Geornorphology, 4 ( 1991 ) 101-110 101

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

Determining rheological parameters of debris flow material

Christopher J. Phillipsa and Timothy R.H. Daviesb

aForest Research Institute, PO Box 31-011, Christchurch, New Zealand
bNatural Resources Engineering, Lincoln College, Canterbury, New Zealand
(Received March 24, 1990; accepted after revision January 31, 1991 )

ABSTRACT

Phillips, C.J. and Davies, T.R.H., 1991. Determining rheological parameters of debris flow material. Geomorphology,
4:101-110.

A 2.0 m diameter steel 30 ° inverted cone-and-plate viscometer/rheometer was designed, constructed, and used to test
the behaviour of coarse-grained debris flow materials. A 1 : 5 scale model machine was also constructed and used to test
the internal flow dynamics of the viscometer/rheometer and to obtain results for fluids, grain-fluid mixtures, and debris
flow fines.
For fluids and grain-fluid mixes, our results were similar to those obtained earlier using standard viscometric systems.
Derived rheological parameters for debris flow materials and clay slurries agreed well with those determined from calcu-
lation, direct measurement, and field observation.
Apparent viscosities were shear-rate dependent, extremely sensitive to water content, and as high as 6000 Pa. s. Instan-
taneous stresses within shearing debris flow material varied over a wide range.
Debris flow materials with bimodal grain-size distributions had a dilatant plastic rheology. Those with a low content of
coarse material and unimodal grain-size distribution, or exceptionally high fines content, had a plastic or viscoplastic
rheology.

Introduction Since, 1980, many models have been de-

rived from experiments on sediment fall veloc-
Debris flows, bodies of granular solids, water, ity and slurry competence or from theoretical
and air whose flow properties vary with water considerations of velocity distributions and
and clay content, sediment size and sorting continuum mechanics. Modelling debris flows
(Varnes, 1978 ), have more complex rheology requires a rheological (or constitutive) equa-
than granular flows, sediment transport, or tion for sediment-water mixtures. The forms
water flooding (e.g. Wan, 1982; Hanes and In- of models such as the Coulomb-viscous model,
man, 1985 ). In contrast to the predominantly Bingham model (Johnson, 1970), modified
inertial grain-grain interactions within these Coulomb-viscous model (Johnson, 1984), ge-
types of flow, debris flows have predominantly neralised viscoplastic model (Chen, 1988 ), di-
viscous grain-grain interactions (Davies, latant fluid model (Takahashi, 1981; Davies,
1986). This complex behaviour has attracted 1985, 1986), and dilatant plastic model
many theories on debris flow mechanisms, (O'Brien and Julien, 1984; Davies, 1986; Phil-
particularly those based on comparisons of ob- lips and Davies, 1989) vary in their degree of
served behaviour of real flows with other sim- complexity, and may not be universally
ilar processes and on experiments with artifi- applicable.
cial clay slurries (e.g., Johnson, 1970, Pierson In order to apply any rheological model to
and Costa, 1987). the study of debris flows and their deposits the

0169-555X/91/$03.50 © 1991 - - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

102 C.J. PHILLIPS AND T.R.H. DAVIES

9
parameters which govern the chosen constitu-
1,
tive equation need to be measured. The deter-
mination of both shear-rate-dependent and 1-"
shear-rate-independent parameters has so far
met with limited success. Field-based deter- 1

minations of theological parameters have been

1(
m a d e either by examination of debris flow de-
posits or by observation of the flow itself. Fea-
tures such as critical thickness o f flow, critical
channel dimensions, size of large clasts, and
super-elevation of flow a r o u n d bends are used
to estimate some of the rheological parameters >-
of the flow (Johnson, 1970). The determina- I-

tion of yield strength (variously reported as 0

_1
uJ
shear strength or just strength) and flow prop- >
erties from remoulded debris flow material has
been attempted with a variety o f equipment
such as penetrometers, vane testers and vis-
cometers (fine-grained slurry c o m p o n e n t
only). These methods are not suitable for
measuring the rheological parameters of the
complete flow. Most are limited to specific op-
erating conditions, are often governed by the
test material size, and are generally empirical. 1_
Any m e t h o d intended to measure the rheo- 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

logical parameters of debris flow materials has DEPTH (m)

