CHAPTER 3
EXPERIMENTAL TEST RIG
DEVELOPMENT AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The engine testing facilities are designed and developed for single cylinder, naturally
aspirated, direct injection diesel engine with suitable instrumentation to measure
performance, emission and combustion parameters. The engine test rig design includes
selection of dynamometer, exhaust system compatible for five gas analyzer (AVL Digas 444)
and smoke meter (AVL 437), gravimetric fuel consumption measurement to reduce the effect
of density variation, air flow measurement system, speed and load measurement systems
along with its fine control, innovative cooling system to maintain uniform engine
temperature, calorimeter to measure heat balance, high speed data collection and combustion
analysis system including cylinder pressure sensor, crank angle encoder, data acquisition card
and data processing software. The details of the experimental test rig development, the
instrumentation and the procedures followed have been presented in this chapter.
3.2 DEVELOPMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL TEST RIG
In this experimental investigation a naturally aspirated four stroke, single cylinder, water
cooled, direct injection diesel engine was used. This engine is typically used for agricultural
applications like water pump-sets and normally runs about eight hours a day continuously in
the field. The technical specifications of engine are listed in Appendix 1. The fuel injection
system used in the present work was as given by the manufacturer. It had single barrel fuel
injection pump and inline fuel injector with a three holed nozzle, located near the combustion
chamber centre with an opening pressure of 20.5 MPa. The engine piston was a
hemispherical bowl-in-piston design. The schematic block diagram of diesel engine test
35
facility along with all the instrumentation for the present investigation is shown in Figure 3.1
and its overall pictorial view is displayed in Plate 3.1. The main specification and resolution
of the measurement devices are given in Appendix 2.
Figure 3.1 Schematic block diagram of experimental set up
Plate 3.1 Overall view of experimental test rig
36
3.3 INSTRUMENTATION
The essential relevant instruments required for sensing various engine performance,
combustion and exhaust emission parameters for the evaluation of engine tests were installed
at the appropriate points in the experimental set up. By using these instruments the basic
quantities that were measured during the engine tests were as follows:
1. Engine speed
2. Engine load
3. Fuel consumption
4. Air pressure drop across the orifice of the surge tank
5. Cylinder pressure
6. Crank angle encoding
7. Temperatures of air inlet, water inlet, cooling water outlet, exhaust gas, calorimeter.
8. Water flow rate of engine cooling system and calorimeter
9. Exhaust emissions- HC, CO, NO, CO2, O2 and smoke opacity
The details of these instruments with corresponding parameters are as follows:
3.3.1 Dynamometer
The measurement of engine Brake Power (BP) involves determination of the torque and
angular speed of the engine output shaft. This torque-measuring device is called a
dynamometer.The engine was clamped on a test bed and the shaft is connected with the help
of propeller shaft to an eddy current dynamometer for loading the engine, which is shown in
Plate 3.2. Eddy current dynamometer consists of a stator and a rotor disc and it is coupled to
the output shaft of the engine. On stator a number of electromagnets are fitted. When rotor
rotates eddy currents are produced in the stator due to magnetic flux set up by the passage of
field current in the electromagnets. These eddy currents oppose the rotor motion, thus loading
the engine. These eddy currents are dissipated in producing heat so that this type of
dynamometer needs cooling arrangement. A moment arm measures the torque. Engine load
was controlled by varying excitation current to the eddy current dynamometer using
dynamometer controller.
37
The AG 10 Series, “Saj” make eddy current dynamometer designed for the testing of engines
up to 400 kW (536 bhp) was used with various control systems. In this dynamometer the
shaft mounted finger type rotor runs in a dry gap and a closed circuit type cooling system
permits for a sump. Dynamometer load was measured from a strain gauge load cell and speed
was measured from a shaft mounted 360 PPR rotary encoder. To prevent overheating of the
dynamometer, it was cooled by maintaining water flow at a pressure of 0.1 MPa.
Engine Flywheel Dynamometer
Propeller shaft
Plate 3.2 Propeller shaft to connect engine flywheel with dynamometer
The Brake Power (BP) of the engine was calculated as follows:
BP = 2πNT × 10-3 (3.1)
Where,
BP = Brake power in kW.
N = Engine speed in rev/sec.
