The origins of Judaism according to the current historical view, lie in the Bronze Age

amidst polytheistic ancient Semitic religions. Specifically evolving out of Ancient

Canaanite polytheism, then co-existing with Babylonian religion, and syncretizing
elements of Babylonian belief into the worship of Yahweh as reflected in the early
prophetic books of the Hebrew Bible.
During the Iron Age I, the Israelite religion became distinct from the Canaanite
polytheism out of which it evolved. This process began with the development of
Yahwism, the monolatristic and henotheistic worship of Yahweh that gave
acknowledgment to the existence of other Canaanite gods. Later, this monolatristic
belief cemented into a strict monotheistic belief and worship of Yahweh alone, with the
rejection of the existence of all other gods, whether Canaanite or foreign.
During the Babylonian captivity of the 6th and 5th centuries BCE (Iron Age II), certain
circles within the exiled Judahites in Babylon refined pre-existing ideas about their
Yahweh-centric monolatrism, election, divine law and Covenant into a strict
monotheistic theology which came to dominate the former Kingdom of Judah in the
following centuries. From the 5th century BCE until 70 CE, Israelite religion developed
into the various theological schools of Second Temple Judaism, besides Hellenistic
Judaism in the diaspora. Second Temple eschatology have similarities with
Zoroastrianism. The text of the Hebrew Bible was redacted into its extant form in this
period and possibly also canonized as well.
Rabbinic Judaism developed during Late Antiquity, during the 3rd to 6th centuries CE.
The Masoretic Text of the Hebrew Bible and the Talmud were compiled in this period.
The oldest manuscripts of the Masoretic tradition come from the 10th and 11th centuries
CE. In the form of the Aleppo Codex of the later portions of the 10th century CE and
the Leningrad Codex dated to 1008–1009 CE. Due largely to censoring and the burning
of manuscripts in medieval Europe the oldest existing manuscripts of various rabbinical
works are quite late. The oldest surviving complete manuscript copy of the Babylonian
Talmud is dated to 1342 CE.
Judaism has three essential and related elements: study of the written Torah (the books
of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy); the recognition of Israel
(defined as the descendants of Abraham through his grandson Jacob) as a people elected
by God as recipients of the law at Mount Sinai, his chosen people; and the requirement
that Israel live in accordance with God's laws as given in the Torah. These have their
origins in the Iron Age Kingdom of Judah and in Second Temple Judaism.
The Iron Age kingdoms of Israel (or Samaria) and Judah first appear in the 9th century
BCE. The two kingdoms shared Yahweh as their national god, for which reason their
religion is commonly called Yahwism.
Other neighboring Canaanite kingdoms of the time each had their own national gods:
Chemosh was the god of Moab, Moloch the god of the Ammonites, Qaus the god of the
Edomites, and so on, and in each kingdom the king was his god's viceroy on Earth. The
various national gods were more or less equal, reflecting the fact that kingdoms
themselves were more or less equal, and within each kingdom a divine couple, made up
of the national god and his consort – Yahweh and the goddess Asherah in Israel and
Judah – headed a pantheon of lesser gods.
By the late 8th century both Judah and Israel had become vassals of Assyria, bound by
treaties of loyalty on one side and protection on the other. Israel rebelled and was
destroyed c. 722 BCE, and refugees from the former kingdom fled to Judah, bringing
with them the tradition that Yahweh, already known in Judah, was not merely the most
important of the gods, but the only god who should be served. This outlook was taken
up by the Judahite landowning elite, who became extremely powerful in court circles in
the next century when they placed the eight-year-old Josiah (reigned 641–609 BC) on
the throne. During Josiah's reign Assyrian power suddenly collapsed, and a pro-
independence movement took power promoting both the independence of Judah from
foreign overlords and loyalty to Yahweh as the sole god of Israel. With Josiah's support
the "Yahweh-alone" movement launched a full-scale reform of worship, including a
covenant (i.e., treaty) between Judah and Yahweh, replacing that between Judah and
Assyria.
By the time this occurred, Yahweh had already been absorbing or superseding the
positive characteristics of the other gods and goddesses of the pantheon. A process of