to be able to a c c o m m o d a t e a reasonable range
Fig. 1.Shear rates (&=velocity/depth, s-~) observed for
of grain-sizes, produce shear rates similar to
debris flows. Also shown are dashed lines enveloping the
those occurring in actual debris flows, and give data between 1 and l0 s-t. References: l=Jiangiia Rav-
accurate reproducible results. Considering the ine, China (Li et al., 1983); 2=Jiangjia Ravine, China
range in particle sizes from clay to boulders, (Zhang et al., 1985); 3--Hunshui Gully, China, (Li and
the high concentration o f solids (75-90% Cw; Luo, 1981; Zhang et al., 1985); 4 = Mt Sakurajima, Japan
(Watanabe and Hiroshi, 1981); 5=Pine Creek, USA
weight of solids divided by total weight of sol- (Pierson, 1985); 6 = Kamikamihori Fan, Japan (Mizuy-
ids plus water), and shear rates approaching ama and Uehara, 1980); 7=Noziri River, Japan (Mizuy-
0-10 s -1 (see Fig. 1 ) (Bradley, 1986; O'Brien ama and Uehara, 1980); 8=Nameri River, Japan (Mi-
and Julien, 1988; Phillips, 1988), it becomes zuyama and Uehara, 1980); 9--Noziri River, Japan
(Mizuyama and Uehara, 1980); 10=Rio Reventado,
quite clear that standard viscometric tech- Colombia (Waldron, 1967); //=Bullock Creek, New
niques are not suitable for debris flow mate- Zealand (Pierson, 1980); 12=Toutle River, USA (Pier-
rials mainly because o f particle size limitations son and Scott, 1985); 13=Dragon Creek, USA (Cooley
o f commercially available viscometers. et al., 1977); 14=Almatinka River, USSR (Niyazov and
Degovets, 1975); 15=Rudd Canyon, USA (Pierson,
This paper outlines an investigation of the 1985); 16=Hindu Kush, Pakistan (Wasson, 1978);
theological behaviour o f field debris flow ma- 17= Mayflower Gulch, USA (Curry, 1966);
terials using a newly designed and constructed 18=Wrightwood Canyon, USA (Sharp and Nobles,
30 ° inverted cone-and-plate rheometer (Figs. 1953); 19=Mt Yakedake,Japan (Mizuyama and Uehara,
1980 ); 20 = Matunuska Glacier, USA (Lawson, 1982).
2 and 3; see Phillips, 1988 for details ). A small
l : 5 scale model was also constructed and was
DETERMINING RHEOLOGICAL PARAMETERS OR DEBRIS FLOW MATERIAL 103

also used to test fine-grained debris flow ma-

terials, and these results are reported here.

Materials and laboratory analysis of sample

Materials were sampled from two active de-

bris flows in New Zealand that had sufficiently
different source lithologies to show rheological
contrasts. The first locality, Tamdale Slip,
North Island, has a long history of debris flow
activity (Pearce et al., 1981). Small debris
flows develop as shallow landslides in the gully
head wall of the Tarndale Slip, where clay-rich
stony regoliths are easily mobilised by the ad-
dition of small amounts of water. Under very
heavy rainfall ( > 2 5 m m / h ) , larger viscous
debris flows are triggered, on average, several
times a year. Samples from five small debris
flow events (depths of decimetres rather than
metres) were collected for analyses.
The second locality, Bullock Creek, Mt
Thomas, South Island, similarly has a long his-
Fig. 2. Prototype rheometer: 2.0 m diameter 30 ° inverted
cone-and-plate type. Measuring annulus assembly (A), tory of debris flow activity, and the flows were
unloading hatch (B), and speed control (C). studied in some detail by Pierson and Mosley
(1978) and Pierson (1980, 1981). During
C r o s s - s e c t i o n of Rheometer August 1986, debris flows occurred in re-
sponse to rainfall of 150 m m during a 72-hour
period. The deposits and transport zone were
inspected 1 day later, and material for our
analyses was collected. Flows were generally 0.3
to 1.0 m thick. M a x i m u m boulder size ob-
served in the flows was 0.6 m X 0 . 5 m × 0 . 5 m,
and all coarse boulders observed were "rest-
ing" on top of surge deposits, or more rarely at
I
i
lateral margins. Most material greater than 100
Axis of rotation m m was composed of angular blocks of sand-
stone. Individual surge deposits with steep lat-
Fig. 3. Schematic cross-section through rheometer, shaded eral margins and lobate fronts were clearly vis-
parts are stationary; unshaded parts may rotate. The sam-
ple is contained in the space between the sloping ribbed ible. Material collected for analysis in the
floor (cone) and the ribbed lid (plate). The annular sec- model rheometer included the fine slurry com-
tion of the lid measures the viscous traction exerted by ponent (fines) and material from within a
the sample as it is rotated. surge. A further episode of activity occurred 12
days later after 40 m m of overnight rain, but
used to test a wide variety of artificial fluids produced only four surges each about 8 m wide
and grain-fluid mixes, the results of which are and 0.6 m high, which moved at about 3 m s-
reported by Phillips (1988). The model was (New Zealand Forest Service Staff, Mt
104 C.J. PHILLIPS AND T.R.H. DAVIES

