JETS 54.

3 (September 2011) 467–84

HOW MANY VIRGIN BIRTHS ARE IN THE BIBLE?

(ISAIAH 7:14): A PROPHETIC PATTERN APPROACH

paul d. wegner*

There is little doubt that Isa 7:14 and its reuse in Matt 1:23 is one of the
most difficult problems for modern biblical scholars. For centuries, attempts
have been made to provide a clear rationale as to how Matthew can pick up
this passage from Isaiah which appears to have its own historical context and
apply it to Jesus. The idea that this passage refers to Christ goes back at least
as far as Tertullian (c. AD 160–c. 220), an early North African Church father
who stated the following:
But we need to show why the Son of God had to be born of a virgin. It is to be
expected that the one who was going to inaugurate a new birth had to be born
in a new way, and Isaiah had foretold that the Lord would give a sign of this.
What was the sign? Look, a virgin shall conceive in her womb and bear a son.
Accordingly, a virgin did conceive and bore Emmanuel, God with us. 1

However, it is very difficult to see how Matthew could apply this verse to Jesus
given its present context. NT scholars understandably emphasize the NT’s use
of this Isaianic text and its fulfillment in Jesus. Dr. Walter Kaiser’s emphasis
on the “single intent of the author” seems to demand such a reading. However,
the more one examines Isaiah 7 and its near context, the more problems arise.
Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard nicely summarize the problem:
Though Kaiser has done an admirable job of defending his case in several prob-
lematic texts, we doubt that he has succeeded in each instance, or that it is
possible to demonstrate that the OT writers did in fact intend all the meaning
that NT writers later found. We suggest there are instances where NT authors
found meaning in an OT text that the OT author did not intend. 2

If they are correct, then at least three questions need to be addressed: (1) How
is Isa 7:14–17 related to its context? (2) How is Isa 7:14–17 fulfilled in Christ?
and (3) Is there more than one virgin birth in the Bible?

* Paul Wegner is professor of Old Testament at Phoenix Seminary, 4222 E. Thomas Rd., Suite
400, Phoenix, AZ 85018.
1 Isaiah Interpreted by Early Church and Medieval Commentators (translated and edited by

Robert Louis Wilken; The Church’s Bible; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2007) 98.
2 William W. Klein, Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard Jr., Introduction to Biblical

Interpretation (2d ed.; Dallas: Word, 2004) 121.

468 journal of the evangelical theological society

i. how is isaiah 7:14–17 related to its context?

Isaiah 7 is a part of the “so-called” Isaianic Memoir (6:1–9:6 [ET7]) 3 and
describes events surrounding the Syro-Ephraimite War (735/34–733/32 BC). 4
Toward the middle of the eighth century BC, Assyria was beginning to expand
its empire; part of its goal was to reach Lebanon. Syria (Aram) recognized As-
syria’s intent and realized that Assyria would view them as a major road block
to reaching their goal. Syria and Israel (called Ephraim) 5 therefore formed
an alliance to repel the Assyrians. This new alliance hoped to gain further
strength from the surrounding nations, but Ahaz, the king of Judah, was un-
willing to join forces with them. This placed Syria and Israel in a precarious
position (i.e. Assyrian forces would likely come from the East and North, while
Judah, a possible enemy, lay to the South). Thus the coalition of Syria and
Israel was getting ready to descend upon Jerusalem to neutralize the possible
threat to their plans. This is the historical context of Isaiah 7. The first two
verses of the chapter provide the setting of the oracle by summarizing the
events that led up to the Syro-Ephraimite War. The readers are made aware
that the coalition’s hopes would not be realized, but Ahaz and his people were
not privy to this information and were terrified at the prospect of an attack on
Jerusalem by the much stronger coalition of Syria and Israel (v. 2).
God sends Isaiah and his son Shear-jashub to Ahaz to encourage him to
trust in Yahweh as their protector and not to fear the coalition, but Ahaz
demonstrates an amazing lack of trust in Yahweh. God then provides four
additional means of encouragement for Ahaz to trust him; nevertheless, Ahaz
ultimately calls on Assyria for help against the coalition instead. The four
means of encouragement are:

1. God’s assurance that the coalition will not harm them (vv. 3–7). God
sends Isaiah and his son to Ahaz to the conduit of the upper pool, most likely
while Ahaz was monitoring their water supply to make sure Judah could
sustain a prolonged attack from Syria and Israel. But God’s message to Ahaz

3 The “so-called” Isaianic Memoir (6:1–9:6 [ET7]) is enclosed in a larger, palistrophic structure

whose parallel units span Isaiah 5–12:

1. Song of Judgment (5:1–7)
2. “Six Woes” Pronounced upon the Wicked (5:8–24)
3. “Uplifted Hand” Oracle: Culminating with the Destruction by Assyria (5:25–30)
4. The Isaianic Memoir (6:1–9:6)
3′. “Four Uplifted Hand” Oracles: Culminating with the Destruction by Assyria (9:7–10:4)
2′. “Woe” Pronounced upon Assyria (10:5–34) that Gives Rise to a Restoration of Judah (11:1–16)
1′. Song of Thanksgiving (12:1–6)
4 See also 2 Kgs 16:5–9; 2 Chr 28:5–21; B. Oded, “The Historical Background of the Syro-

Ephraimite War Reconsidered,” CBQ 34 (1972) 153–65; H. Donner, “The Syro-Ephraimite War and
the End of the Kingdom of Israel,” in Israelite and Judaean History (ed. J. H. Hayes and J. M. Miller;
OTL; Philadelphia: Westminster, 1977) 421–34; M. E. W. Thompson, Situation and Theology: Old
Testament Interpretations of the Syro-Ephraimite War (Sheffield: Almond, 1982); Roger Tomes, “The
Reason for the Syro-Ephraimite War,” JSOT 59 (1993) 55–71.
5 Named after its main tribe or after the Ephraimite highlands because they may have been the

only part of the Northern Kingdom left at this point.

 how many virgin births are in the bible? 469

is: do not fear these two countries, for their power is nearly depleted (they
are pictured as smoldering coals of a burned out fire). Their elaborate plan of
capturing Jerusalem, tearing down its walls, and setting up the puppet king,
Tabe’el, will not come to pass. 6

2. A circumlocution (vv. 8–9). 7 This interesting figure of speech was

intended to encourage Ahaz to take his eyes off of the two powerful countries
sitting on his northern border and to realize instead that they are controlled
by two mere men. God can certainly take care of them (cf. Isa 2:22). Once he
has done that, the two countries will no longer be a threat. The structure is
as follows:

Why be afraid of two mere men?

