S c i e n c e s Grade

L i fe
Study G u i d e 12
© Department of Basic Education 2012

S c i e n c e s Grade
Li fe
Study Guid
e 12
© Department of Basic Education 2012

First published by the Department of Basic Education in 2012

222 Struben Street, Pretoria
South Africa

Enquiries
Office of the Director General
Mr P.B. Soobrayan
Email: [email protected]
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Copyright ©Department of Basic Education

ISBN 978-0-621-40906-2

All rights reserved. You may copy material from this publication for use in non-profit education
programmes if you acknowledge the source. For use in publications, please obtain the written
permission of the Department of Basic Education.

This publication is not for sale.

Mind the Gap production team

Production manager: Dr Patricia Watson
Authors: Alfie Bouwer, Sivalingam Chetty, Marlena Ford, Jean Goliath,
Gayle Lombard, Gonasagren Pillay and Ronel Pretorius
Expert readers: Esther Makhanywa, Kanthan Naidoo, Christina Nono and
Susan Wiese
Editors: Julia Grey and Reneé Ferreira
Designers: Alicia Arntzen, Nomalizo Ngwenya and Philisiwe Nkosi
Study skills: Margie Karnasopoulos
Illustrators: Bié Venter, Stephan Theron
Cover illustration: Alastair Findlay
 © Department of Basic Education 2012

Ministerial foreword
The Department of Basic Education has pleasure in releasing the series
called Mind the Gap study guides for Grade 12 learners. The first subjects
in the series include Life Sciences, Accounting, Economics and Geography.
These study guides are another innovative and committed attempt by the
Department of Basic Education to improve the academic performance of
Grade 12 candidates in the National Senior Certificate (NSC) examination.
The Mind the Gap study guide series is produced in both English and
Afrikaans to assist those learners that have been underperforming due to a
lack of exposure to the content requirements of the curriculum. The series
aims to mind-the-gap between failing and passing, by bridging-the-gap in
learners’ understanding of commonly tested concepts so candidates can
pass.
The Mind the Gap study guide series takes its brief in part from the 2011 Matsie Angelina Motshekga, MP
Minister of Basic Education
National Diagnostic report on learner performance. The marking and
moderation process has revealed that candidates consistently perform
poorly in certain basic concepts. The Mind the Gap study guides also draw
on the Grade 12 Examination Guidelines.
Each of the Mind the Gap study guides provide explanations of key
terminology, simple explanations and examples of the types of questions
that learners can expect to be asked in an exam. Model answers
are included to assist learners in building their understanding.
Learners are also referred to specific questions in past national exam
papers and exam memos that are available on the Department’s website –
www.education.gov.za
The study guides have been written by subject expert teams comprised
of teachers, examiners, moderators, subject advisors and subject co-
ordinators. All that is now required is for our Grade 12 learners to put in Mr Enver Surty, MP
Deputy Minister of Basic Education
the hours studying hard for the examinations. It should be remembered
that the support of the teachers and parents is also of utmost importance
as they are responsible for supporting the learning process at school and
at home.
It is my fervent wish that the Mind the Gap study guide series takes us all
closer towards ensuring that no learner is left behind.
Learners make us proud - study hard. We wish you all good luck for your
Grade 12 examinations.

____________________________________ ____________________________

Matsie Angelina Motshekga, MP Mr Enver Surty, MP

Minister of Basic Education Deputy Minister of Basic Education
July 2012 July 2012
© Department of Basic Education 2012
 © Department of B

Table of contents
Dear Grade 12 learner ........................................................................................................ vi
How to use this study guide............................................................................................... vii
Top 10 study tips................................................................................................................ viii
Question words to help you answer questions................................................................. ix
Study skills to boost your learning.......................................................................................x
Top 10 exam tips................................................................................................................ xiii
Learner’s checklist..............................................................................................................xiv
Chapter 1: Nucleic acids............................................................................... 1
1.1 The structure of DNA and RNA...............................................................................1
1.2 Differences between DNA and RNA.......................................................................2
1.3 DNA replication........................................................................................................3
1.4 The significance of DNA replication.......................................................................3
1.5 Protein synthesis.....................................................................................................5
Chapter 2: Meiosis....................................................................................... 9
2.1 What is meiosis?.....................................................................................................9
2.2 The process of meiosis in animal cells..................................................................9
2.3 The significance of meiosis................................................................................. 12
2.4 Differences between meiosis I and meiosis II.................................................... 13
Chapter 3: Genetics.................................................................................... 17
3.1 Key concepts........................................................................................................ 17
3.2 Genetic crosses.................................................................................................... 19
3.3 Pedigree diagrams............................................................................................... 24
3.4 Genetic engineering............................................................................................. 26
3.5 Genetic counselling.............................................................................................. 26
Chapter 4: Evolution.................................................................................. 27
4.1 Theories of Lamarck and Darwin........................................................................ 27
4.2 Applying the ideas of Lamarck and Darwin........................................................ 28
4.3 Differences between natural selection and artificial selection......................... 30
4.4 Speciation............................................................................................................. 31
4.5 Human evolution.................................................................................................. 33
Chapter 5: Plant responses........................................................................ 43
Chapter 6: Human nervous system............................................................ 44
6.1 The brain............................................................................................................... 44
6.2 Neurons................................................................................................................. 46
6.3 Reflex arc.............................................................................................................. 48
6.4 The human eye..................................................................................................... 50
6.5 The human ear..................................................................................................... 53
Chapter 7: Endocrine system..................................................................... 56
7.1 The human endocrine system............................................................................. 56
7.2 Negative feedback............................................................................................... 57
Chapter 8: Temperature regulation............................................................ 60
8.1 The process of temperature regulation.............................................................. 60
Chapter 9: Reproduction............................................................................ 62
9.1 Life cycles in plants and insects and reproductive strategies in animals........ 62
9.2 Human reproduction............................................................................................ 64
Chapter 10: Population and community ecology...................................... 74
10.1 Population size......................................................................................................74
10.2 Population growth forms...................................................................................... 75
10.3 Age and gender distribution pyramids of developing and developed countries... 79
10.4 Methods to determine population size............................................................... 80
10.5 Interactions in a community................................................................................ 82
10.6 Ecological succession.......................................................................................... 84
Chapter 11: Skills........................................................................................ 85
11.1 Drawing graphs..................................................................................................... 85
11.2 Answering essay questions.................................................................................. 91
11.3 Line drawings........................................................................................................ 93
Appendix 1: Blank drawings............................................................................................. 94
Appendix 2: Past Grade 12 exam papers..................................................................... 116
© Department of Basic Education 2012

