Seeley’s

ESSENTIALS OF
Anatomy &
Physiology
Tenth Edition

Cinnamon Vanputte
Jennifer Regan
Andrew Russo

See separate PowerPoint slides for all figures and tables

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Chapter 5
Integumentary
System
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EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES

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Integumentary System 1

The integumentary system consists of the skin and

accessory structures, such as hair, glands, and nails.
Integument means covering.

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Integumentary System 2

Figure 5.1
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Integumentary System Functions 1

1. Protection. The skin provides protection against

abrasion and ultraviolet light.

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Integumentary System Functions 1

2. Sensation. The integumentary system has

sensory receptors that can detect heat, cold,
touch, pressure, and pain.

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Integumentary System Functions 1

3. Vitamin D production. When exposed to

ultraviolet light, the skin produces a molecule
that can be transformed into vitamin D.

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Integumentary System Functions 2

4. Temperature regulation. The amount of

blood flow beneath the skin’s surface and the
activity of sweat glands in the skin both help
regulate body temperature.

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Integumentary System Functions 2

5. Excretion. Small amounts of waste products

are lost through the skin and in gland secretions.

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Skin
The epidermis is the most superficial layer of skin. It is a
layer of epithelial tissue that rests on the dermis.
The dermis is a layer of dense connective tissue.
The skin rests on the subcutaneous tissue, which is a
layer of connective tissue.
The subcutaneous tissue is not part of the skin.

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Epidermis 1

The epidermis prevents water loss and resists

abrasion.
The epidermis, known as the cutaneous membrane,
is a keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.
The epidermis is composed of distinct layers called
strata.

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Epidermis 2

The stratum corneum, the most superficial stratum of the

epidermis, consists of dead squamous cells filled with keratin.
Keratin gives the stratum corneum its structural strength.
Cells of the deepest strata perform mitosis.
As new cells form, they push older cells to the surface, where
they slough, or flake off.

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Epidermis 3

Excessive sloughing of stratum corneum cells

from the surface of the scalp is called dandruff.
In skin subjected to friction, the number of
layers in the stratum corneum greatly increases,
producing a thickened area called a callus.
Over a bony prominence, the stratum corneum
can thicken to form a cone-shaped structure
called a corn.

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The stratum lucidum (loo′si-dŭm) is a thin, clear

zone above the stratum granulosum.
It consists of several layers of dead cells with
indistinct boundaries.
Keratin fibers are present, but the keratohyalin,
which was evident as granules in the stratum
granulosum, has dispersed around the keratin
fibers, and the cells appear somewhat
transparent. The stratum lucidum is present in
only a few areas of the body.
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The stratum granulosum (gran-ū-lō′sŭm)

consists of two to five layers of somewhat
flattened, diamond-shaped cells.
This stratum derives its name from the
presence of protein granules of keratohyalin
(ker′ă-tō-hī′ă-lin), which accumulate in the
cytoplasm of the cell.

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Superficial to the stratum basale is the stratum

spinosum (spī-nō′sŭm), consisting of 8–10 layers
of many-sided cells

As the cells in this stratum are pushed to

the surface, they flatten; desmosomes break
apart, and new desmosomes form.
Additional keratin fibers and lipid-filled,
membrane-bound organelles called lamellar
bodies form inside the keratinocytes.
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The deepest portion of the epidermis is a single

layer of cuboidal or columnar cells called the
stratum basale (bā′să-lē), or stratum
germinativum.
The epidermis is anchored to the basement
membrane by hemidesmosomes. In
addition, desmosomes hold the keratinocytes
together.

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THICK AND THIN SKIN

Thick skin has all five epithelial strata, and the
stratum corneum has many layers of cells. Thick
skin is found in areas subject to pressure or
friction, such as the palms of the hands, the
soles of the feet, and the fingertips.

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THICK AND THIN SKIN

Thin skin covers the rest of the body and is more
flexible than thick skin. Each of its strata
contains fewer layers of cells than are found in
thick skin; the stratum granulosum frequently
consists of only one or two layers of cells, and
the stratum lucidum is generally absent. Hair is
found only in thin skin.

