Geotechnical Engineering - I

Soil water, Permeability,

Shear Strength

Dr. Rajesh K. N.
Assistant Professor in Civil Engineering
Govt. College of Engineering, Kannur

1
Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 Module II
Soil water
Occurrence - adsorbed and capillary water types - effective stress - total
stress - pore pressure - pressure diagrams

Permeability
Definition - Darcy's law - factors affecting permeability - laboratory
determination - stratified soils - average permeability.
permeability Seepage –
downward and upward flow -quick sand

Shear Strength
Definition - Mohr-Coulomb strength theory - Measurement of shear
strength – Types of Triaxial compression tests - measurement of pore
pressure - totall and
d effective
ff i stress – Unconfined
U fi d Compression
C i test - vane
shear tests –Direct shear test- strength parameters - choice of test
conditions for field problems.

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

 Soil water
Modes of occurrence –
Effective stress - total stress - p
pore p
pressure –
Pressure diagrams under various conditions –
Flow of water through soil -

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

 Modes of occurrence of soil water
Free water (Gravitational water)

• Water that is free to move through soil mass under gravity

Held water

• Structural water – chemically

y combined in the soil mineral
• Adsorbed water (Hygroscopic, contact moisture or surface bound
moisture) – held by adhesion
• Capillary
p y water

Pore water

• Water that is free of strong soil attractive forces

• Capillary water and free water are pore waters

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

 Stress
St ess conditions
co d t o s in soil
so
Effective and neutral pressures

• At any plane of soil mass, the total pressure is the total load per unit
area

• Pressure due to:

• Self-weight
• Over-burden

• Inter-granular pressure (effective pressure) and neutral pressure (pore

pressure))

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

 I t
Inter-granular ( ff ti pressure)) σ′
l pressure (effective
• Pressure transmitted from particle to particle through their contact
points, through the soil mass above the plane

• Effective in decreasing the voids ratio and in mobilising the shear

strength
g

Neutral pressure (pore pressure) u u = hw γ w

• Pressure transmitted through pore fluid

• Equal to water load per unit area above the plane

• No influence on voids ratio or shear strength

Hence, total pressure σ = σ′ + u

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

Effective pressure under different conditions of soil-
water system

1. Submerged soil mass

Effective pressure σ′ = σ − u Water

At A, σ′ = z γ sat + z1γ w − hw γ w
z1
= z γ sat + z1γ w − ( z + z1 ) γ w B
hw
= z ( γ sat − γ w ) z
z γ′
= zγ
A
Here, effective pressure does not depend on z1
Saturated soil
At B, σ′ = σ − u = z1γ w − z1γ w = 0
Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 z1
B
hw + =
z

A
zγ′ ( z + z1 ) γ w z γ sat + z1γ w
Effective
Eff ti pressure Pore pressure
P Total
T t l pressure
diagram diagram diagram

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

2. Soil mass with surcharge

Effective pressure σ′ = σ − u

Surcharge, q
At A, σ′ = q + z1γ + z γ sat − z γ w

= q + z1γ + z γ′
z1 Moist
soil
At B, σ′ = q + z1γ − 0 = q + z1γ B

z Saturated hw
soil

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

 q q

z1 Moist
soill z1γ
B
+ =
hw z Saturated
soil

A
q + z1γ + z ( γ sat − γ w ) zγ w q + z1γ + z γ sat
Effective
Eff ti pressure Pore pressure
P Total
T t l pressure
diagram diagram diagram

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

 3. Saturated soil with capillary fringe
Effective pressure σ′ = σ − u
At A, σ′ = ( z + z1 ) γ sat − z γ w = z γ′ + z1γ sat
Capillary
At x1, fringe

σ′ = σ − u
σ′ = x1γ sat − {− ( z1 − x1 ) γ w } x1 z1
σ′ = x1γ sat + ( z1 − x1 ) γ w x B