Thomas, pers. commun., 1986). Material from flows were similar to the Tarndale samples. The
these surges was collected in February 1987 for gravel content of the fines samples was only 5-
testing in the large rheometer. 9% by weight, and the content of clay and silt
Collected materials of both complete Tam- was considerably higher (22-24%). A ternary
dale Slip samples and Bullock Creek fines, from plot of the constituents of the debris flow ma-
which coarser than about 35 mm had been re- terials clustered all the samples fairly close to-
moved, were tested in the model rheometer. gether (Fig. 4), and one Tarndale Slip sample
The size range removed accounted for less than fell into the zone of transitional flow, as de-
1% of the total weight of Tarndale Slip debris fined by Pierson and Scott ( 1985 ).
flow materials and was the upper size limit for The Tarndale Slip samples were very poorly
the model rheometer. Apparent viscosity and sorted or extremely poorly sorted and had fine-
flow curves were determined after samples skewed to strongly fine-skewed grain-size dis-
were mixed with a power stirrer (i.e., re- tributions (Folk, 1968) and mean grain sizes
moulded), loaded into the machine, and tested ranging from 0.5 to 1.2 mm. Sediment grain-
over a shear rate of 1-18 s -1. Generally, only size distributions are bi- or poly-modal, with
run-up determinations of shear stress were modes in sand, gravel, and clay fractions.
recorded. Grain-size distributions of the Bullock Creek
How-curve determinations for remoulded fines were broadly unimodal, though a second-
debris flow material from Bullock Creek with ary mode may be present in the clay fraction
total solids concentration of about 80-90% by
(Fig. 5a).
weight were done in the large rheometer. The
Mean flow curves or rheograms (up to 4 runs
samples were mixed in a mobile 1.5 m 3 con-
per sample) determined with the model rheo-
crete mixer, with material coarser than about
120 m m being removed. Individual torque WATER
readings were logged over a fixed time period 100%

( 10 or 60 s ) at predetermined intervals (0.5 or

3.0 s) with the speed of rotation kept constant.
After the logging period the speed was in-
creased and a new set of readings was taken.
Grain-size analyses (Folk, 1968) were car-
ried out on representative splits of collected
samples. Water content and solids content were
determined by moisture loss at 105 °C for 24 h.

Results

The Tarndale Slip samples were either

/x
muddy sandy gravels or gravelly muddy sands 100% 50% 100%
FINES COARSE
(Folk et al., 1970). Water contents ranged from <63,u >63)J
& Mean value s u r g e s Pierson ( 1 9 8 1 )
17 to 25% by weight (mean 21.3%). Clay con- • Mean v a l u e b e t w e e n s u r g e s Pierson ( 1 9 8 1 )
tents varied from 6 to 11% (mean 7.7%), (~ Mt Thomas c o m p l e t e mix

though the variation of mud (silt-t- clay ) was + Mt Thomas " f i n e s "
• T a r n d a l e Slip c o m p l e t e mix
more marked (12-23%). The Bullock Creek
fines samples were also either muddy sandy Fig. 4. Three-phase diagram of Bullock Creek and Tam-
gravels or gravelly muddy sands. Water con- dale Slip debris flow materials. Textural zones are partly
tents of the fine fraction of the August 1986 based on Pierson and Scott's ( 1985 ) terminology.
DETERMINING RHEOLOGICAL PARAMETERS OR DEBRIS FLOW MATERIAL 105

Bullock C r e e k "fines" Tarndale Slip

(a)

g
g
,,'- 0 , ,
101 10 - I 10-3 101 10-1 10-3
GRAIN SIZE (ram) GRAIN SIZE (ram)

(b)
700 -

~ 83,2%
600 -
/ /7 ~ ~ - -Ill
t
/
500 - /e" 80.5%
/ // J .Q" f
///"411 // //o "
Q. /%/ //
v
400 - /
I.U
rr
F-
CO
tr 300 80.0%
oJ
"l-
CO
200
, .t// . / / / 79,%
100 e ~ 78,0%
Oz
75.4%