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CORNS AND CALLUSES

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Skin Color 1

Factors that determine skin color include

pigments in the skin, blood circulating through the
skin, and the thickness of the stratum corneum.
The two primary pigments are melanin and
carotene.
Melanin is the group of pigments primarily
responsible for skin, hair, and eye color.
Carotene is a yellow pigment found in plants such
as squash and carrots.
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Skin Color 2

Most melanin molecules are brown to black

pigments, but some are yellowish or reddish.
Melanin provides protection against ultraviolet light
from the sun.
Melanin is produced by melanocytes and the melanin
is packaged into vesicles called melanosomes, which
move into the cell processes of melanocytes.
Epithelial cells phagocytize the tips of the melanocyte
cell processes, thereby acquiring melanosomes.

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Melanin Transfer to Epithelial Cells

Figure 5.4
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Skin Color 3

Large amounts of melanin form freckles or moles in

some regions of the skin.
Melanin production is determined by genetic factors,
exposure to light, and hormones.
Genetic factors are responsible for the amounts of
melanin produced in different races.
Since all races have about the same number of
melanocytes, racial variations in skin color are
determined by the amount, kind, and distribution of
melanin.
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Skin Color 4

Exposure to ultraviolet light—for example, in

sunlight— stimulates melanocytes to increase
melanin production. The result is a suntan.
Although many genes are responsible for skin
color, a single mutation can prevent the
production of melanin and cause albinism.

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Skin Color 5

Carotene is lipid-soluble; when consumed, it

accumulates in the lipids of the stratum corneum
and in the adipocytes of the dermis and
subcutaneous tissue.
If large amounts of carotene are consumed, the
skin can become quite yellowish.

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Skin Color 6

The color of blood in the dermis contributes to

skin color.
A decrease in blood flow, as occurs in shock, can
make the skin appear pale.
A decrease in the blood O2 content produces a
bluish color of the skin, called cyanosis.

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SKIN CANCER
Most skin cancers result from damage caused by
the ultraviolet (UV) radiation in sunlight. Some skin
cancers are induced by chemicals, x-rays,depression
of the immune system, or inflammation, whereas
others are inherited.

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ABCDE rule

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Dermis 1

The dermis is composed of

dense collagenous connective
tissue containing fibroblasts,
adipocytes, and macrophages.
Nerves, hair follicles, smooth
muscles, glands, and lymphatic
vessels extend into the dermis.
Collagen fibers, oriented in
many directions, and elastic
fibers are responsible for the
structural strength of the
dermis and resistance to
stretch.
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Dermis 2

Some collagen fibers are oriented more

directions than others, forming cleavage lines.
Cleavage lines, or tension lines, in the skin, are
more resistant to stretch.
An incision made parallel with these lines tends
to gap less and produce less scar tissue.
If the skin is overstretched for any reason, the
dermis can be damaged, leaving stretch marks.

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Cleavage Lines

Figure 5.3
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TWO LAYERS OF DERMIS

papillary and
the reticular areas which are
composed of areolar and
dense irregular connective
tissue, respectively.

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Dermis 3

Dermal papillae are projections

toward the epidermis found in the
upper part of the dermis.
The dermal papillae contain many
blood vessels.
The dermal papillae in the palms of
the hands, the soles of the feet, and
the tips of the digits are arranged in
parallel, curving ridges that shape
the overlying epidermis into
fingerprints and footprints.

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TWO LAYERS OF DERMIS

The reticular layer is the
deepest skin layer. It
contains dense irregular
connective tissue, as well
as blood vessels, sweat and
oil glands, and deep
pressure receptors called
lamellar corpuscles

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DECUBITUS ULCER

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Subcutaneous Tissue 1

The subcutaneous tissue, which is

not part of the skin, is sometimes
called hypodermis.
The subcutaneous tissue attaches
the skin to underlying bone and
muscle and supplies it with blood
vessels and nerves.
It is loose connective tissue,
including adipose tissue that
contains about half the body’s
stored lipids.

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Subcutaneous Tissue 2

The amount and location of adipose tissue vary

with age, sex, and diet.
Adipose tissue in the subcutaneous tissue
functions as padding and insulation.
The subcutaneous tissue can be used to estimate
total body fat.
The acceptable percentage of body fat varies
from 21% to 30% for females and from 13% to
25% for males.
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APPLE AND PEAR SHAPED BODIES

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HAIR AND HAIR FOLLICLES

Millions of hairs, produced by hair follicles, are
found all over the body surface except on
the palms of the hands, soles of the feet,
nipples, and lips.

