Resource material of Ziauddin board

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
➢ Ask questions that can be investigated empirically.
➢ Develop solutions to problems through reasoning, observation, and investigations.
➢ Design and conduct scientific investigations.
➢ Recognize and explain the limitations of measuring devices.
➢ Gather and synthesize information from books and other sources of information.
➢ Discuss topics in groups by making clear presentations, restating or summarizing what others have said,
asking for clarification or elaboration, taking alternative perspectives, and defending a position.
➢ Justify plans or explanations on a theoretical or empirical basis.
➢ Describe some general limitations of scientific knowledge.
➢ Show how common themes of science, mathematics, and technology apply in real world contexts.
➢ Discuss the historical development of the key scientific concepts and principles.
➢ Explain the social and economical advantages and risks of new technology.
➢ Develop an awareness and sensitivity to the natural world.
➢ Describe the historical, political and social factors affecting developments in science.
➢ Appreciate the ways in which models, theories and laws in physics have been tested and validated
➢ Assess the impacts of applications of physics on society and the environment.
➢ Justify the appropriateness of a particular investigation plan.
➢ Identify ways in which accuracy and reliability could be improved in investigations.
➢ Use terminology and report styles appropriately and successfully to communicate information.
➢ Assess the validity of conclusions from gathered data and information.
➢ Explain events in terms of Newton’s laws and law of conservation of momentum
➢ Explain the effects of energy transfers and energy transformations.
➢ Explain mechanical, electrical and magnetic properties of solids and their significance.
➢ Demonstrate an understanding of the principles related to fluid dynamics and their applications.
➢ Explain that heat flow and work are two forms of energy transfers between systems and their
significance.
➢ Understand wave properties, analyze wave interactions and explain the effects of those interactions.
➢ Demonstrate an understanding of wave model of light as e.m waves and describe how it explains
diffraction patterns, interference and polarization.

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
 Name of chapter
Unit # 1 Measurement
Unit # 2 Vectors and Equilibrium

Unit # 3 Forces and Motion

Unit # 4 Work and Energy

Unit # 5 Rotational and Circular Motion

Unit # 6 Fluid Dynamics

Unit # 7 Oscillations

Unit # 8 Waves

Unit # 9 Physical Optics

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Unit - 01
Measurement

Topic Understandings Skills

The scope of Physics • describe the scope of Physics in science, • measure, using appropriate
• SI base, supplementary and derived technology and society. techniques, the length, mass,
units • state SI base units, derived units, and time, temperature and
• Errors and uncertainties supplementary units for various electrical quantities by
• Use of significant figures Measurements. making use of both analogue
• Precision and accuracy • express derived units as products or scales and digital displays
• Dimensionality quotients of the base units. • Particularly short time
• State the conventions for indicating interval by ticker timer and by
units as set out in the SI units. C.R.O.
• explain why all measurements contain • measure length and diameter
some uncertainty. of a solid cylinder and hence
• distinguish between systematic errors estimate its volume
(including zero errors) and random • Quoting proper number of
errors. significant figures.
• identify that least count or resolution of • measure the diameters of a
a measuring instrument is the smallest few ball bearings of different
Increment measurable by it. sizes and estimate their
• differentiate between precision and • Volumes. Mention the
accuracy. uncertainty in each result.
• assess the uncertainty in a derived
• analyze and evaluate the
quantity by simple addition of actual,
above experiment and suggest
fractional or
improvements.
Percentage uncertainties.
• determine the radius of
• quote answers with correct scientific
curvature of a convex lens
notation, number of significant figures
and concave lens using a
and units
in all numerical and practical work. • Speedometer.

Unit overview
.
1)The Scope of Physics
Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Introduction to Physics:
Physics is the study of energy, matter, and their interactions. It’s a very broad
field because it is concerned with matter and energy at all levels—from the most fundamental particles of matter to the
entire universe. Some people would even argue that physics is the study of everything! Important concepts in physics
include motion, forces such as magnetism and gravity, and forms of energy such as light, sound, and electrical energy.

2)SI base, supplementary and derived units

SI derived units are units of measurement
derived from the seven base units specified by the International System of Units (SI). They are either
dimensionless or can be expressed as a product of one or more of the base units, possibly scaled by an
appropriate power of exponentiation.

The SI has special names for 22 of these derived units (for example, hertz, the SI unit of measurement of
frequency), but the rest merely reflect their derivation: for example, the square metre (m2), the SI derived
unit of area; and the kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m3 or kg⋅m−3), the SI derived unit of density.

The names of SI derived units, when written in full, are always in lowercase. However, the symbols for units
named after persons are written with an uppercase initial letter. For example, the symbol for hertz is "Hz",
but the symbol for metre is "m".

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
03.Use of significant figures:

04 Errors , uncertainties ,Precision and accuracy

Introduction
All measurements of physical quantities are subject to uncertainties in the measurements.
Variability in the results of repeated measurements arises because variables that can affect the measurement
result are impossible to hold constant. Even if the "circumstances," could be precisely controlled, the result
would still have an error associated with it. This is because the scale was manufactured with a certain level
of quality, it is often difficult to read the scale perfectly, fractional estimations between scale marking may
be made and etc. Of course, steps can be taken to limit the amount of uncertainty but it is always there.

In order to interpret data correctly and draw valid conclusions the uncertainty must be indicated and dealt
with properly. For the result of a measurement to have clear meaning, the value cannot consist of the
measured value alone. An indication of how precise and accurate the result is must also be included. Thus,
the result of any physical measurement has two essential components: (1) A numerical value (in a specified
system of units) giving the best estimate possible of the quantity measured, and (2) the degree of uncertainty
associated with this estimated value. Uncertainty is a parameter characterizing the range of values within

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
which the value of the measurand can be said to lie within a specified level of confidence. For example, a
measurement of the width of a table might yield a result such as 95.3 +/- 0.1 cm. This result is basically
communicating that the person making the measurement believe the value to be closest to 95.3cm but it
could have been 95.2 or 95.4cm. The uncertainty is a quantitative indication of the quality of the result. It
gives an answer to the question, "how well does the result represent the value of the quantity being
measured?"

The full formal process of determining the uncertainty of a measurement is an extensive process involving
identifying all of the major process and environmental variables and evaluating their effect on the
measurement. This process is beyond the scope of this material but is detailed in the ISO Guide to the
Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement (GUM) and the corresponding American National Standard
ANSI/NCSL Z540-2. However, there are measures for estimating uncertainty, such as standard deviation,
that are based entirely on the analysis of experimental data when all of the major sources of variability were
sampled in the collection of the data set.

The first step in communicating the results of a measurement or group of measurements is to understand the
terminology related to measurement quality. It can be confusing, which is partly due to some of the
terminology having subtle differences and partly due to the terminology being used wrongly and
inconsistently. For example, the term "accuracy" is often used when "trueness" should be used. Using the
proper terminology is key to ensuring that results are properly communicated.

True Value
Since the true value cannot be absolutely determined, in practice an accepted reference value is used. The
accepted reference value is usually established by repeatedly measuring some NIST or ISO traceable
reference standard. This value is not the reference value that is found published in a reference book. Such
reference values are not "right" answers; they are measurements that have errors associated with them as
well and may not be totally representative of the specific sample being measured

Accuracy and Error

Accuracy is the closeness of agreement between a measured value and the true value. Error is the difference
between a measurement and the true value of the measurand (the quantity being measured). Error does not
include mistakes. Values that result from reading the wrong value or making some other mistake should be
explained and excluded from the data set. Error is what causes values to differ when a measurement is
repeated and none of the results can be preferred over the others. Although it is not possible to completely
eliminate error in a measurement, it can be controlled and characterized. Often, more effort goes into
determining the error or uncertainty in a measurement than into performing the measurement itself.

The total error is usually a combination of systematic error and random error. Many times results are quoted
with two errors. The first error quoted is usually the random error, and the second is the systematic error. If
only one error is quoted it is the combined error.
Systemic errors
Systematic error tends to shift all measurements in a systematic way so that in the course of a number of
measurements the mean value is constantly displaced or varies in a predictable way. The causes may be
known or unknown but should always be corrected for when present. For instance, no instrument can ever
be calibrated perfectly so when a group of measurements systematically differ from the value of a standard
reference specimen, an adjustment in the values should be made. Systematic error can be corrected for only
when the "true value" (such as the value assigned to a calibration or reference specimen) is known.
Random errors

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Random error is a component of the total error which, in the course of a number of measurements, varies in
an unpredictable way. It is not possible to correct for random error. Random errors can occur for a variety
of reasons such as:

Lack of equipment sensitivity. An instrument may not be able to respond to or indicate a change in some
quantity that is too small or the observer may not be able to discern the change.
Noise in the measurement. Noise is extraneous disturbances that are unpredictable or random and cannot be
completely accounted for.
Imprecise definition. It is difficult to exactly define the dimensions of a object. For example, it is difficult
to determine the ends of a crack with measuring its length. Two people may likely pick two different
starting and ending points.
Trueness and Bias
Trueness is the closeness of agreement between the average value obtained from a large series of test results
and an accepted true. The terminology is very similar to that used in accuracy but trueness applies to the
average value of a large number of measurements. Bias is the difference between the average value of the
large series of measurements and the accepted true. Bias is equivalent to the total systematic error in the
measurement and a correction to negate the systematic error can be made by adjusting for the bias.

Precision, Repeatability and Reproducibility

Precision is the closeness of agreement between independent measurements of a quantity under the same
conditions. It is a measure of how well a measurement can be made without reference to a theoretical or true
value. The number of divisions on the scale of the measuring device generally affects the consistency of
repeated measurements and, therefore, the precision. Since precision is not based on a true value there is no
bias or systematic error in the value, but instead it depends only on the distribution of random errors. The
precision of a measurement is usually indicated by the uncertainty or fractional relative uncertainty of a
value.
Repeatability
Repeatability is simply the precision determined under conditions where the same methods and equipment
are used by the same operator to make measurements on identical specimens. Reproducibility is simply the
precision determined under conditions where the same methods but different equipment are used by
different operator to make measurements on identical specimens.

Uncertainty
Uncertainty is the component of a reported value that characterizes the range of values within which the true
value is asserted to lie. An uncertainty estimate should address error from all possible effects (both
systematic and random) and, therefore, usually is the most appropriate means of expressing the accuracy of
results. This is consistent with ISO guidelines. However, in many measurement situations the systematic
error is not address and only random error is included in the uncertainty measurement. When only random
error is included in the uncertainty estimate, it is a reflection of the precision of the measurement.
4.Dimensionality
Dimensionality in statistics refers to how many attributes a dataset has. For
example, healthcare data is notorious for having vast amounts of variables (e.g. blood pressure, weight,
cholesterol level). In an ideal world, this data could be represented in a spreadsheet, with one column
representing each dimension.

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Reference pages
https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-physical-science-flexbook-
2.0/section/1.9/primary/lesson/scope-of-physics-ms-ps

https://www.google.com/search?q=SI+base,+supplementary+and+derived+units&rlz=1C1CAFB_enPK904
PK905&hl=en&sxsrf=ALeKk03Ow1tmwjQqJlgmB_1IevD7QBAcRw:1591678784937&source=lnms&tbm
=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjIhsrE-
fPpAhVjxKYKHashB0wQ_AUoAXoECBAQAw&biw=1366&bih=576#imgrc=WzDv_Ty2NFG9KM

https://www.nde-
ed.org/GeneralResources/ErrorAnalysis/UncertaintyTerms.htm#:~:text=Error%20is%20the%20difference%20betwee
n%20the%20true%20value,measurand%20and%20the%20measured%20value.&text=Accuracy%20is%20an%20expr
ession%20of,with%20some%20level%20of%20confidence.

https://www.google.com/search?q=Dimension&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwj6gKSpjvTpAhXM44UKHZgnDTkQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=Dimension&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQA1Dh1RRYrN8UYInnFGgAcAB4AIABpgqIAaYKkgEDNy0x
mAEAoAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWc&sclient=img&ei=DC3fXvrKMszHlwSYz7TIAw&bih=625&biw=1366&rlz=1
C1CAFB_enPK904PK905#imgrc=fv2-OKbWxNSjxM

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Assessment

Learning Objectives

• describe the scope of Physics in science, technology and society.

• state SI base units, derived units, and supplementary units for various
measurements.
• express derived units as products or quotients of the base units.
• state the conventions for indicating units as set out in the SI units.
• explain why all measurements contain some uncertainty.
• distinguish between systematic errors (including zero errors) and random errors.
• identify that least count or resolution of a measuring instrument is the smallest
increment measurable by it.
• differentiate between precision and accuracy.
• assess the uncertainty in a derived quantity by simple addition of actual, fractional or
percentage uncertainties.
• quote answers with correct scientific notation, number of significant figures and units
in all numerical and practical work.

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Unit-02
Vectors and Equilibrium

Topics Understandings Skills

• Cartesian coordinate system • Students will be able to: • Students will be able to:
• Addition of vectors by head to • Describe the Cartesian coordinate • Determine the weight of a
• tail rule system. body by vector addition of
• Addition of vectors by • Determine the sum of vectors using forces using perpendicular
• perpendicular components head to tail rule. components.
• Scalar product of two vectors • Represent a vector into two • Verify the two conditions
• Vectors product of two vectors perpendicular components. of
• Torque • Determine the sum of vectors using • equilibrium using a
• Equilibrium of forces perpendicular components. suspended metre rod.
• Equilibrium of torques • Describe scalar product of two vectors
in term of angle between them.
• Describe vector product of two vectors
in term of angle between them.
• State the method to determine the
direction of vector product of two
vectors.
• Define the torque as vector product r x
F.
• List applications of torque or moment
due to a force.
• State first condition of equilibrium.
• Sate second condition of equilibrium.
• Solve two dimensional problems
involving forces (statics) using 1st and 2nd
Conditions of equilibrium.

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Unit overview
Cartesian coordinates
Cartesian coordinates allow one to specify the location of a point in the plane, or in three-dimensional space.
The Cartesian coordinates (also called rectangular coordinates) of a point are a pair of numbers (in two-
dimensions) or a triplet of numbers (in three-dimensions) that specified signed distances from the coordinate
axis.
Cartesian coordinates of the plane
The Cartesian coordinates in the plane are specified in terms of the x-coordinates axis and the y-coordinate
axis, as illustrated in the below figure. The origin is the intersection of the x and y-axes. The Cartesian
coordinates of a point in the plane are written as (x,y). The first number x is called the x-coordinate (or x-
component), as it is the signed distance from the origin in the direction along the x-axis. The x-coordinate
specifies the distance to the right (if x is positive) or to the left (if x is negative) of the y-axis. Similarly, the
second number y is called the y-coordinate (or y-component), as it is the signed distance from the origin in
the direction along the y-axis, The y-coordinate specifies the distance above (if y is positive) or below (if y is
negative) the x-axis. The following figure, the point has coordinates (−3,2), as the point is three units to the
left and two units up from the origin.

Addition of vectors by Head to Tail method

To add vector v to vector u Move vector v (keeping its length and orientation the same) until its tail touches
the head of u. The sum is the vector from the tail of u to the head of v

Addition of vectors by Head to Tail method (Graphical Method)

Head to Tail method or graphical method is one of the easiest method used to find the resultant vector of
two of more than two vectors.
DETAILS OF
METHOD
Consider two vectors and acting in the directions as shown below:
Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
In order to get their resultant vector by head to tail method we must follow the following steps:
STEP # 1
Choose a suitable scale for the vectors so that they can be plotted on the paper.
STEP # 2
Draw representative line of vector
Draw representative line of vector such that the tail of coincides with the head of vector .

STEP # 3
Join 'O' and 'B'.
represents resultant vector of given vectors and i.e.

STEP # 4
Measure the length of line segment and multiply it with the scale choosen initially to get the
magnitude of resultant vector.
Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
 STEP # 5
The direction of the resultant vector is directed from the tail of vector to the head of vector
Addition of vectors by perpendicular components.
To see how to add vectors using perpendicular components, consider Figure, in which the vectors A
and B are added to produce the resultant R

Vectors A and B are two legs of a walk, and R is the resultant or total displacement. You can use analytical
methods to determine the magnitude and direction of R
If A and B represent two legs of a walk (two displacements), then R is the total displacement. The person
taking the walk ends up at the tip of R. There are many ways to arrive at the same point. In particular, the
person could have walked first in the x-direction and then in the y-direction. Those paths are the x- and y-
components of the resultant, Rx and Ry. If we know Rx and Ry, we can find R and θ using the equations A=√
(A2x+A2y) and θ=tan–1(Ay/Ax)
When you use the analytical method of vector addition, you can determine the components or the magnitude
and direction of a vector.
Step 1. Identify the x- and y-axes that will be used in the problem. Then, find the components of each
vector to be added along the chosen perpendicular axes. Use the equations Ax=Acosθ
and Ay=Asinθ to find the components. In Figure, these components are Ax,Ay,Bx, and By. The angles that
vectors A and B make with the x-axis are θA and θB, respectively.

To add vectors A and B, first determine the horizontal and vertical components of each vector. These are the
dotted vectors Ax,Ay,Bx and B−y
shown in the image.
Step 2. Find the components of the resultant along each axis by adding the components of the individual
vectors along that axis. That is, as shown in Figure,
Rx=Ax+Bx

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
and
Ry=Ay+By.

The magnitude of the vectors Ax and Bx add to give the magnitude Rx of the resultant vector in the
horizontal direction. Similarly, the magnitudes of the vectors Ay and By add to give the magnitude Ry of the
resultant vector in the vertical direction.
Components along the same axis, say the x-axis, are vectors along the same line and, thus, can be added to
one another like ordinary numbers. The same is true for components along the y-axis. (For example, a 9-
block eastward walk could be taken in two legs, the first 3 blocks east and the second 6 blocks east, for a
total of 9, because they are along the same direction.) So resolving vectors into components along common
axes makes it easier to add them. Now that the components of R are known, its magnitude and direction can
be found.
Step 3. To get the magnitude R
of the resultant, use the Pythagorean theorem:
R=R2x+R2y−−−−−−−n
Step 4. To get the direction of the resultant:
θ=tan−1(Ry/Rx)
Scalar product of two vectors
One of the ways in which two vectors can be combined is known as the scalar product. When we calculate
the scalar product of two vectors the result, as the name suggests is a scalar, rather than a vector .In this unit
you will learn how to calculate the scalar product and meet some geometrical applications
. Definition of the scalar product Study the two vectors a and b drawn in Figure 1. Note that we have drawn
the two vectors so that their tails are at the same point. The angle between the two vectors has been labeled
θ. Two vectors ,a and b, drawn so that the angle between them is θ. We define the scalar product of a and b
as follows
The scalar product of a and b is defined to be a·b=|a||b|cosθ where |a| is the modulus, or magnitude of a, |b| is
the modulus of b, and θ is the angle between a and b
Vectors product of two vectors
The cross product a × b is defined as a vector c that is perpendicular (orthogonal) to both a and b, with a
direction given by the right-hand rule and a magnitude equal to the area of the parallelogram that the vectors
span
The vector product and the scalar product are the two ways of multiplying vectors which see the most
application in physics and astronomy. The magnitude of the vector product of two vectors can be
constructed by taking the product of the magnitudes of the vectors times the sine of the angle (<180 degrees)
between them. The magnitude of the vector product can be expressed in the form:

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
and the direction is given by the right-hand rule. If the vectors are expressed in terms of unit vectors i, j, and
k in the x, y, and z directions, then the vector product can be expressed in the rather cumbersome form:

which may be stated somewhat more compactly in the form of a determinant.