T = Torque in N-m = W×R
W = Load in kg. = 9.81×W in Newton
R = Dynamometer arm length (in this case 0.185 m)
Engine was operating at constant speed of 1500 rpm. Hence, the equation for the present
study becomes as follows:
BP = 0.2849 W (3.2)
38
The brake mean effective pressure, BMEP (in bar) is calculated from engine torque or BP as
follows:
BMEP = (BP × 60000 × 2× 10-5) / (Vd × N) (3.3)
BMEP = (4πT/Vd) × 10-5 (3.4)
Where,
Vd = Engine displacement volume = (π D2 L) / 4
D = Engine cylinder bore (in this case 0.0875 m)
L = Stroke (in this case 0.11 m)
Therefore, Equation 3.4 becomes
BMEP = 1.20946 × BP (3.5)
OR BMEP = 0.1899 × T (3.6)
3.3.2 Cylinder Pressure Transducer
To measure the cylinder gas pressure, a PCB (Model M111A22) piezoelectric pressure
transducer with built in amplifier was installed in the cylinder head. A special arrangement on
the engine cylinder head was made to mount the pressure transducer as shown in Plate 3.3. A
continuous circulation of engine cooling water was maintained in the cylinder head for
cooling the transducer to maintain the temperature of sensor within prescribed limits. The
charge amplifier was used to amplify the charge sensed by the pressure transducer and to
convert into voltage. The signals from charge amplifier were fed to a data acquisition card
linked to the computer.
39
Piezo sensor
Piezo cable
Piezo sensor
Plate 3.3 Installation of pressure transducer on cylinder head
3.3.3 Crank Angle Encoder
For analysing the combustion characteristics in an engine, it is necessary to obtain the
pressure-time data. To plot and study the cylinder pressure, the knowledge of crank angle
corresponding to each pressure data is necessary. For this purpose, a high precision crank
angle encoder was used for delivering signals for top dead centre (TDC) and crank angle
position, which produces 360 square pulses per rotation (one pulse per crank angle). Crank
angle encoder was fitted on the dynamometer as shown in Plate 3.4. To adjust the TDC
position a decompression lever on the rocker box was kept in vertical position and the
flywheel was rotated slowly in clockwise direction (viewed from dynamometer end) till the
CA mark on the flywheel matches with the reference pointer provided on the engine body
and the TDC light on the piezo powering unit glows. Similarly, the encoder body was rotated
slowly till the TDC light on the piezo powering unit glows.
For all data presented, the 00 crank angle (CA) was defined as TDC at the end of the
compression stroke. The signals from crank angle encoder were fed to a data acquisition card
linked to the computer.
40
Dynamometer Crank Angle Encoder
Crank Angle Encoder
Load cell
Plate 3.4 Installation of crank angle (CA) encoder
3.3.4 Temperature Measuring Instruments
In this investigation the temperatures of air inlet, engine cooling water inlet, cooling water
outlet, exhaust gas, calorimeter inlet and calorimeter outlet are measured with various
temperature sensors. Engine coolant and calorimeter temperatures were measured by using
RTD‟s and the exhaust gas temperature was measured by „K‟ type thermocouples during the
experiments. The ambient temperature was measured using a mercury thermometer. The
accuracy and technical detailed specifications of these instruments are given in Appendix IV.
3.3.5 Measurement of Air Consumption
The flow of air is pulsating due to reciprocating nature of the engine and air is a compressible
fluid (Heywood, 1988). So, for satisfactory measurement of air consumption an air box of
suitable volume is fitted with orifice. The air box is used for damping out the pulsations. The
diameter of the orifice is 20 mm and the discharge coefficient of flow is 0.6. The orifice was
connected to U-shaped tube manometer of scale resolution of 1 mm to measure the
differential pressure across the orifice.
The mass flow rate of air in terms of kg/hr was determined by the following equation.
41
2 g hw w
ma Cd A ( ) a 3600
a (3.7)
Where,
Cd = coefficient of discharge of orifice (in this case 0.6)
A= cross section area of orifice (m2)
g= gravity acceleration (9.8 m/s2)
hw= differential head across orifice (m of water)
ρw = density of water (kg/m3)
ρa = density of air (kg/m3)
The engine output is limited by the maximum amount of air that can be taken in during the
suction stroke, because only a certain amount of fuel can be burned effectively with a given
quantity of air. Volumetric efficiency is one of the important parameters used to measure the
effectiveness of four stroke engines induction process. It is an indication of the „breathing‟
ability of the engine and is defined as the ratio of the volume of air actually inducted at
ambient conditions to swept volume of the engine. However, on mass basis it is defined as
the ratio of the actual mass of air drawn into the engine during a given period of time to the
theoretical mass which should have been drawn in during that same period of time, based
upon the total piston displacement of the engine, and the temperature and pressure of the
surrounding atmosphere. This definition is applicable only to the naturally aspirated engine as
in our case.