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Hair 1

Each hair arises from a hair

follicle, an invagination of the
epidermis that extends deep
into the dermis.
A hair shaft protrudes above
the surface of the skin; the
root is below the surface and
the hair bulb is the expanded
base of the root.

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Hair 2

A hair has a hard cortex, which

surrounds a softer center, the
medulla.
The cortex is covered by the cuticle,
a single layer of overlapping cells
that holds the hair in the hair
follicle.

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Hair 2

Hair follicles are actually compound

structures. The inner epithelial root
sheath is composed of epithelial
tissue and forms the hair. The outer
fibrous sheath is actually
dermal connective tissue

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Hair 2

Hair is produced in the hair bulb,

which rests on the hair papilla.
The hair papilla is an extension of
the dermis that protrudes into the
hair bulb and contains blood
vessels.

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Hair 3

Hair is produced in cycles, with a growth stage

and resting stage.
During the growth stage, hair is formed by
mitosis of epithelial cells within the hair bulb;
these cells divide and undergo keratinization.
During the resting stage, growth stops and the
hair is held in the hair follicle.
When the next growth stage begins, a new hair is
formed and the old hair falls out.
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Hair 4

The duration of each stage depends on the

individual hair.
Eyelashes grow for about 30 days and rest for
105 days, whereas scalp hairs grow for 3 years
and rest for 1 to 2 years.
The loss of hair normally means that the hair is
being replaced because the old hair falls out of
the hair follicle when the new hair begins to
grow.
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Hair 5

Each hair follicle is

attached to smooth
muscle cells called
the arrector pili
muscle, which can
contract and cause
the hair to become
perpendicular to
the skin’s surface.

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CUTANEOUS Glands 1

Sebaceous glands are simple,

branched acinar glands, with
most being connected by a duct
to the superficial part of a hair
follicle.
They produce sebum, an oily,
white substance rich in lipids.
The sebum is released by
holocrine secretion and lubricates
the hair and the surface of the
skin, which prevents drying and
protects against some bacteria.
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Glands 2

Eccrine sweat glands are

simple, coiled, tubular glands
and release sweat by
merocrine secretion.
Eccrine glands are located in
almost every part of the skin
but most numerous in the
palms and soles.
They produce a secretion that
is mostly water with a few
salts.
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Glands 3

Eccrine sweat glands have ducts that open onto

the surface of the skin through sweat pores and
are for thermal regulation.
Sweat can also be released in the palms, soles,
armpits, and other places because of emotional
stress.

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Glands of the Skin

Figure 5.6
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Glands 4

Apocrine sweat glands are simple,

coiled, tubular glands that produce a
thick secretion rich in organic
substances.
The glands open into hair follicles in
the armpits and genitalia.
Apocrine sweat glands become active
at puberty because of the influence of
sex hormones.
The secretion generally is odorless, but
when released quickly breaks down by
bacterial action giving body odor.
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Glands of the Skin

Figure 5.6
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Nails 1

The nail is a thin plate, consisting of

layers of dead stratum corneum
cells that contain a very hard type
of keratin.
The visible part of the nail is the
nail body, and the part of the nail
covered by skin is the nail root.
The cuticle, or eponychium, is
stratum corneum that extends onto
the nail body and the nail root
extends distally from the nail
matrix.

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Nails 2

The nail also attaches to the underlying

nail bed, which is located distal to the
nail matrix.
The nail matrix and bed are epithelial
tissue with a stratum basale that gives
rise to the cells that form the nail.
A small part of the nail matrix, the
lunula, can be seen through the nail
body as a whitish, crescent-shaped area
at the base of the nail.
Cell production within the nail matrix
causes the nail to grow continuously.
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Integumentary System Protection 1

The integumentary system performs many

protective functions:
1. Reduction in body water loss
2. Acts as a barrier that prevents microorganisms
and other foreign substances from entering the
body
3. Protects underlying structures against abrasion
4. Melanin absorbs ultraviolet light and protects
underlying structures from its damaging effects
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Integumentary System Protection 2

5. Hair protection: The hair on the head acts as

a heat insulator, eyebrows keep sweat out of
the eyes, eyelashes protect the eyes from
foreign objects, and hair in the nose and ears
prevents the entry of dust and other
materials.
6. The nails protect the ends of the fingers and
toes from damage and can be used in
defense.

