteristics of the animal
differ from those of earlier farm animals?
29. In a Venn diagram, compare and contrast natural
selection and artificial selection. b. What are the reasons for the differences?
c. Name two possible dangers to today’s farm animals
30. Summarize your learning in this chapter using
that may result from artificial selection processes.
a graphic organizer. To help you, the Chapter 7
d. Should selective breeding focus on one trait only?
Summary lists the Key Terms and Key Concepts.
Refer to Using Graphic Organizers in Appendix A to e. Develop a selective breeding plan that will allow
help you decide which graphic organizer to use. for the overall health and genetic diversity of future
farm animals.
Application 38. Another technology that breeders use is inbreeding.
31. Explain the following observations from a scientific One consequence of inbreeding is a higher incidence of
research study done on finches (Geospiza fortis) on the deformities and health problems, such as the underbite
Galapagos Islands: on the goat shown in the photograph here. Using
• During a drought in 1977, a large percentage of Internet and print resources, research inbreeding.
Geospiza fortis finches died of starvation on the a. Define inbreeding.
Galapagos island Daphne Major. b. Explain why there is a higher incidence of health
• The 90 bird survivors in 1978 had a beak depth from problems in inbred farm animals.
about 9.4 mm to about 10.2 mm, which was greater
than the beak depth of the finches that did not survive.
32. During rainy years on the Galapagos Islands, small
seeds became abundant. Only birds with small beaks
can eat small seeds effectively. If the rain persists for
several years, what do you expect to occur due to
natural selection?
33. Identify whether each of the following examples
demonstrates artificial selection. Explain why or why not.
a. Breeders select for speed in racing greyhound dogs.
b. A person breeds long-furred Persian cats.
c. A farmer increases the variability in the fat content
of different plant species.
d. Over time, plants develop chemical defences to keep This young domestic goat has an underbite, a condition in
which the lower front teeth extend past the upper teeth.
herbivores away.
e. Crops are selectively bred to be pest-resistant.

Chapter 7 Introducing Evolution • MHR 321

Chapter 7 SELF-ASSESSMENT

Select the letter of the best answer below. 5. K/U Which of the following statements is true?

1. K/U Which of the following best describes natural a. Individuals adapted to an environment are more
selection? likely to survive.
a. biological change through time in a population b. Natural selection has a direction and purpose.
b. the process by which individuals with advantageous c. Mutations cannot be induced by the environment.
traits survive and/or reproduce more successfully d. The origin of variation is sexual reproduction.
than individuals without advantageous traits e. Natural selection can anticipate change in the
c. characteristics appear suddenly in organisms environment.
in response to the environment and those 6. K/U What does “variation is neutral” mean?
characteristics are transmitted to offspring a. Variation has a selective advantage to an organism
d. a struggle between males competing for females that inherits this variation.
e. a principle by which periodic local disasters b. Variation negatively affects the ability of an
eliminate species in an area organism to survive and/or reproduce in a given
2. K/U Ptarmigans are grouse-like birds that live in the environment and time period.
far North. What adaptation is exhibited by white- c. Variation positively affects the ability of an
coloured alpine ptarmigans that live in a snowy organism to survive and/or reproduce in a given
environment? environment and time period.
a. mechanical barriers d. Variation does not affect the ability of an organism
b. artificial selection to survive and/or reproduce in a given environment
c. camouflage and time period.
d. mimicry e. Variation positively or negatively affects the ability
e. chemical defence of an organism to survive and/or reproduce in
a given environment and time period.
3. K/U Identify the term that involves people using
selective breeding techniques to increase the number 7. K/U Which two factors add to variation in a

of animals and plants with desirable traits. population?

a. fitness a. mutations and natural selection
b. selective pressure b. mutations and sexual reproduction
c. natural selection c. natural selection and sexual reproduction
d. selective advantage d. mutations and adaptations
e. artificial selection e. adaptations and natural selection
4. K/U Within a few weeks of patients using the drug 8. K/U What is a mutation?
streptomycin for a Staphylococcus aureus infection, a a. a trait that improves the ability of an organism to
patient’s Staphylococcus aureus population consists survive and/or reproduce
primarily of Staphylococcus aureus-resistant bacteria. b. a random change in small, isolated populations
How can this result be explained? c. a change in a population over time
a. Staphylococcus aureus has the ability to resist d. selection for favourable variations in a population
antibiotics. e. a random change in the genetic material of an
b. The patient must have become reinfected with organism
Staphylococcus aureus-resistant bacteria. 9. K/U Natural selection acts upon which of the
c. In response to the drug, Staphylococcus aureus was following?
induced to begin making drug-resistant versions a. a habitat
of itself. b. an ecosystem
d. Some Staphylococcus aureus-resistant bacteria were c. the genes of heritable traits
present at the start of treatment, and those strains
d. an ecological niche
reproduced more successfully than non-resistant
e. an individual
strains during treatment.
e. Staphylococcus aureus-resistant bacteria reproduce
more slowly than non-resistant strains.

322 MHR • Unit 3 Evolution

10. K/U Which of the following best describes selective 19. K/U Explain what is meant by the phrase “Natural
pressure? selection is situational.”
a. a characteristic that improves an organism’s chance 20. C Use a diagram to illustrate the process of natural
of survival, usually in a changing environment selection in a plant population that attracts insect
b. a process by which individuals with advantageous pollinators by petal colour. For example, bees can find
traits survive and/or reproduce more successfully red flowers easier than lighter-coloured flowers.
within their lifetime 21. K/U What kinds of traits might a farmer want to
c. when environmental conditions select for certain selectively breed for in a fruit crop?
characteristics of individuals and select against
22. C In a graphic organizer such as a table or
other characteristics
flowchart, summarize similarities and differences
d. a trait with no apparent advantage for survival between artificial selection and natural selection.
e. an unusual combination of alleles passed on to the
23. C Use a graphic organizer to summarize the
offspring of parents
advantages and disadvantages of selective breeding.
Use sentences and diagrams as appropriate to answer the Include specific examples.
questions below. 24. T/I The wild mustard species Brassica oleracea has
11. K/U What is a physiological adaptation? Include an been modified in many ways using artificial selection
example in your answer. to produce the plants shown below.
12. K/U Give an example of a mutation that has a neutral • Brussels sprouts are a domesticated variety of wild
effect on an organism. Brassica that were artificially selected for large bud size.
13. A Explain why puppies from the same litter can • Broccoli was bred from Brassica by selecting for large
have different fur colour and patterns. flower stalks.
a. Suggest a breeding program using artificial selection
14. K/U What is the difference between selective
to develop a strain of Brassica that selects for large
pressure and selective advantage?
leaves.
15. K/U How can you most directly measure an
b. Suggest potential problems with the new variety.
organism’s fitness?
16. T/I Two closely related butterfly species can
successfully mate but they produce sterile offspring.
Are these species “fit” in terms of natural selection?
Explain your answer.
17. K/U Name the process that leads to adaptations in
populations. Explain your answer.
18. T/I A biologist studied a population of moles for
10 years. During that time, the population was never
fewer than 20 moles and never more than 50. Her data
showed that over half the moles born did not survive
to reproduce because of selection factors, such as
competition for food and predators. Then, in a single 25. T/I Does natural selection lead to organisms
generation, 90 percent of the moles that were born becoming progressively better with each generation?
lived to reproduce. The population doubled in size. Explain your thinking.
Why do you think this happened?

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7.2 7.1 7.2 7.1 7.2 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.2 7.2 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.1 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2
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Chapter 7 Introducing Evolution • MHR 323