Dear Grade 12 learner

This Mind the Gap study guide helps you to prepare for the end-of-year Life
Sciences Grade 12 exam.
The study guide does NOT cover the entire curriculum, but it does focus on
core content of each knowledge area and points out where you can earn
easy marks.
You must work your way through this study guide to improve your
understanding, identify your areas of weakness and correct your own
mistakes.
To ensure a high-quality pass, you should also cover the remaining sections
of the curriculum using other textbooks and your class notes.

Overview of the exam for

Life Sciences Grade 12
The following topics make up each of the TWO Life Sciences exam papers
that you write at the end of the year:

PAPER 1 PAPER 2

Nucleic acids 90 marks Plant responses 90 marks

Meiosis Human nervous system
Genetics Human endocrine system
Temperature regulation
Reproduction

Evolution 60 marks Population and community ecology 60 marks

TOTAL 150 marks TOTAL 150 marks

Both Paper 1 and Paper 2 will include the following types of questions:
We are confident
that this Mind the Gap
study guide can help Section Type of question Marks
you to prepare well so
A Short answer, objective questions such as multiple-choice 50
that you pass the end-
questions, terminology, columns/statement and items.
of-year exams.
B A variety of longer questions based on graphs, diagrams 2 × 30
or text.
There will be two questions of 30 marks each. Both
of these questions will be divided into three to four
subsections.

C Consists of two parts:

• Data response questions. 20
• A mini-essay (this may address one or more learning 20
outcome).

vi Introduction
 © Department of Basic Education 2012

How to use this study guide

Look out for
these icons in the
study guide.

This study guide covers selected parts of the different topics of the Grade 12
Life Sciences curriculum in the order they are usually taught during the
year. The selected parts of each topic are presented in the following way:
• An explanation of terms and concepts;
• Worked examples to explain and demonstrate;
• Activities with questions for you to answer; and
• Answers for you to use to check your own work.

Hints to help you

remember a concept
NB! Pay special attention Hint or guide you in solving
E. G. Worked examples
problems

Exams Activities with

Step-by-step Refers you to past
questions for you to
instructions exam papers
answer

• A checklist from the exam guidelines for Life Sciences has been
provided on page xiv for you to keep track of your progress. Once Look out for
these helpful features
you have mastered the core concepts and have confidence in your
in the study guide.
answers to the questions provided, tick the last column of the
checklist.
• The activities are based on exam-type questions. Cover the answers
provided and do each activity on your own. Then check your answers.
Reward yourself for the things you get right. If you get any incorrect
answers, make sure you understand where you went wrong before
moving on to the next section.
• In Chapter 11, you will find a section on graphing skills which you
must master when preparing for both Paper 1 and Paper 2. This
chapter also provides guidelines on how to answer essay-type
questions in the exam.
• You will be asked to draw a labelled diagram in the exam. On page
95 to 115 are a set of blank diagrams that you can use to practise
your drawing and labelling skills. Filling in these blank diagrams is a
good way to test yourself and work out what you know well and what
you still need more practice in.
• Past exam papers are included in the study guide for you to do. Check
your answers by looking back at your notes and the exam memoranda.
Past exam papers go a long way in preparing you for what to expect and
help reduce exam anxiety. Go to www.education.gov.za to download
more past exam papers.

Use this study guide

as a workbook. Make notes,
draw pictures and highlight
important concepts.

Introduction vii
© Department of Basic Education 2012

Top 10 study tips

Try these study 1 Have all your materials ready before you begin studying –
tips to make
pencils, pens, highlighters, paper, etc.
learning easier.

2 Be positive. Make sure your brain holds on to the information

you are learning by reminding yourself how important it is to
remember the work and get the marks.

3 Take a walk outside. A change of scenery will stimulate your

learning. You’ll be surprised at how much more you take in after
being outside in the fresh air.

4 Break up your learning sections into manageable parts. Trying to

learn too much at one time will only result in a tired, unfocused
and anxious brain.

5 Keep your study sessions short but effective and reward yourself
with short, constructive breaks.

6 Teach your concepts to anyone who will listen. It might feel

strange at first, but it is definitely worth reading your revision
notes aloud.