-- 75 0%
0 i )
O 4 8 ll2 16 0
SHEAR RATE (s - 1 ) SHEAR RATE (s - 1 )

Fig. 5. (a) Grain size vs weight percent of debris flow fines and fine ground debris flows. (b) Mean flow curves of debris
flow fines and fine-grained debris flows obtained from model rheometer ( Cwis concentration by weight of solids). Note
the scatter of data about the mean curve. Data ranges not included for all flow curves of Tarndale Slip materials to
maintain clarity.

meter all showed increases in shear stress with shear-rate dependent, with Tarndale Slip sam-
increasing shear rate (Fig. 5b). Flow curves ples having a range o f 0.4-104 Pa-s and Bul-
were generally complex, i.e., combinations o f lock Creek samples 2 0 - 2 3 8 Pa.s. The T a m -
both shear thinning and shear thickening. Back dale Slip sample ( Cw = 75.0%) showed a much
extrapolations o f curves to intercepts on the lower near-linear curve than the other sam-
shear-stress axis revealed yield stresses in the ples. This was attributed to the higher water
range o f 15-300 Pa. Individual sample flow content of this sample, and consequently this
curve determinations showed wide scatter, and flow can be described as transitional (Pierson
for nearly all samples the shear stress at a given and Scott, 1985). The Bullock Creek sample
shear rate was greater for each subsequent run with Cw = 83.2% was the same physical sample
on the same sample. Apparent viscosities were as that with Cw=81.3%, b u t had a slightly re-
106 C.J. PHILLIPSAND T.R.H. DAVIES

duced water content. These two samples indi-

cate that the flow curve was extremely sensi-
tive to slight changes in water content, and
shear stress increased as solids concentration t~
(Cw) increased. 1000F i
o~ i
For both Runs 1 and 2 (Bullock Creek sam-
ples with a complete mix of coarse and fine .~ ~ ~ ~ S
particles) in the large rheometer, flow bands O.=MEAN SHEAR RATE (S -1)
showed a gradual decline in shear stress with
increasing shear rate up to about 2 s - l (15 Fig. 7. Variation of shear stress with time over each 10 s
logging period - Run 2 (each block is 10 s long).
rpm) (Fig. 6). Beyond this value, shear stress
increased. As expected, shear stress varied
viscosities were observed at the lowest shear
widely at each increment of shear rate. The
rates.
variation of shear stress with time at a con-
Continuous measurement of dispersive
stant shear rate for Run 2 over each of eight
pressure was not possible because of difficul-
l 0-s datalogging periods showed no consistent
ties with the gauge m o u n t and vertical fluctua-
pattern i.e., shear stress does not decline or rise tions of the measuring annulus. However, dis-
over the logging period (Fig. 7). The sharp persion of coarse grains did take place,
peaks and troughs may represent collision/re- particularly at the higher rotation speeds. The
lease of large particles with the measuring an- gauge fluctuated excessively as large particles
nulus. The magnitude of shear-stress values for audibly came into contact with the lid. The
both runs were similar, and the two flow bands dispersion of coarse grains was particularly no-
showed similar features. Apparent viscosities ticeable at higher rotation speeds.
for the two runs showed a dependence on shear After a run, the lid was removed and the test
rate, as one would expect, and values ranged material examined to determine whether seg-
from 300 to 1800 Pa-s. The highest apparent regation or phase separation had taken place.
Visual inspection indicated the material ap-
2200
peared well mixed in terms of the distribution
\ of coarse particles. However, it was evident that
2000 some compaction had occurred at the outer
wall. This may have increased the local bulk
1800
2 density at this point and subsequently reduced
1600 li I I • -o.T
it elsewhere.
i tx • ~' A

~ 1400
f~, ~I ~ ~I~, .-" Discussion
1200

Debris flow materials are generally poorly

1000
sorted, with asymmetric grain-size distribu-
800 tions. The bimodal nature of high density flows
capable of developing roll waves and surges
~'.o 2'.o a'.o 4'.o (Davies, 1985, 1986) was evident in our dis-
S H E A R R A T E (s - 1 ) tributions, but was not as prominent as in the
Fig. 6. Logged data and flow bands for Runs 1 and 2 Bul-
Chinese examples reported by Davies.
lock Creek debris flow material obtained from large pro- The extreme range of reported debris flow
totype rheometer. viscosities obtained either by calculation or
DETERMINING RHEOLOGICAL PARAMETERS OR DEBRIS FLOW MATERIAL 107

measurement of remoulded fine fractions of to those calculated by a number of workers