This section ends with an interesting play on the Hebrew word ʾAman: in the
Hiphil form it carries the nuance “to believe” but in the Niphal form it means
“to stand” or “to be established.” 8

3. An offer of a sign (vv. 10–13). Again God sends Isaiah to Ahaz (the
timing between these two messages is uncertain) to offer Ahaz the chance of
requesting a sign from God. The sign is only limited by Ahaz’s imagination,
and a merism is used to indicate its breadth (i.e. “as deep as Sheol” or “as
high as heaven”). Paul Kruger notes that the essence of a “sign” (ʾôt) is that
it is “a means of transmitting information. The content of this information
is determined by the context in which it is used.” 9 The sun, moon, and stars
are used as “signs” to signal the change in times and seasons (Gen 1:14). The
rainbow is a “sign” signifying to mankind that God will not flood the earth
again (Gen 9:12–13, 17), but the word can also be used merely to signify a
banner or standard (Num 2:2). Most of the eighty occurrences of the word
“sign” signify some type of miraculous event (Exod 7:3; Deut 4:34; 6:22; 7:19;

6 Hans Wildberger, Isaiah 1–12: A Commentary (trans. Thomas H. Trapp; Minneapolis: Fortress,

1991) 293–94, 300–301. Cf. W. F. Albright, “The Son of Tabe’el,” BASOR 140 (1955) 34–35; E. Vogt,
“Filius Tab’el,” Bib 37 (1956) 263–64; A. Vanel, “Ṭâbe’él en Is. VII 6 et le roi Tubail de Tyr,” VTSup
26 (1974) 17–24.
7 See R. E. Clements, Isaiah 1–39 (NCBC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980) 85.
8 R. Smend, “Zur Geschichte von ‫האמין‬,” VTSup XVI (1967) 284–90; John N. Oswalt, The Book

of Isaiah, Chapters 1–39 (NICOT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986) 193. See esp. J. T. Willis for
various English translations (Isaiah [The Living Word Commentary on the Old Testament; Austin,
TX: Sweet, 1980] 154–55).
9 Paul A. Kruger, “‫( אֹות‬#253),” NIDOTTE 1.331.
470 journal of the evangelical theological society

13:2 [ET 1]; 26:8; Judg 6:17; 2 Kgs 20:8; Neh 9:10; Isa 38:22; etc.). But it can
also refer to a common, everyday occurrence that has significance because of
what it means, foretells, or predicts (Exod 31:13, 17; Josh 2:12; 4:6; Isa 20:3;
Ezek 4:3). In Isaiah 7:12, the sign could have been anything from the miracu-
lous to Ahaz’s mere whim, but the emphasis would clearly have been on the
miraculous (since it was intended to convince Ahaz of God’s protection). Ahaz
feigns trust by stating that he does not need a sign to believe Yahweh and
that accepting God’s sign would be testing him; 10 God through Isaiah quickly
and easily rebuffs this. Verse 13 suggests that Ahaz’s indecision had been
frustrating to his people, but his lack of faith will prove to be trying to God’s
patience as well. A subtle change takes place in these verses for the sign was
offered “from the LORD your God,” but Ahaz’s lack of faith demonstrates that
he does not trust in Yahweh; Isaiah therefore asks at the end of the verse if
Ahaz will also try the patience of Isaiah’s God (implying Yahweh is obviously
not Ahaz’s God).

4. The sign from God (vv. 14–17). Ahaz has rejected the divine sign and
yet God still provides one; however, this one may not be to his liking since it
will be God’s choice. Nevertheless, God’s sign is extremely gracious. The sign
will contain both positive (vv. 14–16) and negative (v. 17) elements. The first
part of the sign (v. 14) has three parts: a young woman is pregnant, she will
have a son, and she will call his name “Immanuel” (most likely to be under-
stood as: “God [is] with us”). 11 Already Ahaz has some reason to be encouraged,
for children will continue to be born (at least one) and the mother must have
some reason to express such significant trust in God.
The identity of the ‫ ע ְַלמָה‬is highly uncertain. This is not the place for a
thorough discussion of the meanings of the two Hebrew words ‫ ע ְַלמָה‬ʿalmâ and
‫ ְבּתוּלָה‬betûlâ, but a summary of the relevant evidence is crucial for a proper
understanding of Isaiah 7:14. 12 It is difficult to differentiate all the specific nu-

10 Possibly implying the events surrounding Exod 17:7 or Deut 6:16.

11 A rare use of the preposition ‫ ִעם‬can mean “against” (Josh 8:14; Ps 94:16), so that the name
“Immanuel” may also mean “God is against us.”
12 The relevant bibliography includes: HALOT 1.166–67; 2.835–36; NIDOTTE 1.781–84; 3.415–

19; TDOT 2.338–43; R. G. Bratcher, “A Study of Isaiah 7:14,” BT 9 (1958) 97–126; G. Gerleman, “Die
sperrende Grenze: Die Wurzel ‘lm im Hebraischen,” ZAW 91 (1979) 338–49; C. H. Gordon, “ ’Almah
in Isaiah 7:14,” JBR 21 (1953) 106, 240–41; E. Hammershaimb, “The Immmanuel Sign,” ST 3 (1951)
124–42; A. Kamesar, “The Virgin of Isaiah 7:14: The Philological Argument From the Second to the
Fifth Century,” JTS 41 (1990) 51–75; M. Rehm, “Das Word ‘almah in Is 7,14,” BZ 8 (1964) 89–101;
A. Schoors, “Is liv 4,” VT 21 (1971) 503–5; J. Scullion, “An Approach to the Understanding of Isaiah
7:10–17,” JBL 87 (1968) 289–93; J. E. Steinmueller, “Etymology and the Biblical Usage of ‘almah,”
CBQ 2 (1940) 28–43; B. Vawter, “The Ugaritic Use of GLMT,” CBQ 14 (1952) 319–22; T. Wadsworth,
“Is There a Hebrew Word for Virgin?” ResQ 23 (1980) 161–71; J. Walton, “Isa 7:14—What’s in a
Name,” JETS 30 (1987) 289–306; P. D. Wegner, An Examination of Kingship and Messianic Ex-
pectation in Isaiah 1–35 (Lewiston, NY: Mellen, 1992) 106–22; G. J. Wenham, “BETULAH ‘A Girl
of Marriageable Age,’ ” VT 22 (1972) 326–48; H. Wildberger, Isaiah 1–12: A Commentary (trans.
Thomas H. Trapp; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991) 306–14; J. T. Willis, “The Meaning of Isaiah 7:14
and Its Application in Matthew 1:23,” ResQ 21 (1978) 1–17; R. D. Wilson, “The Meaning of ‘Alma
(A.V. ‘Virgin’) in Isaiah VII.14,” PTR 24 (1926) 308–16; H. M. Wolf, “A Solution to the Immanuel
Prophecy in Isaiah 7:14–8:22,” JBL 91 (1972) 449–56.
 how many virgin births are in the bible? 471

ances of the Hebrew words ‫ ע ְַלמָה‬and ‫ ְבּתוּלָה‬since little additional information