7 Your brain learns well with colours and pictures. Try to use them
whenever you can.

8 Be confident with the learning areas you know well and focus
your brain energy on the sections that you find more difficult
to take in.

9 Repetition is the key to retaining information you have to learn.

Keep going – don’t give up!

10 Sleeping at least 8 hours every night, eating properly and

drinking plenty of water are all important things you need to
do for your brain. Studying for exams is like strenuous exercise,
so you must be physically prepared.

viii Introduction
 © Department of Basic Education 2012

Question words to help you answer questions

It is important to look for the question words (the words that tell you what
to do) to correctly understand what the examiner is asking. Use the words
in the table below as a guide when answering questions.
Question word What is required of you
Analyse Separate, examine and interpret
Calculate This means a numerical answer is required. In general, you
should show your working, especially where two or more
steps are involved.
Classify Group things based on common characteristics
Compare Point out or show both similarities and differences between
things, concepts or phenomena
Define Give a clear meaning
Describe State in words (using diagrams where appropriate) the main
points of a structure/process/phenomenon/investigation
Determine To calculate something, or to discover the answer by
examining evidence
Differentiate Use differences to qualify categories
Discuss Consider all information and reach a conclusion
Explain Make clear; interpret and spell out
Identify Name the essential characteristics
Label Identify on a diagram or drawing
List Write a list of items, with no additional detail
Mention Refer to relevant points
Name Give the name (proper noun) of something
State Write down information without discussion
Suggest Offer an explanation or a solution
Tabulate Draw a table and indicate the answers as direct pairs

Examples of question words

Questions
1. Figure 6.12 shows a longitudinal section through the human eye.
Study the diagram and answer the questions that follow. In every exam
question, put a CIRCLE
a) Label parts 2, 3, 4 and 5 respectively. (4) around the question word
b) Name and describe the process that causes part 1 to dilate and underline any other
(become wider). (5) important key words.
2. Figure 6.13 is a longitudinal section through the human eye. The These words tell you
exactly what is
structures which enable the eye to focus on objects are missing being asked.
in this diagram. Study the diagram and answer the questions that
follow.
Draw a longitudinal section through the missing parts of Figure
6.13 to indicate the appearance of these structures when you are...
a) reading a book.  (6)
b) looking at an object more than 6 metres away.(6)
[21]

Introduction ix
© Department of Basic Education 2012

Study skills to boost your learning

This guide includes 3 study techniques you can use to help you learn the
material:
1. Mobile notes
2. Mnemonics
3. Mind maps

Mobile notes
Mobile notes are excellent tools for
learning all the key concepts in the
study guide. Mobile notes are easy
to make and you can take them with
you wherever you go:
1. Fold a blank piece of paper in
half. Fold it in half again.
Fold it again.
2. Open the paper. It will now be
divided into 8 parts.
3. Cut or tear neatly along the
folded lines.
4. On one side of each of these
1. Fold an A4 paper into 8 bits of paper, write the
8 squares. Cut or tear basic concept.
neatly along the folded 5. On the other side, write I know
the meaning or the this one now!
lines.
Next…"
explanation of the basic
concept.

cloning
6. Use different colours and
add pictures to help you
remember.
7. Take these mobile notes with
you wherever you go and look
2. Write the basic concept at them whenever you can.
on one side of a bit of 8. As you learn, place the cards in
paper. 3 different piles:
• I know this information well.
• I’m getting there.
Process by w
genetically idhich • I need more practice.
organisms are entical
using biotech forme d 9. The more you learn them, the
nology better you will remember them.

3. Write the definition of

the basic concept on
the back of the piece of
paper.

x Introduction
 © Department of Basic Education 2012

Mnemonics
A mnemonic code is a useful technique for learning information that is
difficult to remember. Below is an example of a word mnemonic using the
word SYSTEMS, where each letter of the word stands for something else:

S – Self-discipline means getting

it done.
Y – Yes! You can do it.
S – Study hard, this is your
chance to give it everything
you’ve got.
T – Try and try again, even when
the going gets tough.
E – Easy! This study guide will
help you.
M – Motivation! Remember, only
YOU can motivate yourself.
S – Success comes to those who
work for it.
Mnemonics code information and make it easier to remember.
The more creative you are and the more you link your “codes” to familiar
things, the more helpful your mnemonics will be.
This guide provides several ideas for using mnemonics. Be sure to make
up your own.

The future depends on what we do in the present.

Mahatma Gandhi

Introduction xi
© Department of Basic Education 2012

Mind maps
There are several mind maps included in this guide, summarising some of
the sections.
Have a look at the following pictures of a brain cell (neuron) and, below it,
a mind map:

Figure 1: Brain cell or neuron

Figure 2: Mind map rules

Mind maps work because they show information that we have to learn in
the same way that our brains “see” information.
As you study the mind maps in the guide, add pictures to each of the
branches to help you remember the content.
You can make your own mind maps as you finish each section.
How to make your own mind maps:
1. Turn your paper sideways so your brain has space to spread out in all
A picture says
a 1000 words. directions.
2. Decide on a name for your mind map that summarises the
information you are going to put on it.
3. Write the name in the middle and draw a circle, bubble or picture
around it.
4. Write only key words on your branches, not whole sentences. Keep it
short and simple.
5. Each branch should show a different idea. Use a different colour for
each idea. Connect the information that belongs together. This will
help build your understanding of the learning areas.
6. Have fun adding pictures wherever you can. It does not matter if you
can’t draw well.

xii Introduction
 © Department of Basic Education 2012

TOP 10 exam tips

1 Make sure you have all the necessary stationery for your exam,
i.e. pens, pencils, eraser, protractor, compass, calculator (with
new batteries). Make sure you bring your ID document and
examination admission letter.