flow materials (Table 1 ) was also apparent in (e.g. Curry, 1966; Cooley et al., 1977). How-
our data. Apparent viscosity was extremely ever, when shear rate is taken into account
sensitive to water content. A change of only 1% (which should always be done for non-New-
or 2% by weight of water changed the shear- tonian fluids ) the apparent viscosities are con-
stress measurements by a factor of 2 and the siderably greater ( 1 or 2 orders of magnitude)
apparent viscosity by a factor of 1 to 2 (Fig. than those calculated by Pierson (1981) at
5b). The apparent viscosities obtained from equivalent mean shear rates (assuming that
the full-scale mix in the large rheometer were mean shear rate can be approximated by di-
of a similar order of magnitude to those calcu- viding surface velocity by flow depth). This
lated by Pierson ( 1981 ) for Bullock Creek, ex- suggests that apparent viscosities alone are not
cept for the lowest shear rates ( < 1.5 s-~). particularly useful as a means of comparing
Viscosities at these low shear rates were up to debris flows. As apparent viscosity is ex-
about 2000 Pa- s, a similar order of magnitude tremely sensitive to shear rate and physical
characteristics of the mix, comparisons can be
TABLE1
made only on an order of magnitude basis, and
Rheological parameters measured or calculated from ob- the feasibility of adopting a classification based
served debris flows a n d or their deposits. on viscosity is highly questionable. To be of any
Location Rheological parameters Ref. a use, apparent viscosities should be quoted with
the corresponding shear rate.
Jiangjia Ravine, C h i n a 1/ = 150 Pa.s [ 1] Yield strengths for Tarndale Slip debris flow
r =200-300Pa
r/r = 2 - 3 Pa.s samples were in the range of 15-140 Pa, and
those of the Bullock Creek fines were slightly
Hunshui Gully, C h i n a r/ = 1.5-2.0 Pa-s [2 ]
r = 0 . 3 - 0 . 5 Pa higher at 50-300 Pa. Yield strength (like vis-
r/ar = 0 . 0 1 - 0 . 0 6 Pa.s [3] cosity) is very sensitive to solids concentra-
ra = 5 - 2 0 Pa tion. For the full-scale mix, yield strengths were
Wrightwood Canyon, USA qa = 4 0 - 1 0 0 Pa-s [4 ] difficult to estimate as a back extrapolation of
qN = 10-6000 Pa-s the flow curve appeared to give an increasing
qN = 2 1 0 - 6 0 0 P a . s [5]
value as shear rate was reduced to zero. A min-
Pine Creek Mt St Helens, qa = 2 0 - 3 2 0 P a ' s [6] i m u m value of 2000 Pa is suggested, but the
USA Za = 4 0 0 - 1 0 0 0 Pa
figure could be as high as 3000 Pa.
Mayflower Gulch, USA qr~ = 3000 Pa. s [7 ] The flow curves of the full-scale Bullock
Dragon Creek, USA qN = 2780 Pa.s [8] Creek mix (Fig. 6) showed a peculiar phe-
Bullock Creek, New Zealand qN = 2 1 0 - 8 1 0 Pa- s [9 ] nomenon. At the lowest shear rates, the shear
qB = 19-71 Pa stress envelope declined after start-up. As the
z =1300-2400Pa rotation rate increased from zero, the material
Weihe River, C h i n a za = 51 Pa [ 10 ] slipped or underwent a packing/structure
change. As the rate further increased the inter-
r =shearstrengthofmaterial; q =viscosity; granular forces became more significant, and
rB = Bingham yield strength; qN = Newtonian viscosity; grain-grain contacts are thought to be the cause
r = r e m o u l d e d sample; qa = Bingham viscosity.
aReferences: of the increase in shear stress. This behaviour
[1] L i e t al. (1983); [6] F i n k e t a l . (1981); is almost certainly associated with structural
[2] L i a n d Luo (1981); [7] Curry (1966); changes within the sample and possibly coin-
[ 3 ] Z h a n g et al. ( 19850; [8] Cooley et al. (1977);
[4] M o r t o n a n d Campbell; [9] Pierson (1981); cides with the onset of macro-viscous flow. The
[ 5 ] Sharp and Nobles ( 1953 ); [ 10] Shen and Xie (1985). flow curves depicted in Fig. 6 may represent a
108 C.J. PHILLIPS AND T.R.H. DAVIES