is given in the passages in which they occur and there may be a significant
overlap in the meanings between these words. 13 The cognate languages and
the Hebrew masculine forms suggest that ‫ ע ְַלמָה‬is a young girl, 14 and at least
the Ugaritic cognate ǵlmt should not be translated as “virgin.” 15 Of the seven
occurrences of the word ‫ ע ְַלמָה‬in the OT (Gen 24:43; Exod 2:8; Ps 68:25[26];
Prov 20:22; Song 1:3; 6:8; Isa 7:14) and the five abstract plural forms of ‫ֲלוּמים‬ ִ ‫ע‬
(Job 20:11; 33:25; Pss 89:45[46]; 90:8; Isa 54:4), the clearest passages describ-
ing the characteristics of an ‫ ע ְַלמָה‬are Gen 24:43, Isa 7:14, and Song 6:8. In
Genesis 24, Rebekah was depicted as young (‫ֲרה‬ ָ ‫ נַע‬naʿarâ, “girl”; vv. 16, 55, 57),
unmarried (vv. 28, 36–51), of marriageable age (context), and a “virgin” (v. 16
‫ְדעָהּ‬ ְ One very telling incident in this passage is that the first
ָ ‫)בּתוּלָה ְו ִאישׁ לֺא י‬.
time the servant prays to God about how to determine the right girl, he says
“now may it be that the girl (‫ֲרה‬ ָ ‫ )נַע‬to whom I say. . . .” But when he retells the
story later to Rebekah’s family, he uses the word ‫ ע ְַלמָה‬in place of the word
‫ נַעֲָרה‬suggesting that these words are at least somewhat interchangeable. Later
in Isaiah 7:14, it states that the ‫ ע ְַלמָה‬is pregnant (‫ ָה ָרה‬hārâ is most likely a
predicate adjective suggesting that the maiden is in the state of pregnancy), 16
thus it is unlikely that ‫ ע ְַלמָה‬on its own means a virgo intacta. Our final pas-
sage, Song 6:8, distinguishes three categories of women in the king’s harem,
namely queens (‫ ְמלָכֹות‬melākōt), concubines (‫שׁים‬ ְ ‫ ִפּיל‬pîlāḡšîm), and maidens
ִ ‫ָג‬
(‫ עֲלָמֹות‬ʿălāmôt). John Walton has argued that these are three distinct and
mutually exclusive groups within the king’s harem:
Many commentators have suggested that these represent three classifications
within the royal harem. If this is true, it is not likely that one of the categories
could be identified as virgins. On the other hand, it would be logical to differenti-
ate between those who had borne royal offspring and those who had not. In this
case the queens would be the favorites of higher status or important political
wives; the concubines would be principally sexual partners and slave girls; the
ʿalâmôt [sic] may be either those who have not yet borne children, or those whose
primary function in the harem is childbearing. 17

While Walton may be right about these categories, there would certainly be
considerable overlap between “concubines” and “maidens.” The fullest descrip-
tion of a king’s harem (at least from the Persian Empire) is in Esther 2. Ini-
tially, young virgins were in one harem (most likely the harem of the “virgins”);
then, after spending the night with the king, they went into the harem of the
“concubines” (see v. 14). This second harem was guarded by the king’s eunuch

13 John Walton correctly points out: “Perhaps responsible for some of these lexical difficulties is

our unwarranted assumption that categories classifying individuals in any society are definable by
a single feature rather than being multifaceted. So, for instance, ‘spinster’ in English has elements
of age, marital status, and, less definably, sexual status all as criteria. In a similar way we suggest
that betûlâ has age, marital status, and sexual status as criteria” (“‫( ְבּתוּלָה‬#1435),” NIDOTTE 1.782).
14 See John Walton, “‫ֲלוּמים‬
ִ ‫( ע‬#6596),” NIDOTTE 3.415–16.
15 Ugaritic text CTA 24:7 reads hl ǵlmt tld bn “behold the ǵlmt bore a son.”
16 Ronald J. Williams, Williams’ Hebrew Grammar (3d ed.; rev. and exp. by John C. Beckman;

Toronto: University of Toronoto Press, 2007) 32, §75.

17 Walton, “‫ֲלוּמים‬
ִ ‫( ע‬#6596),” NIDOTTE 3.417.
472 journal of the evangelical theological society

to assure no further sexual encounters occurred with these women. These

verses describe quite clearly what distinguishes these two groups of women,
namely spending the night with the king implying a sexual encounter. These
girls were called “young virgins” (‫ ) ְנעָרֹות ְבּתוּלֹות‬18 earlier in Esther 2:2; “young-
ness” could also therefore include the idea of innocence or inexperience—in
this case in the sexual area. If this passage can be used to enlighten the pas-
sage in Song of Solomon, then Walton may not be entirely correct, for a king
can indeed still have “virgins” in his harem. Thus the word ‫ עֲלָמֹות‬in Song 6:8
may fit this group of young women well, for some may be technically belong to
the category virgo intacta, but some would not. This idea is also suggested by
the phrase “and maidens without number” (‫) ַועֲלָמֹות אֵין ִמ ְספָּר‬, for it is unlikely
(though admittedly possible) that the king could have had relations with all
of them. As we noted above, an ‫ ע ְַלמָה‬could be pregnant (i.e. Isa 7:14), thus it
appears that the word ‫ ע ְַלמָה‬could include both women that are virgins and
those that are not, just as we found in our other two passages above. There-
fore it is most likely that the word ‫ ע ְַלמָה‬emphasizes “youngness,” but does not
necessarily demand the idea of virginity.
But the question then arises as to when a “maiden” (‫ )ע ְַלמָה‬becomes a “con-
cubine” (‫שׁים‬ ִ ‫ָג‬ ִ The options are: (1) after the king has had relations with her
ְ ‫)פּיל‬.
(as in the Esther passage); (2) when he legally takes her as a secondary wife
(Haggar and Abraham; Gen 16:2); or (3) when a woman has actually borne
royal offspring (see 1 Chr 3:9; cf. 2 Sam 20:3). 19 In Isa 54:4 the abstract plural
form of ‫ֲלוּמים‬
ִ ‫ ע‬appears to refer to a married woman (and thus most likely not
a virgin), thus suggesting once again the emphasis is on “youth or youngness.”
Oswalt explains Isa 54:4 as follows:
Commentators have suggested that youth is meant to refer to the Egyptian so-
journ and widowhood to the Babylonian exile. This is possible, especially with
the apparent references to Israel’s history commented on above. At the same
time, it does not appear necessary. The terms may be simply parallels to each
other designed to encompass the woman’s entire life. From the earliest days of
her marriage to her later years, this woman, like Sarah or Elizabeth, has lived
with unremitting reproach and contempt. 20

Walton correctly states, “The very fact that an ʿalmâ can be barren (Isa 54:4)
suggests that such a description cannot be exclusively applied to someone who
has not had the opportunity to bear children (i.e. a virgin).” 21 We also believe
that Walton is correct when he concludes: “To say this another way, a woman