Torque
Torque, moment, moment of force, rotational force or "turning effect" is the rotational equivalent of linear
force. The concept originated with the studies by Archimedes of the usage of levers. Just as a linear force is
a push or a pull, a torque can be thought of as a twist to an object around a specific axis. Another definition
of torque is the product of the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance of the line of action of
force from the axis of rotation. The symbol for torque is typically t, the lowercase Greek letter tau. When
being referred to as moment of force, it is commonly denoted by M.
In three dimensions, the torque is a pseudovector; for point particles, it is given by the cross product of the
position vector (distance vector) and the force vector. The magnitude of torque of a rigid body depends on
three quantities: the force applied, the lever arm vector[ connecting the point about which the torque is being
measured to the point of force application, and the angle between the force and lever arm vectors. In
symbols:
t=Fxr
t=|F|x|r| sinϴ
where,
t is the torque vector and t is the magnitude of the torque,
r is the position vector (a vector from the point about which the torque is being measured to the point where
the force is applied)

F is the force vector,

× denotes the cross product, which produces a vector that is perpendicular to both r and F following the
right-hand rule,
ϴ is the angle between the force vector and the lever arm vector.
The SI unit for torque is N⋅m.

Equilibrium of forces
A force is a vector quantity which means that it has both a magnitude (size) and a direction associated with
it. If the size and direction of the forces acting on an object are exactly balanced, then there is no net force
acting on the object and the object is said to be in equilibrium.

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Equilibrium of torques
A very basic concept when dealing with torques is the idea of equilibrium or balance. ... If the size and
direction of the torques acting on an object are exactly balanced, then there is no net torque acting on the
object and the object is said to be in equilibrium.

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Videos

Reference pages
http://www.citycollegiate.com/vectorXe.htm
https://mathinsight.org/cartesian_coordinates
https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/College_Physics/Book%3A_College_Physics_(OpenStax)/03%3A_
Two-Dimensional_Kinematics/3.04%3A__Vector_Addition_and_Subtraction-_Analytical_Methods
http://www.mathcentre.ac.uk/resources/uploaded/mc-ty-scalarprod-2009-1.pdf
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/vvec.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torque
https://www.google.com/search?client=firefox-b-d&q=Equilibrium+of+torques
https://www.google.com/search?q=equilibrium+in+physics&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwj-
h9OzrvTpAhVUs6QKHeupC_UQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=equilibrium+in+physics&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzICCAAyAggAMgYIABAFEB4yBgg
AEAUQHjIGCAAQBRAeMgYIABAFEB4yBggAEAUQHjIGCAAQBRAeMgYIABAFEB4yBggAEAgQ
HjoECAAQQ1CpyQpY0-
UKYOLnCmgAcAB4AIABkwOIAawWkgEIMi0xMC4wLjGYAQCgAQGqAQtnd3Mtd2l6LWltZw&sclie
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d#imgrc=X6P8VtqwVVEtFM

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Learning Outcomes
The students will:
• Describe the Cartesian coordinate system.
• Determine the sum of vectors using head to tail rule.
• Represent a vector into two perpendicular components.
• Determine the sum of vectors using perpendicular components.
• Describe scalar product of two vectors in term of angle between them.
• Describe vector product of two vectors in term of angle between them.
• State the method to determine the direction of vector product of two vectors.
• Define the torque as vector product r x F.
• List applications of torque or moment due to a force.
• State first condition of equilibrium.
• State second condition of equilibrium.
Solve two dimensional problems involving forces (statics) using 1st and 2nd conditions of equilibrium.

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Unit-3

Topics Understandings Skills

• Displacement • The students will: The students will:
• Average velocity and • Describe vector nature of • Analyze and interpret patterns of
• instantaneous velocity • displacement. motion of objects using
• Average acceleration and • Describe average and (i) Displacement-time graph
• instantaneous acceleration instantaneous velocities of (ii) Velocity-time graph
• Review of equations of objects. (iii) Acceleration-time graph
• uniformly accelerated motion • Compare average and • Measure the free fall time of a
• Newton’s laws of motion instantaneous speeds with ball using a ticker-timer and
• Momentum and Impulse average and instantaneous hence calculate the value of “g”.
• Law of conservation of Velocities. • Evaluate your result and identify
• momentum • Interpret displacement-time the sources of error and suggest
• Elastic collisions in one and velocity-time graphs of improvements.
• Dimension objects moving along the • Investigate the value of “g” by
• Momentum and explosive same straight line. free fall method
forces • Determine the instantaneous • Investigate momentum
• Projectile motion velocity conservation by colliding
• Rocket motion of an object moving along trolleys and ticker-timer for
the same straight line by elastic and inelastic collisions
measuring the slope of • Investigate the downward force,
displacement-time graph. along an inclined plane, acting
• Define average acceleration on a roller due to gravity and
(rate of change of velocity study its relationship with the
aav = Δv / Δt) angle of inclination by plotting
graph between force and sin θ
Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
 and instantaneous
acceleration (as the limiting
value of average
acceleration
• Distinguish between positive
and negative acceleration,
uniform and
variable acceleration.
• Determine the instantaneous
acceleration of an object
measuring the slope of
velocity-time graph.
• Manipulate equation of
uniformly accelerated
motion to solve problems.
• Explain that projectile
motion is two dimensional
motion in a vertical plane.
• Communicate the ideas of a
projectile in the absence of
air resistance that.
Horizontal component (VH)
of velocity is constant.
• Acceleration is in the
vertical direction and is the
same as that of a vertically
free falling object.
• The horizontal motion and
vertical motion are
independent of each other.
• Evaluate using equations of
uniformly accelerated
motion that for a given
initial velocity of frictionless
projectile.
1. How higher does it go?
2. How far would it go along the
level land?
3. Where would it be after a given
time?
4. How long will it remain in air?
• Determine for a projectile
launched from ground height.
1. launch angle that results in the
maximum range.
2. Relation between the launch
angles
that result in the same range.
• Describe how air resistance
affects

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
 both the horizontal component
and
vertical component of velocity
and
hence the range of the
projectile.
• Apply Newton’s laws to
explain the motion of objects in
a variety of context.
• Define mass ( as the property
of a body which resists change
in motion).
• Describe and use of the
concept of weight as the effect
of a gravitational field on a
mass.
• Describe the Newton’s
second law of motion as rate of
change of momentum.
• Co-relate Newton’s third law
of motion and conservation of
momentum.
• Show awareness that
Newton’s Laws are not exact
but provide a good
approximation, unless an object
is moving close to the speed of
light or is small enough that
quantum effects
become significant.
• Define Impulse (as a product
of impulsive force and time).
• Describe the effect of an
impulsive force on the
momentum of an object, and the
effect of lengthening the time,
stopping, or rebounding from
the collision.
• Describe that while
momentum of a system is
always conserved in
interaction between bodies some
change in K.E. usually takes
place.
• Solve different problems of
elastic and inelastic collisions
between two bodies in one
dimension by using law
of conservation of momentum.
• Describe that momentum is
conserved in all situations.
Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
 • Identify that for a perfectly
elastic collision, the relative
speed of approach is equal
to the relative speed of
separation.
• Differentiate between
explosion and collision (objects
move apart instead
of coming nearer).

Science, Technology and Society Connections

The students will:
• Outline the forces involved in causing a change in the velocity of a vehicle
when
• Coasting with no pressure on the acceleration.
• Pressing on the accelerator.
• Pressing on the brakes.
• Passing over an icy patch on the road.
• Climbing and descending hills.
• Investigate and explain the effect of the launch height of a projectiles (e.g. a shot put launched from a
shoulder height) on a maximum range and the affect of launch angle for a given height.
• Describe to what extent the air resistance affects various projectiles in sports
• Evaluate the effectiveness of some safety features of motor vehicles in connection with the changing
momentum such as safety helmet, seat belt, head rest of the car seat.
• Describe the conservation of momentum for (i) car crashes (ii) ball & bat.
• Assess the reasons for the introduction of low speed zones in built-up areas and the addition of air bags and
crumple zones to vehicles with respect to the concepts of impulse and momentum.
• Explain in terms of law of conservation of momentum, the motion under thrust of a
rocket in a straight line considering short thrusts during which the mass remains
constant
• Describe the nature of the rocket thrusts necessary to cause a space vehicle to
change direction along a circular arc in a region of space where gravity is negligible.

Unit overview
Displacement

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
A displacement is a vector whose length is the shortest distance from the initial to the final position of a
point P undergoing motion. It quantifies both the distance and direction of the net or total motion along a
straight line from the initial position to the final position of the point trajectory.

Videos:

Average velocity and instantaneous velocity

The instantaneous velocity is the specific rate of change of position (or displacement) with respect to time
at a single point (x,t) , while average velocity is the average rate of change of position (or displacement)
with respect to time over an interval.

Video:

Average acceleration and instantaneous acceleration

Average acceleration is the change of velocity over a period of time. Instantaneous acceleration is the
change of velocity over an instance of time. Constant or uniform acceleration is when the velocity changes
the same amount in every equal time period

Video:

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Review of equations of uniformly accelerated motion

First Equation of motion. The first equation of motion is v = u +at v = u + a t , where v is the final
velocity and u is ...
Second Equation of motion. Second equation of motion gives distance traveled by a moving body
in time t. ...
Third equation of motion. This equation gives the velocity acquired by the body in traveling a
distance s

Uniform acceleration
The differential equation of motion for a particle of constant or uniform acceleration in a straight line is
simple: the acceleration is constant, so the second derivative of the position of the object is constant. The
results of this case are summarized below.

Constant translational acceleration in a straight line

These equations apply to a particle moving linearly, in three dimensions in a straight line with constant
acceleration Since the position, velocity, and acceleration are collinear (parallel, and lie on the same line) –
only the magnitudes of these vectors are necessary, and because the motion is along a straight line, the
problem effectively reduces from three dimensions to one.

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Newton’s laws of motion
Newton's first law

Main article: Inertia

The first law states that if the net force (the vector sum of all forces acting on an object) is zero, then the velocity of
the object is constant. Velocity is a vector quantity which expresses both the object's speed and the direction of its
motion; therefore, the statement that the object's velocity is constant is a statement that both its speed and the
direction of its motion are constant.

The first law can be stated mathematically when the mass is a non-zero constant, as,
Consequently,

• An object that is at rest will stay at rest unless a force acts upon it.
• An object that is in motion will not change its velocity unless a force acts upon it.

This is known as uniform motion. An object continues to do whatever it happens to be doing unless a force
is exerted upon it. If it is at rest, it continues in a state of rest (demonstrated when a tablecloth is skilfully
whipped from under dishes on a tabletop and the dishes remain in their initial state of rest). If an object is
moving, it continues to move without turning or changing its speed. This is evident in space probes that
continuously move in outer space. Changes in motion must be imposed against the tendency of an object to
retain its state of motion. In the absence of net forces, a moving object tends to move along a straight line
path indefinitely.

Newton placed the first law of motion to establish frames of reference for which the other laws are
applicable. However, Newton implicitly referred to the absolute co-ordinate of cosmos for this frame. Since
we cannot precisely measure our velocity relative to a far star, Newton's frame is based on a pure
imagination, not based on measurable physics. In current physics, an observer defines himself as in inertial
frame by preparing one stone hooked by a spring, and rotating the spring to any direction, and observing the
stone static and the length of that spring unchanged. By Einstein's equivalence principle, if there was one
such observer A and another observer B moving in a constant velocity related to A, then A and B will both
observe the same physics phenomena. if A verified the first law, then B will verify it too. In this way, the
definition of inertial can get rid of absolute space or far star, and only refer to the objects locally reachable
and measurable.

A particle not subject to forces moves (related to inertial frame) in a straight line at a constant speed.[11][17]
Newton's first law is often referred to as the law of inertia. Thus, a condition necessary for the uniform

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
motion of a particle relative to an inertial reference frame is that the total net force acting on it is zero. In this
sense, the first law can be restated as:

In every material universe, the motion of a particle in a preferential reference frame Φ is determined by the
action of forces whose total vanished for all times when and only when the velocity of the particle is
constant in Φ. That is, a particle initially at rest or in uniform motion in the preferential frame Φ continues in
that state unless compelled by forces to change it.[18]

Newton's first and second laws are valid only in an inertial reference frame. Any reference frame that is in
uniform motion with respect to an inertial frame is also an inertial frame, i.e. Galilean invariance or the
principle of Newtonian relativity.

Newton's second law

The second law states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the force applied, and
this change in momentum takes place in the direction of the applied force.
The second law can also be stated in terms of an object's acceleration. Since Newton's second law is valid only for
constant-mass systems, m can be taken outside the differentiation operator by the constant factor rule in

differentiation. Thus
where F is the net force applied, m is the mass of the body, and a is the body's acceleration. Thus, the net force applied
to a body produces a proportional acceleration. In other words, if a body is accelerating, then there is a force on it. An
application of this notation is the derivation of G Subscript C.
The above statements hint that the second law is merely a definition of , not a precious observation of nature.
However, current physics restate the second law in measurable steps:
(1) defining the term 'one unit of mass' by a specified stone,
(2) defining the term 'one unit of force' by a specified spring with specified length,
(3) measuring by experiment or proving by theory (with a principle that every direction of space are equivalent), that
force can be added as a mathematical vector,
(4) finally conclude that . These steps hint the second law is a precious feature of nature.
The second law also implies the conservation of momentum: when the net force on the body is zero, the momentum
of the body is constant. Any net force is equal to the rate of change of the momentum.
Any mass that is gained or lost by the system will cause a change in momentum that is not the result of an external
force. A different equation is necessary for variable-mass systems (see below).
Newton's second law is an approximation that is increasingly worse at high speeds because of relativistic effects.
According to modern ideas of how Newton was using his terminology,[23] the law is understood, in modern terms, as
an equivalent of:
The change of momentum of a body is proportional to the impulse impressed on the body, and happens along the
straight line on which that impulse is impressed.

This may be expressed by the formula , where is the time derivative of the momentum . This equation
can be seen clearly in the Wren Library of Trinity College, Cambridge, in a glass case in which Newton's manuscript
is open to the relevant page.
Motte's 1729 translation of Newton's Latin continued with Newton's commentary on the second law of motion,
reading:
If a force generates a motion, a double force will generate double the motion, a triple force triple the motion, whether
that force be impressed altogether and at once, or gradually and successively. And this motion (being always directed
the same way with the generating force), if the body moved before, is added to or subtracted from the former motion,
according as they directly conspire with or are directly contrary to each other; or obliquely joined, when they are
oblique, so as to produce a new motion compounded from the determination of both.

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
The sense or senses in which Newton used his terminology, and how he understood the second law and intended it to
be understood, have been extensively discussed by historians of science, along with the relations between Newton's
formulation and modern formulations.[24]
Impulse

An impulse J occurs when a force F acts over an interval of time Δt, and it is given by[25][26]
Since force is the time derivative of momentum,

This relation between impulse and momentum is closer to Newton's wording of the second law.[27]
Impulse is a concept frequently used in the analysis of collisions and impacts.[28]
Variable-mass systems
Variable-mass systems, like a rocket burning fuel and ejecting spent gases, are not closed and cannot be directly
treated by making mass a function of time in the second law;[21] that is, the following formula is wrong:[22]

The falsehood of this formula can be seen by noting that it does not respect Galilean invariance: a variable-mass object
with F = 0 in one frame will be seen to have F ≠ 0 in another frame.[20] The correct equation of motion for a body
whose mass m varies with time by either ejecting or accreting mass is obtained by applying the second law to the
entire, constant-mass system consisting of the body and its ejected/accreted mass; the result is

where u is the velocity of the escaping or incoming mass relative to the body. From this equation one can derive the
equation of motion for a varying mass system, for example, the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation. Under some
conventions, the quantity u dm/dt on the left-hand side, which represents the advection of momentum, is defined as a
force (the force exerted on the body by the changing mass, such as rocket exhaust) and is included in the quantity F.
Then, by substituting the definition of acceleration, the equation becomes F = ma.

Newton's third law

An illustration of Newton's third law in which two skaters push against each other. The first
skater on the left exerts a normal force N12 on the second skater directed towards the right, and the second skater
exerts a normal force N21 on the first skater directed towards the left.
The magnitudes of both forces are equal, but they have opposite directions, as dictated by Newton's third law.

The third law states that all forces between two objects exist in equal magnitude and
opposite direction: if one object A exerts a force FA on a second object B, then B simultaneously exerts a
force FB on A, and the two forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction: FA = −FB.[29] The third
law means that all forces are interactions between different bodies,[30][31] or different regions within one
body, and thus that there is no such thing as a force that is not accompanied by an equal and opposite force.
In some situations, the magnitude and direction of the forces are determined entirely by one of the two
bodies, say Body A; the force exerted by Body A on Body B is called the "action", and the force exerted by
Body B on Body A is called the "reaction". This law is sometimes referred to as the action-reaction law,
with FA called the "action" and FB the "reaction". In other situations the magnitude and directions of the

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
forces are determined jointly by both bodies and it isn't necessary to identify one force as the "action" and
the other as the "reaction". The action and the reaction are simultaneous, and it does not matter which is
called the action and which is called reaction; both forces are part of a single interaction, and neither force
exists without the other.[29]

The two forces in Newton's third law are of the same type (e.g., if the road exerts a forward frictional force
on an accelerating car's tires, then it is also a frictional force that Newton's third law predicts for the tires
pushing backward on the road).

From a conceptual standpoint, Newton's third law is seen when a person walks: they push against the floor,
and the floor pushes against the person. Similarly, the tires of a car push against the road while the road
pushes back on the tires—the tires and road simultaneously push against each other. In swimming, a person
interacts with the water, pushing the water backward, while the water simultaneously pushes the person
forward—both the person and the water push against each other. The reaction forces account for the motion
in these examples. These forces depend on friction; a person or car on ice, for example, may be unable to
exert the action force to produce the needed reaction force.[32]

Newton used the third law to derive the law of conservation of momentum;[33] from a deeper perspective,
however, conservation of momentum is the more fundamental idea (derived via Noether's theorem from
Galilean invariance), and holds in cases where Newton's third law appears to fail, for instance when force
fields as well as particles carry momentum, and in quantum mechanics.

Video

Momentum and Impulse

Momentum

The momentum of a body is equal to its mass multiplied by its velocity.

Momentum is measured in N s. Note that momentum is a vector quantity, in other words the direction is important.

Impulse

The impulse of a force (also measured in N s) is equal to the change in momentum of a body which a force
causes. This is also equal to the magnitude of the force multiplied by the length of time the force is applied.

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
 • Impulse = change in momentum = force × time

Video

Law of conservation of momentum states that

For two or more bodies in an isolated system acting upon each other, their total momentum remains constant
unless an external force is applied. Therefore, momentum can neither be created nor destroyed.

Derivation of Conservation of Momentum

Consider two colliding particles A and B whose masses are m1 and m2 with initial and final velocities as
u1 and v1 of A and u2 and v2 of B. The time of contact between two particles is given as t.

A=m1(v1−u1) (change in momentum of particle A)

B=m2(v2−u2) (change in momentum of particle B)
FBA=−FAB (from third law of motion)
FBA=m2∗a2=m2(v2−u2)t FAB=m1∗a1=m1(v1−u1)t m2(v2−u2)t=−m1(v1−u1)t m1u1+m2u2=m1v1+m2v2

Therefore, above is the equation of law of conservation of momentum where, m1u1+m2u2 is the
representation of total momentum of particles A and B before collision and m1v1+m2v2 is the
representation of total momentum of particles A and B after collision

Elastic collisions in one dimension

An elastic collision is one that conserves internal kinetic energy. Conservation of kinetic energy and
momentum together allow the final velocities to be calculated in terms of initial velocities and masses in one
dimensional two-body collisions.