2 Arrive on time, at least one hour before the start of the exam.

3 Go to the toilet before entering the exam room. You don’t

want to waste valuable time going to the toilet during
the exam.

4 Use the 10 minutes reading time to read the instructions carefully.

This helps to ‘open’ the information in your brain. Start with the
question you think is the easiest to get the flow going.

5 Break the questions down to make sure you understand what

is being asked. If you don’t answer the question properly you
won’t get any marks for it. Look for the key words in the question
to know how to answer it. A list of these words is on page ix of
this study guide.

6 Try all of the questions. Each question has some easy marks in it
so make sure that you do all the questions in the exam.

7 Never panic, even if the question seems difficult at first. It will be

linked with something you have covered. Find the connection.

8 Manage your time properly. Don’t waste time on questions you are
unsure of. Move on and come back if time allows. You have 150
minutes (2½ hours) to answer each of the 150-mark Life Sciences GOOD LUCK!
question papers. Spend the following amounts of time on each
question:
• Question 1: 50 marks = 45 minutes
• Question 2: 30 marks = 25 minutes
• Question 3: 30 marks = 25 minutes
• Question 4: 40 marks = 35 minutes
The remaining 20 minutes can be used to check your answers and
attempt to answer any question that you might have left out.

9 Check weighting – how many marks have been allocated for your
answer? Take note of the ticks in this study guide as examples
of marks allocated. Do not give more or less information than is
required.

10 Write big and bold and clearly. You will get more marks if the
marker can read your answer clearly.

If you can dream it, you can do it.

Walt Disney

Introduction xiii
© Department of Basic Education 2012

Learner’s checklist
Use this checklist to monitor your progress when preparing for the
examination. The ticks (3) tell you which aspects of the curriculum are
covered in this study guide. The stars (*) tell you to go to textbooks and
class notes.

I understand
study guide

understand
Covered in

I do not
Topic Aspect

Nucleic acids Nucleic acids terminology 3

Structure of DNA and RNA 3
Differences between DNA and RNA 3
DNA replication 3
Protein synthesis 3
Mutation *
DNA profiling *
Meiosis The process of meiosis using diagrams 3
Significance of meiosis 3
Differences between meiosis I and meiosis II 3
Genetics Genetic terminology 3
Complete dominance problems 3
Incomplete dominance problems 3
Co-dominance problems 3
Inheritance of sex 3
Sex-linked characteristics 3
Pedigree diagrams 3
Genetic engineering 3
Genetic counselling 3
Genetic mutations *
Genetic engineering *
Genetic disorders *
Evolution Lamarck and Darwin’s theories 3
Natural and artificial selection 3
Speciation 3
Human evolution: Similarities with other primates 3
Human evolution: Differences with other primates 3
Phylogenetic trees 3
Out of Africa hypothesis 3
Evolution in present times *
Plant responses Phototropism and geotropism 3
Plant defence mechanisms *

xiv Introduction
 © Department of Basic Education 2012

Nervous system The brain 3

Neurons, reflex actions and reflex arcs 3
Autonomic nervous system *
Peripheral nervous system *
Structure and functions of parts of the eye 3
Accommodation 3
Pupillary mechanism 3
Structure and functions of parts of the ear 3
Hearing 3
Disorders of CNS, eye and ear *
Endocrine Glands and the hormones they secrete 3
system Negative feedback – glucose 3
Negative feedback – thyroxin 3
Endocrine disorders *
Temperature The role of the skin on hot and cold days
3
regulation
Reproduction Reproductive strategies 3
Sexual and asexual reproduction *
Life cycle of plants and insects *
Flowers as reproductive structures 3
Male reproductive organs 3
Female reproductive organs 3
Gametogenesis *
Menstrual cycle (ovulation and menstruation) 3
Fertilisation and implantation 3
Contraception 3
Sexually transmitted diseases *
Population and Population size 3
community Population growth forms 3
ecology
Age and gender pyramids 3
Methods to determine population size: Mark–recapture method 3
Methods to determine population size: Simple sampling method 3
Interactions in a community: Predation, competition and symbiosis 3
Ecological succession 3
Social organisation *
Human influence on community structure *
Skills Draw a line graph 3
Draw a bar graph 3
Draw a histogram 3
Draw a pie chart 3
Answering essay questions 3

Introduction xv
© Department of Basic Education 2012

Nucleic acids
chapter 1
Paper 1

1.1 The structure of DNA and RNA

• Two kinds of nucleic acids are found in a cell, namely DNA and RNA. P
• These two nucleic acids are made of building blocks (or monomers)
called nucleotides. N
S
• Figure 1.1 (right) shows what a nucleotide looks like.
Table 1.1 (below) shows the nitrogenous bases of DNA and RNA. P – Phosphate group
S – Deoxyribose or ribose
DNA has four different nitrogenous RNA has four different nitrogenous sugar
bases – adenine, thymine, guanine bases – adenine, uracil, guanine and N – Nitrogenous base
and cytosine. cytosine. (adenine, thymine,
guanine, cytosine or
A Adenine A Adenine uracil)
Figure 1.1 A nucleotide
T Thymine U Uracil
Adenine always joins with thymine. RNA contains uracil instead of
thymine.
G Guanine G Guanine