Capillarity induces downward pressure

due to weight of water hanging below. z Saturated hw
soil
∴ σ′ = x1γ ′ + z1γ w
A
At x, σ′ = x γ sat − ( x − z1 ) γ w
= x γ′ + z1γ w At B, σ′ = z1γ sat
Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 z1γ w − z1γ w σ = x1γ sat = xγ sat
− ( z1 − x1 ) γ w
z1
x
B σ′ =
+ ( x − z1 ) γ w =
z Saturated
S t t d x γ′ + z1γ w
soil
σ = x γ sat
A
z γ′ + z1γ sat zγ w ( z + z1 ) γ sat
Pore pressure
= ( z + z1 ) γ′ + z1γ w diagram Total
T t l pressure
diagram
= ( z + z1 ) γ sat − z γ w

Effective pressure
diagram

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

 4. When flow takes place through soil
a. Flow from top to bottom

Effective pressure σ′ = σ − u
At A, Pore pressure u = ( z + z1 − h ) γ w
Total pressure
z1 h
σ = z γ sat + z1γ w

Flow
w
B
Effective pressure
z Saturated
S t t d hw
= z γ sat + z1γ w − ( z + z1 − h ) γ w soil

= z ( γ sat − γ w ) + hγ w
A

= z γ′ + hγ w Increase in effective pressure (downward seepage pressure)

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
At B, Pore p
pressure u = z1γ w

Total pressure σ = z1γ w

Effective pressure σ′ = z1γ w − z1γ w = 0 h

i=
x z
At x from B, σ′ = x γ′ + hγ w = x γ′ + ix γ w Hydraulic gradient
z

z1 h

Flow
x B
hγ w
z x
Saturated hw
z
soil
xγ′
hγ w zγ′ A
Pressure diagram
Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 b. Flow from bottom to top
p

Effective pressure σ′ = σ − u
At A, Pore pressure u = ( z + z1 + h ) γ w h
Total pressure
z1
σ = z γ sat + z1γ w hw

Flow
B
Effective pressure
z Saturated
S t t d
= z γ sat + z1γ w − ( z + z1 + h ) γ w soil

= z ( γ sat − γ w ) + hγ w
A

= z γ ′ − hγ w Decrease in effective pressure (upward seepage pressure)

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 At B, Pore p
pressure u = z1γ w

Total pressure σ = z1γ w

Effective pressure σ′ = z1γ w − z1γ w = 0

x
At x from B, σ′ = x γ′ − hγ w = x γ′ − ixγ w
z h

z1
x hw

Flow
w
x γ′ − hγ w B
z
x
hγ w
x z Satu ated
Saturated
z soil

h w
hγ z γ′ − hγ w A
Pressure diagram
Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 When submerged soil pressure xγ′ balances seepage pressure ixγ w ,

σ′ = 0
γ′
xγ′ = ix γ w ⇒ i = = ic Critical
γw hydraulic gradient

When i = ic , cohesionless soils loose their shear strength, and a visible

agitation
it ti (b
(boiling-like
ili lik phenomenon)
h ) happens
h =>
> quick
i k sand.
d

γ w ( G − 1) G −1
We have, γ′ = ∴ ic =
1+ e 1+ e

• To prevent quick sand during excavations below water table, pumping

can be done before excavation, to lower water table.
• Quick sand doesn’t occur in clays, since cohesive forces prevent boiling.

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

• Problem 1: Water table is located at a
d h off 3m
depth 3 below
b l ground
d surface
f i a
in 3m
deposit of sand of 11m thickness. A Water table
capillary fringe is present above water

Saand depo
t bl upto
table, t ground d level.
l l Saturated
S t t d unitit
weight of sand is 20kN/m3. Calculate 4m
the effective pressure at depths 0, 3, 7 and
11m from ground surface.
surface

osit
4m

Depth Total pressure Porewater Effective pressure

pressure
0 0 –3x9.81=
3x9.81 – 29.43 29.43
3 3x20=60 0 60
7 7x20=140 4x9.81=39.24 140 – 39.24=100.76
11 11x20=220 8x9.81=78.48 220 – 78.48=141.52
Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 −29.43
29.43
z1
3m
60
– = 60

z Saturated 7m
soil
140 39.24 100.76

11m 220
78.48 141.52
Total pressure Pore pressure Effective pressure
di
diagram diagram diagram

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

• Problem 2: For the given soil profile, compute the effective pressure at a
depth of 12 m.
m