Video
Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Momentum and explosive forces
Whether it is a collision or an explosion, if it occurs in an isolated system, then each object involved encounters the
same impulse to cause the same momentum change. The impulse and momentum change on each object are equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction. Thus, the total system momentum is conserved

What are explosive forces?

Definition of explosive force. A force represented with separate values for the heat liberated by the
explosive decomposition and the detonating rate.

Video

Projectile motion
Projectile motion is a form of motion where an object moves in a bilaterally symmetrical, parabolic path.
The path that the object follows is called its trajectory. Projectile motion only occurs when there is one force
applied at the beginning on the trajectory, after which the only interference is from gravity. In a previous
atom we discussed what the various components of an object in projectile motion are. In this atom we will
discuss the basic equations that go along with them in the special case in which the projectile initial
positions are null (i.e. x0=0 and y0=0 )

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Initial Velocity
The initial velocity can be expressed as x components and y components:
ux=u⋅cosθ
uy=u⋅sinθ
In this equation, u stands for initial velocity magnitude and θ refers to projectile angle.

Time of Flight
The time of flight of a projectile motion is the time from when the object is projected to the time it reaches
the surface. As we discussed previously, T
depends on the initial velocity magnitude and the angle of the projectile:
T=2⋅uy/g
T=2⋅u⋅sinθ/g

Acceleration
In projectile motion, there is no acceleration in the horizontal direction. The acceleration, a in the vertical direction is
just due to gravity, also known as free fall

ax=0
ay=−g

Velocity
The horizontal velocity remains constant, but the vertical velocity varies linearly, because the acceleration is
constant. At any time, t and the velocity is:
ux=u⋅cosθ
uy=u⋅sinθ−g⋅t

You can also use the Pythagorean Theorem to find velocity: u=√( u2x+u2y)

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Displacement
At time, t, the displacement components are:
x=u⋅t⋅cosθ
y=u⋅t⋅sinθ−1/2gt2
The equation for the magnitude of the displacement is Δr=√( x2+y2)

Maximum Height
The maximum height is reached when vy=0
Using this we can rearrange the velocity equation to find the time it will take for the object to reach maximum height
th=u⋅sinθ/g
where th stands for the time it takes to reach maximum height. From the displacement equation we can find the
maximum height
h=u2⋅sin2θ/2⋅g

Range
The range of the motion is fixed by the condition y=0
Using this we can rearrange the parabolic motion equation to find the range of the motion:
R=u2⋅sin2θ/g.

Videos

Rocket motion
Rocket motion is based on Newton's third law, which states that “for every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction”. Hot gases are exhausted through a nozzle of the rocket and produce the action force. The reaction force
acting in the opposite direction is called the thrust force.

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Video

Reference pages
http://www.cis.famu.edu/~cdellor/cstem/lab2.pdf
https://www.google.com/search?bih=626&biw=1366&hl=en&ei=_WXgXvDBApPKmwWJmJ3gAQ&q=avera
ge+acceleration+and+instantaneous+acceleration&oq=Average+acceleration+and+instantaneous+accelera
tion&gs_lcp=CgZwc3ktYWIQARgAMgIIADIECAAQHjIECAAQHjIGCAAQBRAeMgYIABAFEB4yBggAEAUQHjIGCA
AQBRAeMgYIABAFEB4yBggAEAUQHjIGCAAQBRAeOgcIABBHELADOgYIABAWEB46BAgAEA06CAgAEA0QBRA
eOgYIABANEB5QpixYznFg75EBaAJwAHgEgAHSA4gBnBiSAQUzLTUuM5gBAKABAaABAqoBB2d3cy13aXqwAQ
C4AQI&sclient=psy-ab
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/linear-momentum/momentum-tutorial/a/what-are-
momentum-and-impulse
https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/Book%3A_Physics_(Boundless)/3%3A_Two-
Dimensional_Kinematics/3.3%3A_Projectile_Motion
https://www.google.com/search?source=hp&ei=BZzgXq2wOIiAjLsP64yo0Ac&q=Rocket+motion&oq=Rocke
t+motion&gs_lcp=CgZwc3ktYWIQAzICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCABQzSt
YzStg9TJoAHAAeACAAfECiAHxApIBAzMtMZgBAKABAqABAaoBB2d3cy13aXo&sclient=psy-
ab&ved=0ahUKEwjtxuWl7PbpAhUIAGMBHWsGCnoQ4dUDCAY&uact=5

Learning Objectives
The students will
• Describe vector nature of displacement.
• Describe average and instantaneous velocities of objects.
Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
• Compare average and instantaneous speeds with average and instantaneous velocities.
• Interpret displacement-time and velocity-time graphs of objects moving along the same straight line
• Determine the instantaneous velocity of an object moving along the same straight line by measuring the slope
of displacement-time graph.
• Define average acceleration (as rate of change of velocity aav = Δv / Δt) and instantaneous acceleration (as the
limiting value of average acceleration when time interval Δt approaches zero).
• Distinguish between positive and negative acceleration, uniform and variable acceleration.
• Determine the instantaneous acceleration of an object measuring the slope of velocity-time graph.
• Manipulate equation of uniformly accelerated motion to solve problems.
• Explain that projectile motion is two-dimensional motion in a vertical plan.
• Communicate the ideas of a projectile in the absence of air resistance that.
(i) Horizontal component (VH) of velocity is constant.
(ii) Acceleration is in the vertical direction and is the same as that of a vertically free falling object.
(iii) The horizontal motion and vertical motion are independent of each other.
• Evaluate using equations of uniformly accelerated motion that for a given initial velocity of frictionless projectile.
1. How higher does it go?
2. How far would it go along the level land?
3. Where would it be after a given time?
4. How long will it remain in air?
• Determine for a projectile launched from ground height.
1. launch angle that results in the maximum range.
2. relation between the launch angles that result in the same range.
• Describe how air resistance affects both the horizontal component and vertical component of velocity and
hence the range of the projectile.
• Apply Newton’s laws to explain the motion of objects in a variety of context.
• Define mass ( as the property of a body which resists change in motion).
• Describe and use of the concept of weight as the effect of a gravitational field on a mass.
• Describe the Newton’s second law of motion as rate of change of momentum.
• Co-relate Newton’s third law of motion and conservation of momentum.
• Show awareness that Newton’s Laws are not exact but provide a good approximation, unless an object is
moving close to the speed of light or is small enough that quantum effects become significant.
• Define Impulse (as a product of impulsive force and time).
• Describe the effect of an impulsive force on the momentum of an object, and the effect of lengthening the time,
stopping, or rebounding from the collision.
• Describe that while momentum of a system is always conserved in interaction between bodies some change in K.E.
usually takes place.
Solve different problems of elastic and inelastic collisions between two bodies in one dimension by using law
of conservation of momentum.
• Describe that momentum is conserved in all situations.
• Identify that for a perfectly elastic collision, the relative speed of approach is equal to the relative speed of
separation.

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Unit-04
Work and Energy

Topic Understandings Skills

• Work done by a constant The students will: The students will:
force • Describe the concept of • Investigate, at construction sites by
• Work as scalar product of work in terms of the comparing a laborer and an
force and displacement product of force F and electric motor for carrying the
• Work against gravity displacement d in bricks to the top of the building.
• Work done by variable force •The direction of force Identify the economy involved.
• Gravitational Potential at a (Work as • Investigate that if a ping pong ball
point scalar product of F and d). is dropped from rest onto a hard
• Escape velocity • Distinguish between plane surface, it usually returns to
• Power as scalar product of positive, 75% of its original height after
force and velocity negative and zero work bouncing. What percentage of the
• Work energy principle in with energy of the ping pong ball is lost
resistive medium suitable examples. on each bounce? What happens to
• Sources and uses of energy • Describe that work can be that energy?
Conventional sources of calculated from the area • Design an investigation to
energy under the force- determine how the efficiency of an
displacement graph. electric motor varies
• Explain gravitational field with load.
as an example of field of
force and define
gravitational field
• Strength as force per unit
mass at a given point.
• Prove that gravitational
field is a conservative field.
• Compute and show that
the work done by gravity as
Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
 a mass ‘m’ is moved from
one given point to another
does not depend on the path
followed.
• Describe that the
gravitational PE is
measured from a reference
level and can be positive or
negative, to •Denote the
orientation from the
reference level
• Explain the concept of
escape
velocity in term of
gravitational
constant G, mass m and
radius of planet r.
• Differentiate conservative
and non-conservative forces
giving examples
of each.
• Express power as scalar
product of force and
velocity.
• Explain that work done
against
friction is dissipated as
heat in the environment.
• State the implications of
energy losses in practical
devices and the concept of
efficiency.
• Utilize work – energy
theorem in a resistive
medium to solve problems.
• Discuss and make a list of
limitations of some
conventional
sources of energy.
• Describe the potentials of
some
nonconventional sources
of energy.
Science, Technology and Society Connections
The students will:
• Identify, by estimating the cost, benefits of application of scientific principles related, to work and energy
in lifting objects by a crane.
• Explain why a car going up a hill requires lower top speed than a car going on theflat.
• Identify energy conversions.
(i) moving car engine

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
(ii) thermal power station
(iii) Hydroelectric power station
• Investigate and explain how global climate is determined by energy transfer from the
Sun and is influenced by a dynamic process (e.g. cloud formation and the earth’s
rotation) and static conditions (e.g. the position of mountain ranges and oceans)
• Explain how trash can be utilized for producing energy (bio-gas).

Chapter overview
Work done by a constant force
The work done by a constant force can be defined as the product of the displacement of the object (to which
the force is applied) and the component of the constant force which is parallel to the direction of
displacement. It is important to note that the work done by a constant force is always directly proportional to
the product of the magnitude of the applied force and the displacement of the object to which the force was
applied.

Videos

Work as scalar product of force and displacement

A quantity which has only magnitude but no direction is known as a scalar quantity.
Work is done only when a force produces motion. And it is the product of the force exerted on the the body
and the distance moved by the body in the direction of force.
i.e. W =F.s
Work is actually the scalar product of force and displacement and hence is a scalar quantity.

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
 W =F.s
i.e. W = Fs cos θ
where F is the force, s the displacement and θ the angle between force and displacement. According to the
angle θ, work can be positive, negative, or zero.
Work is the outcome of the force and displacement caused by the body.
Force and displacement are vector quantities (they have both magnitude and direction) and the dot product
of two vector quantites always gives a scalar quantity. So work has only magnitude but not direction.

Video

Work against gravity

So far we have only considered objects falling under gravity. Let's now consider the work done when we lift
an object. In order to lift an object that has mass m, we have to apply an upward force mg to overcome the
downward force of gravity. If this force raises the object through a height h, then the work done is:

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Placing a suitcase on a luggage rack involves doing work against gravity. (b) The stored energy is released if
the suitcase falls off the rack.
So if an object of mass m is raised through a height h, the work done on the object is equal to mgh, and so
this amount of energy is transferred to the object. (Notice that this equation is identical to the one describing
an object falling under gravity,
Of course, this ties in very well with everyday observations. If you lift a heavy suitcase onto a luggage rack
in a train, or a heavy bag of shopping onto a table, you are very aware that you are doing work against
gravity. You will also be aware that more work is required to lift a more massive object, or the same object
to a greater height, and these 'observations' are consistent with the work done being equal to mgh.

Videos

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Work done by variable force
The area enclosed by the rectangle of length equal to the magnitude of force F(x) and width equal to the
displacement Δx, gives the work done by the force during that duration. ... Thus, for a variable force, the
work done can be expressed as a definite integral of force over displacement for any system.
So far we have defined work done by a Force which is constant in both magnitude and direction.
However, work can be done by forces that varies in magnitude and direction during the displacement of the
body on which it acts.
For simplicity consider the direction of force acting on the body to be along x-axis also consider the force
F(x) is some known function of position x
Now total displacement or path of the body can be decomposed into number of small intervals Δx such that
with in each interval force F(x) can be considered to be approximately constant as shown below in the figure

Work done in moving the body from x1 to x2 is given by

ΔW=F(x1)Δx1 where Δx1=x2-x1
Total work done in moving the body from point A to point B
W=F(x1)Δx1 +F(x2)Δx2 +F(x3)Δx3 .....+F(xn)Δxn
W=Σ F(xi)Δxi where i=1 to i=n (4)
Where Σ is the symbol of summation
Summation in equation 4 is equal to shaded area in figure 3(a) .More accuracy of results can be obtained by
making these interval infinitesimally smaller
We get the exact value of work done by making each interval so much small such that #916;x-> 0 which
means curved path being decomposed into infinite number of line segment i.e
W= LimΔx-> 0Σ F(xi)Δxi (5)
W=∫xbxafdx Where ∫xbxafdx
The integral of F(x) w.r.t x between the limits xA and xB and integral can be evaluated using methods of
calculus if F(x) of x is known
Instead of x if the force also acts along y and z axis i.e direction of force keeps on changing then work done
by such a force is given by

W=∫ F(r)dr with in the limits rA and rB (6)

Where F(r)=F(x)i +F(y)j+ F(z)k
and dr=dxi +dyj+ dzk
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Here F(x),F(y) and F(z) are rectangular components of the force along x ,y and z axis .Similarly dx,dy and
dz are rectangular components of displacement along
x ,y and z axis
Work done by the variable force along x-axis can also be calculated using the graphical way also. The area
enclosed by the Force displacement gives the work done by the variable force
Videos

Gravitational Potential at a point

The gravitational potential at a point in a gravitational field is the work done per unit mass that would have
to be done by some externally applied force to bring a massive object to that point from some defined
position of zero potential, usually infinity. It is the gravitational potential difference between the chosen
point and the position of zero potential.
Gravitational potential is often represented by the symbol V.
If the field is due to an isolated massive point object (or any object of finite size), then it is conventional to
define the potential to be zero at an infinite distance from the object; the potential is negative everywhere
else because the gravitational force is always attractive.
Gravitational potential is also defined as the gravitational potential energy per unit mass relative to a defined
position of zero potential energy. The two definitions are equivalent.
Discussion
There is a strong similarity between gravitational potential and electrostatic potential. In both cases, the
underlying forces depend on the separation, r, of interacting objects as 1r 2 and, in both cases, the change in
the potential is defined via the work done in changing the separation between the interacting objects. The
difference lies in the nature of the force: charges may be positive or negative, so the electrostatic interaction
may be attractive or repulsive. The force of gravity is always attractive.
SI unit
J kg-1
Expressed in SI base units
m2 s-2
Other commonly used unit(s)
none
Mathematical expressions
Raising an object through a height Δ h at the surface of the Earth leads to a change of gravitational potential
Δ V = gΔ h
where g is the gravitational field at the surface of the Earth and Δ h is much less than the radius of the Earth.
More generally,
Δ V = GMR - GMR+Δ h = GMR Δ hR+Δ h
where M and R are, respectively, the mass and radius of the Earth, and G is the universal gravitational
constant.
Related entries
Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Gravitational field
Potential energy
In context
The difference in gravitational potential between sea level and the summit of Mount Everest is about
8.7 × 104 J kg–1. If a mountaineer of mass 100 kg travels from sea level to the Everest summit, the
gravitational potential energy of the Earth-mountaineer system increases by about 8.7 × 106 J.
Video

Escape velocity
Escape velocity is the speed that an object needs to be traveling to break free of a planet or moon's gravity
well and leave it without further propulsion. For example, a spacecraft leaving the surface of Earth needs to
be going 7 miles per second, or nearly 25,000 miles per hour to leave without falling back to the surface or
falling into orbit.

A Delta II rocket blasting off. A large amount of energy is needed to achieve escape velocity. Photo from Jet
Propulsion Laboratory's Planetary Missions & Instruments image gallery
Since escape velocity depends on the mass of the planet or moon that a spacecraft is blasting off of, a
spacecraft leaving the moon's surface could go slower than one blasting off of the Earth, because the moon

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
has less gravity than the Earth. On the other hand, the escape velocity for Jupiter would be many times that
of Earth's because Jupiter is so huge and has so much gravity.
Escape
Velocity in Escape Velocity
Body Mass
Kilometers/ in Miles/Hour
Second
Ceres (largest
1,170,000,000,000,000,000 .64
asteroid in the 1430.78 mph
kg km/sec
asteroid belt)
73,600,000,000,000,000,000
The Moon 2.38 km/sec 5320.73 mph
kg
5,980,000,000,000,000,000,000
Earth 11.2 km/sec 25038.72 mph
kg
Jupiter 715,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 kg 59.5 km/sec 133018.2 mph
Sun 1,990,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 kg 618. km/sec 1381600.8 mph
Sirius B (a
white dwarf 2,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 kg 5,200. km/sec 11625120 mph
star)
One reason that manned missions to other planets are difficult to plan is that a ship would have to take
enough fuel into space to blast off of the other planet when the astronauts wanted to go home. The weight of
the fuel would make the spaceship so heavy it would be hard to blast it off of Earth!

Videos

Power as scalar product of force and velocity

Power may be defined as the rate of doing work or the rate of using energy. These two definitions are
equivalent since one unit of energy must be used to do one unit of work. Often it is convenient to calculate

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
the average power.