C Cytosine C Cytosine
Guanine always joins with cytosine.
Table 1.1 Nitrogenous bases of DNA and RNA

COMPARE & CONTRAST

Nucleic acids

DNA RNA
ALIKE
Nitrogenous
bases present:
Adenine, cytosine, guanine

DIFFERENT

Nitrogenous base Nitrogenous base

present: Thymine present: Uracil

Contains sugar: Contains sugar:

Deoxyribose Ribose

Double-stranded Single-stranded
molecule molecule

Mind the Gap Chapter 1 Nucleic acids (Paper 1) 1

Life Sciences Molecular studies
© Department of Basic Education 2012

Figure 1.2 below shows the structure of DNA and RNA. Study the diagrams
in Figure 1.2, and then read the information in the boxes below the
diagrams to find out how to tell a DNA molecule from an RNA molecule.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) RNA (ribonucleic acid)

Phosphate group Phosphate group

A T A Nitrogenous base

G C Deoxyribose G
Ribose

A
Nitrogenous base

Weak hydrogen bonds

U

How to recognise a DNA molecule How to recognise an RNA molecule

• Double-stranded molecule • Single-stranded molecule
• Contains the nitrogenous base • Contains the nitrogenous base
thymine (T) instead of uracil (U) uracil (U) instead of thymine (T)
• A always joins to T
• G always joins to C

Figure 1.2 The structure of DNA and RNA

1.2 Differences between DNA and RNA

Table 1.2 below summarises the differences between a DNA and an RNA
molecule.

DNA RNA

1. Double-stranded molecule 1. Single-stranded molecule

2. Contains deoxyribose (sugar) 2. Contains ribose (sugar)

3. Contains the nitrogenous base, 3. Contains the nitrogenous base,

thymine uracil

Table 1.2 The differences between DNA and RNA

2 Chapter 1 Nucleic acids (Paper 1) Mind the Gap

Molecular studies Life Sciences
 © Department of Basic Education 2012

1.3 DNA replication

DNA replication is the process during which a DNA molecule makes an
exact copy (replica) of itself. This is shown in Figure 1.3 below.

1 The double helix

CG unwinds.
A–T
AT
2 Weak hydrogen
bonds between
nitrogenous bases
G-C 1 Unwinds
break and two
G–C DNA strands unzip
(separate).
T–A
G–C 3 Each original DNA
G– –C Unzips strand serves as a
T– –A
template on which its
G– Template complement is built.
T– –C
3 Template A –A
A– 4 Free nucleotides
T A–T build a DNA strand
C–G C–G onto each of
T–A T–A the original two
A–T A–T DNA strands by
attaching to their
A–T A–T 4 Complementary complementary
T–A T–A strand forms
A–T A–T nitrogenous bases
(A to T and C to G).
T-A T-A 5 This results in
C–G C–G two identical DNA
G-C G-C
molecules. Each
molecule consists of
one original strand
and one new strand.
5 Two identical DNA molecules

Figure 1.3 DNA replication

1.4 The significance of DNA replication

DNA replication is important because it:
• Doubles the genetic material so it can be shared between the
resulting daughter cells during cell division.
• Results in the formation of identical daughter cells during mitosis.

Mind the Gap Chapter 1 Nucleic acids (Paper 1) 3

Life Sciences Molecular studies
© Department of Basic Education 2012

1
4 3 2 Activity 1

1. Figure 1.4 (left) represents part of a nucleic acid molecule. Study the
5 C diagram and answer the questions that follow.
1.1 Identify the nucleic acid shown in Figure 1.4. (1)
6 A 1.2 Label the following:
a) Part 1 (1)
KEY b) Part 2 (1)
A – Adenine c) The nitrogenous bases 4, 5 and 6 (3)
C – Cytocine 1.3 What is the collective name for the parts numbered 1, 2
Figure 1.4 Part of a nucleic and 3? (1)
acid molecule

2. Questions 2.1 and 2.2 are based on Figure 1.5 (left). This is a
diagrammatic representation of a part of two different nucleic acid
A molecules found in the cells of organisms during a stage in the
process of protein synthesis.
2.1 Name the molecules 1 and 2. (2)
G
2.2 Give a reason for your answer in question 2.1. (2)
[11]

Molecule 1

Figure 1.5 Two nucleic acid

molecules

Answers to activity 1
1.1 DNA3(1)
1.2 a) Phosphate3 group(1)
b) Deoxyribose3 (1)
c) 4 – adenine (A)3
5 – guanine (G)3
6 – thymine3 (3)
1.3 Nucleotide3(1)

2.1 1 – DNA
2 – mRNA/RNA3 (2)
2.2 DNA contains the nitrogenous base thymine (T).3
RNA contains the nitrogenous base uracil (U).3 (2)
[11]

4 Chapter 1 Nucleic acids (Paper 1) Mind the Gap

Molecular studies Life Sciences
 © Department of Basic Education 2012

1.5 Protein synthesis

Protein synthesis is the process by which proteins are made in each cell
of an organism to form enzymes, hormones and new structures for cells.