To find the total pressure:

L
Layer 1:
1 0 tto 3 m.

n 04
0.4
e= = = 0.667
1− n 1 − 0.4

Gγ w
Gγ
γd =
1+ e

2.65 × 9.81kN m3
= = 15.595kN m3
1 + 0.667

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

 γ sat =
( G + e) γ w
=
( 2.65 667 ) × 9.81kN
2 65 + 00.667 9 81kN m3
= 19.52 kN m3
1+ e 1 + 0.667

γ = γ d + S r ( γ sat − γ d ) = 15.595 + 0.3 × (19.52 − 15.595) = 16.772 kN m3

L
Layer
r 2:
2 3m to 4m.
4m

Gγ w 2.68 × 9.8 kN m3
γd = = = 16.432 kN m3
1+ e 1 + 0.6

γ sat =
( 2.68 + 0.6) × 9.81kN m3
= 20.111kN
20 111kN m3
1 + 0.6

γ = γ d + Sr ( γ sat − γ d ) = 16.432 0 8 × ( 20.111

16 432 + 0.8 20 111 − 16 432 ) = 19
16.432 375kN m 3
19.375kN

Layer 3: 4m to 6m.
6m
γ sat = 20.111kN m3
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 Layer 4: 6m to 9m.

γ sat =
( 2.1 + 3) × 9.8 kN m3
= 12.508 kN m 3
1+ 3

Layer 5: 9m to 12m.

e = wsat G = 0.35 × 2.7 = 0.945

γ sat =
( 2.7 + 0.945) × 9.81kN m3
= 18.384 kN m3
1 + 0.945

Total pressure at a depth of 12 m = 3 × 16.772 + 1 × 19.375 + 2 × 20.111

+ 3 × 12.508 + 3 × 18.384 = 202.59kN m 2

Effective pressure at a depth of 12 m = 202.59

202 59 − 8 × 9.8
9 8 = 124.11kN
124 11kN m 2

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

• Problem 3:

Bottom heave, when effective

stress at top
p of g
gravel layer
y is
zero

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

 γ sat =
( G + e) γ w
=
( 2.7 + 1.2 ) × 9.81
For the clay layer, = 17.39 kN m3
1+ e 1 + 1.2

At the top of gravel strata, σ′ = 12 × 17.39 − 15 × 9.81 = 61.53kN m

2

Let the bottom of excavation be h m above the top of gravel layer, so

that the effective stress at top
p of g
gravel layer
y is zero.

σ′ = σ − u = 0

∴σ = u ⇒ 17.39h = 15 × 9.81
∴ h = 8.5
85m
∴ d = 12 − 8.5 = 3.5m

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 Permeability

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

 Definition

Property of porous material that permits passage of water

through interconnecting voids

• Material having continuous voids - permeable

• Gravels - highly permeable; stiff clays - impermeable
• Mostly in soils
soils, flow is laminar

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

 Head,, g
gradient and p
potential

When water flows through soil, the total head consists of:

1. Piezometric head or pressure head

2. Velocity head Rise of water in piezometric tube

3. Position head Negligible,

g g , for flow through
g soil

With respect to any datum

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 A

H
( hw )a h DATUM
B
hw
za
a z
( hw )b zb

b
Point Piezo Position Total
head head head
H: Initial hydraulic head
a (hw)a za H
h: Hydraulic head (potential)
b ((hw)b zb 0 at any point h = hw ± z
c hw z hw – z i=h/l: hydraulic gradient
Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 Darcy'ss law
Darcy
Quantity of water q flowing through a cross sectional area of soil
mass under a hydraulic gradient can be expressed as: q = kiA (1)

k Coefficient of permeability Darcy, 1856

i Hydraulic gradient

A Total area of cross section

• Greater k, greater is the flow through soil

• Average discharge velocity

q
v = = ki (2)
A
Coefficient of p
permeability
y is the average
g discharge
g velocity
y under
unit hydraulic gradient
Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
Discharge and Seepage Velocity