In the straightforward cases where a constant force moves an object at constant velocity, the power is just P
= Fv. In a more general case where the velocity is not in the same direction as the force, then the scalar
product of force and velocity must be used.
The standard unit for power is the watt (abbreviated W) which is a joule per second
Video

Work energy principle

The work-energy principle states that
“An increase in the kinetic energy of a rigid body is caused by an equal amount
of positive work done on the body by the resultant force acting on that body. Conversely, a decrease in
kinetic energy is caused by an equal amount of negative work done by the resultant force.”
Video

Sources and uses of energy

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
1. Solar Energy
Solar power harvests the energy of the sun through using collector panels to create conditions that can then
be turned into a kind of power. Large solar panel fields are often used in desert to gather enough power to
charge small substations, and many homes use solar systems to provide for hot water, cooling and
supplement their electricity. The issue with solar is that while there is plentiful amounts of sun available,
only certain geographical ranges of the world get enough of the direct power of the sun for long enough to
generate usable power from this source.
2. Wind Energy
Wind power is becoming more and more common. The new innovations that are allowing wind farms to
appear are making them a more common sight. By using large turbines to take available wind as the power
to turn, the turbine can then turn a generator to produce electricity. While this seemed like an ideal solution
to many, the reality of the wind farms is starting to reveal an unforeseen ecological impact that may not
make it an ideal choice.
3. Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is the energy that is produced from beneath the earth. It is clean, sustainable and
environment friendly. High temperatures are produced continuously inside the earth’s crust by the slow
delay of radioactive particles. Hot rocks present below the earth heats up the water that produces steam. The
steam is then captured that helps to move turbines. The rotating turbines then power the generators.
Geothermal energy can be used by a residential unit or on a large scale by a industrial application. It was
used during ancient times for bathing and space heating. The biggest disadvantage with geothermal energy is
that it can only be produced at selected sites throughout the world. The largest group of geothermal power
plants in the world is located at The Geysers, a geothermal field in California, United States.
4. Hydrogen Energy
Hydrogen is available with water(H2O) and is most common element available on earth. Water contains
two-thirds of hydrogen and can be found in combination with other elements. Once it is separated, it can be
used as a fuel for generating electricity. Hydrogen is a tremendous source of energy and can be used as a
source of fuel to power ships, vehicles, homes, industries and rockets. It is completely renewable, can be
produced on demand and does not leave any toxic emissions in the atmosphere.
5. Tidal Energy
Tidal energy uses rise and fall of tides to convert kinetic energy of incoming and outgoing tides into
electrical energy. The generation of energy through tidal power is mostly prevalent in coastal areas. Huge
investment and limited availability of sites are few of the drawbacks of tidal energy. When there is increased
height of water levels in the ocean, tides are produced which rush back and forth in the ocean. Tidal energy
is one of the renewable source of energy and produce large energy even when the tides are at low speed.
6. Wave Energy
Wave energy is produced from the waves that are produced in the oceans. Wave energy is renewable,
environment friendly and causes no harm to atmosphere. It can be harnessed along coastal regions of many
countries and can help a country to reduce its dependance on foreign countries for fuel. Producing wave
Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
energy can damage marine ecosystem and can also be a source of disturbance to private and commercial
vessels. It is highly dependent on wavelength and can also be a source of visual and noise pollution.
7. Hydroelectric Energy
What many people are not aware of is that most of the cities and towns in the world rely on hydropower, and
have for the past century. Every time you see a major dam, it is providing hydropower to an electrical station
somewhere. The power of the water is used to turn generators to produce the electricity that is then used.
The problems faced with hydropower right now have to do with the aging of the dams. Many of them need
major restoration work to remain functional and safe, and that costs enormous sums of money. The drain on
the world’s drinkable water supply is also causing issues as townships may wind up needing to consume the
water that provides them power too.
8. Biomass Energy
Biomass energy is produced from organic material and is commonly used throughout the world. Chlorophyll
present in plants captures the sun’s energy by converting carbon dioxide from the air and water from the
ground into carbohydrates through the process of photosynthesis. When the plants are burned, the water and
carbon dioxide is again released back into the atmosphere. Biomass generally include crops, plants, trees,
yard clippings, wood chips and animal wastes. Biomass energy is used for heating and cooking in homes
and as a fuel in industrial production. This type of energy produces large amount of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere.
9. Nuclear Power
While nuclear power remains a great subject of debate as to how safe it is to use, and whether or not it is
really energy efficient when you take into account the waste it produces – the fact is it remains one of the
major renewable sources of energy available to the world. The energy is created through a specific nuclear
reaction, which is then collected and used to power generators. While almost every country has nuclear
generators, there are moratoriums on their use or construction as scientists try to resolve safety and disposal
issues for waste.
10. Fossil Fuels (Coal, Oil and Natural Gas)
When most people talk about the different sources of energy they list natural gas, coal and oil as the options
– these are all considered to be just one source of energy from fossil fuels. Fossil fuels provide the power for
most of the world, primarily using coal and oil. Oil is converted into many products, the most used of which
is gasoline. Natural gas is starting to become more common, but is used mostly for heating applications
although there are more and more natural gas-powered vehicles appearing on the streets. The issue with
fossil fuels is twofold. To get to the fossil fuel and convert it to use there has to be a heavy destruction and
pollution of the environment. The fossil fuel reserves are also limited, expecting to last only another 100
years given are basic rate of consumption.
It isn’t easy to determine which of these different sources of energy is best to use. All of them have their
good and bad points. While advocates of each power type tout theirs as the best, the truth is that they are all
flawed. What needs to happen is a concerted effort to change how we consume energy and to create a
balance between which of these sources we draw from.
Video

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Conventional sources of Energy
When we cannot reuse a source of energy after using it once we call them “conventional sources of energy”
or “non-renewable energy resources”. They are the most important conventional sources of energy. These
include coal, petroleum, natural gas and nuclear energy. Oil is the most widely used source of energy.

‘Always surround yourself with positive energy’. You must have heard this phrase quite a lot; what is this
energy we’re talking about? Do things have energy in them? And are these things conventional sources of
energy? But, before that what are conventional sources of energy? How do we obtain this energy? Since all
living beings use energy for various vital activities inside as well as outside their body. So, let us study about
various conventional sources of energy

Video

Reference Page
https://www.topperlearning.com/answer/why-is-work-a-scalar-quantity-although-force-and-displacement-
are-vector-quantities-answers-apart-from-work-has-magnitude-but-no-direction-i-want-to-k/k1pq9v55
https://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/motion-under-gravity/content-section-3
https://physicscatalyst.com/mech/workdone-by-variable-force.php
https://spark.iop.org/gravitational-potential#gref
http://www.qrg.northwestern.edu/projects/vss/docs/space-environment/2-whats-escape-velocity.html
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/pow.html
https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/different-energy-sources.php
https://www.toppr.com/guides/physics/sources-of-energy/conventional-sources-of-energy/

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Unit 05

Rotational and Circular Motion

Topics Understandings Skills

• Kinematics of angular motion The students will: The students will:
• Centripetal force and • Define angular displacement, • Demonstrate the conservation of
centripetal acceleration angular velocity and angular angular momentum by spinning
• Orbital velocity acceleration and express stool and dumbles (weights).
• Artificial satellites angular displacement in radians. • Demonstrate the action of a
• Artificial gravity • Solve problems by using S= r θ and centrifuge
• Moment of inertia v=rω . e.g. washing machine dryer.
• Angular momentum • State and use of equations of • Determine the moment of inertia
angular motion to solve problems of a fly wheel.
involving rotational motions.
• Describe qualitatively motion in a
curved path due to a perpendicular
force.
• Derive and use centripetal
acceleration a = rω², a = v² /r.
• Solve problems using centripetal
force F = mrω², F = mv² /r.
• Describe situations in which the
centripetal acceleration is caused by
a tension force, a frictional force, a
gravitational force, or a norma force.
Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
 • Explain when a vehicle travels
round a banked curve at the
specified speed for the banking
angle, the horizontal component of
the normal force on the vehicle
causes the centripetal acceleration.
• Describe the equation tanθ = v2/rg,
relating banking angle θ to the speed
v of the vehicle and the radius of
curvature r.
• Explain that satellites can be put
into orbits round the earth because of
the gravitational force between the
earth and the satellite.
• Explain that the objects in orbiting
satellites appear to be weightless.
• Describe how artificial gravity is
created to counter balance
weightless.
• Define the term orbital velocity and
derive relationship between orbital
velocity, the gravitational constant,
mass and the radius of the orbit.
• Analyze that satellites can be used
to send information between places
on the earth which are far apart, to
monitor conditions on earth ,
including the weather, and to
observe the universe without the
atmosphere getting in the way.
• Describe that communication
satellites are usually put into orbit
high above the equator and that they
orbit the earth once a day so that
they appear stationary when viewed
from earth.
• Define moment of inertia of a body
and angular momentum.
• Derive a relation between torque,
moment of inertia and angular
acceleration.
• Explain conservation of angular
momentum as a universal law and
describe examples of conservation of
angular momentum.
• Use the formulae of moment of
inertia of various bodies for
solvingproblems.
Science, Technology and Society Connections
The students will:

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
• Assess the suitability of the recommended speed limit for the given data on the banking angle and radius of
curvature of some roads.
• Describe the experience of roller coaster rides in the amusement parks.
• Describe the principles and benefits of weather forecasting and communication satellites.
• Evaluate the accuracy of the information presented in a newspaper article on satellite.
• write a report on an information search on the topic of ‘space station’
Chapter overview
Kinematics of angular motion
Angular kinematics is the study of rotational motion in the absence of forces. The equations of angular
kinematics are extremely similar to the usual equations of kinematics, with quantities like displacements
replaced by angular displacements and velocities replaced by angular velocities. Just as kinematics is
routinely used to describe the trajectory of almost any physical system moving linearly, the equations of
angular kinematics are relevant to most rotating physical systems.
Basic Equations of Angular Kinematics
In purely rotational (circular) motion, the equations of angular kinematics are:
v=rω, ac=−rω2 ,a=rα
The tangential velocity v describes the velocity of an object tangent to its path in rotational motion at
angular frequency ω and radius r. This is the velocity an object would follow if it suddenly broke free of
rotational motion and traveled along a straight line. The rate of change of this velocity is the tangential
acceleration a. The centripetal acceleration ac is a second acceleration experienced by rotating objects,
because changing the direction of a velocity vector requires an acceleration. Since the direction of the
velocity vector changes constantly in rotational motion, rotating objects must be continuously accelerated
towards the axis of rotation by some force providing a centripetal acceleration.
From the above equations, the usual kinematic equations hold in angular form. If an object under goes
constant angular acceleration α\alphaα, the total angular displacement is:
θ− θ0=W0t+1/2αt2
where θ0 is the initial angle and W0 is the initial angular velocity. Similarly, the angular velocity changes
according to:
ω2= W02+2α(θ− θ0)
in terms of the angular displacement, or
ω= W0+αt
in terms of time.
Though the above derivation gives the magnitudes of angular quantities correctly, it does not capture the fact
that angular quantities are also vector quantities. The direction in which the angular velocity points can be
found from the right-hand rule: curving the fingers of your right hand along the direction of rotation, your
thumb points in the direction of the angular velocity vector, along the axis of rotation. This is true by
definition; although it seems strange since the vector is perpendicular to the rotation, this definition turns out
to be the only way to formulate a consistent vector theory of rotational forces.
Centripetal force and centripetal acceleration
What is a centripetal force?
A centripetal force is a net force that acts on an object to keep it moving along a circular path.
Centripetal acceleration, we learned that any object traveling along a circular path of radius r with velocity v
experiences an acceleration directed toward the center of its path,
ac= v2/r
However, we should discuss how the object came to be moving along the circular path in the first place.
Newton’s 1ˢᵗ law tells us that an object will continue moving along a straight path unless acted on by an
external force. The external force here is the centripetal force.
It is important to understand that the centripetal force is not a fundamental force, but just a label given to the
net force which causes an object to move in a circular path. The tension force in the string of a swinging
Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
tethered ball and the gravitational force keeping a satellite in orbit are both examples of centripetal forces.
Multiple individual forces can even be involved as long as they add up (by vector addition) to give a net
force towards the center of the circular path.
Starting with Newton's 2ⁿᵈ law :
a=F/m
and then equating this to the centripetal acceleration,
v2/r= F/m
We can show that the centripetal force Fc
Fc=mv2/r
and is always directed towards the center of the circular path. Equivalently, if w is the angular velocity then
because v=rω
Fc=mrw2

Videos

Orbital velocity
In gravitationally bound systems, the orbital speed of an astronomical body or object (e.g. planet,
moon, artificial satellite, spacecraft, or star) is the speed at which it orbits around either the barycenter or, if
one object is much more massive than the other bodies in the system, its speed relative to the center of mass
of the most massive body.
The term can be used to refer to either the mean orbital speed, i.e. the average speed over an entire orbit, or
its instantaneous speed at a particular point in its orbit. Maximum (instantaneous) orbital speed occurs at
periapsis (perigee, perihelion, etc.), while minimum speed for objects in closed orbits occurs at apoapsis
(apogee, aphelion, etc.). In ideal two-body systems, objects in open orbits continue to slow down forever as
their distance to the barycenter increases.
When a system approximates a two-body system, instantaneous orbital speed at a given point of the orbit
can be computed from its distance to the central body and the object's specific orbital energy, sometimes
called "total energy". Specific orbital energy is constant and independent of position.
Radial trajectories
In the following, it is assumed that the system is a two-body system and the orbiting object has a negligible
mass compared to the larger (central) object. In real-world orbital mechanics, it is the system's barycenter,
not the larger object, which is at the focus.
Specific orbital energy, or total energy, is equal to K.E. − P.E. (kinetic energy − potential energy). The sign
of the result may be positive, zero, or negative and the sign tells us something about the type of orbit.
If the specific orbital energy is positive the orbit is unbound, or open, and will follow a hyperbola with the
larger body the focus of the hyperbola. Objects in open orbits do not return; once past periapsis their
distance from the focus increases without bound. See radial hyperbolic trajectory
If the total energy is zero, (K.E = P.E.): the orbit is a parabola with focus at the other body. See radial
parabolic trajectory. Parabolic orbits are also open.
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If the total energy is negative, K.E. − P.E. < 0: The orbit is bound, or closed. The motion will be on an
ellipse with one focus at the other body. See radial elliptic trajectory, free-fall time. Planets have bound
orbits around the Sun.
Transverse orbital speed
The transverse orbital speed is inversely proportional to the distance to the central body because of the law
of conservation of angular momentum, or equivalently, Kepler's second law. This states that as a body
moves around its orbit during a fixed amount of time, the line from the barycenter to the body sweeps a
constant area of the orbital plane, regardless of which part of its orbit the body traces during that period of
time.
This law implies that the body moves slower near its apoapsis than near its periapsis, because at the smaller
distance along the arc it needs to move faster to cover the same area.
Mean orbital speed
For orbits with small eccentricity, the length of the orbit is close to that of a circular one, and the mean
orbital speed can be approximated either from observations of the orbital period and the semimajor axis of
its orbit, or from knowledge of the masses of the two bodies and the semimajor axis.
𝑢
V=2πa/T=√𝑎
where v is the orbital velocity, a is the length of the semimajor axis in meters, T is the orbital period, and
μ=GM is the standard gravitational parameter. This is an approximation that only holds true when the
orbiting body is of considerably lesser mass than the central one, and eccentricity is close to zero.
When one of the bodies is not of considerably lesser mass see: Gravitational two-body problem
So, when one of the masses is almost negligible compared to the other mass, as the case for Earth and Sun,
one can approximate the orbit velocity as:
𝐺𝑀
V=√ 𝑟
or assuming r equal to the body's radius
V0=Ve /√2
Where M is the (greater) mass around which this negligible mass or body is orbiting, and ve is the escape
velocity.
For an object in an eccentric orbit orbiting a much larger body, the length of the orbit decreases with orbital
eccentricity e, and is an ellipse. This can be used to obtain a more accurate estimate of the average orbital
speed:

The mean orbital speed decreases with eccentricity.

Instantaneous orbital speed
For the instantaneous orbital speed of a body at any given point in its trajectory, both the mean distance and
the instantaneous distance are taken into account

where μ is the standard gravitational parameter of the orbited body, r is the distance at which the speed is to
be calculated, and a is the length of the semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit. This expression is called the
vis-viva equation.
For the Earth at perihelion, the value is:

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
which is slightly faster than Earth's average orbital speed of 29,800 m/s, as expected from Kepler's 2nd Law

Video

Artificial satellites
A satellite is an object in space that orbits or circles around a bigger object. There are two kinds of satellites:
natural (such as the moon orbiting the Earth) or artificial (such as the International Space Station orbiting the
Earth).
There are dozens upon dozens of natural satellites in the solar system, with almost every planet having at
least one moon. Saturn, for example, has at least 53 natural satellites, and between 2004 and 2017, it also
had an artificial one — the Cassini spacecraft, which explored the ringed planet and its moons.
Artificial satellites, however, did not become a reality until the mid-20th century. The first artificial satellite
was Sputnik, a Russian beach-ball-size space probe that lifted off on Oct. 4, 1957. That act shocked much of
the western world, as it was believed the Soviets did not have the capability to send satellites into space
Video

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Artificial gravity (sometimes referred to as pseudo gravity) is the creation of an inertial force that mimics the
effects of a gravitational force, usually by rotation. Artificial gravity, or rotational gravity, is thus the
appearance of a centrifugal force in a rotating frame of reference (the transmission of centripetal
acceleration via normal force in the non-rotating frame of reference), as opposed to the force experienced in
linear acceleration, which by the equivalence principle is indistinguishable from gravity. In a more general
sense, "artificial gravity" may also refer to the effect of linear acceleration, e.g. by means of a rocket engine.
Rotational simulated gravity has been used in simulations to help astronauts train for extreme conditions.
Rotational simulated gravity has been proposed as a solution in human spaceflight to the adverse health
effects caused by prolonged weightlessness. However, there are no current practical outer space applications
of artificial gravity for humans due to concerns about the size and cost of a spacecraft necessary to produce a
useful centripetal force comparable to the gravitational field strength on Earth

Videos

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Moment of Inertia

Moment of inertia is the name given to rotational inertia, the rotational analog of mass for linear motion. It
appears in the relationships for the dynamics of rotational motion. The moment of inertia must be specified
with respect to a chosen axis of rotation. For a point mass, the moment of inertia is just the mass times the
square of perpendicular distance to the rotation axis, I = mr2. That point mass relationship becomes the basis
for all other moments of inertia since any object can be built up from a collection of point masses.

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
.

Videos

Angular momentum
The angular momentum of a particle of
mass m with respect to a chosen origin is
given by
L = mvr sin θ
or more formally by the vector product
L=rxp
The direction is given by the right hand
rule which would give L the direction out
of the diagram. For an orbit, angular
momentum is conserved, and this leads to
one of Kepler's laws. For a circular orbit, L
becomes
L = mvr

Video

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Reference pages
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/centripetal-force-and-gravitation/centripetal-forces/a/what-
is-centripetal-force
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_speed
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gravity
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/amom.html

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Unit – 6
Fluid dynamics

Topics Understandings Skills

• Streamline and Turbulent The students will: The students will:
flow • define the terms: steady • investigate the effect of
• Equation of continuity (streamline or laminar) flow, moving air on pressure by
• Bernoulli’s equation incompressible flow and non demonstrating with Venturi
• Applications of Bernoulli’s • viscous flow as applied to the meter.
equation motion of an ideal fluid. • investigate the fall of spherical
• Viscous fluids • explain that at a sufficiently high steel balls through a viscous
• Fluid Friction velocity, the flow of viscous fluid medium and determine
Terminal velocity undergoes a terminal velocity
• transition from laminar to • coefficient of viscosity of the
turbulence conditions. fluid
• describe that the majority of • investigate the viscosity of
practical examples of fluid flow different liquids by measuring
and resistance to the terminal velocity.
• motion in fluids involve turbulent • describe of systolic pressure
rather than laminar conditions. and diastolic pressure and use
• describe equation of continuity Aν sphygmomanometer to
= Constant, for the flow of an • measure blood pressure.
ideal and
• incompressible fluid and solve
problems using it.
• identify that the equation of
continuity is a form of the
principle of conservation of
• mass.
• describe that the pressure
difference can arise from different
rates of flow of a fluid
Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
 • (Bernoulli effect).
• derive Bernoulli equation in the
form P + ½ ρv2
• + ρgh = constant
• for the case of horizontal tube of
flow.
• interpret and apply Bernoulli
Effect in the: filter pump, Venturi
meter, in, atomizers, flow of air
over an aero foil and in blood
physics.
• describe that real fluids are
viscous fluids.
• describe that viscous forces in a
fluid cause a retarding force on an
object moving through it.

Chapter Overview
1.Streamline and Turbulent Flow
streamline flow. n. (General Physics) flow of a fluid in which its velocity at any point is
constant or varies in a regular manner. It can be represented by streamlines. Also called: viscous flow
Compare turbulent flow See also laminar flow.

(General Physics) flow of a fluid in which its velocity at any point is constant or varies in a
regular manner. It can be represented by streamlines.