appropriation that was an essential step in the subsequent emergence of one of Judaism's
most notable features, its uncompromising monotheism. The people of ancient Israel
and Judah, however, were not followers of Judaism: they were practitioners of a
polytheistic culture worshiping multiple gods, concerned with fertility, local shrines,
and legends, and not with a written Torah, elaborate laws governing ritual purity, or an
exclusive covenant and national god.
In 586 BCE Jerusalem was destroyed by the Babylonians, and the Judean elite – royal
family, the priests, the scribes and other members of the elite – were taken to Babylon in
captivity. They represented only a minority of the population, and Judah, after
recovering from the immediate impact of war, continued to have a life not much
different from what had gone before. In 539 BCE Babylon fell to the Persians and the
Babylonian exile ended and a number of the exiles, but by no means all and probably a
minority, returned to Jerusalem. They were the descendants of the original exiles, and
had never lived in Judah. Nevertheless, in the view of the authors of the Biblical
literature, they, and not those who had remained in the land, were "Israel". Judah, now
called Yehud, was a Persian province, and the returnees, with their Persian connections
in Babylon, were in control of it. They represented also the descendants of the old
"Yahweh-alone" movement, but the religion they instituted was significantly different
from both Yahwism and Judaism. These differences include new concepts of
priesthood, a new focus on written law and thus on scripture, and a concern with
preserving purity by prohibiting intermarriage outside the community of this new
"Israel".
The Yahweh-alone party returned to Jerusalem after the Persian conquest of Babylon
and became the ruling elite of Yehud. Much of the Hebrew Bible was assembled,
revised and edited by them in the 5th century BCE, including the Torah (the books of
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy), the historical works, and
much of the prophetic and Wisdom literature. The Bible narrates the discovery of a
legal book in the Temple in the seventh century BCE, which the majority of scholars see
as some form of Deuteronomy and regard as pivotal to the development of the scripture.
The growing collection of scriptures was translated into Greek in the Hellenistic period
by the Jews of the Egyptian diaspora, while the Babylonian Jews produced the court
tales of the Book of Daniel (chapters 1–6 of Daniel – chapters 7–12 were a later
addition), and the books of Tobit and Esther.
Second Temple Judaism was divided into theological factions, notably the Pharisees and
the Sadducees, besides numerous smaller sects such as the Essenes, messianic
movements such as Early Christianity, and closely related traditions such as
Samaritanism (which gives us the Samaritan Pentateuch, an important witness of the
text of the Torah independent of the Masoretic Text).
For centuries, the traditional understanding has been that Judaism came before
Christianity and that Christianity separated from Judaism some time after the
destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. Starting in the latter half of the 20th
century, some scholars have begun to argue that the historical picture is quite a bit more
complicated than that.
In the 1st century, many Jewish sects existed in competition with each other. The sect of
Israelite worship that eventually became Rabbinic Judaism and the sect which
developed into Early Christianity were but two of these separate Israelite religious
traditions. Thus, some scholars have begun to propose a model which envisions a twin
birth of Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism, rather than an evolution and separation of
Christianity from Rabbinic Judaism. It is increasingly accepted among scholars that "at
the end of the 1st century CE there were not yet two separate religions called 'Judaism'
and 'Christianity'". Daniel Boyarin proposes a revised understanding of the interactions
between nascent Christianity and nascent Rabbinical Judaism in Late Antiquity, which
views the two religions as intensely and complexly intertwined throughout this period.
The Amoraim were the Jewish scholars of Late Antiquity who codified and commented
upon the law and the biblical texts. The final phase of redaction of the Talmud into its
final form took place during the 6th century CE, by the scholars known as the Savoraim.
This phase concludes the Chazal era foundational to Rabbinical Judaism.