• In eqn. (1), A is the Total area of cross section

A = AVOIDS + ASOLIDS
AVOIDS < A

q q
Actual velocity vs = >
AVOIDS A
Seepage velocity

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 q = vA = vs AVOIDS

A v ⎧ A V 1⎫
vs = v = ⎨∵ = = ⎬
AVOIDS n ⎩ AVOIDS VVOIDS n ⎭

Also, vs = k p i (3)

Coefficient of percolation

vs k pi k p 1 k
= = = ∴kp =
v ki k n n

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

 Coefficient of permeability influences:

• Water retaining capacity and stability of earth dams

• Capacity
p y of p
pumping
p g installations for the lowering
g of g
ground water
table during excavations

g
• Rate of settlement of buildings

• etc.

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

 Factors affecting permeability
1. Effect of size and shape of particles:

Permeability ∝ ( Grain size )

2

k Coefficient of permeability
in cm/s
k = C.D102
C A constant
(= 100, if D10 is in cm)

D10 Effective size, in cm

Allen Hazen
Hazen, 1892

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2. Effect of property of pore fluid
Coefficient of permeability is directly proportional to unit weight
off fl
fluid
id and
d inversely
i l proportional
ti l to
t its
it viscosity
i it
γw
k∝
η
C .γ w
k= ( e − 0.1
0 1) C is a constant
2

3. Effect of voids ratio

e3
k∝ Taylor, 1948
1+ e

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4. Effect of structural arrangement
g of p
particles & stratification

• Horizontal flow:

i is same for all strata

Q = khiZ = k1iz1 + k2iz2 + k3iz3 +

1
∴ kh = ( k 1iz1 + k 2 iz 2 + k 3iz 3 + )
Z
Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 • Vertical flow:
From principle of continuity of flow
A1v1 = A2 v2 =
For the same area,,

v1 = v2 =

i.e., downward velocity v is same for all strata

kv h
v= = k1 z1 = k2 z2 = k3 z3 =
Z
Total loss of head, h = h1 + h2 + h3 +
= z1i1 + z2i2 + z3i3 +

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

 Z Z Z
kv = v = That is, kv =
h h
v ( ) ⎛ z1 z2 z3
⎜k + k + k +
⎞
⎟
⎝ 1 2 3 ⎠

5. Effect of Degree
g of saturation: More entrapped
pp air causes
less permeability

6. Effect of Adsorbed water: Reduces permeability

p y

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

 Thus, coefficient of permeability can be expressed as:

γ e 3
k = Ds2 . w . .C (4)
η 1+ e

Ds iis th
the di
diameter
t off spherical
h i l graini which
hi h hhas the
th same ratio
ti off
volume to surface area collectively for the grains in a soil

C is a shape constant

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

 Determination of permeability

Laboratory methods ¾ Constant head test

¾ Falling head test

Field methods ¾ Pumping

p g tests
¾ Bore hole tests

Indirect method
¾ C
Computation
t ti from
f grain
i size
i distribution
di t ib ti

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

Constant head test:

¾ Suitable for coarse grained soils

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

 ƒ Constant
C t t head
h d permeameter
t consists
i t off a ttube
b tto contain
t i soil
il sample
l

ƒ Tube can be of any convenient dimension

ƒ The head h is kept a constant during the test

ƒ Soil
S il is
i saturated
t t d before
b f commencing
i the
th ttestt

ƒ Test is performed by allowing water to flow through the soil sample

ƒ Measure the quantity of discharge Q in time t

Q Q L 1
q = = k iA ∴ k =
t t h A

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

Falling head test ¾ Suitable for fine grained soils

ƒ Soil sample is kept in a vertical

cylinder

ƒ A transparent stand pipe of cross-

sectional area a is attached to the
cylinder

ƒ Soil is saturated before commencing

the test

ƒ Test is p
performed by
y allowing
g water
to flow through the soil sample

ƒ Measure the elapsed time t2 – t1 for the

head to fall from initial h1 to final h2

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

• Let -dh be the change in head during a small time interval dt.