small part of a flow curve that Davies ( 1985, a unique flow curve, but rather require a flow
1986) proposed as being dilatant plastic be- band with mean values (Tily, 1983).
haviour, i.e., the extreme left-hand side of the Given that viscometric comparisons are
full curve shown in Fig. 8. Similar behaviour fraught with many problems, the data and the
was found for fresh concrete mixes, where the trends observed indicate that the viscometric
yield point has a higher torque value than that system adopted is useful as a tool in studying
of the first rotation speed (Ukraincik, 1980). the behaviour of high solids content materials
This is explained by Ukraincik as "concrete under conditions of applied shear stress. Lim-
loosening", i.e., a structural change followed by itations to the design govern the physical di-
plastic flow. mensions of materials able to be studied, and
The degree of scatter of results for the flow no doubt improvements can be made. Al-
curves obtained from the model rheometer though only a small number of experiments
(Tarndale Slip samples and Bullock Creek were carried out in the large rheometer the re-
fines) is not surprising. Although magnitudes suits fit in reasonably well with the existing
of shear stress at given shear rates differ by up state of knowledge of these materials. Errors in
to 50%, the shape of all the flow curves was re- the magnitude of apparent viscosity for mate-
markably consistent. The degree of scatter in rials tested in the model rheometer were close
the data and the fluctuations in torque values to or less than + 10%, except at very low rates
in both rheometers indicate the inherently poor of shear when variations in torque were caused
reproducibility of high solids content mate- by major structural changes within the sample.
rials (Cheng, 1984). These granuloviscous Because of the possible variation in bulk
materials (Cheng, 1980) tend to show features density observed in the samples after testing,
of both granular and viscous behaviour, such the results of shear stress and hence apparent
as stick-slip behaviour, and structural changes viscosity, particularly at the higher rotation
which bring about unpredictable viscosity speeds, are likely to be minimum rather than
change. They generally cannot be described by maximum values.
In the large rheometer, time effects may be
more important than in the model so that, al-
though relatively good control of speed was
achieved, torque showed wide scatter (up to
E 70% of mean value) and equilibrium values
might not have been reached. This wide scatter
in torque is a real phenomenon and is charac-
teristic of granulo-viscous materials. Also,
given the extreme sensitivity of shear-stress
measurement to such factors as solids content,
SHEAR
STRESS n°n~Ne~t°nia~//J~ grain size, and grain characteristics, the impor-
tance of the absolute value of the apparent vis-
cosity becomes less significant. As long as the
order of magnitude remains similar for similar
YIELDi materials, some comparisons can be made.
STRESS
/ Bingham Plastic Perhaps more significant are the overall trends
DEFORMATIONRATE in the data, i.e., the flow curve shapes. As trends
Fig. 8. Dilatant plastic model after Davies ( 1985, 1986). were similar for replicated samples and for
Inset shows how the data presented in Fig. 6 are samples with similar physical characteristics,
interpreted. and not all materials studied behaved in ex-
DETERMINING RHEOLOGICAL PARAMETERS OR DEBRIS FLOW MATERIAL 109