ma
v 100
mth (3.8)
ma
v 100
N
D2 L a 60
4 2 (3.9)
42
Where,
ηv = volumetric efficiency of engine
ma = mass flow rate of air consumption (kg/hr) from Equation 3.7
mth = mass flow rate of air consumption (kg/hr)
D = bore of the cylinder (in this case 0.0875 m)
L = length of the stroke (in this case 0.11 m)
N = engine speed (rpm)
ρa = density of air (kg/m3)
3.3.6 Measurement of Fuel Consumption
In this experiment the fuel consumption was measured by two methods, volumetric method
and gravimetric method as the blended oxygenated fuel were highly volatile. In gravimetric
method, the time to consume a given mass of the fuel is measured. The Differential Pressure
(DP) transmitter working on hydrostatic head principles was used for fuel consumption
measurement.
In volumetric method, the fuel consumed by an engine was measured by determining the
volume flow of the fuel in a given time interval (typically 60 sec.) with a stop watch. A glass
burette having graduations in ml was used for volume flow measurement. Time taken by the
engine to consume this volume is measured by stopwatch. The fuel measurement system used
in this experimental work is shown in Plate 3.5.
The mass flow rate of fuel in terms of kg/hr was calculated by the following equation.
V
mf f 3600
t (3.10)
Where,
m f = mass flow rate of fuel consumption (kg/hr)
V= fuel volume consumption (ml)
t = time of fuel consumption (s)
ρf = density of fuel (kg/m3)
43
Manometer
Load indicator
Fuel cocks
Fuel burette
Plate 3.5 Fuel measurement system
A measure of overall efficiency of the engine is given by the brake thermal efficiency (BTE).
Brake thermal efficiency is the ratio of energy in the brake power to the input fuel energy in
appropriate units. BTE was calculated by using mass fuel consumption rate according to the
Equation 3.11.
BP
BTE 3600
m f QHV
(3.11)
The fuel consumption characteristics of an engine are generally expressed in terms of brake
specific fuel consumption (BSFC) in kilograms of fuel per kilowatt-hour. It is one of the
important parameters that reflect how good the engine performance is. It is inversely
proportional to the brake thermal efficiency of the engine (Heywood, 1988).
mf
BSFC (3.12)
BP
Where,
BTE = brake thermal efficiency (%)
BSFC = brake specific fuel consumption (kg/kW-hr)
m f = mass flow rate of fuel consumption (kg/hr)
44
BP = brake power (kW) from Equation 3.2
QHV = calorific value of fuel (kJ/kg)
The brake thermal efficiency is a more representative reflection of the fuel economy when
operating on oxygenated fuels (Huang et al., 2003).
3.3.7 Rotameters
While carrying out engine tests, it is necessary to keep engine cooling water temperature
constant throughout the test, which can influence mainly the exhaust emission levels, thus
increasing the credibility for comparing the measured values. Engine cooling water
temperature was kept constant for all the tests by varying cooling water flow rate which was
measured by rotameter. Two rotameters are fitted in the panel box structure are shown in
Plate 3.6. The rotameters are used to regulate and measure the water flow of engine cooling
system and calorimeter. Rotameter works on the principle of variable area. Float is free to
move up and down in a tapered measuring glass tube. Upward flow causes the float to take up
a position in which the buoyancy forces and the weight are balanced. The vertical position of
the float as indicated by scale is a measurement of the instantaneous flow rate. The rotameters
of Eureka make, model PG-1 to 21 are used.
Plate 3.6 Rotameters to regulate water flow of engine and calorimeter
45
3.3.8 Exhaust Gas Analyser and Smoke Meter
In this study, exhaust emission analysis was done for UBHC, CO, CO 2, NO and smoke
opacity. NOx refers to a class of compounds called nitrogen oxides, which usually represents
a mixture of NO and NO2. In diesel engine exhaust, NO is usually the most abundant NOx
and constitutes more than 70-90% of total NOx (Majewski, 2006). In diesel engines AVL
Digas 444 exhaust gas analyzer as shown in Plate 3.7 was used to measure the concentrations
of NOx, CO, CO2, HC and O2 in the exhaust emissions. The instrument measured CO, CO 2
and HC emissions with spectrum analysis principle and NO and O 2 by the electrochemical
sensors. Carbon monoxide and CO2 were measured in terms of percent volume, while HC
and NO were measured in ppm (parts per million).