18 This phrase would be a needless duplication if Wenham is correct that ‫ָה‬ ‫ ְבּתוּל‬means “a girl
of marriageable age” (Wenham, “BETULAH” 326–48).
19 One of the primary purposes for the concubines was to supply children (2 Sam 5:13; 2 Chr

11:21); see the OT passages that mention “sons of concubines” (Gen 25:6; 1 Chr 3:9). See also 2 Sam
20:3 which says that upon David’s return to Jerusalem, he provided for the concubines that he had
left behind in the palace, but he did not go into them again and they lived in widowhood the rest of
their lives. J. A. Thompson points out that in texts from Ugarit a man “who possessed a concubine
was called a bʿl ššlmt, ‘the possessor of a female who completes (the family)’ ” (“Concubine,” IBD
1:308).
20 John N. Oswalt, The Book of Isaiah, Chapters 40–66 (NICOT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,

1998) 418.
21 Walton, “‫ֲלוּמים‬
ִ ‫( ע‬#6596),” NIDOTTE 3.417.
 how many virgin births are in the bible? 473

ceases to be an ʿalmâ when she becomes a mother—not when she becomes a

wife or a sexual partner.” 22
The significance of the Hebrew word ‫ ְבּתוּלָה‬is even more difficult to de-
termine though it occurs fourteen times throughout the OT. The Semitic
background of the word does not seem to provide a conclusive meaning, but
suggests the idea of a “young girl,” though not necessarily a “virgin.” 23 Wen-
ham notes a particularly important piece of evidence in an Aramaic spell
of a barren wife from Nippur which states: btwltʾ dymḥblʾ wlʾ yld “a virgin
travailing and not bearing,” suggesting that the word does not refer to a virgo
intacta. 24 However, a Middle Assyrian law A55 dated to the twelfth century BC
containing the term batultu certainly does suggests the idea of a virgo intacta:
In the case of a seignior’s daughter, a virgin [batultu] who was living in her fa-
ther’s house, whose [father] had not been asked (for in marriage), whose hymen
had not been opened since she was not married, and no one had a claim against
her father’s house, if a seignior took the virgin by force and ravished her, either
in the midst of the city or in the open country or at night in the street or in a
granary or at a city festival, . . . If he has no wife, the ravisher shall give the
(extra) third in silver to her father as the value of a virgin (and) her ravisher
shall marry her (and) not cast her off. 25

While the evidence from the Semitic cognates of the word ‫ ְבּתוּלָה‬does not con-
clusively pointing to a virgo intacta, there may have been a shift in meaning
by the time of the OT.
There are several important biblical passages that must be examined to
determine how ‫ ְבּתוּלָה‬is used in the OT and we want to take seriously Wal-
ton’s contention that words may carry several nuances at one time, but first
let us see how various scholars have understood this word. Wenham argues
that the word ‫ ְבּתוּלָה‬refers to “a girl of marriageable age.” 26 However, Walton
has correctly pointed out that neither the girls in Esth 2:17, or the girl in Joel
1:8 are indeed “marriageable” since “they are officially spoken for.” 27 Walton
thus summarizes his understanding of the sexual status of a ‫ ְבּתוּלָה‬in the OT
as follows:
It is likely that a young girl is not considered a b etûlâ until she reaches pu-
berty. . . . Then, as mentioned above, at least certain types of sexual activity
preclude one’s being considered a betûlâ (e.g., Tamar). Nevertheless, it is not
clear that any sexual activity disqualifies one from this category. Esth 2:19, Ezek
23:3–8 are the primary mitigating contexts, with the cognate material contribut-
ing to the uncertainty. Perhaps one’s sexual reputation is more at issue. In such
a case rape or prostitution eliminate the possibility of a girl being considered a

22 Ibid.
23 See Walton for a good discussion of the Semitic background “‫( ְבּתוּלָה‬#1435),” NIDOTTE 1.781).
A particularly interesting piece of evidence is that the Akkadian root (batultu) suggests a “young
adolescent or nubile girl” (CAD, B, 173a), though in later neo-Babylonian marriage contracts the
word suggests the more specialized meaning of “virgin” (CAD, B, 174a).
24 Wenham, “BETULAH” 326–27.
25 ANET3 185.
26 Wenham, “BETULAH” 326–48.
27 Walton, “‫ָה‬‫( ְבּתוּל‬#1435),” NIDOTTE 1.782.
474 journal of the evangelical theological society

betûlâ. Consequently, it is preferable to speak of a girl as being reputable. This

would assume no wanton behavior. 28

Walton strives to make this distinction based upon his understanding of Esth
2:19 and Ezek 23:3–8, but we question whether it also fits all of the evidence.
In Gen 24:16 and Judg 21:12, the word is clarified by the phrase “and a man
had not known her.” Wenham may be correct in stating that if the word ‫ְבּתוּלָה‬
means “virgin,” this explanation would be redundant. 29 However, it is more
likely a gloss explaining the meaning of the word, similar to how the word
‫ מַבּוּל‬mabbûl, according to some scholars, is clarified by the following phrase
“waters upon the earth” in Gen 6:17. 30 This suggestion is even more likely if
C. H. Gordon is correct when he states, “There is no word in the Near East-
ern languages that by itself means virgo intacta,” 31 thus Hebrew may have
invented or modified the meaning for this word. Either way it appears that a
‫ ְבּתוּלָה‬can indeed refer to a “virgin,” as the additional phrase “and a man has
not known her” 32 indicates, but may not be restricted only to this meaning.
Several other passages add the word “young” (‫ֲרה‬ ָ ‫ )נַע‬to the word ‫בּתוּלָה‬,
ְ suggest-
ing that the idea of youngness is not necessarily inherent in the meaning of
this word (Deut 22:23, 28; Judg 21:12; 1 Kgs 1:2; Esth 2:3). 33 A good example
would be Abashag, the young girl used to keep David warm in his old age,
who was said to be a “young virgin” (‫ֲרה ְבּתוּלָה‬ ָ ‫)נַע‬. In this passage, it would be
crucial to make sure that any child born from this situation would indeed be
king David’s son, which would also make the child a legitimate heir to the
throne. Thus it is of vital importance for Abashag to be a virgo intacta. Both
Hebrew words therefore supply an important aspect to our understanding of
the passage. What is even more important for our purposes, is that the phrase
‫“ נַעֲָרה ע ְַלמָה‬a young ʿalmâ” never occurs, suggesting these two words overlap
significantly. Exodus 22:16 and Deut 22:23–28 suggest that a ‫ ְבּתוּלָה‬may or
may not be betrothed, but if she is betrothed, she will be dealt with the same
as if she was married. Leviticus 21:14 (cf. Lev 21:7) states this is the only type
of woman a priest could marry, after ruling out a widow (‫ א ְַל ָמנָה‬ʾalmānâ), a
divorced woman (‫רוּשׁה‬ ָ ‫ ְגּ‬gerûšâ), a defiled woman (‫ח ָללָה‬ ֲ ḥălālâ), or a harlot (‫זֹנָה‬