In the nucleus

1 DNA

2
A TRANSCRIPTION

U C A G G C A C A

In the cytoplasm
3 mRNA
Codon
(triplet) Codon
Ribosome
4

B TRANSLATION
Anticodon U C A G G C A C A
A G U
5 tRNA

6 Protein
Remember
Figure 1.6 The process of protein synthesis this NB!
order:
There are two main processes involved in protein synthesis, namely
transcription and translation. They are labelled as A and B in Figure 1.6 Order Example
above. DNA AGT
mRNA (codon) UCA
tRNA AGU
Note that the numbers on the diagram correspond with the description
below.
mRNA (messenger RNA)
– carries the message.
A Transcription (takes place in the nucleus)
1 DNA unwinds and splits.
2 One DNA strand acts as a template for forming mRNA.
3 Free nucleotides arrange to form mRNA according to the DNA
template. This process is called transcription.
4 The mRNA leaves the nucleus. Stage B now takes place when
mRNA in the cytoplasm attaches to the ribosome.

Mind the Gap Chapter 1 Nucleic acids (Paper 1) 5

Life Sciences Molecular studies
© Department of Basic Education 2012

B Translation (takes place in the cytoplasm on the ribosome)

5 Each tRNA brings a specific amino acid to the mRNA.
This is called translation.
6 The amino acids are linked together to form a particular protein.
tRNA (transfer
RNA) –
transports the The diagram shown in Figure 1.6 (on page 5) may appear in exam questions
amino acids in different ways. Do not let the different representations confuse you.
Just try to identify the following components by looking for the features
listed here:
• DNA – double-stranded; look for presence of thymine; found in nucleus
only.
• Nuclear membrane – has nuclear pores through which mRNA moves.
• mRNA – single-stranded; look for presence of uracil; contains a triplet
of bases (codon) found in nucleus and cytoplasm.
• Ribosome – usually mRNA attached to it.
• tRNA – contains a triplet of bases (anticodon); look for attached amino
acid.

Activity 2

Question 1
Study Figure 1.7 (below), which shows the process of protein synthesis,
and answer the questions.

D
A

Exams
For two more
G G

problems on protein U
U
G
U

synthesis, refer
to these National Life B
Sciences exam papers:
UG

U
U

• Life Sciences Paper CG

1 March 2009 –
C
A

Question 2.2 on
G
C

page 9.
G

• Life Sciences Paper E

G U

1 November 2010 –
Question 1.5 on CYS ALA

page 7. Amino acids

Figure 1.7 Protein synthesis

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1.1 Label structures A, B and D.  (3)

1.2 State ONE function of molecule D.  (1)
1.3 Which stage of protein synthesis takes place at F? (1)
1.4 Identify organelle C.  (1)
1.5 Name and describe the stage of protein synthesis that takes
place at organelle C. (7)
1.6 Write down the codon of anticodon E from top to bottom.  (1)
[14]

Answers to question 1
1.1 A – Nuclear membrane3
B – mRNA3
D – DNA3(3)
1.2 Carrying hereditary characteristics from parents to their offspring 3
OR Controls the synthesis (manufacturing) of proteins3 (1)
1.3 Transcription3(1)
1.4 Ribosome3(1)
1.5 Translation3
• The mRNA strand from the nucleus becomes attached3
to a ribosome with its codons exposed
• each tRNA molecule carrying a specific amino acid3
according to its anticodon3
• matches up with/complements the codon of the mRNA3
• so that the amino acids are placed in the correct sequence3
• adjacent amino acids are linked3
• to form a protein3 (7)
1.6 CAC3 (the anticodon is GUG, so the complementary codon
is CAC) (1)
[14]

Question 2
Table 1.3 below shows the DNA base triplets that code for different amino
acids. You don’t
have to know the
Amino acid Base triplet in DNA template names of the amino
Leu (leucine) GAA acids related to the
base triplets.
His (histidine) GTA
Lys (lysine) TTT
Pro (proline) GGG
Ala (alanine) CGA
Trp (tryptophan) ACC
Phe (phenylalanine) AAA
Gly (glycine) CCT
Table 1.3 Different amino acids and their base triplets

The following is a part of a sequence of amino acids that forms a particular

protein molecule:

Ala His Trp Leu Lys

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2.1 Name the process by which mRNA is formed from a DNA template. (1)
2.2 How many mRNA codons would be involved in forming the portion
Remember of protein shown above? (1)
NB!
this
2.3 Write down the sequence of the first three mRNA codons
order:
(from left to right) for this portion of the protein. (3)
Order Example [5]
DNA CGA
mRNA (codon) GCU Answers to question 2
tRNA CGA 2.1 Transcription3(1)
2.2 53(1)
2.3 GCU3– CAU3– UGG3  (3)
[5]

Question 3
Read the song below about protein synthesis and then answer the
Use the rhythm questions that follow.
of this rap song to
help you remember
the stages of protein The DNA codes protein

♫
synthesis. The nucleus dissolves when it’s time to replicate
Nitrogenous bases line up side by side
Sugar phosphate backbone goes along for the ride
String them all together to form a nucleotide

♪
A pairs with T and G with C
It works! The codon is complementary
It lets you be you, and me be me.

Transcription takes the bases that are found in one gene

Converts them to mRNA, if you know what I mean

♫
The bases pair up just like before
But U substitutes with T, which isn’t needed anymore
mRNA leaves the nucleus but the job is not done
Ribosome’s turn to join in all the fun
Three bases make a codon – count them 1, 2, 3
An amino acid for each codon in the growing protein.