actly the same manner, this viscometric sys- plastic rheology. Debris flow materials with bi-
tem is considered to be potentially useful. modal grain-size distributions had a dilatant
A unique rheological model to describe the plastic rheology. Apparent viscosities were
full range of materials and physical conditions shear-rate dependent and extremely sensitive
which make up the process known as debris to water content. Instantaneous stresses within
flow is not yet possible. However, most re- shearing debris flow materials varied rapidly
ported debris flows have sediment concentra- over a wide range and are thought to be related
tions Cw>75%, fines content (silt and to grain-grain collisions and structural packing
clay) < 10%, bulk densities close to or exceed- changes within the fluid.
ing 2.0 T . m -3, and generally have poorly
sorted grain size distributions. A rheological Acknowledgements
model capable of dealing with this type of ma-
terial is Davies' (1986) dilatant plastic model. The technical staff of the Natural Resources
If a flow has a high fines content, however, it Engineering Department are thanked for assis-
may be quite plastic and show reduced shear tance with construction and instrumentation;
thickening (dilatant behaviour). It is unlikely in particular A. Van Kampen and R. Diehl. Dr.
that flow ever becomes Newtonian as the shear F. Kelliher and J. Orwin are thanked for re-
rates would need to be considerably greater viewing various drafts of this paper. The com-
than those experienced in debris flows. At such ments of two anonymous referees were ex-
high shear rates flow would probably still be tremely valuable.
dilatant or grain dispersive, though in the in-
ertial regime. References
Because of the sensitivity of the rheology of
debris flow materials to small changes in water Bradley, J.B., 1986. Hydraulics and bed material trans-
content, although a flow may start as a viscous port at high fine suspended concentrations. Ph.D. the-
plastic material it may subsequently develop sis, Colorado State University.
grain-dispersive characteristics. Then, as shear Chen, C.L., 1988. Generalised viscoplastic modelling of
debris flow. J. Hydraul. Eng., 114(3): 237-282.
rates are reduced, say, by a reduction in bed Cheng, D.C.H., 1980. Viscosity concentration equations
slope or by jamming of coarse grains in the and flow curves for suspensions. Chem. Industry, Is-
channel, the flow may once again exhibit plas- sue 10, May 17, pp. 211-232.
tic-viscoplastic behaviour. Cheng, D.C.H., 1984. Further observations on the rheo-
logical behaviour of dense suspensions. Powder Tech.,
37: 255-273.
Conclusions Cooley, M.E., Aldridge, B.N. and Euler, R.C., 1977. Ef-
fects of the catastrophic flood of December 1966, North
The rheological properties of coarse debris Rim Area, Eastern Grand Canyon, Arizona. U.S. Geol.
Surv. Prof. Pap., 980:43 pp.
flow materials have been measured using a Curry, R.R., 1966. Observations of alpine mudflows in
new, large, 30 ° inverted cone-and-plate rheo- the Tenmile Range, Central Colorado. Geol. Soc. Am.
meter. The study has stressed the importance Bull., 77: 771-776.
of conducting measurements at low shear rates Davies, T.R.H., 1985. The mechanics of large debris flows.
In: A. Takei (Editor), Proc. Int. Symp. on Erosion,
because those are the conditions found in nat- Debris Flow and Disaster Prevention, Tsukuba, Ja-
ural debris flows and the practicalities of con- pan, pp. 215-218.
ducting experiments at greater shear rates are Davies, T.R.H., 1986. Large debris flows: a macroviscous
almost insurmountable. Debris flow materials phenomenon. Acta Mechanica, 63:161-178.
Fink, J.H., Malin, M.G., D'Alli, R.E. and Greeley, R.,
with a low content of coarse material and uni-
1981. Rheological properties of mudflows associated
modal grain-size distributions, or exception- with the spring 1980 eruptions of Mount St Helens,
ally high fines content, had a plastic or visco- Washington. Geophys. Res. Lett., 8 ( 1 ): 43-46.
110 C.J. PHILLIPSANDT.R.H. DAVIES