28 Ibid.
29 Wenham, “BETULAH” 336. It is interesting that the only two contexts where the clarification
phrase is found explaining a ‫ ְבּתוּלָה‬are ones where marriage is an issue (Gen 24:16 and Judg 21:12),
possibly clarifying to the readers that the girls are fitting candidates for marriage.
30 BHS; Victor P. Hamilton, The Book of Genesis, Chapters 1–17 (NICOT; Grand Rapids: Eerd-

mans, 1990) 283. It is possible that the wāw joining the phrase “a man had not known her” with
the word ‫ ְבּתוּלָה‬is either explicative—used to clarify the word (Williams’ Hebrew Syntax, 154 §434)
or emphatic (Williams’ Hebrew Syntax, 155 §438).
31 Cyrus H. Gordon, Ugaritic Textbook: Grammar Texts in Transliteration, Cuneiform Selections,

Glossary (Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1965) 378a. See also JBR 21 (1953) 106, 240f. However,
the Middle Assyrian law (A55) is probably trying to be especially clear so that no mistakes are made.
32 This phrase seems to be very similar to the phrases in the Middle Assyrian law (A55): “a

virgin [batultu] who was living in her father’s house, whose [father] had not been asked (for in
marriage), whose hymen had not been opened since she was not married, and no one had a claim
against her father’s house.”
33 Deuteronomy 32:25 appears to make an interesting contrast between a “young man” and “a

virgin” and a “suckling child” and a “man of grey hair.” If these are contrasts, then the Hebrew word
‫ ְבּתוּלָה‬is contrasted to the word ‫“ ָבּחוּר‬young man.”
 how many virgin births are in the bible? 475

zōnâ). The contrast within this verse seems to be stronger than just “a young
woman of marriageable age” since any of these catagories could contain a
young woman (cf. Joel 1:8; Gen 34:2–3; Deut 22:21; and possibly Amos 2:7).
The abstract plural form ‫תוּלים‬ ִ ‫ ְבּ‬betûlîm also appears to emphasize the
idea of “virginity,” especially in Deut 22:14–20 where a husband can ques-
tion the virginity of a wife and the girl’s parents must produce “evidence of
their daughter’s virginity.” What specifically this “garment” or “wrapping”
ִ ‫ ה‬haśśimlâ) is, is not important at this point; however, the punishment
(‫ַשּׂ ְמלָה‬
seems quite severe if Wenham’s suggestion is correct that this girl is merely
preadolescent or prenubile. Wenham argues that the ‫תוּלים‬ ִ ‫ ְבּ‬are blood-stained
garments: “This interpretation of betûlîm as a blood-stained garment fits very
well with translating betûlāh as a ‘girl of marriageable age’, since the onset of
menstruation would be the clearest sign that she had attained that age.” 34 The
strongest argument against Wenham’s view is verse 21 which states that if
the girl cannot be cleared, she shall be stoned because “she played the harlot
in her father’s house.” The meaning of the Hebrew word “to play a harlot”
(‫ זֹנָה‬zōnâ) is clear in the OT—it means “to commit fornication.” 35 This phrase
fits the idea of losing her virginity much better than simply being too young
to menstruate; stoning someone merely for being too young seems harsh and
unlikely. The passage goes on to say that if the man who made the charge
against the woman is proved to be wrong, then he will not be able to divorce
her all her days which is a similar outcome to one who has raped a girl in Deut
22:29. This latter passage states that a man will not be able to divorce her all
of her life because “he has humbled her” (similar to the phrase in this context,
i.e. “publicly defamed” or “brought an evil name upon a betûlâ of Israel”).
The story of Tamar in 2 Samuel 13 is also pertinent to our examination.
After being raped by Amnon, Tamar ripped her robe. This robe is described as
one that the “virgin” (‫ )ה ְַבּתוּלֹת‬daughters of the king wore (vv. 18–19). Wenham
argues that this was merely a common sign of intense grief. 36 But this does
not really account for the detailed description of the purpose of the garment as
one that the “virgin” daughters of the king’s wore. The intense grief undoubt-
edly comes from being raped and her unfitness to wear the robe after the rape.
Another important passage is Joel 1:8 which states that a ‫ ְבּתוּלָה‬is mourn-
ing for the baʿal of her youth (ָ‫ ַבּעַל נְעוּרֶיה‬baʿal neʿûreyhā). Most scholars believe
this refers to her husband, as David Hubbard explains:
the grief of a betrothed woman whose intended husband (bridegroom of her
youth, i.e., one to whom she is legally pledged, probably at an early age, but not
yet married; on youth, see Ho. 2:15) dies before they can enjoy sexual intercourse
and who sorrows because her husband’s name has been cut off before he can
produce an heir. 37

34 Wenham, “BETULAH” 335.

35 HALOT 1.275; NIDOTTE 1.1122–25.
36 Wenham, “BETULAH” 342.
37 David A. Hubbard, Joel & Amos: An Introduction and Commentary (TOTC; Downers Grove:

InterVarsity, 1989) 46. See also H. W. Wolff, Joel and Amos: A Commentary on the Books of the
Prophets Joel and Amos (trans. by W. Janzen et al.; Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress,
476 journal of the evangelical theological society

This explains both the purpose for the grief in the passage and why a ‫ְבּתוּלָה‬
could have a husband.
The evidence from Esth 2:19 and Ezek 23:3–8 appears to be Walton’s major
arguments against ‫ ְבּתוּלָה‬meaning “virgin.” In Esth 2:17–19, these young
women appear to be called “virgins” even after spending the night with the
king. This may be accounted for in two ways: (1) some of the women in the
harem were still virgins in preparation since it is unlikely that Esther was
the very last virgin to go into the king; and (2) the author had already referred
to the group by this title and chose to retain the same term for them so the
readers would understand to whom he referred. 38 The Ezekiel 23 passage just
seems to be speaking about a time before Israel played the harlot in Egypt
when her untouched bosom (i.e. “virgin bosoms” connotes never having been
caressed or handled previously). 39 If this is a correct understanding of Ezekiel,
then it argues for a time when Israel was pure and indeed in her “virginal
innocence.” Walton also argues that a ‫ ְבּתוּלָה‬is young based upon the parallel
phrases with young men (Deut 32:25; 2 Chr 36:17; Ps 148:12). However, not
all of these passages are equally convincing since at least Deut 32:25 may be
understood as a contrast instead of a parallel. Still, it is most likely that a
‫ ְבּתוּלָה‬would indeed be young since it was common to marry young or at least
be betrothed at a young age in this historical and social context.
Thus while these words certainly overlap in meaning, it is reasonable to
argue there are also some significant differences, which can be pictured as
follows:

If ‫ ע ְַלמָה‬emphasizes “youngness” and ‫ ְבּתוּלָה‬emphasizes “virginity,” then there

will be occasions when their meanings overlap as well as instances when they
carry nuances distinct from each other.
If this ‫ ע ְַלמָה‬was pregnant as suggested by the adjective, then within nine
months she would have a son and call his name Immanuel (i.e. “God with us”).
This name carries a particularly positive meaning, considering that the child

1977) 30; cf. James L. Crenshaw, Joel. A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AB
24C; New York: Doubleday, 1995) 97–98.
38 For various views, see Carey A. Moore, Esther. Introduction, Translation, and Notes (AB 7B;

Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971) 30.