From Darcy’s Law,

dQ = kiA.dt
Also, dQ = − a.dh

kh h
kiA.dt = − a.dh ⇒ Adt = − a.dh ∵i =
L L

Integrating
g g both sides,,

Ak t2 h2 dh

aL ∫
L 1t
dt = − ∫
h1 h

aL h1 2.3aL h1
k= l e
log i ., k =
i.e l g10
lo
A ( t2 − t1 ) h2 A ( t2 − t1 ) h2

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

Problem 1: Constant head test was used to find coefficient of permeability of a
sand sample.
sample Diameter of sample = 10 cm,cm length of sample = 20 cm,
cm
head of water = 35 cm, 110 cm3 of water was collected in 1 min 20 s,
determine coefficient of permeability.

Coefficient of permeability QL1

k=
t h A

g Q = 110cm 3
Discharge, Time, t = 1min,20s = 80s

Length of sample, L = 20cm Constant water head, h = 35cm

Q L 1 110 20 1
∴k = = × × = = 0.01009
0 01009 cm s = 8.648
8 648 m day
d
t h A 80 35 ⎛ π × 10 ⎞
2

⎜ 4 ⎟
⎝ ⎠

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

Problem 2: Falling head test was used to find coefficient of permeability.
Diameter of sample = 6 cm,
cm diameter of stand pipe = 2 cm,
cm initial
head = 45 cm, final head after 2 min = 30 cm. Determine coefficient
of permeability. Length of sample, L = 15cm

2.3aL h
Coefficient of permeability k = log10 1
A ( t2 − t1 ) h2

π × 22
Area of stand pipe, a = cm 2
4
π × 62
Area of sample, A = cm 2
4
t2 − t1 = 2 min h1 = 45 cm, h2 = 30 cm

2.3aL h1
∴k = l 10 =
log cm min
i = 5.5 m day ?
A ( t2 − t1 ) h2
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Problem 3:

4 cm has k3=7×10-4 cm/s. Assume that the flow is taking place perpendicular to the layers.

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

 Z 20
kv = =
⎛ z1 z2 z3 ⎞ ⎛ 8 8 4 ⎞
⎜k + k + k + ⎟ ⎜ −4
+ −4
+ −4
+ ⎟
⎝ 1 2 3 ⎠ ⎝ 2 × 10 5 × 10 7 × 10 ⎠

= 3.24 × 10−4 cm s

2.3aL h
Coefficient of permeability k = log10 1
A ( t2 − t1 ) h2

2.3aL h
( t2 − t1 ) = log100 1
kA h2
2.3 × 2cm 2 × 20cm 25
= −4
log10
3 24 × 10 cm s × 24cm
3.24 2
12

= 3775.37s
=1hr, 2min, 55.37s
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• Assignment!

Explain field tests for determination of permeability (pumping

tests).

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

 Shear Strength

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

 Definition

• Ability to resist sliding along an internal surface within a soil mass:

A very
e y important
po ta t p property
ope ty that
t at determines
dete es the
t e strength
st e gt of
o a soil
so
mass

• Stability of foundations, slopes, embankments

etc. depend on shear strength

Shear strength
g consists of:

– Frictional resistance
– Cohesion

50
Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 Mohr-Coulomb failure theory
y
• Material fails essentially by shear

• Shearing stress on the failure plane is a unique function of the normal

stress acting on that plane

s = F (σ )

Friction
i i 51

F = N tan φ
F N
= tan φ
A A
F∝N
s = σ tan φ (1) F = μN

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 s = σ tan φ (1) Æ for purely granular soils

• If cohesion also present,

s = c + σ tan φ (2) Coulomb Equation

c⎫ experimentally determined
Æ ⎬
φ⎭ empirical
i i l parameters
t

Æ E
Eqn. (2) assumes that
th t c i iindependent
is d d t off σ

Æ At zero σ, s = c
Æ That is, cohesion is the shear resistance at zero
normall pressure
52
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 Plot between s and σ at failure (Coulomb envelope)

53
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s s

c
φ
σ σ
Coulomb envelope for ideal (pure) Coulomb envelope for purely
friction material cohesive material

54
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 Mohr’s stress circle

55
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 σy
τxy

σn τyx

τn
σx σx
τyx
α τxy σy >σx
σy

σ y −σx ⎛σy +σx ⎞

σn = +⎜ ⎟ cos 2α + τ xy sin 2α
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠

σ y −σx
τn = sin 2α − τ xy cos 2α
2
56
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 σy −σx 2τ xy
τn = 0 ⇒ sin 2α − τ xy cos 2α = 0 tan 2α =
2 σ y −σx

σy +σx ⎛σ y −σx ⎞
2
Principal
σ 1,3
13 = ± ⎜ ⎟ + τ xy
2
stresses
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠

σy +σx ⎞ ⎛σ y −σx ⎞
2 2
⎛
⎜σ n − + τ n =⎜ + τ
2 2
⎟ ⎟ xy
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

⎛σ y −σx ⎞
2
⎛σy +σx ⎞
⎜ 2 ,0 ⎟ ⎜ 2 ⎟ + τ xy
2

⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
57
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 (σ y ,τ xy )

⎛σ y −σx ⎞
2

⎜ 2 ⎟ + τ xy
2

⎝ ⎠

τ τxy

θ σy
σx
σ3 σy +σx σ1 σ
2

τxy

(σ x , −τ xy ) 2τ xy
θ = tan −1
= 2α
σ y −σx

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 (σ , τ )

σ1 − σ 3
2
τ σ1 − σ 3
sin 2α
2
2α
σ3 σ1 σ
σ1 − σ 3
σ1 + σ 3 cos 2α
2
2 σ1

σ3 σ3

σ1
59
Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 σ1 + σ 3 σ1 − σ 3
σ= + cos 2α Stresses on any plane in terms of
2 2 principal stresses
σ1 − σ 3
τ= sin 2α
2

σ1 − σ 3
τ max = , when α = 450
2

σ1 + σ 3
σ= , on this plane.
2

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Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 Coulomb envelope

τ failure

s
φ

c
σ3 σ σ1

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Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 s = c′ + σ ′ tan φ ′ Shearing strength based on
(3)
s = c′ + (σ − u ) tan φ ′ effective stress

Shearing strength based on total

s = cu + σ tan φu (4)
stress

cu Apparent cohesion based on total stress

φu Apparent angle of shearing resistance

based on total stress

62
Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 σ 1′ + σ 3′ σ 1′ − σ 3′
σ′ = + cos 2α (5) Stresses on any plane in terms
2 2
of p
principal
p stresses
σ 1′ − σ 3′
τ= sin 2α (6)
2
s = c′ + σ ′ tan φ ′ (3)

s is the shear strength

g τ is the shear stress on a p
plane

s −τ is a minimum on the plane of failure

d (s −τ )
=0
dα
⎛σ ′ +σ ′ σ ′ −σ ′ ⎞ ⎛σ ′ −σ ′ ⎞
s − τ = c′ + ⎜ 1 3
+ 1 3
cos 2α ⎟ tan φ ′ − ⎜ 1 3
sin 2α ⎟
⎜ 2 2 ⎟ ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
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Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 d (s −τ ) ⎛σ ′ −σ ′ ⎞ ⎛σ ′ −σ ′ ⎞
= 0 ⇒ −⎜ 1 3
tan φ ′ ⎟ 2sin 2α − ⎜ 1 3
2 cos 2α ⎟ = 0
dα ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠

( ) ( )
⇒ − σ 1′ − σ 3′ tan φ ′ sin 2α − σ 1′ − σ 3′ cos 2α = 0

⇒ − tan φ ′ sin 2α = cos 2α

φ′
t φ ′ = cott 2α ⇒ 2α = 90 + φ ′ ⇒ α = 45 +
⇒ − tan = α ′f
2

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

 Failure stress and maximum stress
•Failure plane doesn’t carry maximum shear stress
•Plane that has maximum shear stress is not the failure plane

Coulomb envelope

τ max
τ failure
s
φ

σ3 σ σ1

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Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 Measurement of shear strength

• Direct shear test

• Triaxial compression test
• Unconfined compression test
• Vane shear test

Based on drainage conditions,

• Undrained test – no drainage allowed – no dissipation of pore
pressure during the test
• Consolidated undrained test – drainage allowed only with initial
normal stress
• Drained test - drainage allowed throughout the test