The smoke opacity was measured by using an AVL 437 smoke meter which is displayed in
Plate 3.8. This instrument gave reading in terms of percentage opacity. The principle behind
measuring the smoke intensity is that when a light beam is projected across a flowing stream
of exhaust gases, a certain portion of light is absorbed or scattered by the suspended soot
particles in the exhaust. The remaining portion of the light falls on a photocell, generating a
photoelectric current, which is a measure of smoke density. The technical detailed
specifications of AVL Digas 444 and AVL 437 smoke meter are given in Appendix III and
Appendix IV respectively.
Plate 3.7 AVL DIGAS 444 Five-Gas Analyser
46
Plate 3.8 AVL 437 Smoke Meter
3.3.9 Data Acquisition System
Engine setup was provided with necessary data acquisition system for engine performance
and combustion analysis as shown in Plate 3.9. The instruments were provided for
combustion pressure and crank-angle measurements. These signals were interfaced to
computer through engine indicator for Pθ−PV diagrams. Provision was also made for
interfacing airflow, fuel flow, temperatures and load measurement. The set up had stand-
alone panel box consisting of air box, manometer, fuel measuring unit, transmitters for air
and fuel flow measurements, process indicator and engine indicator. The signals from various
instruments were fed to a data acquisition card linked to the computer. The labview based
engine performance analysis software package “Enginesoft LV” was used for performance
evaluation.
Plate 3.9 Main components of data acquisition system
47
3.4 ENGINE TESTING METHODOLOGY
Before conducting the actual engine tests, the engine was overhauled with necessary
replacements, fresh lubricating oil was filled in the oil sump and the various measuring
devices were calibrated. In order to maintain consistency of the experimental observations
and to establish a basis of comparison of the results, preliminary performance tests were
carried out with the neat diesel only. After warming up the engine and reaching the stable
operating conditions, experimental data were collected for every loading condition.
The engine tests were carried out as per Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) test
procedure (D2-5 Mode Cycle of ISO: 8178- Part 4) for 10%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of
full load at 1500 rpm rated speed and 20.5 MPa injection pressure for all test fuels. The
constant speed of the engine was maintained by adjusting fuel flow rate manually through a
fuelling rack of the fuel injection pump. Engine temperature was kept constant for all the tests
by varying cooling water flow rate which was measured by rotameter. Before running the
engine to a new fuel, the fuel tank and the fuel injection system were cleaned and it was
allowed to run for a sufficient time to consume any remaining fuel from the previous
experiments. The required engine combustion, performance and emission parameters were
recorded and analysed.
3.5 VARIABLE INJECTION TIMING
The engine was operated at the static (pump spill) injection timing of 23 0 CA before TDC in
compression stroke for all test fuels and all loads. To check the static injection timing the fuel
line was substituted by an adaptor and the flywheel was rotated by hand slowly. The crank
angle (CA) where the first droplet of fuel came out of the adaptor tip was established as the
static injection timing. This procedure was repeated five times and finally the average value
was taken as the static injection timing.
As injection timing plays crucial role in start of combustion and quality of combustion, the
effects of variable injection timing were studied for both advancement and retardation.
However, as discussed in the literature review the addition of diethyl ether to diesel fuel led
to retarding of dynamic injection timing and start of heat release rate. To compensate this late
injection and combustion it was necessary to find out the effect of variable injection timing
48
on combustion, performance and emissions. Therefore, the optimum DEE-diesel blend was
chosen for variable injection timing tests.
For changing the injection timing in this jerk-pulse pump, the pump was fitted with different
number of shims under the pump body which are shown in Plate 3.10. The standard setting of
the engine used for test was with four shims to give standard injection timing of 230 before
top dead center (BTDC). By inserting shims of different thickness between the fuel injection
pump body and engine body the injection timings were varied according to data recorded in
the Table 3.1. The present experimental work was done with 3 0 and 60 advancement, normal
and 30 and 70 retarded injection timings. Experiments were conducted for optimizing the fuel
injection timing for DE15D blend fuel. The fuel injection pressure was maintained at
optimum injection pressure of 20.5 MPa and tests were carried out at different injection
timings.
Table 3.1 Number of shims and corresponding injection timing
Injection timing (CA) BTDC 29 26 23 20 16
Number of shims inserted between 01 02 04 06 08
pump body and engine body
Plate 3.10 Main components of variable injection timing system
49
50