Streamline Flow
Streamline flow in fluids is defined as the flow in which the fluids flow in parallel layers
such that there is no disruption or intermixing of the layers and at a given point, the velocity of each fluid
particle passing by remains constant with time. Here, at low fluid velocities, there are no turbulent velocity
fluctuations and the fluid tends to flow without lateral mixing. Here, the motion of particles of the fluid
follows a particular order with respect to the particles moving in a straight line parallel to the wall of the
pipe such that the adjacent layers slide past each other like playing cards.
To understand the liquid flow pattern better, click on the links provided below:

Reynolds Number
Poiseuille’s Law Formula
Streamlines
Streamlines are defined as the path taken by particles of a fluid under steady flow conditions. If we represent
the flow lines as curves, then the tangent at any point on the curve gives the direction of fluid velocity at that
point.

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Streamlines
As can be seen in the image above, the curves describe how the fluid particles move with
respect to time. The curve provides a map for the flow of this given fluid, and for a steady flow. This map is
stationary with time i.e., every particle passing a point behaves exactly as the previous particle that has just
passed that point.

The streamlines in a laminar flow follow the equation of continuity, i.e., Av = constant, where, A is the
cross-sectional area of the fluid flow and v is the velocity of the fluid at that point. Av is the defined as the
volume flux or the flow rate of the fluid, which remains constant for steady flow. When the area of the
cross-section is greater, the velocity of the liquid is lesser and vice versa.

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Video:

2.Equation of continuity:
The continuity equation reflects the fact that mass is conserved in
any non-nuclear continuum mechanics analysis. The equation is developed by adding up the rate at which
mass is flowing in and out of a control volume, and setting the net in-flow equal to the rate of change of
mass within it.

Now, consider the fluid flows for a short interval of time in the tube. So, assume that short interval of time
as Δt. In this time, the fluid will cover a distance of Δx1 with a velocity v1 at the lower end of the pipe.

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
At this time, the distance covered by the fluid will be:

Δx1 = v1Δt

Now, at the lower end of the pipe, the volume of the fluid that will flow into the pipe will be:

V = A1 Δx1 = A1 v1 Δt

It is known that mass (m) = Density (ρ) × Volume (V). So, the mass of the fluid in Δx1 region will be:

Δm1= Density × Volume

=> Δm1 = ρ1A1v1Δt ——–(Equation 1)

Now, the mass flux has to be calculated at the lower end. Mass flux is simply defined as the mass of the
fluid per unit time passing through any cross-sectional area. For the lower end with cross-sectional area A1,
mass flux will be:

Δm1/Δt = ρ1A1v1 ——–(Equation 2)

Similarly, the mass flux at the upper end will be:

Δm2/Δt = ρ2A2v2 ——–(Equation 3)

Here, v2 is the velocity of the fluid through the upper end of the pipe i.e. through Δx2 , in Δt time and A2, is
the cross-sectional area of the upper end.

In this, the density of the fluid between the lower end of the pipe and the upper end of the pipe remains the
same with time as the flow is steady. So, the mass flux at the lower end of the pipe is equal to the mass flux
at the upper end of the pipe i.e. Equation 2 = Equation 3.

Thus,

ρ1A1v1 = ρ2A2v2 ——–(Equation 4)

This can be written in a more general form as:

ρ A v = constant

The equation proves the law of conservation of mass in fluid dynamics. Also, if the fluid is incompressible,
the density will remain constant for steady flow. So, ρ1 =ρ2.

Thus, Equation 4 can be now written as:

A1 v1 = A2 v2

This equation can be written in general form as:

A v = constant

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Now, if R is the volume flow rate, the above equation can be expressed as:

R = A v = constant

Video:

3.Bernoullie’s equation:
The simplified form of Bernoulli's equation can be summarized in the following memorable word equation:
static pressure + dynamic pressure = total pressure. Every point in a steadily flowing fluid, regardless of the
fluid speed at that point, has its own unique static pressure p and dynamic pressure q.

he Bernoulli equation states that

Where
points 1 and 2 lie on a streamline,
the fluid has constant density,
the flow is steady, and
there is no friction.
Although these restrictions sound severe, the Bernoulli equation is very useful,
partly because it is very simple to use and partly because it can give great insight into the balance between
pressure, velocity and elevation.

How useful is Bernoulli's equation? How restrictive are the assumptions governing its use? Here we give
some examples.
Pressure/velocity variation
Consider the steady, flow of a constant density fluid in a converging
duct, without losses due to friction (figure 14). The flow therefore satisfies all the restrictions governing the
use of Bernoulli's equation. Upstream and downstream of the contraction we make the one-dimensional
assumption that the velocity is constant over the inlet and outlet areas and parallel.

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
 One-dimensional duct showing control volume

When streamlines are parallel the pressure is constant across them, except for
hydrostatic head differences (if the pressure was higher in the middle of the duct, for example, we would
expect the streamlines to diverge, and vice versa). If we ignore gravity, then the pressures over the inlet and
outlet areas are constant. Along a streamline on the centerline, the Bernoulli equation and the one-
dimensional continuity equation give, respectively,

These two observations provide an intuitive guide for analyzing fluid flows, even when
the flow is not one-dimensional. For example, when fluid passes over a solid body, the streamlines get closer
together, the flow velocity increases, and the pressure decreases. Airfoils are designed so that the flow over
the top surface is faster than over the bottom surface, and therefore the average pressure over the top surface
is less than the average pressure over the bottom surface, and a resultant force due to this pressure difference
is produced. This is the source of lift on an airfoil. Lift is defined as the force acting on an airfoil due to its
motion, in a direction normal to the direction of motion. Likewise, drag on an airfoil is defined as the force
acting on an airfoil due to its motion, along the direction of motion.

An easy demonstration of the lift produced by an airstream requires a piece of

notebook paper and two books of about equal thickness. Place the books four to five inches apart, and cover
the gap with the paper. When you blow through the passage made by the books and the paper, what do you
see? Why?

Two more examples:

Example 1
A table tennis ball placed in a vertical air jet becomes suspended in the jet, and it is very stable
to small perturbations in any direction. Push the ball down, and it springs back to its equilibrium position;
push it sideways, and it rapidly returns to its original position in the center of the jet. In the vertical
direction, the weight of the ball is balanced by a force due to pressure differences: the pressure over the rear
half of the sphere is lower than over the front half because of losses that occur in the wake (large eddies
form in the wake that dissipate a lot of flow energy). To understand the balance of forces in the horizontal
direction, you need to know that the jet has its maximum velocity in the center, and the velocity of the jet
decreases towards its edges. The ball position is stable because if the ball moves sideways, its outer side

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
moves into a region of lower velocity and higher pressure, whereas its inner side moves closer to the center
where the velocity is higher and the pressure is lower. The differences in pressure tend to move the ball back
towards the center.

Example 2
Suppose a ball is spinning clockwise as it travels through the air from left to right The forces
acting on the spinning ball would be the same if it was placed in a stream of air moving from right to left, as
shown in figure 15.

Figure 15. Spinning ball in an airflow

A thin layer of air (a boundary layer) is forced to spin with the ball because of viscous
friction. At A the motion due to spin is opposite to that of the air stream, and therefore near A there is a
region of low velocity where the pressure is close to atmospheric. At B, the direction of motion of the
boundary layer is the same as that of the external air stream, and since the velocities add, the pressure in this
region is below atmospheric. The ball experiences a force acting from A to B, causing its path to curve. If
the spin was counterclockwise, the path would have the opposite curvature. The appearance of a side force
on a spinning sphere or cylinder is called the Magnus effect, and it well known to all participants in ball
sports, especially baseball, cricket and tennis players.

Stagnation pressure and dynamic pressure

Bernoulli's equation leads to some interesting
conclusions regarding the variation of pressure along a streamline. Consider a steady flow impinging on a
perpendicular plate (figure 16).

Stagnation point flow.

There is one streamline that divides the flow in half: above this streamline all
the flow goes over the plate, and below this streamline all the flow goes under the plate. Along this dividing
streamline, the fluid moves towards the plate. Since the flow cannot pass through the plate, the fluid must
come to rest at the point where it meets the plate. In other words, it ``stagnates.'' The fluid along the
dividing, or ``stagnation streamline'' slows down and eventually comes to rest without deflection at the
stagnation point.

Bernoulli's equation along the stagnation streamline gives

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
 where the point e is far upstream and point 0 is at the stagnation point. Since the velocity at the stagnation
point is zero,

The stagnation or total pressure, p_0, is the pressure measured at the point where the fluid
comes to rest. It is the highest pressure found anywhere in the flowfield, and it occurs at the stagnation point.
It is the sum of the static pressure (p_0), and the dynamic pressure measured far upstream. It is called the
dynamic pressure because it arises from the motion of the fluid.
Videos

4.Applications of Bernoulli’s equation:

All preceding applications of Bernoulli's equation involved simplifying conditions,
such as constant height or constant pressure. The next example is a more general application of Bernoulli's
equation in which pressure, velocity, and height all change

To find Pressure
In certain problems in fluid flows we know the velocities at two points of the
streamline and pressure at one point. The unknown is the pressure of the fluid at the other point. In such
cases (if they satisfy the required condition for Bernoulli’s Equation ) we can use Bernoulli’s Equation to
find the unknown pressure. One such example is

Flow through a Nozzle:

It’s a converging nozzle. Flow enters the nozzle at low speed, accelerates and leaves
the nozzle at atmospheric pressure. We have to find the pressure at inlet. We can simply apply Bernoulli’s
Equation between inlet and outlet points and calculate the unknown pressure assuming that the change in
elevation in zero.
In this example there is no change in elevation. The converging nozzle causes fluid to accelerate. From the
energy balance feature of the equation we can say the increase in velocity results in the drop in the pressure
at the outlet of the nozzle.

To find Velocity
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 In problems where the pressure and elevation at two points and velocity at one point is
known, and we have to find the unknown velocity, Bernoulli’s Equation is applied to calculate the required
velocity. One such example is

Flow through a Siphon:

Siphon is used to drain a fluid from a reservoir at a higher level to a lower
level. Here it is required to find the velocity with which the fluid leaves the siphon. We apply Bernoulli’s
Equation between the reservoir surface and the exit point of the siphon where the fluid leaves the tube.
Pressure at both points is same (atmospheric), velocity at the reservoir is negligible because the reservoir is
large. Velocity at the exit point can be calculated by using the values of elevation at the two points.

In this example we can say the decrease in elevation or the potential head manifests as the velocity of the
fluid at the exit point of the siphon tube.

Videos

5.Viscous fluids:
Viscosity is the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of
fluid. All the real fluids have a certain amount of viscosity, while a viscous fluid has a large amount of
viscosity. Examples include-Honey, molasses, glues, Ketchup.
Viscosity is a phenomenon in which fluids resists their shear deformation by
providing resistance between the layers of the fluid . Streamlined flow is generally the case in viscous fluids
because the resistance offered reduces it's speed .
For example ,
If we consider the case of water and honey flowing in a tube ,we can observe that honey travels
slower than that of water because it offers higher resistance to the shear deformation.
In the previous chapter on fluids, we introduced the basic ideas of pressure, fluid flow,
the application of conservation of mass and of energy in the form of the continuity equation and of
Bernoulli’s equation, respectively, as well as hydrostatics. Throughout those discussions we restricted
ourselves to ideal fluids, those that do not exhibit any frictional properties.
Often these can be neglected and the results of the previous chapter applied
without any modifications whatsoever. Clearly mass is conserved even in the presence of viscous frictional
forces and so the continuity equation is a very general result.
Real fluids, however, do not conserve mechanical energy, but over time will
lose
some of this well-ordered energy to heat through frictional losses. In this chapter we consider such behavior,
known as viscosity, first in the case of simple fluids such as water. We study the effects of viscosity on the
motion of simple fluids and on the

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
motion of suspended bodies, such as macromolecules, in these fluids, with special attention to flow in a
cylinder, the most important geometry of flow in biology. The complex nature of blood as a fluid is studied
next leading into a description and
physics perspective of the human circulatory system. We conclude the chapter with a discussion of surface
tension and capillarity, two important surface phenomena in fluids. In Chapter 13 we return to the general
notion of the loss of well-ordered
energy to heat in the context of thermodynamics.

Video:

6.Fluid Friction:
Fluid friction is the force that resists motion either within the fluid itself or of another
medium moving through the fluid. There is internal friction, which is a result of the interactions between
molecules of the fluid, and there is external friction, which refers to how a fluid interacts with other matter.

What Is a fluid?
Have you ever wondered why it's easier to squeeze a tube of toothpaste than it is to
squeeze honey into your tea? Have you ever put your hand out the window while driving and felt the wind
resistance pushing back on your hand? Both relate to fluid friction.

Let's first get a grasp on fluids. A fluid, in contrast to a solid, is a material with no fixed shape that
constantly deforms when acted upon by an outside force. You probably think of things like water and coffee
as fluids; however, gases, such as air, and substances like motor oil are also fluids. The property that causes
them to seem very different from each other is viscosity. Viscosity is the measure of a fluid's resistance to
flow because of its internal friction. This is why honey is much harder to squeeze out of the bottle than
ketchup. It also describes why it is more difficult to move in a swimming pool than it is on dry land.

What Is Fluid Friction?

Fluid friction is the force that resists motion either within the fluid itself or of
another medium moving through the fluid. There is internal friction, which is a result of the interactions
between molecules of the fluid, and there is external friction, which refers to how a fluid interacts with other
matter.
Internal Friction
Let's first take a look at internal fluid friction. To the naked eye, a fluid is a continuous
medium. If you look at a fluid under a high powered microscope, however, you'd see that fluids are actually
made up of molecules separated by a considerable amount of empty space. To deform a fluid (e.g., squeeze
honey through a small hole), the molecules need to move relative to each other by squeezing past or
Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
displacing one another. This is internal friction and is what prevents a fluid from flowing. The more internal
friction, the harder it is to get the molecules to move and the harder it is to force the fluid to deform. But
internal friction isn't always a negative consequence. For instance, without internal friction, you would not
be able to drink through a straw because the fluid would not be cohesive enough to enable it to be
transported in such a manner.
7.Terminal velocity:

Is the maximum velocity attainable by an object as it falls through a fluid (air is the most
common example). It occurs when the sum of the drag force (Fd) and the buoyancy is equal to the
downward force of gravity (FG) acting on the object. Since the net force on the object is zero, the object has
zero acceleration.
In fluid dynamics, an object is moving at its terminal velocity if its speed is constant due to the restraining
force exerted by the fluid through which it is moving .

As the speed of an object increases, so does the drag force acting on it, which
also depends on the substance it is passing through (for example air or water). At some speed, the drag or
force of resistance will equal the gravitational pull on the object (buoyancy is considered below). At this
point the object ceases to accelerate and continues falling at a constant speed called the terminal velocity
(also called settling velocity). An object moving downward faster than the terminal velocity (for example
because it was thrown downwards, it fell from a thinner part of the atmosphere, or it changed shape) will
slow down until it reaches the terminal velocity. Drag depends on the projected area, here, the object's cross-
section or silhouette in a horizontal plane. An object with a large projected area relative to its mass, such as a
parachute, has a lower terminal velocity than one with a small projected area relative to its mass, such as a
bullet. In general, for the same shape and material, the terminal velocity of an object increases with size.
This is because the downward force (weight) is proportional to the cube of the linear dimension, but the air
resistance is approximately proportional to the cross-section area which increases only as the square of the
linear dimension. For very small objects such as dust and mist, the terminal velocity is easily overcome by
convection currents which prevent them from reaching the ground and hence they stay suspended in the air
for indefinite periods. Air pollution and fog are examples of this.
Learning Objectives
Define the terms: steady (streamline or laminar) flow, incompressible flow and non viscous flow as applied
to the motion of an ideal fluid.
Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Explain that at a sufficiently high velocity, the flow of viscous fluid undergoes a transition from laminar to
turbulence conditions.
Describe that the majority of practical examples of fluid flow and resistance tomotion in fluids involve
turbulent rather than laminar conditions.
Describe equation of continuity Aν = Constant, for the flow of an ideal and incompressible fluid and solve
problems using it.
Identify that the equation of continuity is a form of the principle of conservation of mass.
Describe that the pressure difference can arise from different rates of flow of a fluid (Bernoulli effect).
Derive Bernoullie equation in the form P + ½ ρv2 + ρgh = constant for the case of horizontal tube of flow.
Interpret and apply Bernoulli Effect in the: filter pump, Venturi meter, in, atomizers, flow of air over an
aerofoil and in blood physics.
Describe that real fluids are viscous fluids.
Describe that viscous forces in a fluid cause a retarding force on an object moving through it.
Conceptual linkage:
²This chapter is built on
Work & Energy Physics IX
Dynamics Physics IX
Properties of Matter Physics IX

Explain how the magnitude of the viscous force in fluid flow depends on the shape and velocity of the
object.
Apply dimensional analysis to confirm the form of the equation F = Aηrv where ‘A’ is a dimensionless
constant (Stokes’ Law) for the drag force under laminar conditions in a viscous fluid.
Apply Stokes’ law to derive an expression for terminal velocity of spherical body falling through a viscous
fluid.

Length
120-150 minutes depending on age group/prior knowledge
Reference pages
https://www.thefreedictionary.com/streamline+flow
https://www.google.com/search?q=Streamline+and+Turbulent+flow&source=lmns&bih=625&biw=1349&r
lz=1C1CAFB_enPK904PK905&hl=en&ved=2ahUKEwjdntWvqfTpAhUE4RoKHSkHAZgQ_AUoAHoEC
AEQAA
https://www.google.com/search?q=streamline+and+turbulent+flow&rlz=1C1CAFB_enPK904PK905&tbm=
isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=gVY10hRSJpmHTM%253A%252CwIdYUg0jSErcvM%252C_&vet=1&usg=
AI4_-kTbLJXTfnL0wuws-
hfaI2ORNV9abQ&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiWncj7svbpAhUEsaQKHZCCB7UQ_h0wA3oECAsQCA&biw=
1366&bih=625#imgrc=Mr4JkhOETcFkaM
https://www.google.com/search?bih=625&biw=1366&rlz=1C1CAFB_enPK904PK905&hl=en&ei=C2HgX
uCZOMbQ6QSj44CQBQ&q=Equation+of+continuity%3A&oq=Equation+of+continuity%3A&gs_lcp=Cg
Zwc3ktYWIQAzICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCABQ6hxY0TN
gpz1oAXAAeACAAYkDiAGJA5IBAzMtMZgBAKABAaABAqoBB2d3cy13aXqwAQA&sclient=psy-
ab&ved=0ahUKEwigy8CGtPbpAhVGaJoKHaMxAFIQ4dUDCAw&uact=5
https://www.google.com/search?q=Bernoullie%E2%80%99s+equation&rlz=1C1CAFB_enPK904PK905&o
q=Bernoullie%E2%80%99s+equation&aqs=chrome..69i57j0l7.1658j0j8&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8
https://www.brighthubengineering.com/hydraulics-civil-engineering/53072-applications-of-bernoullis-
equation/

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Unit 07
Oscillations

Topic Understandings Skills

• Simple Harmonic Motion The students will: The students will:
(S.H.M) • Describe simple examples of free • Verify that the time period of the
• Circular motion and SHM oscillations. simple pendulum is directly
• Practical SHM system(mass • Describe necessary conditions for proportional to the square root of its
spring and simple pendulum) execution of simple harmonic length and hence find the value of
• Energy conservation in SHM motions. g from the graph.
• Free and forced oscillations • Describe that when an object • Determine the acceleration due to
• Resonance moves in a circle, the motion of its gravity by oscillating mass-spring
• Damped oscillations projection on the diameter of the system.
circles is SHM. • Determine the value of g by
• Define the terms amplitude, vibrating a metal lamina
period, frequency, angular suspending from different points.
frequency and phase difference and
express the period in terms of both
frequency and angular frequency.
• Identify and use the equation; a=
ω2x as the defining equation of
SHM.
• Prove that the motion of mass
attached to a spring is SHM.