66
Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 Disadvantages of direct shear test

• Shear and normal stress distribution along failure surface is not

uniform
if Æ entire
ti strength
t th off soil
il iis nott mobilised
bili d uniformly
if l

• Plane of shear failure is pre-determined Æ it may not be the weakest

plane

• Effect of lateral restraint by

y the side walls of the shear box

• No control over drainage

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Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 Direct shear test

68
Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
• Strain controlled test

• At failure, shear force F corresponding to the normal force N is

noted

• Repeated for a number of identical samples

• From the set of values of σ and τ at failure, envelope is drawn

• Slope of the envelope represents angle of shearing resistance

τ
φ

c
σ
69
Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 Triaxial compression test

Casagrande & Terzaghi – 1936

70
Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 σ1- σ3 Deviator stress

σ1

σ3

σ3 σ3 σ3 σ3 Cell pressure

σ3
σ1

σ1- σ3

71
Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
• The cylindrical soil specimen is subjected to an all round pressure
(cell pressure,σ3) initially and then to a vertical pressure, σ1.
1

• (σ1- σ3) is known as deviatoric stress

• During the test the deviatoric stress and vertical deformation of the
sample are measured till failure

• Deviatoric stress and pore pressure corresponding to failure are noted

• Failure: at max value of stress or 20% axial strain

• A number of Mohr’s circles can be drawn from different sets of

observations (σ1 and σ3)from which the failure envelope can be
determined

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Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 Coulomb envelope

s
φ

73
Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 Stress state in soil specimen during triaxial compression

τ f = c′ + σ ′ tanφ′

τ
F

c’ φ′ FC
φ′ α′f = 45 +
A sin φ ′ =
2 C KC
K O σ3′ σ′ σ1′

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Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 But FC = Radius of Mohr’s circle
= Maximum
M i shear
h stress
t 1 ′
= σ 1 − σ 3′
2
( )
Also, KC=KO+OC = c′ cot φ ′ +
2
(
1 ′
σ 1 + σ 3′ )
∴ sin φ ′ =
FC
=
1 ′
2
(
σ 1 − σ 3′ )
2
1 (
KC c′ cot φ ′ + 1 σ ′ + σ ′
3 )
′ ′ 2⎛ φ′ ⎞ ⎛ φ′ ⎞
Simplifying, σ 1 = σ 3 tan ⎜ 45 + ⎟ + 2c tan ⎜ 45 + ⎟
′
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠

σ 1′ = σ 3′ tan 2 α ′f + 2c′ tan α ′f

⎛ φ′ ⎞
σ 1′ = σ 3′ Nφ′ + 2c′ N φ′ where,, N φ′ = tan 2 α ′f = tan 2 ⎜ 450 + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 Stress state during
g triaxial compression
p …

IIn terms
t off effective
ff ti IIn tterms off ttotal
t l
stresses stresses

σ 1′ = σ 3′ tan α ′f + 2c′ tan α ′f

2 σ 1 = σ 3 tan 2 α f + 2cu tan α f

σ 1′ = σ 3′ Nφ′ + 2c′ N φ′ σ 1 = σ 3 Nφ + 2cu Nφ

⎛ φ′ ⎞ ⎛ φ ⎞
Nφ′ = tan α ′f = tan ⎜ 450 + ⎟
2 2 Nφ = tan 2 α f = tan 2 ⎜ 450 + u ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠

(7) (8)

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Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 Advantages of triaxial test

• Sh
Shear strengths
h at all
ll the
h 3d
drainage
i conditions
di i can b
be d
done with
ih
complete control

• Stress distribution on the failure plane is uniform

• State of stress at any

y stage
g of test is determinable

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Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 Unconfined compression test

• A special case of triaxial test in which σ 3 = 0

⎛ φu ⎞
Hence, σ 1′ = σ 3′ Nφ′ + 2c′ Nφ′ ⇒ σ 1 = 2cu tan ⎜ 45 + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠

Only one value of σ1 . Therefore, only one Mohr’s circle

So, this test can be applied only for saturated clays (φu = 0 )

φu = 0 ⇒ σ 1 = 2cu , for saturated clays

quσ1
∴ cu = = quÆ Unconfined compressive strength at failure
2 2
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Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 s
Coulomb envelope

τ failu
failuree
cu
qu σ1
= =
2 2
σ3 = 0 σ σ1

79
Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
Problem 1. An unconfined cylindrical specimen of clay fails under an axial
stress off 240 kN/m
kN/ 2. The
Th failure
f il plane
l was inclined
i li d at an angle l off 550 to the
h
horizontal. Find the shear strength parameters c and ϕ for the soil.