Bibliography
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Archaeology: A Reader. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-083-5.

Ahlstrom, Gosta W. (1991). "The Role of Archaeological and Literary Remains in

Reconstructing Israel's History". In Edelman, Diana Vikander (ed.). The Fabric of
History: Text, Artifact and Israel's Past. A&C Black. ISBN 9780567491107.

Albertz, Rainer (2003). "Problems and Possibilities: Perspectives on Postexilic

Yahwism". In Albertz, Rainer; Becking, Bob (eds.). Yahwism After the Exile:
Perspectives on Israelite Religion in the Persian Era. Uitgeverij Van Gorcum. ISBN
9789023238805.

Albertz, Rainer (1994). A History of Israelite Religion, Volume I: From the Beginnings
to the End of the Monarchy. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664227197.

Allen, Spencer L. (2015). The Splintered Divine: A Study of Istar, Baal, and Yahweh
Divine Names and Divine Multiplicity in the Ancient Near East. De Gruyter. ISBN
9781501500220.

Anderson, James S. (2015). Monotheism and Yahweh's Appropriation of Baal.

Bloomsbury. ISBN 9780567663962.

Becker, A. H.; Reed, A. Y. (2007). The Ways that Never Parted: Jews and Christians in
Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-1-4514-0343-5.

Becking, Bob (2001). "The Gods in Whom They Trusted". In Becking, Bob (ed.). Only
One God?: Monotheism in Ancient Israel and the Veneration of the Goddess Asherah.
A&C Black. ISBN 9781841271996.

Bennett, Harold V. (2002). Injustice Made Legal: Deuteronomic Law and the Plight of
Widows, Strangers, and Orphans in Ancient Israel. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802825742.
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Persian Period. SBL Press. ISBN 9781589831452.

Betz, Arnold Gottfried (2000). "Monotheism". In Freedman, David Noel; Myer, Allen
C. (eds.). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 9053565035.
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and People. SPCK. ISBN 9780281069002.

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acessado em 30/01/2021 às 11:53h

As origens do judaísmo, de acordo com a visão histórica atual, encontram-se na Idade do
Bronze em meio a antigas religiões semitas politeístas. Evoluindo especificamente do antigo
politeísmo cananeu, coexistindo depois com a religião babilônica, e sincretizando elementos
da crença babilônica na adoração de Yahweh, como refletido nos primeiros livros proféticos da
Bíblia hebraica.

Durante a Idade do Ferro I, a religião israelita tornou-se distinta do politeísmo cananeu a partir
do qual ela evoluiu. Este processo começou com o desenvolvimento do Javismo, a adoração
monolátrica e henoteista de Yahweh que reconhecia a existência de outros Deuses cananeus.
Mais tarde, esta crença monolátrica foi cimentada em uma crença e adoração monoteísta
estrita de Yahweh somente, com a rejeição da existência de todos os outros Deuses, sejam
eles cananeus ou estrangeiros.

Durante o cativeiro babilônico dos séculos VI e V AEC (Idade do Ferro II), certos círculos dentro
dos judaitas exilados na Babilônia refinaram ideias pré-existentes sobre seu monolatrismo
centrado em Yahweh, eleição, lei divina e Pacto em uma estrita teologia monoteísta que veio a
dominar o antigo Reino de Judá nos séculos seguintes.

Do século V AEC até 70 EC, a religião israelita desenvolveu-se nas várias escolas teológicas do
Judaísmo do Segundo Templo, além do Judaísmo helenístico na diáspora. A escatologia do
Segundo Templo tem semelhanças com o zoroastrismo. O texto da Bíblia hebraica foi redigido
em sua forma atual neste período e possivelmente também canonizado.

O judaísmo rabínico se desenvolveu durante a Antiguidade, durante os séculos III a VI EC. O

Texto Massorético da Bíblia hebraica e o Talmude foram compilados neste período. Os
manuscritos mais antigos da tradição Massoreta vêm dos séculos X e XI EC. Na forma do
Codex Aleppo das porções posteriores do século X DEC e do Codex Leningrado datado de
1008-1009 EC. Devido em grande parte à censura e à queima de manuscritos na Europa
medieval, os manuscritos mais antigos existentes de várias obras rabínicas são bastante
tardios. A cópia manuscrita completa mais antiga sobrevivente do Talmude Babilônico é
datada de 1342 EC.

O judaísmo tem três elementos essenciais e relacionados: o estudo da Torá escrita (os livros de
Gênesis, Êxodo, Levítico, Números e Deuteronômio); o reconhecimento de Israel (definido
como os descendentes de Abraão através de seu neto Jacó) como um povo eleito por Deus
como destinatários da lei no Monte Sinai, seu povo escolhido; e a exigência de que Israel viva
de acordo com as leis de Deus como dadas na Torá. Estas têm suas origens no Reino de Judá
da Idade do Ferro e no Judaísmo do Segundo Templo.

Os reinos da Idade do Ferro de Israel (ou Samaria) e Judá aparecem pela primeira vez no
século IX AEC. Os dois reinos compartilharam Yahweh como seu Deus nacional, razão pela
qual sua religião é comumente chamada de Javismo.