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Sensory Receptor
Many sensory receptors are associated with the
skin.
Receptors in the epidermis and dermis can
detect pain, heat, cold, and pressure.
Although hair does not have a nerve supply,
sensory receptors around the hair follicle can
detect the movement of a hair.

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Vitamin D Production
1. UV light causes the skin to produce a precursor
molecule of vitamin D.
2. The precursor molecule is carried by the blood
to the liver where it is enzymatically converted.
3. The enzymatically converted molecule is carried
by the blood to the kidneys where it is converted
again to the active form of vitamin D.
4. Vitamin D stimulates the small intestine to
absorb calcium and phosphate for many body
functions.
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Temperature Regulation 1

Regulation of body temperature is important

because the rate of chemical reactions within
the body can be increased or decreased by
changes in body temperature.
Even slight changes in temperature can make
enzymes operate less efficiently and disrupt the
normal rates of chemical changes in the body.
Exercise, fever, and an increase in environmental
temperature tend to raise body temperature.
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Temperature Regulation 2

In order to maintain homeostasis, the body

must rid itself of excess heat.
Blood vessels in the dermis dilate and enable
more blood to flow within the skin, thus causing
heat to dissipate from the body.
Sweat also assists in loss of heat through
evaporative cooling.

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Temperature Regulation 3

If body temperature begins to drop below

normal, heat can be conserved by the
constriction of dermal blood vessels, which
reduces blood flow to the skin.
Less heat is transferred from deeper structures
to the skin, and heat loss is reduced.
With smaller amounts of warm blood flowing
through the skin, the skin temperature
decreases.
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Heat Exchange in the Skin

Figure 5.8
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Excretion
The integumentary system plays a minor role in
excretion, the removal of waste products from
the body.
In addition to water and salts, sweat contains
small amounts of waste products, such as urea,
uric acid, and ammonia.
Even though the body can lose large amounts of
sweat, the sweat glands do not play a significant
role in the excretion of waste products.
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Burns 1

A burn is injury to a tissue caused by heat, cold,

friction, chemicals, electricity, or radiation.
Burns are classified according to their depth.
Partial-thickness burns are classified as first-
degree and second-degree.
A full-thickness burn is a third-degree burn.

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First-Degree Burn
A first-degree (superficial) burn
involves only the epidermis and
is red and painful.
Slight edema, or swelling, may
be present.
They can be caused by sunburn
or brief exposure to very hot or
very cold objects, and they heal
without scarring in about a
week.

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Second-Degree Burn
Second-degree (partial-thickness) burns
damage both the epidermis and the
dermis.
If dermal damage is minimal, symptoms
include redness, pain, edema, and
blisters.
Healing takes about 2 weeks, and no
scarring results.
If the burn goes deep into the dermis,
the wound appears red, tan, or white;
can take several months to heal and
might scar.
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Third-Degree Burn
Third-degree (full-thickness) burns
damage the complete epidermis and
dermis.
The region of third-degree burn is
usually painless because sensory
receptors in the epidermis and
dermis have been destroyed.
Third-degree burns appear white,
tan, brown, black, or deep cherry red.

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RULE OF 9

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Burn Healing
In all second-degree burns, the epidermis,
including the stratum basale where the stem
cells are found, is damaged.
The epidermis regenerates from epithelial tissue
in hair follicles and sweat glands, as well as from
the edges of the wound.
Deep partial-thickness and full-thickness burns
take a long time to heal, and they form scar
tissue with disfiguring and debilitating wound
contractures.
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Treatment of Burns
To prevent complications of deep partial-thickness
and full-thickness burns and to speed healing, skin
grafts are often performed.
In a procedure called a split skin graft, the
epidermis and part of the dermis are removed from
another part of the body and placed over the burn
When it is not possible or practical to move skin
from one part of the body to a burn site, physicians
sometimes use artificial skin or grafts from human
cadavers.
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Burns 2

Figure 5.9
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Aging and the Integument

Blood flow decreases and skin becomes thinner
due to decreased amounts of collagen
Decreased activity of sebaceous and sweat
glands make temperature regulation more
difficult
Loss of elastic fibers cause skin to sag and
wrinkle

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