Folk, R.L., 1968. Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks. Hem- Pierson, T.C., 1981. Dominant particle support mecha-
phill, Austin, TX. nisms in debris flows at Mt Thomas, New Zealand, and
Folk, R.L., Andrews, P.B. and Lewis, D.W., 1970. Detri- implications for flow mobility. Sedimentology, 28: 49-
tal sedimentary rock classification and nomenclature 60.
for use in New Zealand. N. Z. J. Geol. Geophys., 13: Pierson, T.C., 1985. Effects of slurry composition on de-
937-968. bris flow dynamics, Rudd Canyon, Utah. In: S. Bowles
Hanes, D.M. and Inman, D.L., 1985. Observations of (Editor), Delineation of Landslide, Flash Flood, and
rapidly flowing granular-fluid materials. J. Fluid Mech., Debris Flow Hazards in Utah. Proc. of a Specialty
150: 357-380. Conference at Utah State University, 1984.
Johnson, A.M., 1970. Physical Processes in Geology. Pierson, T.C. and Costa, J.E., 1987. A rheologic classifi-
Freeman Cooper, San Francisco, 577 pp. cation of subaerial sediment water flows. Geol, Soc.
Johnson, A.M., 1984. Debris Flow. In: D. Brunsden and Am. Rev. Eng. Geol., 7: 1-12.
D.B. Prior (Editors), Slope Instability. Wiley, New Pierson, T.C. and Mosley, M.P., 1978. Erosion and de-
York, 162 pp. position by debris flows in the Bullock Creek Catch-
Lawson, D.E., 1982. Mobilisation, movement and depo- ment, Mt Thomas State Forest, North Canterbury.
sition of active subaerial sediment flows, Matanuska NZFS Forest Research Institute, Protection Forestry
glacier, Alaska. J. Geol., 90: 279-300. Division, Geohydrology Report No. 162, unpublished.
El, J., and Luo, D., 1981. The formation and characteris- Pierson, T.C. and Scott, K.M., 1985. Downstream dilu-
tics of mudflow and flood in the mountain area of the tion of a lahar: transition from debris flow to hyper-
Dachao River and its prevention. Z. Geomorph. N.F., concentrated streamflow. Water Res. Res., 21 ( 10):
25(4): 470-484. 1511-1524.
Li, J., Yuan, J. Cheng, B. and Luo, D., 1983. The main Shen, S. and Xie, S., 1985. Structure mode and rheologic
features of the mudflow in Jiang-Jia Ravine. Z. Geo- property of mud debris flow. In: A. Takei (Editor),
morph. N.F., 27(3): 325-341. Proc. Int. Symp. on Erosion, Debris Flow and Disaster
Mizuyama, T. and Uehara, S., 1983. Experimental study Prevention, Tsukuba, Japan, 1985, pp. 227-230.
of the depositional process of debris flows. Trans. Jap. Sharp, R.L. and Nobles, L.H., 1953. Mud flow of 1941 at
Geomorph. Union., 4( 1 ), 49-64. Wrightwood, Southern California. Bull. Geol. Soc.
IVlorton, D.M. and Campbell, R.H., 1974. Spring mud- Am., 64: 547-560.
flows at Wrightwood, Southern California. Q. J. Eng. Takahashi, T., 1981. Debris Flow. Ann. Rev. Fluid. Mech.,
Geol., 74: 377-384. 13: 57-77.
N iyazov, B.S. and Degovets, A.S., 1975. Estimation of the Tily, P.J., 1983. Viscosity measurements (Part 1 ). Mea-
parameters of catastrophic mudflows in the basins of surement and Control, 16:111-115.
the lesser and greater Almatinka Rivers. Soviet Hy- Ukrainicik, V., 1980. Study on fresh concrete flow curves.
drol., Selected Pap., 2: 75-80. Cement and Concrete Research, 10:203-212.
O'Brien, J.S. and Julien, P.Y., 1984. Physical properties Varnes, D.J., 1978. Slope movement types and Processes.
and mechanics of hyperconcentrated sediment flows. In: R.L. Shuster and R.J. Krisek (Editors), Land-
In: S. Bowles (Editor), Delineation of Landslides, slides, Analysis and Control. National Academy of
Flood, and Debris Flow Hazards in Utah. Proc. of a Sciences, Transportation Research Board, Spec. Rep.,
Specialty Conf. at Utah State University, 1984. 176, pp. 11-33.
O'Brien, J.S. and Julien, P.Y., 1988. Laboratory analysis Waldron, H.H., 1967. Debris flow and erosion control
ofmudflow properties. J. Hydraul. Eng., 114(8): 877- problems caused by the ash eruptions of Irazfi vol-
887. cano, Costa Rica. US Geol. Surv. Bull. 1241-I: 37 pp.
Pearce, A.J., Black, R.D. and Nelson, C.S., 1981. Lithol- Wan, Z., 1982. Bed material movement in hyper-concen-
ogic and weathering influences on slope form and pro- trated flow. Series Paper No. 31, Institute of Hydro-
cess, eastern Raukumara Range, New Zealand. In: dynamics and Hydraulic Engineering (ISVA), Tech-
Erosion and Sediment Transport in Pacific Rim nical University of Denmark, Nov. 1982.
Steeplands. Int. Ass. Sci. Hydrol. Publ., 132, pp. 95- Wasson, R.J., 1978. A debris flow at Reshun, Pakistan
122. Hindu Kush. Geograf. Annal., 60A(3/4): 151-159.
Phillips, C.J., 1988. Rheological investigations of debris Watanabe, M., Hiroshi, I., 1981. Investigation and anal-
flow materials. Ph.D. thesis, Lincoln College, New ysis of volcanic mud flows on Mt Sakurajima, Japan.
Zealand, unpublished. In: Erosion and Sediment Transport Measurement. Int.
Phillips, C.J. and Davies, T.R.H., 1989. Debris flow Ass. Sci. Hydrol. Publ., 133 pp. 245-256.
rheology - direct measurement. Proc. Int. Symp. on Zhang, X., Liu, T., Wang, Y. and Luo, J., 1985. The mean
Erosion and Volcanic Debris Flow Technology, Yog- features of Debris Flows and Control Structures in
ykarta, Indonesia, Paper V 13, 13 pp. Hunshui Gully, Yuannan Province, China. In: A. Takei
Pierson, T.C., 1980. Erosion and deposition by debris (Editor), Proc. Int. Symp on Erosion, Debris Flow and
flows at Mt Thomas, North Canterbury, New Zealand. Disaster Prevention, Tsukuba, Japan, 1985, pp. 181-
Earth Surf. Proc., 5: 227-247. 186.