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
 • Describe the interchanging
between kinetic energy and
potential energy during SHM.
• Analyze the motion of a simple
pendulum is SHM and calculate its
time period.
• Describe practical examples of
free and forced oscillations
(resonance).
• Describe graphically how the
amplitude of a forced oscillation
changes with frequency near to the
natural frequency of the system.
• Describe practical examples of
damped oscillations with
particular reference to the efforts of
the degree of damping and the
importance of critical damping in
cases such as a car suspension
system.
• Describe qualitatively the factors
which determine the frequency
response and sharpness of the
resonance.
Unit overview

Simple Harmonic Motion (S.H.M)

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Simple harmonic motion is defined as a periodic motion of a point along a straight line, such that its
acceleration is always towards a fixed point in that line and is proportional to its distance from that point.

The motion of a particle moving along a straight line with an acceleration whose direction is always towards
a fixed point on the line and whose magnitude is proportional to the distance from the fixed point is called
simple harmonic motion [SHM].

Simple harmonic motion shown both in real space and phase space. The orbit is periodic. (Here the velocity
and position axes have been reversed from the standard convention to align the two diagrams)
In the diagram, a simple harmonic oscillator, consisting of a weight attached to one end of a spring, is
shown. The other end of the spring is connected to a rigid support such as a wall. If the system is left at rest
at the equilibrium position then there is no net force acting on the mass. However, if the mass is displaced
from the equilibrium position, the spring exerts a restoring elastic force that obeys Hooke's law.
Mathematically, the restoring force F is given by
F = - kx
where F is the restoring elastic force exerted by the spring (in SI units: N), k is the spring constant (N·m−1),
and x is the displacement from the equilibrium position (m).
Videos

References
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/simple-harmonic-motion
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_harmonic_motion

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Circular motion
Uniform Circular Motion describes the movement of an object traveling a circular path with constant speed.
The one-dimensional projection of this motion can be described as simple harmonic motion. A point P
moving on a circular path with a constant angular velocity ω is undergoing uniform circular motion.

video

Practical S.H.M system(mass spring and simple pendulum)

Mass spring
Simple harmonic motion is governed by a restorative force. For a spring-mass system, such as a block
attached to a spring, the spring force is responsible for the oscillation.
Fs=−kx

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
 This image shows a spring-mass system oscillating through one cycle about a central equilibrium position.
The vectors of force, acceleration, and displacement from equilibrium are given at each for the five positions
shown.
Since the restoring force is proportional to displacement from equilibrium, both the magnitude of the
restoring force and the acceleration is the greatest at the maximum points of displacement. The negative sign
tells us that the force and acceleration are in the opposite direction from displacement.
F=ma
−kx=ma
a=−kx\m
The mass's displacement, velocity, and acceleration over time can be visualized in the graphs below

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Figure 2. The position vs. time graph for the spring-mass system in Figure 1.

Figure 3. The velocity vs. time graph for the spring-mass system in Figure 1.

Figure 4. The acceleration vs. time graph for the spring-mass system in figure 1.
Videos

Reference
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-physics-1/simple-harmonic-motion-ap/introduction-to-simple-
harmonic-motion-ap/a/introduction-to-simple-harmonic-motion-review

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Simple pendulum

We see that a simple pendulum has a small-diameter bob and a string that has a very small mass but is
strong enough not to stretch appreciably. The linear displacement from equilibrium is s, the length of the arc.
Also shown are the forces on the bob, which result in a net force of −mg sinθ toward the equilibrium
position—that is, a restoring force.
Pendulums are in common usage. Some have crucial uses, such as in clocks; some are for fun, such as a
child’s swing; and some are just there, such as the sinker on a fishing line. For small displacements, a
pendulum is a simple harmonic oscillator. A simple pendulum is defined to have an object that has a small
mass, also known as the pendulum bob, which is suspended from a light wire or string, such as shown in
Figure 1. Exploring the simple pendulum a bit further, we can discover the conditions under which it
performs simple harmonic motion, and we can derive an interesting expression for its period.
We begin by defining the displacement to be the arc length s. We see from Figure 1 that the net force on the
bob is tangent to the arc and equals −mg sinθ. (The weight mg has components mg cosθ along the string
and mg sinθ tangent to the arc.) Tension in the string exactly cancels the component mg cosθ parallel to the
string. This leaves a net restoring force back toward the equilibrium position at θ = 0.
Now, if we can show that the restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement, then we have a
simple harmonic oscillator. In trying to determine if we have a simple harmonic oscillator, we should note
that for small angles (less than about 15º), sinθ ≈ θ (sinθ and θ differ by about 1% or less at smaller angles).
Thus, for angles less than about 15º, the restoring force F is
F ≈ −mgθ.
The displacement s is directly proportional to θ. When θ is expressed in radians, the arc length in a circle is
related to its radius (L in this instance) by s = Lθ, so that
θ=sL
Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
.
For small angles, then, the expression for the restoring force is:
F≈−mgLs
This expression is of the form: F = −kx, where the force constant is given by k=mgL
and the displacement is given by x = s. For angles less than about 15º, the restoring force is directly
proportional to the displacement, and the simple pendulum is a simple harmonic oscillator.
Using this equation, we can find the period of a pendulum for amplitudes less than about 15º. For the simple
pendulum:
T=2π√ m/k =2π√ m/mg/L
Thus,
T=2π√ L/g
for the period of a simple pendulum. This result is interesting because of its simplicity. The only things that
affect the period of a simple pendulum are its length and the acceleration due to gravity. The period is
completely independent of other factors, such as mass. As with simple harmonic oscillators, the period T for
a pendulum is nearly independent of amplitude, especially if θ is less than about 15º. Even simple pendulum
clocks can be finely adjusted and accurate.
Note the dependence of T on g. If the length of a pendulum is precisely known, it can actually be used to
measure the acceleration due to gravity.
Videos

Refrence
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/chapter/16-4-the-simple-pendulum/

Energy conservation in SHM

Energy and the Simple Harmonic Oscillator
To study the energy of a simple harmonic oscillator, we need to consider all the forms of energy. Consider
the example of a block attached to a spring, placed on a frictionless surface, oscillating in SHM. The
potential energy stored in the deformation of the spring is
U=1/2kx2.
In a simple harmonic oscillator, the energy oscillates between kinetic energy of the mass K = 1/2mv2 and
potential energy U = 1/2kx2 stored in the spring. In the SHM of the mass and spring system, there are no
dissipative forces, so the total energy is the sum of the potential energy and kinetic energy. In this section,
we consider the conservation of energy of the system. The concepts examined are valid for all simple
harmonic oscillators, including those where the gravitational force plays a role.

, which shows an oscillating block attached to a spring. In the case of undamped SHM, the energy oscillates
back and forth between kinetic and potential, going completely from one form of energy to the other as the
system oscillates. So for the simple example of an object on a frictionless surface attached to a spring, the

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
motion starts with all of the energy stored in the spring as elastic potential energy. As the object starts to
move, the elastic potential energy is converted into kinetic energy, becoming entirely kinetic energy at the
equilibrium position. The energy is then converted back into elastic potential energy by the spring as it is
stretched or compressed. The velocity becomes zero when the kinetic energy is completely converted, and
this cycle then repeats. Understanding the conservation of energy in these cycles will provide extra insight
here and in later applications of SHM, such as alternating circuits.

The transformation of energy in SHM for an object attached to a spring on a frictionless surface. (a) When
the mass is at the position x = + A, all the energy is stored as potential energy in the spring U = 12kA2. The
kinetic energy is equal to zero because the velocity of the mass is zero. (b) As the mass moves toward x =
−A, the mass crosses the position x = 0. At this point, the spring is neither extended nor compressed, so the
potential energy stored in the spring is zero. At x = 0, the total energy is all kinetic energy where K =
12m(−vmax)2. (c) The mass continues to move until it reaches x = −A where the mass stops and starts moving
toward x = + A. At the position x = −A, the total energy is stored as potential energy in the compressed U =
12k(−A)2 and the kinetic energy is zero. (d) As the mass passes through the position x = 0, the kinetic energy
is K = 12mvmax2 and the potential energy stored in the spring is zero. (e) The mass returns to the position x =
+ A, where K = 0 and
U=1/2kA2.
, which shows the energy at specific points on the periodic motion. While staying constant, the energy
oscillates between the kinetic energy of the block and the potential energy stored in the spring:
ETotal=U+K=1/2kx2+1/2mv2
The motion of the block on a spring in SHM is defined by the position x(t) = Acosωt + ϕ) with a velocity of
v(t) = −Aωsin(ωt + ϕ). Using these equations, the trigonometric identity cos2θ + sin2θ = 1 and ω=√k/m, we
can find the total energy of the system:

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
The total energy of the system of a block and a spring is equal to the sum of the potential energy stored in
the spring plus the kinetic energy of the block and is proportional to the square of the amplitude ETotal
=1/2kA2. The total energy of the system is constant.
A closer look at the energy of the system shows that the kinetic energy oscillates like a sine-squared
function, while the potential energy oscillates like a cosine-squared function. However, the total energy for
the system is constant and is proportional to the amplitude squared.
shows a plot of the potential, kinetic, and total energies of the block and spring system as a function of time.
Also plotted are the position and velocity as a function of time. Before time t = 0.0 s, the block is attached to
the spring and placed at the equilibrium position. Work is done on the block by applying an external force,
pulling it out to a position of x = + A. The system now has potential energy stored in the spring. At time t =
0.00 s, the position of the block is equal to the amplitude, the potential energy stored in the spring is equal to
U = 12
kA2, and the force on the block is maximum and points in the negative x-direction (FS = −kA). The velocity
and kinetic energy of the block are zero at time t = 0.00 s. At time t = 0.00 s, the block is released from rest.

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Graph of the kinetic energy, potential energy, and total energy of a block oscillating on a spring in SHM.
Also shown are the graphs of position versus time and velocity versus time. The total energy remains
constant, but the energy oscillates between kinetic energy and potential energy. When the kinetic energy is
maximum, the potential energy is zero. This occurs when the velocity is maximum and the mass is at the
equilibrium position. The potential energy is maximum when the speed is zero. The total energy is the sum
of the kinetic energy plus the potential energy and it is constant.
Videos

Reference
https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/Book%3A_University_Physics_(OpenStax)/Ma
p%3A_University_Physics_I__Mechanics%2C_Sound%2C_Oscillations%2C_and_Waves_(OpenStax)/15
%3A_Oscillations/15.03%3A_Energy_in_Simple_Harmonic_Motion

Free and forced oscillations

If an oscillator is displaced and then released it will begin to vibrate. If no more external forces are applied
to the system it is a free oscillator. If a force is continually or repeatedly applied to keep the oscillation
going, it is a forced oscillator

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Videos

Reference
http://salfordacoustics.co.uk/sound-waves/oscillation/free-oscillations-forced-oscillations-and-resonance

Resonance
Resonance occurs when a material oscillates at a high amplitude at a specific frequency. We call this
frequency resonant frequency. The dictionary defines resonance as,
“the state of a system in which an abnormally large vibration is produced in response to an external
stimulus, occurring when the frequency of the stimulus is the same, or nearly the same, as the natural
vibration frequency of the system.”
Physics defines Resonance as
A phenomenon in which an external force or a vibrating system forces another system around it to vibrate
with greater amplitude at a specified frequency of operation.

Videos

Reference
https://byjus.com/physics/resonance/

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Damped Oscillations

Videos

Reference
https://web.njit.edu/~kenahn/11spring/phys106/Lecture/L23.pdf

Learning Outcomes
The students will:
• Describe simple examples of free oscillations.
• Describe necessary conditions for execution of simple harmonic motions.
• Describe that when an object moves in a circle, the motion of its projection on the diameter of the circles is
SHM.
• Define the terms amplitude, period, frequency, angular frequency and phase difference and express the
period
in terms of both frequency and angular frequency.
• Identify and use the equation; a= - ω2x as the defining equation of SHM.
• Prove that the motion of mass attached to a spring is SHM.
• Describe the interchanging between kinetic energy and potential energy during SHM.
• Analyze the motion of a simple pendulum is SHM and calculate its time period.
• Describe practical examples of free and forced oscillations (resonance).
• Describe graphically how the amplitude of a forced oscillation changes with frequency near to the natural
frequency of the system.
• Describe practical examples of damped oscillations with particular reference to the efforts of the degree of
damping and the importance of critical damping in cases such as a car suspension system
Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Unit 08
Waves

Topics Understandings Skills

• Periodic waves The students will: The students will:
• Progressive waves • Describe what is meant by • Investigate, sketch and interpret
• Transverse and longitudinal wave motion as illustrated by the behaviour of wave fronts as
waves vibrations in ropes, springs and they reflect, refract, and diffract by
• Speed of sound in air ripple tank. observing (i) Pond ripples / ocean
• Newton’s formula and • Demonstrate that mechanical waves / harbour waves amusement
Laplace correction waves require a medium for park waves pools.
• Superposition of waves their propagation while • Determine frequency of A.C. by
• Stationary waves electromagnetic waves do not. Melde’s apparatus/electric
• Modes of vibration of strings • Define and apply the following sonometer.
• Fundamental mode and terms to the wave model; • Investigate the laws of vibration of
harmonics medium, displacement, stretched strings by sonometer or
• Vibrating air columns and amplitude, period, compression, electromagnetic method.
organ pipes rarefaction, crest, trough, • Determine the wavelength of sound
• Doppler effect and its wavelength, velocity. in air using stationary waves and to
applications • Solve problems using the calculate the speed of sound using
• Generation, detection and equation: resonance tube.
use of ultrasonic v = fλ. • Study the interference of ultrasonic
• Describe that energy is waves in a Young’s experiment
transferred due to a progressive arrangement and determine the
wave. wavelength of ultrasonic waves.
• Identify that sound waves are

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 vibrations of particles in a
medium.
• Compare transverse and
longitudinal waves.
• Explain that speed of sound
depends on the properties of
medium in which it propagates
and describe Newton’s formula
of speed of waves.
• Describe the Laplace
correction in Newton’s formula
for speed of sound in air.
• Identify the factors on which
speed of sound in air depends.
• Describe the principle of
superposition of two waves
from coherent sources.
• Describe the phenomenon of
interference of sound waves.
• Describe the phenomenon of
formation of beats due to
interference of non coherent
sources.
• Explain the formation of
stationary waves using graphical
method
• Define the terms, node and
antinodes.
• Describe modes of vibration of
strings.
• Describe formation of
stationary waves in vibrating air
columns.
• Explain the observed change in
frequency of a mechanical wave
coming from a moving object as
it approaches and moves away
(i.e. Doppler effect).
• Explain that Doppler effect is
also applicable to e.m. waves.
• Explain the principle of the
generation and detection of
ultrasonic waves using
piezoelectric transducers.
• Explain the main principles
behind the use of ultrasound to
obtain diagnostic information
about internal structures.

Unit overview
Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Periodic Wave
A periodic wave is a wave with a repeating continuous pattern which determines its wavelength and
frequency. It is characterized by the amplitude, a period and a frequency. Amplitude wave is directly related
to the energy of a wave, it also refers to the highest and lowest point of a wave. Period defines as time
required to complete cycle of a waveform and frequency is number of cycles per second of time.

Periodic Wave Relationships

The relationship "distance = velocity x time" is the basic wave relationship. With the wavelength as
distance, this relationship becomes . Then using gives the standard wave relationship.
Videos

Reference pages
https://www.eeweb.com/profile/andrew-carter/articles/periodic-wave

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Progressive waves
A wave which travels continuously in a medium in the same direction without the change in its amplitude is
called a travelling wave or a progressive wave.

Video

Reference
https://byjus.com/physics/progressive-wave/

Transverse and longitudinal waves

Transverse Waves
For transverse waves the displacement of the medium is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the
wave. A ripple on a pond and a wave on a string are easily visualized transverse waves.

Transverse waves cannot propagate in a gas or a liquid because there is no mechanism for driving motion
perpendicular to the propagation of the wave.

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Longitudinal Waves
In longitudinal waves the displacement of the medium is parallel to the propagation of the wave. A wave in
a "slinky" is a good visualization. Sound waves in air are longitudinal waves.

Video

Reference
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/tralon.html
Speed of sound in air

Speed of sound in air

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The speed of sound is an essential parameter used in a variety of field in Physics. The speed of sound refers
to the distance travelled per unit time by a sound wave propagating through a medium. The speed of
sound in air at 20oC is 343.2 m/s which translates to 1,236 km/h.

The speed of sound in gases is proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature (measured in
Kelvin) but it is independent of the frequency of the sound wave or the pressure and the density of the
medium. But none of the gases we find in real life are ideal gases and this causes the properties to slightly
change.
Video

Reference
https://byjus.com/physics/speed-of-sound-propagation/

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Newton’s formula and Laplace correction
Newtons formula for the speed of sound
Newtons worked on the propagation of sound waves through the air. He assumed that this process of
propagation is isothermal. Absorption and release of heat during compression and rarefaction will be
balanced, thus, the temperature remains constant throughout the process.
According to Boyle’s law
PV = Constant
Where,
P is pressure
V is the volume of gas.
On differentiating above equation we get-
PdV+VdP=0
⇒ PdV = -VdP
⇒P=−VdPdV=dP−(dV/V)
⇒P=B
Where, B=dP/−(dV/V) is bulk modulus of air.
The velocity of the sound wave can be written as –
v=√ B/ρ
Thus substituting B =P we get-
v=√ P/ρ
Speed of sound in air
At Normal Temperature and Pressure, the velocity of sound in air is given by –
v=√ P/ρ
Where atmospheric pressure P = 1.1013×105 N/m2
The density of air (𝜌)= 1.293 kg/m3
v=√ P/ρ =√(1.013×105/1.293) = 280m/s
The value got here does not match with the experimental value. That is 332m/s. Which implies that some
correction should be done to Newton’s equation.
Laplace Correction for Newton’s Formula
He corrected the Newtons formula by assuming that, there is no heat exchange takes place as the
compression and rarefaction takes place very fast. Thus, the temperature does not remain constant and the
propagation of the sound wave in air is an adiabatic process.
For an adiabatic process
PV𝛾 = Constant
Where,
𝛾 is adiabatic index γ=C p / C v
Cp specific heat for constant pressure
Cv specific heat for constant volume.
Differentiating both the sides we get-

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Velocity of sound
Calculate the velocity of sound wave using Laplace correction to Newton’s formula at Normal Temperature
and Pressure.
Velocity of the sound formula is given by-
v= √( γP/ρ)
Where,
Adiabatic index 𝛾 – 1.4
Where atmospheric pressure P = 1.1013×105 N/m2
The density of air (𝜌)= 1.293 kg/m3
Substituting the values in the equation we get-
v= √( γP/ρ) =√(1.4×1.013×105/1.293)=332m/s
Which has a very good match with the experimental value
Reference
https://byjus.com/physics/laplace-correction/

Superposition of waves
According to the principle of superposition. The resultant displacement of a number of waves in a medium
at a particular point is the vector sum of the individual displacements produced by each of the waves at that
point.