Dentre os outros reinos cananeus vizinhos da época, cada um tinha seus próprios Deuses
nacionais: Chemosh era o Deus dos Moab, Moloch o Deus dos amonitas, Qaus o Deus dos
edomitas, e assim por diante, e em cada reino o rei era o vice-rei de seu Deus na Terra. Os
vários Deuses nacionais eram mais ou menos iguais, refletindo o fato de que os próprios reinos
eram mais ou menos iguais, e dentro de cada reino um casal divino, formado pelo Deus
nacional e sua consorte - Javé e a Deusa Asherah em Israel e Judá - encabeçou um panteão de
Deuses menores.
No final do século 8 AEC tanto Judá quanto Israel haviam se tornado vassalos da Assíria,
vinculados por tratados de lealdade de um lado e proteção do outro. Israel se rebelou e foi
destruído em 722 AEC, e refugiados do antigo reino fugiram para Judá, trazendo consigo a
tradição de que Javé, já conhecido em Judá, não era meramente o mais importante dos
Deuses, mas o único Deus que deveria ser servido. Esta perspectiva foi retomada pela elite
latifundiária judaíta, que se tornou extremamente poderosa nos círculos da corte no século
seguinte, quando colocaram Josias, de oito anos de idade (reinou 641-609 AEC) no trono.
Durante o reinado de Josias, o poder assírio caiu subitamente e um movimento pró-
independência tomou o poder promovendo tanto a independência de Judá dos senhores
estrangeiros quanto a lealdade a Javé como o único Deus de Israel. Com o apoio de Josias, o
movimento "Yahweh-somente" lançou uma reforma completa do culto, incluindo um pacto
(ou seja, um tratado) entre Judá e Yahweh, substituindo o pacto entre Judá e Assíria.

Quando isso ocorreu, Javé já estava absorvendo ou substituindo as características positivas dos
outros Deuses e Deusas do panteão. Um processo de apropriação que foi um passo essencial
para o surgimento posterior de uma das características mais notáveis do judaísmo, seu
monoteísmo intransigente. O povo de Israel antigo e Judá, no entanto, não eram seguidores
do judaísmo: eram praticantes de uma cultura politeísta adorando múltiplos Deuses,
preocupados com a fertilidade, santuários locais e lendas, e não com uma Torá escrita, leis
elaboradas que governavam a pureza ritual, ou um pacto exclusivo e Deus nacional.

Em 586 AEC Jerusalém foi destruída pelos babilônios, e a elite judaica - a família real, os
sacerdotes, os escribas e outros membros da elite - foram levados para a Babilônia em
cativeiro. Eles representavam apenas uma minoria da população, e Judá, após recuperar-se do
impacto imediato da guerra, continuou a ter uma vida não muito diferente do que tinha sido
antes. Em 539 AEC a Babilônia caiu sob os persas e o exílio babilônico terminou e alguns
exilados, mas de forma alguma todos e provavelmente uma minoria, retornaram a Jerusalém.
Eles eram os descendentes dos exilados originais, e nunca haviam vivido em Judá. No entanto,
na opinião dos autores da literatura bíblica, eles, e não aqueles que haviam permanecido na
terra, eram "Israel". Judá, agora chamado Yehud, era uma província persa, e os retornados,
com suas conexões persas na Babilônia, estavam no controle da mesma. Eles representavam
também os descendentes do antigo movimento "Yahweh-somente", mas a religião que
instituíram era significativamente diferente tanto do javismo quanto do judaísmo. Estas
diferenças incluem novos conceitos de sacerdócio, um novo foco na lei escrita e, portanto, na
escritura, e uma preocupação com a preservação da pureza, proibindo o casamento fora da
comunidade deste novo "Israel".

O partido Yahweh-somente voltou a Jerusalém após a conquista persa da Babilônia e tornou-

se a elite governante de Yehud. Grande parte da Bíblia hebraica foi reunida, revisada e editada
por eles no século V AEC, incluindo a Torá (os livros de Gênesis, Êxodo, Levítico, Números e
Deuteronômio), as obras históricas, e grande parte da literatura profética e de Sabedoria. A
Bíblia narra a descoberta de um livro legal no Templo no século VII AEC, que a maioria dos
estudiosos vê como alguma forma de Deuteronômio e considera fundamental para o
desenvolvimento da Escritura. A crescente coleção de escrituras foi traduzida para o grego no
período helenístico pelos judeus da diáspora egípcia, enquanto os judeus babilônicos
produziram os contos da corte do Livro de Daniel (capítulos 1-6 de Daniel - os capítulos 7-12
foram uma adição posterior), e os livros de Tobias e Ester.