σ 1 = σ 3 tan 2 α f + 2cu tan α f

σ3 = 0 ∴σ 1 = 2cu tan α f

φ
α f = 450 +
2 ∴φ = 2 (α f − 45 0
) = 200

σ1 240 = 84 kN m 2
σ 1 = 2cu tan α f ⇒ cu = =
2 tan α f 2 tan 55

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

Problem 2. Two identical specimens of dry sand are tested in the triaxial
apparatus with confining pressure of 150 N/mm2 and 250 N/mm2 respectively.
respectively
If the angle of friction for sand is 350 what are the values of axial stresses at
failure of the specimens?

σ 1 = σ 3 tan 2 α f + 2cu tan α f

For cohesionless dry sand, cu = 0

⎛ 0 φ⎞
∴σ 1 = σ 3 tan α f = σ 3 tan ⎜ 45 + ⎟
2 2

⎝ 2⎠
⎛ 0 350 ⎞
σ 1 = 150 tan ⎜ 45 + 2
⎟ (1)
⎝ 2 ⎠
= 553.53 N mm 2

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

 ⎛ 0 350 ⎞
σ 1 = 250 tan ⎜ 45 +
2
⎟ (2)
⎝ 2 ⎠

= 922.543 N mm 2

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

Problem 3. Two identical specimens of a soil were tested in the triaxial
apparatus. First
Fi specimen
i f il d at a deviator
failed d i stress off 770 kN/m
kN/ 2 when
h the
h cell
ll
pressure was 200 kN/m2. Second specimen failed at a deviator stress of 1370
kN/m2 when the cell pressure was 400 kN/m2. Find c and ϕ for the soil.

⎛ φ⎞ ⎛ φ⎞
We have, σ 1 = σ 3 tan ⎜ 45 + ⎟ + 2 c tan ⎜ 45 + ⎟
2

⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
First specimen

σ 1 − σ 3 = 770 kN m 2
σ 3 = 200 kN m 2 ∴σ 1 = 970 kN m 2

⎛ φ⎞ ⎛ φ⎞
970 = 200 tan 2 ⎜ 45 + ⎟ + 2c tan ⎜ 45 + ⎟ (1)
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
Second specimen

σ 1 − σ 3 = 1370 kN m 2
σ 3 = 400 kN m 2 ∴σ 1 = 1770 kN m 2

⎛ φ⎞ ⎛ φ⎞
1770 = 400 tan ⎜ 45 + ⎟ + 2c tan ⎜ 45 + ⎟
2
(2)
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 From (1) and (2),
(2)

c = 42.5 kN m 2 φ = 36.870

Problem 4. The same soil as in the previous problem if tested in a direct shear
apparatus estimate the shear stress at which sample will fail under a normal
apparatus,
stress of 600 kN/m2.

τ f = c + σ tan φ

τ f = 42.5
42 5 + 600 tan 36 87
36.87 = 492
492.5
5 kN m 2

Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN

 Assignment: Vane shear test

85
Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN
 Summary
Soil water
Occurrence - adsorbed and capillary water types - effective stress - total
stress - pore pressure - pressure diagrams

Permeability
Definition - Darcy
Darcy'ss law - factors affecting permeability - laboratory
determination - stratified soils - average permeability. Seepage –
downward and upward flow -quick sand

Shear Strength
Definition - Mohr-Coulomb strength theory - Measurement of shear
strength – Types of Triaxial compression tests - measurement of pore
pressure - total and effective stress – Unconfined Compression test - vane
shear tests –Direct shear test- strength parameters - choice of test
conditions for field problems.
problems

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Dept. of CE, GCE Kannur Dr.RajeshKN