39 Daniel Block states: “the time when the pattern of behavior was set is described as their youth

(nĕʿûrêhen), their premarital state. These women’s addiction to immoral sexual activity ante-dates
their marriage to Yahweh at Sinai” (The Book of Ezekiel, Chapters 1–24 [NICOT; Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1997] 734).
 how many virgin births are in the bible? 477

would be born during a time of war. However, the historical context may pro-
vide the reason for such a positive name. The sign appears to be given when
Ahaz is checking his water supply shortly before the Syro-Ephraimite army
arrived outside of Jerusalem. The child would have been born about 734 BC
when the Syro-Ephraimite army had left to defend Damascus. At one point
then, the people of Jerusalem faced almost certain doom, yet shortly after-
wards the armies were gone. This would be convincing evidence that God had
indeed delivered them. 40 We believe that the woman had good reason to name
her child “Immanuel” based upon the historical situation.
The rest of the sign is more fully developed in verses 15–16 which are in
the form of a chiasm:
a. He will eat curds and honey
b. at the time he knows enough to refuse evil and choose good
b′. for before the time the boy will know enough to refuse evil and choose
good
a′. the land whose two kings you dread will be forsaken.
The sign relates directly to Ahaz’s predicament and has a positive tone up
to this point. The two kings he dreads (i.e. Syria and Ephraim) will be de-
stroyed. However, the next verse changes in tone. It states that a terrible
time is coming—one that will rival the time when Ephraim separated from
Judah back in 931 BC. Assyria is coming upon Ahaz and his house (i.e. Judah).
Historically, we know that Ahaz called on Assyria for help, but it is uncertain
how this passage relates to the timing of his call for assistance. However, the
ominous nature of this sign should have caused Ahaz to abandon any plans
for an alliance with Assyria. The eight verses following describe in consider-
able detail the destruction that Assyria (and Egypt) would wreak on the land.
It is relatively simple to determine when the parts of this sign were ful-
filled:

Biblical Passage Event and Date Result

V. 16: The land of Syro-Ephraimite War Damascus was conquered;
the two kings Ahaz (c. 734–732 BC) most of Israel’s army was
dreads will be probably killed or taken
forsaken prisoners
V. 16: By 722 BC both Samaria conquered by Samaria destroyed
nations have been the Assyrians 722 BC
destroyed by Assyria
V. 17: The king of Sennacherib comes Assyria came against Jeru-
Assyria will come against Jerusalem— salem, but God stepped in
but God spares them and spared them
(701 BC)

40 The Syro-Ephraimite War is so-named because it was a battle between the coalition of Syria

and Israel (known as Ephraim at this point) against Assyria (though we admit it may be a poor
title). It started in 734 BC with Assyria’s attack on Damascus, the capital city of Syria, and ended
in 732 BC with the fall and defeat of the coalition.
478 journal of the evangelical theological society

Historically, by 701 BC everything described in this sign was fulfilled. The sign
makes perfect sense in its historical context; once Ahaz saw the birth of this
child, he would know that God had spared them.

ii. how is isaiah 7:14–17 fullfilled in christ?

The dilemma with this passage is readily apparent—the sign is entirely
fulfilled in its context; Matthew, however, picks it up and says that it is ful-
filled in Christ. First, it is important to remember this is not a prophecy, but
a sign. So why is a sign fulfilled by Christ? Scholars have offered a variety of
explanations as to how NT writers could use OT passages and apply them to
different situations. While there is not room for a full discussion of this issue,
we will at least give a brief overview. 41

1. The author intends one meaning, but it can have many applications or
significances. In general, this appears to be the best way to interpret biblical
passages. E. D. Hirsch provided a significant foundation for this principle. 42
Walter Kaiser, a strong proponent of this view, states: “No NT writer ever
finds more, or different, meaning in an OT text than was intended by the
author.” 43 However, as Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard state, there are times
when “NT authors found meaning in an OT text that the OT author did not
intend.” 44 For example, it is hard to see how Hos 11:1 or Jer 31:15 in their
original contexts referred to events in Jesus’ life.

2. An author intends to convey multiple meanings or levels of meaning.

Some scholars have suggested that the author intended a literal sense, while
at the same time also intending a spiritual sense. Some early Church fathers
(e.g. Clement of Alexandria, Origen) have understood this as an allegory, 45 a
parable (e.g. wheat and the tares, Matt 13:24–43), or a fable (Judg 9:7–21).
However, if the biblical text intends a parable or fable, there are typically
hints in the passage suggesting such; most of these prophecies do not give
any such hints.

3. A later author invents or reads into a biblical text a meaning not intended
by the author. This idea is commonly suggested by those holding a reader-
response method. For example, W. G. Jeanrond states:
The reading of a text is, rather, a dynamic process which remains in principle
open-ended because every reader can only disclose the sense of a text in a pro-
cess and as an individual. This signifies in its turn that reading is in each case
more than deciphering of the signs printed on paper. Reading is always also

41 Information summarized and amended from Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard, Introduction

120–32.
42 Validity in Interpretation (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967).
43 Walter Kaiser, The Uses of the Old Testament in the New (Chicago: Moody, 1985).
44 Klein, Blomberg, Hubbard, Introduction 121.
45 See Gal 4:21–31 where Paul uses allegory, but clearly labels it as such.
 how many virgin births are in the bible? 479

a projection of a new image of reality, as this is co-initiation by the text and

achieved by the reader in the relationship with the text in the act of reading. 46

Some reader-response advocates have argued that the NT authors had every
right to read the OT passages in ways that were appropriate for their interpre-
tive community. 47 The main objection to using a reader-response method to
interpret Scripture has to do with the purpose of Scripture. If God desired to
give us both revelation about himself and commands he intended us to obey,
then there must be a specific intent/meaning within the text and not merely
words that we can interpret as we choose.

4. There is a literal sense intended by the human author, but alongside this
literal meaning is a hidden meaning embedded by the Holy Spirit that was
unknown to the human author. This may simply be another way of express-
ing sensus plenior, but J. R. McQuilkin argues that in the process of inspira-
tion God could make a NT author aware of a meaning that the original writer
did not see. McQuilkin goes on to say, “the second (hidden or less apparent)
meaning . . . might have been only in the mind of the Holy Spirit, who inspired
the author.” 48 Sensus plenior (Lat. “fuller sense”) means there is a “deeper
meaning intended by God but not intended by the human author.” 49 We agree
with Kaiser in questioning whether a passage can have multiple meanings.
Nevertheless, the NT authors sometimes add new, different, or fuller meaning
to an OT passage. 50 C. H. Dodd argued somewhat differently that when the
whole context of the OT passage was examined, the NT authors were able to
see this meaning in the context. 51 However, we question even this possibility
in several OT passages.