O Judaísmo do Segundo Templo foi dividido em facções teológicas, notadamente os fariseus e

os saduceus, além de numerosas seitas menores como os essênios, movimentos messiânicos
como o Cristianismo Primitivo, e tradições intimamente relacionadas como o samaritanismo (o
que nos dá o Pentateuco samaritano, uma importante testemunha do texto da Torá
independente do Texto Massorético).

Durante séculos, o entendimento tradicional tem sido que o judaísmo veio antes do
cristianismo e que o cristianismo se separou do judaísmo algum tempo após a destruição do
Segundo Templo em 70 EC. A partir da segunda metade do século 20, alguns estudiosos
começaram a argumentar que o quadro histórico é um pouco mais complicado do que isso.

No século I, muitas seitas judaicas existiam em competição umas com as outras. A seita do
culto israelita que eventualmente se tornou o judaísmo rabínico e a seita que se desenvolveu
no cristianismo primitivo eram apenas duas dessas tradições religiosas israelitas separadas.
Assim, alguns estudiosos começaram a propor um modelo que prevê um nascimento duplo do
cristianismo e do judaísmo rabínico, em vez de uma evolução e separação do cristianismo do
judaísmo rabínico. É cada vez mais aceito entre os estudiosos que "no final do século I EC ainda
não existiam duas religiões separadas chamadas 'judaísmo' e 'cristianismo'". Daniel Boyarin
propõe uma compreensão revisada das interações entre o cristianismo nascente e o judaísmo
rabínico nascente na Antiguidade, que vê as duas religiões como intensamente e
complexamente entrelaçadas ao longo deste período.

Os Amoraim foram os estudiosos judeus da Antiguidade tardia que codificaram e comentaram

a lei e os textos bíblicos. A fase final de redação do Talmud em sua forma final ocorreu durante
o século VI EC, pelos estudiosos conhecidos como os Savoraim. Esta fase conclui a era Chazal
fundacional do judaísmo rabínico.

Bibliografia

Ackerman, Susan (2003). "Goddesses". In Richard, Suzanne (ed.). Near Eastern Archaeology: A
Reader. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-083-5.

Ahlstrom, Gosta W. (1991). "The Role of Archaeological and Literary Remains in Reconstructing
Israel's History". In Edelman, Diana Vikander (ed.). The Fabric of History: Text, Artifact and
Israel's Past. A&C Black. ISBN 9780567491107.

Albertz, Rainer (2003). "Problems and Possibilities: Perspectives on Postexilic Yahwism". In

Albertz, Rainer; Becking, Bob (eds.). Yahwism After the Exile: Perspectives on Israelite Religion
in the Persian Era. Uitgeverij Van Gorcum. ISBN 9789023238805.

Albertz, Rainer (1994). A History of Israelite Religion, Volume I: From the Beginnings to the End
of the Monarchy. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664227197.

Allen, Spencer L. (2015). The Splintered Divine: A Study of Istar, Baal, and Yahweh Divine
Names and Divine Multiplicity in the Ancient Near East. De Gruyter. ISBN 9781501500220.

Anderson, James S. (2015). Monotheism and Yahweh's Appropriation of Baal. Bloomsbury.

ISBN 9780567663962.

Becker, A. H.; Reed, A. Y. (2007). The Ways that Never Parted: Jews and Christians in Late
Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-1-4514-0343-5.

Becking, Bob (2001). "The Gods in Whom They Trusted". In Becking, Bob (ed.). Only One God?:
Monotheism in Ancient Israel and the Veneration of the Goddess Asherah. A&C Black. ISBN
9781841271996.
Bennett, Harold V. (2002). Injustice Made Legal: Deuteronomic Law and the Plight of Widows,
Strangers, and Orphans in Ancient Israel. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802825742.

Berquist, Jon L. (2007). Approaching Yehud: New Approaches to the Study of the Persian
Period. SBL Press. ISBN 9781589831452.

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Chris Nicholson

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