3.1 Name the four nitrogenous bases of DNA. (4)

3.2 State what substitutes for T in mRNA.  (1)
3.3 How many nitrogenous bases are in a codon?  (1)
3.4 Name the process that forms mRNA.  (1)
3.5 Name the building blocks of proteins.  (1)
[8]

Answers to question 3
3.1 Adenine3; thymine3; guanine3; cytosine3(4)
3.2 Uracil3(1)
3.3 33 (1)
3.4 Transcription3(1)
3.5 Amino acids3(1)
[8]
Keep going!

8 Chapter 1 Nucleic acids (Paper 1) Mind the Gap

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MEIOSIS
chapter 2Paper 1

2.1 What is meiosis?

Meiosis is a type of cell division whereby a diploid cell (somatic cell) divides Chromosome
to form four dissimilar haploid cells (sex cells). Diploid cells have two sets
of chromosomes, where each chromosome has a homologous partner. Chromatid
Haploid cells only have one set of chromosomes. Chromosomes in haploid
cells have no homologous partners. Centromere

Before meiosis begins (during interphase), DNA replication takes place. The
result is two sets of chromosomes consisting of two identical chromatids
joined together with a centromere. This is shown in Figure 2.1 (right). Homologous
chromosomes
– one from the

2.2 The process of meiosis

mother and one
from the father

in animal cells
Figure 2.1 Homologous
chromosomes

Meiosis is the type of cell division used to

Meiosis
produce gametes or sex cells (sperm and eggs).
A cell undergoing meiosis will divide twice –
the first division is meiosis 1 and the second is
meiosis 2.
DNA replication and
In the first meiotic division, the number of cells recombination
is doubled, but the number of chromosomes is
Meiosis I
not. This results in half as many chromosomes
per cell.

In the second meiotic division, the number of

chromosomes does not get reduced.

The diagram alongside shows how meiosis Meiosis II

starts with a diploid cell and divides twice
(meiosis 1 and 2), resulting in four haploid cells.

Now turn the page to find out what happens during each stage of meiosis I and II.

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2.2.1 First meiotic division

Prophase 1
Spindle fibres • Chromosomes shorten and become visible as two
chromatids joined by a centromere.
• Homologous pairs of chromosomes are now visible.
• The nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear.
• The spindle starts to form.
• Chromatids from each homologous pair touch.
Homologous
chromosomes The point where they touch is called a chiasma.
• DNA is crossed over (swopped) at the chiasma.
• The spindle continues to form.
Figure 2.2 Prophase 1

Metaphase 1
• The spindle extends across the whole cell.
• The homologous chromosomes line up along the
equator of the spindle in their homologous pairs.
• One chromosome of each pair lies on either side of the
equator.
• The centromere of each chromosome attaches to the
spindle fibres.

Figure 2.3 Metaphase 1

Anaphase 1
• The spindle fibres shorten and pull each chromosome
of each chromosome pair to opposite poles of the cell.

Figure 2.4 Anaphase 1

Telophase 1
• The chromosomes reach the poles of the cell.
• Each pole has half the number of chromosomes
Constriction present in the original cell.
• The cell membrane constricts and divides the
cytoplasm in half to form two cells.

Figure 2.5 Telophase 1

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2.2.2 Second meiotic division

Prophase 2
• Each cell formed during meiosis I now divides again.
• A spindle forms in each of the new cells.

Figure 2.6 Prophase 2

Metaphase 2
• Individual chromosomes line up at the equator of
each cell, with the centromeres attached to the
spindle fibres.

Figure 2.7 Metaphase 2

Anaphase 2
• The spindle fibres start to contract.
• The centromeres split and daughter chromosomes/
chromatids are pulled to the opposite poles of
each cell.

Figure 2.8 Anaphase 2

Telophase 2
• The daughter chromosomes/chromatids reach the
poles and a new nucleus forms.
• The cell membrane of each cell constricts and the
cytoplasm divides into two cells.
• Four haploid daughter cells are formed.
• Each daughter cell has half the number of
chromosomes of the original cell.
• The daughter cells are genetically different from each
other.

Figure 2.9 Telophase 2

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An easy way to remember the events of meiosis is to use the word

mnemonic IPMAT.

Letter Phase Meaning Event

I Interphase I for in between The part of the life cycle of

the cell that is in between
cell divisions.

P Prophase P for preparation The chromosomes prepare

for meiosis by untangling
and becoming clearly visible.
Crossing over also takes
place.

M Metaphase M for middle The chromosomes move to

the ‘middle’ (equator).

A Anaphase A for apart The chromosomes/

chromatids move apart/
move to the poles.

T Telophase T for terminal The final phase of meiosis I/

meiosis II.

2.3 The significance of meiosis

There are two reasons why meiosis is important:
1. It reduces the number of chromosomes by half, in other words from
diploid to haploid. This ensures that sex cells have half the number
of chromosomes of somatic cells (body cells). So, when fertilisation
takes place, the zygote that is formed will have the correct number
of chromosomes. It therefore balances the doubling effect of
fertilisation.
2. Crossing over introduces genetic variation. Genetic variation results
in offspring who are better adapted to a particular environment,
which gives them a better chance of survival.