46 W. G. Jeanrond, Text and Interpretation as Categories of Theological Thinking (New York:

Crossroad, 1988) 104. See also W. Iser, The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response (Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978); U. Eco, The Role of the Reader (Bloomington, IN: Indiana
University, 1979); S. Croatto, Biblical Hermeneutics: Toward a Theory of Reading as the Production
of Meaning (Mayknoll, NY: Orbis, 1987); E. V. McKnight, The Bible and the Reader (Philadelphia:
Fortress, 1985); idem, Post-Modern Use of the Bible: The Emergence of Reader-Oriented Criticism
(Nashville: Abingdon, 1988).
47 S. Fish, Is There a Text in this Class? The Authority of Interpretive Communities (Cambridge,

MA: Harvard University Press, 1980) 14.

48 J. R. McQuilkin, Understanding and Applying the Bible (Chicago: Moody, 1983) 29.
49 According to Kaiser, this word was coined by F. Andre Fernandez in 1927, but popularized

by Raymond E. Brown (“Single Meaning, Unified Referents: Accurate and Authoritative Citations
of the Old Testament by the New Testament,” in Stanley N. Gundry et al., Three Views on the New
Testament Use of the Old Testament [Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2007] 47). Brown defines sensus
plenior as: “That additional, deeper meaning, intended by God but not clearly intended by the hu-
man author, which is seen to exist in the words of a biblical text (or group of texts, or even a whole
book) when they are studied in the light of further revelation or development in the understanding
of revelation” (The Sensus Plenior of Sacred Scripture [Baltimore: St. Mary’s University, 1955] 92).
50 See Douglas Moo, “The Problem of Sensus Plenior,” in Hermeneutics, Authority, and Canon

(ed. D. A. Carson and J. D. Woodbridge; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1986) 199.

51 C. H. Dodd, The Old Testament in the New (The Ethel M. Wood Lecture delivered before the

University of London on March 4, 1952; London: Athlone, 1952).

480 journal of the evangelical theological society

5. A biblical author intended the text to have a single meaning, but a later
biblical author may have discovered an additional meaning in that text. This
additional meaning was more than likely one the original author did not
intend. 52 This interpretive method has been arrived at in a variety of ways:
1. Midrash: taking opaque or ambiguous texts and applying them to the
contemporaneous situation. Two fairly well-known midrashic methods
used in the NT are: gezerah shewah which combines various texts
because of verbal correlations (see Acts 2:25–35); and qal waḥomer
which is an argument from lesser to greater (see Matt 10:25; Luke
11:13; 12:28; Heb 9:13–14; 10:26–29).
2. Pesher: applying a biblical passage directly to a contemporary situation.
Werblowshy and Wigoder describe the pesher method as follows: “The
authors of pesharim believed the scriptural prophecies to have been
written for their own time and predicament, and they interpreted the
biblical texts in the light of their acute eschatological expectations.” 53
Qumran materials contain several examples of this hermeneutical
method. One of the best known is the Habakkuk Commentary which
applies passages in the book of Habakkuk to the contemporaneous
situations of the Qumran community. It is interesting that more NT
prophecies do not appear to have been applied in this method given
the fact that they often read the OT in light of its fulfillment in Christ.
However, Peter in his Pentecost sermon may have been influenced by
this method when he states: “This is what was spoken by the prophet
Joel . . .” (Acts 2:16). We agree with Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard:
“We doubt, though, that at these points the NT authors were totally
unconcerned about the original meaning of the OT texts.” 54
3. Typology: understanding a person, thing, or event in the OT as
prefiguring an event or aspect of Christ in the NT. Some scholars have
suggested that this idea is stated by Paul in Col 2:16–17, “Therefore let
no one pass judgment on you in questions of food and drink, or with
regard to a festival or a new moon or a Sabbath. These are a shadow
of the things to come, but the substance belongs to Christ.” However,
NT authors used the Greek word τύπος only once (Rom 5:14) when
Adam is said to be a type of Christ. Thus the NT authors were aware
of this hermeneutical method, but used it only sparingly. In a more
general sense, Heb 11:19 speaks of Isaac as an illustration of Christ,
but this passage uses the Greek word παραβολή (“parable, metaphor,
illustration”). Some scholars use the word “typology” in a more general

52 Some may argue that since the Holy Spirit inspired the NT author, it is not important to

determine how they achieved this meaning, it is merely important that they did. We disagree and
believe that it is equally important for us to determine how they arrived at the meaning they did,
for it provides examples on how we should do hermeneutics also. It is little help to say this is how
NT authors determined the meaning of the text, but we cannot follow their hermeneutical methods.
53 R. J. Z. Werblowsky and G. Wigoder, eds., The Encyclopedia of the Jewish Religion (New York:

Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1965) 298.

54 Klein, Blomberg, Hubbard, Introduction 129.
 how many virgin births are in the bible? 481

sense. 55 Moo, for example, sets it against a background of “promise

and fulfillment”; therefore he can see relationships or correspondences
between the testaments. He states: “New Testament persons, events,
and institutions will sometimes ‘fill up’ Old Testament persons, events,
and institutions by repeating at a deeper or more climactic level that
which was true in the original situation.” 56 This method views the
NT authors as recognizing some type of “analogy” or “correspondence”
between the OT persons, events, or institutions and the NT. The first
chapter of the book of Hebrews appears to use OT quotations in this
manner (v. 5 quoting Ps 2:7 and 2 Sam 7:14; v. 6 quoting the LXX of
Ps 97:7; v. 7 quoting Ps 104:4; vv. 8–9 quoting Ps 45:6–7). Later we
will point out how Matthew uses a similar idea only within much
stricter limits.
4. Richard Bauckham has suggested another possibility for how NT
authors understood some OT passages to refer to Christ. He argues
that the early church believed so strongly that Jesus was God that
they took OT prophecies that referred to the LORD and applied them
to Christ, even though in their original context they would not have
been understood that way. 57
There is little doubt that NT believers read the OT Scriptures in light of
Christ’s coming. Even Jesus did so (e.g. Luke 4:21 referring to Isa 61:1–2).
But we believe that the NT authors employed a variety of means to apply
OT passages to NT situations. While certain methods are rarely used (e.g.
allegory and pesher), others are significantly more common (e.g. direct fulfill-
ment, general typology, applying “the LORD” passages to Christ). But how
does Matthew take up Isa 7:14 and apply it to Christ?
I believe that the key to how Matthew reuses OT passages can be found
within the text itself. Matthew employs the Greek word πληρóω meaning “to
make full, fill, fill up, complete,” 58 to indicate that he believes the OT passage
is being “filled up” by Jesus. Matthew thus understands the OT passage as
a pattern that is being filled up with more meaning. This is not to say that
OT passages are prophesying Jesus, since they can be completely understood
within their OT content. However, Matthew takes the patterns presented in
these OT passages and applies them to a new situation. It is analogous to a