Principle of Superposition
Principle of Superposition of Waves
Considering two waves, travelling simultaneously along the same stretched string in opposite directions as
shown in the figure above. We can see images of waveforms in the string at each instant of time. It is

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observed that the net displacement of any element of the string at a given time is the algebraic sum of the
displacements due to each wave.
Let us say two waves are travelling alone and the displacements of any element of these two waves can be
represented by y1(x, t) and y2(x, t). When these two waves overlap, the resultant displacement can be given
as y(x,t).
Mathematically, y (x, t) = y1(x, t) + y2(x, t)
As per the principle of superposition, we can add the overlapped waves algebraically to produce a resultant
wave. Let us say the wave functions of the moving waves are
y1 = f1(x–vt),
y2 = f2(x–vt)
……….
yn = fn (x–vt)
then the wave function describing the disturbance in the medium can be described as
y = f1(x – vt)+ f2(x – vt)+ …+ fn(x – vt)
or, y=∑ i=1 to n = fi (x−vt)
Let us consider a wave travelling along a stretched string given by, y1(x, t) = A sin (kx – ωt) and another
wave, shifted from the first by a phase φ, given as y2(x, t) = A sin (kx – ωt + φ)
From the equations we can see that both the waves have the same angular frequency, same angular wave
number k, hence the same wavelength and the same amplitude A.
Now, applying the superposition principle, the resultant wave is the algebraic sum of the two constituent
waves and has displacement y(x, t) = A sin (kx – ωt) + A sin (kx – ωt + φ)
As, sin A = sin B = 2sin (A+B)/2 . cos (A−B)/2
The above equation can be written as,
y(x, t) = [2A cos 1/2 ϕ] sin (kx − wt + 1/2ϕ)
The resultant wave is a sinusoidal wave, travelling in the positive X direction, where the phase angle is half
of the phase difference of the individual waves and the amplitude as [2cos 1/2ϕ] times the amplitudes of the
original waves.
Videos

Reference
https://byjus.com/jee/superposition-of-waves/
Stationary waves
Standing wave, also called stationary wave, combination of two waves moving in opposite directions, each
having the same amplitude and frequency. The phenomenon is the result of interference; that is, when waves
are superimposed, their energies are either added together or canceled out. In the case of waves moving in
the same direction, interference produces a traveling wave. For oppositely moving waves, interference
produces an oscillating wave fixed in space.

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
fixed nodes in a standing wave

Videos

Reference
https://www.britannica.com/science/standing-wave-physics

Modes of vibration of strings

The frequencies at which standing waves can be set up on a string are the string's natural frequencies. They
can be determined quite easily. The first thing to note is that the end of the string being held by the person is
tightly gripped so any pulse or wave that returns to the person's hand will be reflected and inverted.
Therefore both ends of the string can be considered to be fixed and so must be at nodes of the standing
wave. But you learned earlier that the distance between adjacent nodes is half a wavelength. So, the length
of the string must be an exact number of half wavelengths. That is, the string must be one half wavelength
long, two half wavelengths long (i.e. one whole wavelength long), three half wavelengths long, four half
wavelengths long (i.e. two whole wavelengths long), etc. If the length of the string is denoted by L and the
wavelength by λ, then this can be expressed in the following way:

This can be written more concisely as:

where n is an integer number (i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4, … ).

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Rearranging this equation, we can show that the wavelengths of standing waves that can be set up on the
string are therefore given by:

However, the frequency of a wave is related to its wavelength by the expression f = v/λ, where v is the wave
speed. Therefore, the natural frequencies for the string are given by:

The different standing-wave patterns, known as normal modes of vibration.The solid and dashed lines
indicate the positions of the string at opposite phase positions in the cycle. You should be able to see that for
each normal mode the string contains an integer number of half wavelengths.

The first four normal modes of vibration of a string fixed at each end. The solid and dashed lines indicate
the positions of the string at opposite phase positions in the cycle
In the first mode (n = 1) there are nodes at either end of the string but no nodes elsewhere on the string. The
frequency at which this standing-wave pattern will be set up is f = v/2L. The first mode is known as the
fundamental mode and, for this reason, the first natural frequency tends to be referred to as the
fundamental frequency.
In the second mode (n = 2) there are again nodes at either end of the string but now there is also a node in
the middle of the string. The frequency at which this standing-wave pattern will be set up is f = v/L. This is
twice the value of the fundamental frequency.
In the third mode (n = 3) there are nodes at either end of the string and two more nodes positioned along the
string. The frequency at which this standing-wave pattern will be set up is f = 3v/2L. This is three times the
value of the fundamental frequency.
In the fourth mode (n = 4) there are the anticipated nodes at either end of the string and three more
positioned at equal distances along the string. The frequency at which this standing-wave pattern will be set
up is f = 2v/L. This is four times the value of the fundamental frequency.
You may well be seeing a trend emerging here! The frequencies at which standing waves are set up on the
string are harmonically related. If the frequency at which the first mode occurs is denoted f1, then the
frequencies at which the second, third and fourth modes occur are 2f1, 3f1 and 4f1 respectively. This set of
frequencies and its indefinite continuation (5f1, 6f1, 7f1 … ) is known as a harmonic series. The fact that its
natural frequencies form a harmonic series makes the vibrating string one of the most useful means of
producing musical sounds

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Video

Reference
https://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/engineering-and-
technology/technology/creating-musical-sounds/content-section-5.4

Fundamental mode and harmonics.

The lowest resonant frequency of a vibrating object is called its fundamental frequency. Most vibrating
objects have more than one resonant frequency and those used in musical instruments typically vibrate at
harmonics of the fundamental. A harmonic is defined as an integer (whole number) multiple of the
fundamental frequency. Vibrating strings, open cylindrical air columns, and conical air columns will vibrate
at all harmonics of the fundamental. Cylinders with one end closed will vibrate with only odd harmonics of
the fundamental. Vibrating membranes typically produce vibrations at harmonics, but also have some
resonant frequencies which are not harmonics. It is for this class of vibrators that the term overtone becomes
useful - they are said to have some non-harmonic overtones.
The nth harmonic = n x the fundamental frequency.
Video

Reference
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Waves/funhar.html
Vibrating air columns and organ pipes
Vibrations of Air Column in Pipes
Musical wind instruments like flute, clarinet etc. are based on the principle of vibrations of air columns. Due
to the superposition of the incident wave and the reflected wave, longitudinal stationary waves are formed in
the pipe.

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Organ pipes
Organ pipes are musical instruments which are used to produce musical sound by blowing air into the pipe.
Organ pipes are two types (a) closed organ pipes, closed at one end (b) open organ pipe, open at both ends.
(a) Closed organ pipe
If the air is blown lightly at the open end of the closed organ pipe, then the air column vibrates (as shown in
figure) in the fundamental mode. There is a node at the closed end and an antinode at the open end. If l is
the length of the tube,
l = λ1/4 or λ1 = 4l …... (1)
If n1 is the fundamental frequency of the vibrations and v is the velocity of sound in air, then
n1 = v/λ1 = v/4l …... (2)
If air is blown strongly at the open end, frequencies higher than fundamental frequency can be produced.
They are called overtones. Fig.b & Fig.c shows the mode of vibration with two or more nodes and antinodes.

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
l = 3λ3/4 or λ3 = 4l/3 …... (3)
Thus, n3 = v/λ3 = 3v/4l = 3n1 …... (4)
This is the first overtone or third harmonic.
Similarly, n5 = 5v/4l = 5n1 …... (5)
This is called as second overtone or fifth harmonic.
Therefore the frequency of pth overtone is (2p + 1) n1 where n1 is the fundamental frequency. In a closed
pipe only odd harmonics are produced. The frequencies of harmonics are in the ratio of 1 : 3 : 5.....
(b) Open organ pipe
When air is blown into the open organ pipe, the air column vibrates in the fundamental mode as shown in
figure. Antinodes are formed at the ends and a node is formed in the middle of the pipe. If l is the length of
the pipe, then

l = λ1/2 Or λ1 = 2l …... (1)

v = n1λ1 = n12l
The fundamental frequency,
n1 = v/2l …... (2)
In the next mode of vibration additional nodes and antinodes are formed as shown in Fig.b and Fig.c.
l = λ2 or v = n2λ2 = n2 (l)
So, n2 = v/l = 2n1 …... (3)
This is the first overtone or second harmonic.
Similarly,

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
 n3 = v/λ3 = 3v/2l = 3n1 …... (4)
This is the second overtone or third harmonic. Therefore the frequency of Pth overtone is (P + 1) n1 where n1
is the fundamental frequency.
The frequencies of harmonics are in the ratio of 1 : 2 : 3 ....
Resonance air column apparatus
The resonance air column apparatus consists of a glass tube G about one metre in length (as shown in figure)
whose lower end is connected to a reservoir R by a rubber tube.
The glass tube is mounted on a vertical stand with a scale attached to it. The glass tube is partly filled with
water. The level of water in the tube can be adjusted by raising or lowering the reservoir.
A vibrating tuning fork of frequency n is held near the open end of the tube. The length of the air column is
adjusted by changing the water level. The air column of the tube acts like a closed organ pipe. When this air
column resonates with the frequency of the fork the intensity of sound is maximum.
Here longitudinal stationary wave is formed with node at the water surface and an antinode near the open
end. If l1 is the length of the resonating air column.

λ/4 = l1 + e …... (1)

where e is the end correction.
The length of air column is increased until it resonates again with the tuning fork. If l2 is the length of the air
column.
Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
3λ/4 = l2 + e …... (2)
From equations (1) and (2)
λ/2 = (l2 – l1) …... (3)
The velocity of sound in air at room temperature
v = nλ = 2n (l2 – l1) …... (4)

End correction
The antinode is not exactly formed at the open end, but at a small distance above the open end. This is called
the end correction.
As l1 + e = λ/4 and l2 + e = 3λ/4
e = (l2 – 3l1)/2
It is found that e = 0.61r, where r is the radius of the glass tube.

Video

Reference
https://www.askiitians.com/iit-jee-wave-motion/vibrations-of-air-column-in-pipes/

Doppler effect and its applications

When an ambulance crosses you with its siren blaring, you hear the pitch of the siren change: as it
approaches, the siren’s pitch sounds higher than when it is moving away from you. This change is a
common physical demonstration of the Doppler effect. But, have you taken the time to understand the
phenomenon of the Doppler effect and its causes? If the answer is NO, then read on the article to understand
clearly and answer any given questions on Doppler effect in exams.
How is the Doppler Effect Defined?
Doppler effect is an important phenomenon that is useful in a variety of different scientific disciplines,
including planetary science: Astronomers rely on the Doppler effect to detect planets outside of our solar
system or exoplanets. The Doppler effect or the Doppler shift describes the change in frequency of any kind
of sound or light wave produced by a moving source with respect to an observer. Waves emitted by a source
travelling towards an observer gets compressed. In contrast, waves emitted by a source travelling away from
an observer get stretched out. We can define the Doppler effect as
Doppler Effect is an increase (or decrease) in the frequency of sound, light, or other waves as the source and
observer move towards (or away from) each other.
Many mistake Doppler effect to be applicable only for sound waves. It should be noted that the Doppler
effect doesn’t just apply to sound. It works with all types of waves including light. Edwin Hubble used the
Doppler effect to determine that the universe is expanding. Hubble found that the light from
distant galaxies was shifted toward lower frequencies, to the red end of the spectrum. This is known as a red
Doppler shift or a red-shift. If the galaxies were moving toward Hubble, the light would have been blue-
shifted. Doppler radars also help meteorologists learn about possible tornadoes
Discovery of Doppler Effect
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Doppler was the son of a stonemason, who went on to become a celebrated academic and scientist. After
school young Christian studied astronomy and mathematics in Salzburg and Vienna, and at the age of 38
went on to work at the Prague Polytechnic in Czechoslovakia. Only a year later, he found fame by
discovering that the observed frequency of light and sound waves is affected by the relative motion of the
source and the detector (in other words their positions in relation to one another)–and this became known as
the Doppler Effect. On 17 March 1853, at the age of only 49, Christian Doppler died from respiratory
disease in Venice.
Understanding Doppler Effect In Real Life
To understand the Doppler effect let us imagine the following scene. You are standing beside a road and a
police car with its siren turned on, drives by you. What do you notice about the sound? The siren’s sound
isn’t so loud when it is at a distance, which then reaches a maximum when it is just beside you, diminishing
again as it crosses and moves away from you.
Consider another instance. Two people A and B are standing on the road as shown below in the picture.

Which person do you think hears the sound of the revving engine with a greater magnitude? You know that
its person A. But why?
This is where we discuss the Doppler Effect or Doppler Shift. To highlight this effect you should understand
the difference between the two situations given below.
Situation 1: How is the pattern of waves formed when you suddenly jump into a pond?
Situation 2: How is the pattern of waves formed when you are walking in a pond?
The image given below highlights the difference between wave patterns in both situations.

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
This difference is because the source of the waves in the second case moves. This is what the Doppler Effect
is. It is named after the physicist Christian Doppler who proposed this in the 19th century. The Doppler
effect is the change of frequency of a wave emitted as observed by an observer moving relative to the
source. In this, the frequency received by the observer is higher during the approach, identical when the
relative positions are the same, and keeps lowering on the recession of source. If both the source and
observer are moving, the total Doppler Effect is calculated based on both these motions.
Let us say that light waves travel from a source to an observer. In this case, the wave travels the fixed
distance across which the source and the observer are located. But there are cases when either of the two is
moving, that is, the source is moving relative to the observer, or vice versa. It is in these scenarios that the
Doppler effect comes into the picture.
Doppler Effect Formula
In physics, where the speed of the receiver and the source relative to the medium are lower than the velocity
of waves, the relationship between emitted frequency f0 and observed frequency f is given by:
f=(c±vrc±vs)f0
Where
c is the velocity of waves in the medium
vr is the velocity of the source relative to the medium
vs is the velocity of the receiver relative to the medium
The frequency decreases if either is moving away from the other.
Applications of Doppler Effect
Some Doppler effect applications are provided in the points mentioned below:
Sirens
Radar
Astronomy
Medical Imaging
Blood Flow Measurement
Satellite Communication
Vibration Measurement
Developmental Biology
Audio
Velocity Profile Measurement
Doppler Effect In Light
The Doppler effect also affects the light which is emitted by other bodies in space. If the body is “red
shifted” the light waves are spread apart, and it is travelling away from us while if it is “blue shifted,” its
light waves are compacted and it is coming towards us. The detailed explanation of the Doppler effect in
light is given below.
Red Shift and Blue Shift:
When the light source moves away from the observer, the frequency received by the observer will be less
than the frequency transmitted by the source. This causes a shift towards the red end of the visible light
spectrum. Astronomers call it as the redshift.
Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
When the light source moves towards the observer, the frequency received by the observer will be greater
than the frequency transmitted by the source. This causes a shift towards the high-frequency end of the
visible light spectrum. Astronomers call it as the blue shift.

Doppler Effect In Sound

For sound waves which propagate in a medium, the velocity of the source and the observer are relative to the
medium in which the waves are transmitted. The total Doppler effect may, therefore, result from motion of
the observer, motion of the source, or motion of the medium. These effects are separately analyzed.
Video

Reference
https://byjus.com/physics/doppler-effect/
Generation, detection and use of ultrasonic
Physics of Ultrasound
Generation of ultrasonic sound waves

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Ultrasound uses ultrasonic (above the range of human hearing) sound waves that are produced and detected
within an ultrasound transducer. The physical concept underlying the transducer is the piezoelectric effect.
This is the property of some materials that causes them to change in shape when an electric current is
applied to them. Alternatively, a change in shape can provoke an electric current to form. A ultrasound
transducer contains a piece of piezoelectric material between two electrodes. An osciliating current is
applied, causing the piezoelectric material to vibrate rapidly and generate ultrasound waves.
Properties of ultrasonic sound waves
Ultrasound waves interact with tissue in various ways.
They are attenuated through absorption and scattering.
Absorption occurs due to loss of energy as heat, particularly in tissues that are unable to oscillate (eg. bone)
Scattering occurs with small inhomogeneities (eg. small vessel, soft tissue septa). Some of this scatter
returns to the probe, giving the characteristic 'grainy' apperance to ultrasound images
Waves may be reflected or refracted, similar to light 'rays' passing through different media
Reflection of the wave returns a signal to the transducer, and occurs at a boundary between two media,
perpendicular to the wave direction
Refraction of the wave occurs at oblique angles between two different mediums, and may lead to errors in
depth estimation
Detection of ultrasonic waves
Ultrasonic waves which return to the detector, either by reflection or scattering, cause the piezoelectric
material to vibrate, generating an electric signal that is converted into an image.
Use of Ultrasound
Ultrasound is a relatively safe imaging procedure, but needs some experience in use before images can be
easily read. It is most useful for interstitial or intracavitary brachytherapy, but can also be used in some
single-field applications (eg. breast boost).
Advantages
No ionising radiation
Not invasive (with some exceptions, eg. prostate ultrasound may require a rectal probe)
3D or 4D ultrasound is available
Useful in brachytherapy to verify anatomy or location of applicators
Inexpensive
Disadvantages
Gives no information on attenuation coefficients of tissue
Unable to produce DRR
Operator dependent
Limited to certain body sites (unable to scan through bone or gas)
Ultrasound waves are affected by refraction the depth seen on the scan may not be accurate
Poor image resolution due to scattering artefact
Video

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Reference
http://ozradonc.wikidot.com/principles-of-ultrasound
Learning Outcomes
The students will:
• Describe what is meant by wave motion as illustrated by vibrations in ropes, springs and ripple tank.
• Demonstrate that mechanical waves require a medium for their propagation while electromagnetic waves
do not.
• Define and apply the following terms to the wave model; medium, displacement amplitude, period,
compression, rarefaction, crest, trough, wavelength, velocity.
• Solve problems using the equation: v = fλ.
• Describe that energy is transferred due to a progressive wave.
• Identify that sound waves are vibrations of particles in a medium.
• Compare transverse and longitudinal waves.
• Explain that speed of sound depends on the properties of medium in which it propagates and describe
Newton’s formula of speed of waves.
• Describe the Laplace correction in Newton’s formula for speed of sound in air.
• Identify the factors on which speed of sound in air depends.
• Describe the principle of superposition of two waves from coherent sources.
• Describe the phenomenon of interference of sound waves.
• Describe the phenomenon of formation of beats due to interference of non coherent sources.
• Explain the formation of stationary waves using graphical method
• Define the terms, node and antinodes.
• Describe modes of vibration of strings.
• Describe formation of stationary waves in vibrating air columns.
• Explain the observed change in frequency of a mechanical wave coming from a moving object as it
approaches and moves away (i.e. Doppler effect).
• Explain that Doppler effect is also applicable to e.m. waves.
• Explain the principle of the generation and detection of ultrasonic waves using piezoelectric transducers.
• Explain the main principles behind the use of ultrasound to obtain diagnostic information about internal
structures.