55 R. T. France understands “typology” as “the recognition of a correspondence between New

and Old events, based on a conviction of the unchanging character of the principles of God’s work-
ing” (The Gospel According to Matthew, TNTC [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1985] 40). K. Snodgrass
speaks about it as a “correspondence in history” (“The Use of the Old Testament in the New,” in
New Testament Criticism and Interpretation [ed. D. A. Black and D.  S. Dockery; Grand Rapids:
Zondervan, 1991] 416).
56 Moo, “Sensus Plenior” 196.
57 God Crucified: Monotheism and Christology in the New Testament (Eerdmans, 1999).
58 A more complete meaning for this word would include: (1) to make full, fill; (2) to complete a

period of time, fill (up), complete; (3) to bring to completion that which is already begun, complete,
finish; (4) to bring to a desired end, fulfill; (5) to bring to completion an activity in which one has
been involved from its beginning, complete, finish; and (6) complete (a number) (BDAG 828–29).
482 journal of the evangelical theological society

coffee cup having further meaning “poured” into it. This is distinctly differ-
ent from sensus plenior, for there is no hidden meaning in the OT that the
NT author has discovered through divine inspiration. Rather, the meaning
was not in the OT context. The concept here is distinct from typology in that
is not simply a general structure that the NT author picked up from the OT
and applied to a NT concept. Rather, the NT author is informing the reader
of his intentions by using the word πληρóω before adding the new meaning to
the OT concept. However, these patterns cannot be added to indefinitely for,
just like a coffee cup one can only pour in a certain amount of coffee until the
cup is “full to the brim” and can hold no more. So it is with a pattern that the
NT author chooses “to fill up”; at some point it will hold no more meaning.
For example, in Matt 1:21–23 Jesus is said to “fill up,” “A virgin will conceive
and bear a son and they will call his name Immanuel which means ‘God with
us.’ ” There is no one who can be more “God with us” than Jesus—he is God
incarnate. Another example is the idea of “the Day of the Lord” that contin-
ued to develop through the OT, but it is totally filled up with meaning in the
NT in the book of Revelation. We know exactly what will happen in the Day
of the LORD down to the destruction of the heavens and earth and God’s
creation of a new heaven and earth. However, there are two important notes
about Matt 1:23: (1) This is a modified form of the LXX in that it uses the word
παρθένος (parthenos “virgin”), but then says “they”—not “she”—will call his
name Immanuel as found in the LXX. The author can thus modify or adapt the
LXX passage. (2) There is a development of the Greek word παρθένος which the
following diagram demonstrates:

The Greek word παρθένος appears to have developed in meaning over the
centuries. In early Greek literature it appears to have had the meaning of “a
young woman of marriageable age” (with or without the focus on virginity),
but by NT times this word developed the more technical meaning of “virgin.” 59
This development in meaning is quite similar to our English word “to cleave,”
for in King James English it meant “to stick together,” but modern speakers
are more familiar with the idea of a meat cleaver which cuts meat apart. That
is a 180 degree change in meaning. Because the English language is a living
language, its words can evolve in meaning (similar to Greek). If this devel-
opment is true, then the sign in Isa 7:14 of a young woman (‫ )ע ְַלמָה‬having a

59 BDAG 777; G. Fredrich, ed., Theological Dictionary of the New Testament (trans. G. W. Bro-

miley; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1967) 5.826–37.

 how many virgin births are in the bible? 483

child would have been a common, natural occurrence. However, the part that
would have convinced Ahaz that God could be trusted was that the child would
be a boy and that his mother would call the boy “Immanuel.” The translator
of the LXX about 250–150 BC chose the Greek word παρθένος to translate the
Hebrew word ‫ ;ע ְַלמָה‬this would have been an excellent word choice to convey
what the LXX’s author meant. However, in the intervening time between the
LXX and the NT book of Matthew, the word παρθένος changed in meaning from
“young woman” to “virgin,” thus also making it a suitable term to describe
Mary in the first century AD. For a good example of the meaning of παρθένος
in the LXX, see Gen 34:3 where Dinah is called a παρθένος even after she was
raped by Shechem.
To be convincing, there need to be more examples of Matthew’s use of
πληρóω to “fill up” OT patterns. We argue that Jesus coming out of Egypt in
Matt 2:15 “fills up” (πληρóω) Hos 11:1 which in its original context describes
the past event of God bringing his people out of Egypt in the Exodus. Another
example is Matt 2:17–18 where the events around the Babylonian Exile are
“filled up” (πληρóω) by Herod killing the babies in Bethlehem. In Matt 2:23,
Jesus is said “to fill up” (πληρóω) the prophets that “he shall be called a Naza-
rene”; this passage appears to be a play on the words of Isa 11:1 where the
word “branch” (‫ ֣נֵצֶר‬nēzer) sounds like “Nazarene.” There are also places in
Matthew where an OT passage is used without being preceded by the word
πληρóω. For example, Matt 2:5–6 quotes Mic 5:2 and introduces it with “for
it is written by the prophet” (γὰρ γέγραπται διὰ τού προφήτο) to signify that
it is a direct fulfillment of an OT prophecy as distinct from a “filling up” of
this prophecy.
As noted above, NT authors use a variety of ways for NT authors to use
OT passages. I believe that the NT authors’ “filling up” OT passages are one
more way NT authors can use OT passages to apply them to a new situation
or person in the NT.

iii. is there more than one virgin birth in the bible?

The short answer to this question is “no.” In Isa 7:14, an ‫ ע ְַלמָה‬is a young
woman who gives birth to a son. The child named “Immanuel” appears to have
been born during Isaiah’s lifetime, for Isa 8:8 says that Assyria would overflow
into Judah and “fill the breadth of your land, O Immanuel.” Thus Immanuel
must have been living in the land of Judah at the end of the eighth century BC
when Sennacherib attacked Judah. However, Isa 7:14 is used in Matt 1:21–23
to refer to Mary, who was indeed a virgin (see the statements in context that
demand such) and gave birth to Jesus. This is the only virgin birth in the Bible.

iv. conclusion
We have shown that NT authors used OT passages in a variety of ways.
The NT reuse of Isa 7:14 is complicated by two issues: the issue of πληρóω
or “filling up” with meaning, and that of the change in meaning for παρθένος
484 journal of the evangelical theological society

from an emphasis on a “young woman” to the more technical sense of “vir-

gin.” To understand how NT authors used OT passages demands a thorough
investigation of the evidence to determine what the authors intended. This
process deepens our respect and appreciation for divine revelation and how
God guided the overarching plan and message of Scripture. The amazing
story of God’s coming to earth through the birth of a son to a virgin once
again reminds us that God does things we might never comprehend unless
he revealed them to us.