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Unit – 9
Physical Optics

Topics Understandings Skills

• Nature of light The students will: The students will:
• Wave front • describe light waves as a part of • investigate that light can be diffracted but
• Huygen’s principle electromagnetic waves spectrum. needs a very small slit because the
• Interference • describe the concept of wave wavelength of light is small.
-Young’s double slit experiment front. • demonstrate diffraction including the
-Michleson ’s Interferometer • state Huygen’s principle and use diffraction of water waves in a ripple tank
• Diffraction it to construct wave front after a with
• Polarization time interval. both a wide gap and a narrow gap.
• state the necessary conditions to • measure the slit separation/ grating
observe interference of light. element ‘d’ of a diffraction grating by using
• describe Young’s double slit the
experiment and the evidence it known wavelength of laser light.
provides to support the • demonstrate the interference, diffraction
wave theory of light. and polarization of e.m. waves by Using
• explain colour pattern due to microwave apparatus.
interference in thin films. • determine the wavelength of light by
• describe the parts and working using a diffraction grating and
of Michelson Interferometer and spectrometer.
its uses. • measure the diameter of a wire or hair
• explain diffraction and identify using laser.
that interference occurs between • determine the pick count of a nylon mesh
waves that have by using a diffraction grating and laser.
been diffracted. • demonstrate polarization of light waves
• describe that diffraction of light using two Polaroid glasses and LDR and
is evidence that light behaves like hence, verify Malus’ law.
waves.
Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
 • describe and explain diffraction
at a narrow slit.
• describe the use of a diffraction
grating to determine the
wavelength of light and
carry out calculations using
dsinθ=nλ.
• describe the phenomena of
diffraction of X-rays through
crystals.
• explain polarization as a
phenomenon associated with
transverse waves.
• identify and express that
polarization is produced by a
Polaroid.
• explain the effect of rotation of
Polaroid on Polarization.
• explain how plane polarized light
is produced and detected.

Chapter overview
Physical Optics
Physical optics is also the name of an approximation commonly used in optics, electrical
engineering and applied physics. In this context, it is an intermediate method between geometric optics,
which ignores wave effects, and full wave electromagnetism, which is a precise theory. The word "physical"
means that it is more physical than geometric or ray optics and not that it is an exact physical theory.
This approximation consists of using ray optics to estimate the field on a surface and then integrating that
field over the surface to calculate the transmitted or scattered field. This resembles the Born approximation,
in that the details of the problem are treated as a perturbation.
In optics, it is a standard way of estimating diffraction effects. In radio, this approximation is used to
estimate some effects that resemble optical effects. It models several interference, diffraction and
polarization effects but not the dependence of diffraction on polarization. Since this is a high-frequency
approximation, it is often more accurate in optics than for radio.
In optics, it typically consists of integrating ray-estimated field over a lens, mirror or aperture to calculate
the transmitted or scattered field.
In radar scattering it usually means taking the current that would be found on a tangent plane of similar
material as the current at each point on the front, i. e. the geometrically illuminated part, of a scattered.
Current on the shadowed parts is taken as zero. The approximate scattered field is then obtained by an
integral over these approximate currents. This is useful for bodies with large smooth convex shapes and for
lousy (low-reflection) surfaces.
The ray-optics field or current is generally not accurate near edges or shadow boundaries, unless
supplemented by diffraction and creeping wave calculations.
The standard theory of physical optics has some defects in the evaluation of scattered fields, leading to
decreased accuracy away from the specular direction. An improved theory introduced in 2004 gives exact
solutions to problems involving wave diffraction by conducting scatterers.
1.Nature of light

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Electromagnetic spectrum

When you think of light, you probably think of what your eyes can see. But the light to which our eyes are
sensitive is just the beginning; it is a sliver of the total amount of light that surrounds us.
The electromagnetic spectrum is the term used by scientists to describe the entire range of light that exists.
From radio waves to gamma rays, most of the light in the universe is, in fact, invisible to us!
Light is a wave of alternating electric and magnetic fields. The propagation of light isn’t much different than
waves crossing an ocean. Like any other wave, light has a few fundamental properties that describe it. One
is its frequency, measured in hertz (Hz), which counts the number of waves that pass by a point in one
second. Another closely related property is wavelength: the distance from the peak of one wave to the peak
of the next. These two attributes are inversely related. The larger the frequency, the smaller the wavelength –
and vice versa

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Electromagnetic waves
Definition: Electromagnetic waves or EM waves are waves that are created as a result of vibrations between
an electric field and a magnetic field. In other words, EM waves are composed of oscillating magnetic

Description: Electromagnetic waves are formed when an electric field comes in contact with a magnetic
field. They are hence known as ‘electromagnetic’ waves. The electric field and magnetic field of an
electromagnetic wave are perpendicular (at right angles) to each other. They are also perpendicular to the
direction of the EM wave.

EM waves travel with a constant velocity of 3.00 x 108 ms-1 in vacuum. They are deflected neither by the
electric field, nor by the magnetic field. However, they are capable of showing interference or diffraction.
An electromagnetic wave can travel through anything - be it air, a solid material or vacuum. It does not need
a medium to propagate or travel from one place to another. Mechanical waves (like sound waves or water
waves), on the other hand, need a medium to travel. EM waves are 'transverse' waves. This means that they
are measured by their amplitude (height) and wavelength (distance between the highest/lowest points of two
consecutive waves).

The highest point of a wave is known as 'crest', whereas the lowest point is known as 'trough'.
Electromagnetic waves can be split into a range of frequencies. This is known as the electromagnetic
spectrum. Examples of EM waves are radio waves, microwaves, infrared waves, X-rays, gamma

In the late 17th century, scientists were embroiled in a debate about the fundamental nature of light –
whether it was a wave or a particle. Sir Issac Newton was a strong advocate of the particle nature of light.
But, the Dutch physicist, Christian Huygens believed that light was made up of waves vibrating up and
down perpendicular to the direction of the wave propagation, and therefore formulated a way of visualizing
wave propagation. This became known as ‘Huygens’ Principle‘.
The wave theory of light proposed by Christian Huygens has stood the test of time and today, it is
considered the backbones of optics. Here, in the article, let us discuss the wave theory of light in detail.
History Of The Wave Theory Of Light
Light always piqued the curiosity of thinkers and scientists. But it wasn’t until the late 17th century that
scientists began to comprehend the properties of light. Sir Issac Newton proposed that light was made of tiny
particles known as the photons while Christian Huygens believed that light was made of waves propagating
perpendicular to the direction of its movement.
Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
In 1678, Huygen’s proposed that every point that a luminous disturbance meets turns into a source of the
spherical wave itself. The sum of the secondary waves, which are the result of the disturbance, determines
what form the new wave will take. This theory of light is known as the ‘Huygens’ Principle’.
Using the above-stated principle, Huygen’s was successful in deriving the laws of reflection and refraction
of light. He was also successful in explaining the linear and spherical propagation of light using this theory.
However, he wasn’t able to explain the diffraction effects of light. Later, in 1803, the experiment conducted
by Thomas Young on the interference of light proved Huygen’s wave theory of light to be correct. Later in
1815, Fresnel provided mathematical equations for Young’s experiment.
Max Planck proposed that light is made of finite packets of energy known as a light quantum and it depends
on the frequency and velocity of light. Later, in 1905, Einstein proposed that light possessed the
characteristics of both particle and wave. He suggested that light is made of small particles called photons.
Quantum mechanics gave proof of the dual nature of light.

Video Link:

2.Wave front

Wave front, imaginary surface representing corresponding points of a wave that vibrate in unison. When
identical waves having a common origin travel through a homogeneous medium, the corresponding crests
and troughs at any instant are in phase; i.e., they have completed identical fractions of their cyclic motion,
and any surface drawn through all the points of the same phase will constitute a wave front.

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Videos

3.Interference
In physics, interference is a phenomenon in which two waves superpose to form a
resultant wave of greater, lower, or the same amplitude. Constructive and destructive interference result
from the interaction of waves that are correlated or coherent with each other, either because they come from
the same source or because they have the same or nearly the same frequency. Interference effects can be
observed with all types of waves, for example, light, radio, acoustic, surface water waves, gravity waves,
or matter waves. The resulting images or graphs are called interferograms

Constructive Interference:

If we add these two waves together, point-by-point, we end up with a new wave that looks
pretty much like the original waves but its amplitude is larger. This situation, where the resultant wave is
bigger than either of the two original, is called constructive interference. The waves are adding together to
form a bigger wave. You may be thinking that this is pretty obvious and natural of course the sum of two

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waves will be bigger than each wave on its own. However, carefully consider the next situation, again where
two waves with the same frequency are traveling in the same direction:

Destructive Interference:

Now what happens if we add these waves together? When the first wave is up, the second wave
is down and the two add to zero. When the first wave is down and the second is up, they again add to zero.
In fact, at all points the two waves exactly cancel each other out and there is no wave left! This is the single
most amazing aspect of waves. The sum of two waves can be less than either wave, alone, and can even be
zero. This is called destructive interference.
When the peaks of the waves line up, there is constructive interference. Often, this is describe by saying the
waves are "in-phase". Although this phrase is not so important for this course, it is so commonly used that I
might use it without thinking and you may hear it used in other settings. Similarly, when the peaks of one
wave line up with the valleys of the other, the waves are said to be "out-of-phase". Phase, itself, is an
important aspect of waves, but we will not use this concept in this course.
Videos

https://www.britannica.com/science/interference-physics

(i) Young’s double slit experiment

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The first practical demonstration of optical interference was provided by THOMAS YOUNG in 1801.
His experiment gave a very strong support to the wave theory of light.
EXPERIMENTAL
ARRANGEMENT
'S' is a slit, which receives light from a source of monochromatic light. As 'S' is a narrow slit so it
diffracts the light and it falls on slits A and B. After passing through the two slits, interference between
two waves takes place on the screen. The slits A and B act as two coherent sources of light. Due to
interference of waves alternate bright and dark fringes are obtained on the screen.
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
Let the wave length of light = l
Distance between slits A and B = d
Distance between slits and screen = L
Consider a point 'P' on the screen where the light waves coming from slits A and B interfere such
that PC=y. The wave coming from A covers a distance AP=r1 and the wave coming from B covers a
distance BP=r2 such that PB is greater than PA.

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(ii) Michelson ’s Interferometer
The Michelson interferometer (invented by the American physicist Albert A. Michelson, 1852–1931) is a
precision instrument that produces interference fringes by splitting a light beam into two parts and then
recombining them after they have traveled different optical paths. depicts the interferometer and the path of
a light beam from a single point on the extended source S, which is a ground-glass plate that diffuses the
light from a monochromatic lamp of wavelength . The beam strikes the half-silvered mirror M, where half
of it is reflected to the side and half passes through the mirror. The reflected light travels to the movable
plane mirror , where it is reflected back through M to the observer. The transmitted half of the original beam
is reflected back by the stationary mirror and then toward the observer by M.
(a) The Michelson interferometer. The extended light source is a ground-glass plate that diffuses
the light from a laser.
(b) A planar view of the interferometer.

Because both beams originate from the same point on the source, they are coherent and therefore interfere.
Notice from the figure that one beam passes through M three times and the other only once. To ensure that
Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
both beams traverse the same thickness of glass, a compensator plate C of transparent glass is placed in the
arm containing .
This plate is a duplicate of M (without the silvering) and is usually cut from the same piece of glass used to
produce M. With the compensator in place, any phase difference between the two beams is due solely to the
difference in the distances they travel.
The path difference of the two beams when they recombine is , where is the distance between M and ,
and is the distance between M and . Suppose this path difference is an integer number of wavelengths .
Then, constructive interference occurs and a bright image of the point on the source is seen at the observer.
Now the light from any other point on the source whose two beams have this same path difference also
undergoes constructive interference and produces a bright image. The collection of these point images is a
bright fringe corresponding to a path difference of When is moved a distance , this path difference changes
by , and each fringe moves to the position previously occupied by an adjacent fringe. Consequently, by
counting the number of fringes m passing a given point as is moved, an observer can measure minute
displacements that are accurate to a fraction of a wavelength, as shown by the relation

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4.Diffraction
The spreading of waves around obstacles. Diffraction takes place with sound;
with electromagnetic radiation, such as light, X-rays, and gamma rays; and with very small moving particles
such as atoms, neutrons, and electrons, which show wavelike properties. One consequence of diffraction is
that sharp shadows are not produced. The phenomenon is the result of interference (i.e., when waves are
superimposed, they may reinforce or cancel each other out) and is most pronounced when the wavelength of
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the radiation is comparable to the linear dimensions of the obstacle. When sound of various wavelengths or
frequencies is emitted from a loudspeaker, the loudspeaker itself acts as an obstacle and casts a shadow to its
rear so that only the longer bass notes are diffracted there. When a beam of light falls on the edge of an
object, it will not continue in a straight line but will be slightly bent by the contact, causing a blur at the edge
of the shadow of the object; the amount of bending will be proportional to the wavelength. When a stream of
fast particles impinges on the atoms of a crystal, their paths are bent into a regular pattern, which can be
recorded by directing the diffracted beam onto a photographic film.

“The bending and spreading of light waves around sharp edges or corner or
through small openings is called Diffraction of Light”

CONDITIONS FOR
DIFFRACTION
Diffraction effect depends upon the size of obstacle. Diffraction of light takes place if the size of
obstacle is comparable to the wavelength of light.
Light waves are very small in wavelength, i.e. from 4 x 10-7 m to 7 x 10-7 m. If the size of opening
or obstacle is near to this limit, only then we can observe the phenomenon of diffraction.
TYPES OF DIFFRACTION
Diffraction of light can be divided into two classes:
Fraunhoffer diffraction.
Fresnel diffraction.
FRAUNHOFFER DIFFRACTION
In Fraunhoffer diffraction,
Source and the screen are far away from each other.
Incident wave fronts on the diffracting obstacle are plane.
Diffracting obstacle give rise to wave fronts which are also plane.
Plane diffracting wave fronts are converged by means of a convex lens to produce diffraction pattern.
FRESNEL DIFFRACTION
In Fresnel diffraction,
Source and screen are not far away from each other.
Incident wave fronts are spherical.
Wave fronts leaving the obstacles are also spherical.
Convex lens is not needed to converge the spherical wave fronts.
DIFFRACTION GRATING
A diffraction grating is an optical device consists of a glass or
polished metal surface over which thousands of fine, equidistant, closely spaced parallel lines are been
ruled.
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PRINCIPLE
Its working principle is based on the phenomenon of diffraction. The space between lines act as slits
and these slits diffract the light waves there by producing a large number of beams which interfere in
such away to produce spectra.
GRATING ELEMENT www.citycollegiate.com
Distance between two consecutive slits(lines) of a grating is called grating element. If 'a' is the separation
between two slits and 'b' is the width of a slit, then grating element 'd' is given by;
d=a+b
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OR
d = length of grating/no. of lines
DETERMINATION OF
WAVE LENGTH OF LIGHT
BY DIFFRACTION GRATING
Consider two parallel rays of light r1 and r2 falling on a grating .After passing through slits they
are diffracted and brought to focus on a screen at point B by using a convex lens.. Draw a perpendicular
'pq' from P on r1. Ray (1) covers a distance "r q" more than ray (2).

We know that for constructive interference at point 'B', path difference between r1 and r2 will be 0, l, 2l,
3ll, …….,mll.
Therefore, rq = ml for bright point
Putting this value in equation (1), we get
ml = dsinq where m = order
This equation is called "grating equation" and is used to determine he wavelength of light.
CONCLUSION www.citycollegiate.com
'm' is called the order of grating and it is the number of bright or dark fringe obtained on the screen.
For m=0 , q=0, central bright maxima of zeroth order.
m=1 , q=q1, 1st order bright maxima (path difference = l)
m=2 , q=q2, 2nd order bright maxima (path difference = 2l)
With the increase in 'm', fringes of decreasing width and less brightness are obtained.
No order of line is possible at q>90o.

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
GRATING SPECTRA
Spectra of different orders are obtained symmetrically on both sides of zeroth order image.
Spectral lines are almost straight and quite sharp.
Spectral colors are in the order
The spectral lines are more and more dispersed as we go to higher orders.
Most of the incident intensity goes to zero t h order and rest of it is distributed among the other orders.

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5.Polarization

Natural sunlight and almost every other form of artificial illumination transmits light
waves whose electric field vectors vibrate in all perpendicular planes with respect to the direction of
propagation. When the electric field vectors are restricted to a single plane by filtration, then the light is said
to be polarized with respect to the direction of propagation and all waves vibrate in the same plane.

This concept is illustrated in Figure 1 below, and we have also constructed an interactive Java tutorial that
explores the interaction of light waves with polarizers. In this example, the incident light electric field
vectors are vibrating perpendicular to the direction of propagation in an equal distribution of all planes
before encountering the first polarizer. The polarizers illustrated above are actually filters containing long-
chain polymer molecules that are oriented in a single direction. Only the incident light that is vibrating in the

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
 same plane as the oriented polymer molecules is absorbed, while light vibrating at right angles to the plane
is passed through the first polarizing filter. In Figure 1, polarizer 1 is oriented vertically to the incident beam
so it will pass only the waves that are vertical in the incident beam. The wave passing through polarizer 1 is
subsequently blocked by polarizer 2 because the second polarizer is oriented horizontally with respect to the
electric field vector in the light wave. The concept of using two polarizers oriented at right angles with
respect to each other is commonly termed crossed polarization and is fundamental to the practice ofpolarized
light microscopy.

An excellent example of the basic application of liquid crystals to display devices can be
found in the seven-segment LCD numerical display (Figure 3). Here, the liquid crystalline phase is
sandwiched between two glass plates that have electrodes attached similar to those depicted in the
illustration below. In figure 3, the glass plates are drawn with seven black electrodes that can be individually
charged (these electrodes are transparent to light in real devices). Light passing through polarizer 1 is
polarized in the vertical direction and, when no current is applied to the electrodes, the liquid crystalline
phase induces a 90 degree "twist" of the light and it can pass through polarizer 2, which is polarized
horizontally and is perpendicular to polarizer 1. This light can then form one of the seven segments on the
display.

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Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Learning outcomes
The students will:
• describe light waves as a part of electromagnetic waves spectrum.
• describe the concept of wave front.
• state Huygens’s principle and use it to construct wave front after a time interval.
• state the necessary conditions to observe interference of light.
• describe Young’s double slit experiment and the evidence it provides to support the wave theory of light.
• explain color pattern due to interference in thin films.
• describe the parts and working of Michelson Interferometer and its uses.
• explain diffraction and identify that interference occurs between waves that have been diffracted.
• describe that diffraction of light is evidence that light behaves like waves.
• describe and explain diffraction at a narrow slit.
• describe the use of a diffraction grating to determine the wavelength of light and carry out calculations
using d sin θ = n λ.
• describe the phenomena of diffraction of X-rays through crystals.
• explain polarization as a phenomenon associated with transverse waves.
• identify and express that polarization is produced by a Polaroid.
• explain the effect of rotation of Polaroid on Polarization.
• explain how plane polarized light is produced and detected.
Reference Page:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_optics#:~:text=In%20physics%2C%20physical%20optics%2C%20or,geometric
%20optics%20is%20not%20valid.

https://earthsky.org/space/what-is-the-electromagnetic-
spectrum#:~:text=The%20electromagnetic%20spectrum%20is%20the,alternating%20electric%20and%20magnetic%
2 https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/definition/electromagnetic-
waves#:~:text=Definition%20of%20'Electromagnetic%20Waves',oscillating%20magnetic%20and%20electric%20field
s.

https://byjus.com/physics/wave-theory-of-light/

https://www.britannica.com/science/wave-front

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_interference

https://www.google.com/search?q=Young%E2%80%99s+double+slit+experiment&source=lmns&bih=608&biw=136
6&hl=en&ved=2ahUKEwiWjKDh65nqAhWJBGMBHbYlCbQQ_AUoAHoECAEQAA

https://www.citycollegiate.com/interference2.htm

http://www.citycollegiate.com/interference3.htm

https://www.olympus-lifescience.com/en/microscope-resource/primer/lightandcolor/polarization/

Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.
Prepared by Sir M. Ayub Ansari under the supervision of Ma’am Naheed Muneer Siddiqui.