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2.4 Differences between Meiosis

II is similar

meiosis I and meiosis II to mitosis.

Meiosis I Meiosis II

The chromosomes arrange at the equator of the cell in Chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell
homologous pairs. individually.

Whole chromosomes move to opposite poles of the Daughter chromosomes/chromatids move to opposite
cell. poles of the cell.

Two cells form at the end of this division. Four cells are formed at the end of this division.

The chromosome number is halved during meiosis I. The chromosome number remains the same during
meiosis II.

Crossing over takes place. Crossing over does not take place.

Table 2.1 The differences between meiosis I and meiosis II

E. G. Worked example
Figure 2.10 below shows two stages of meiosis. Study the diagrams and
then answer the questions that follow.

Diagram I Diagram II

Figure 2.10 Two stages of meiosis

1. State ONE visible reason in Diagram I which indicates that

meiosis is taking place. (1)
2. How many chromosomes would be present in each daughter cell
at the end of meiosis in this cell? (1)
3. Describe what takes place in the cell after the phase shown in
Diagram I. (3)
4. Tabulate TWO visible differences between the phases of meiosis
shown in Diagrams I and II. (5)
[10]

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Answers to worked example

1. The chromosomes are lined up at the equator of the cell in their
homologous pairs.3
OR
The chromosomes show evidence of crossing over.3(1)
2. Two 3 chromosomes.(1)
3. The next phase is Anaphase 1. The spindle fibres contract.3
(shorten) and pull each chromosome3 of each chromosome pair
to opposite poles3 of the cell. (3)
4. 3
Diagram I (metaphase 1) Diagram II (metaphase 2)

1. Chromosomes are lined up 1. Chromosomes are lined up at

at the equator in homologous the equator individually.3
pairs.3

2. Four chromosomes are 2. Two chromosomes are

present.3 present.3
(5)
[10]

Activity 1

Question 1
Give the correct word or term for each of the statements or definitions
provided below.

1.1 The structure that joins the two halves of a double-stranded

chromosome(1)

1.2 A pair of chromosomes, one inherited from each parent, that have the
same genes at the same locus (1)

1.3 A single-stranded chromosome formed during Anaphase 2 (1)

1.4 The point of contact between two chromosomes of a homologous pair

during crossing over (1)

1.5 One half of a double-stranded chromosome (1)

[5]

Answers to question 1
1.1 Centromere3(1)
1.2 Homologous chromosomes3(1)
1.3 Daughter chromosome/chromatid3(1)
1.4 Chiasma3/chiasmata3(1)
1.5 Chromatid3(1)
[5]

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Question 2
Figure 2.11 (right) represents a process taking place during meiosis. Study C
D
the diagram and answer the questions that follow.
B
2.1 Provide labels for parts A, B, C and D. (4)
2.2 Name the process in meiosis that is illustrated in Figure 2.11. (1) A
2.3 State ONE importance of the process you named in question 2.2. (2) Figure 2.11 Diagram
2.4 Draw a diagram of the structure labelled A to show its appearance representing a process
immediately after the process you named in question 2.2. (2) taking place during meiosis
[9]

Answers to question 2
2.1 A – Chromosome3
B – Centromere3
C – Chromatid3
D – Chiasma3/chiasmata(4)
2.2 Crossing over3(1)
2.3 It introduces genetic3 variation3(2)
2.4 l A double-stranded chromosome with the
strands joined by a centromere3
• There is evidence of crossing over.3(2)

[9]

Question 3
Figure 2.12 (right) represents an animal cell in a phase of meiosis. Study
the diagram and answer the questions that follow.
3.1 State whether the phase of meiosis shown in Figure 2.12 is A
meiosis I or meiosis II. (1)
3.2 Give ONE visible reason for your answer in question 3.1. (1)
3.3 Identify the parts labelled A and B. (2) B
3.4 How many chromosomes: Figure 2.12 Diagram
a) were present in the parent cell before meiosis began? (1) representing a phase of
b) will be present in each cell at the end of meiosis? (1) meiosis
3.5 State ONE place in a human female where meiosis would take
place.(1)
3.6 Could the cell represented in Figure 2.12 be that of a human? (1)
3.7 Explain your answer to question 3.6. (2)
3.8 Give TWO reasons why meiosis is biologically important. (2)
3.9 Give the term for the situation when some of the chromosomes
do not separate correctly during the phase shown in Figure 2.12. (1)
[13]

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Answers to question 3
3.1 Meiosis II3(1)
3.2 Daughter chromosomes/chromatids are being pulled to the
poles3(1)
3.3 A – Spindle fibre3
B – Cell membrane3(2)
3.4 a) 83
b) 43(2)
3.5 Ovaries3(1)
3.6 No3(1)
3.7 There are only 4 chromosomes present3 instead of 23.3(2)
3.8 It introduces genetic variation.3
It balances the doubling effect of fertilisation as it halves the
number of chromosomes in the sex cells.3(2)
3.9 Non-disjunction3(1)
[13]

Exams
For four further problems on meiosis refer to the following
National Life Sciences exam papers:
• Life Sciences Paper 1 February/March 2012: Version 1 –
Question 2.1 on page 9.
• Life Sciences Paper 1 November 2010 – Question 2.1 on page 10.
• Life Sciences Paper 1 February/March 2010 – Question 1.4 on
page 6.
• Life Sciences Paper 1 November 2009 – Question 1.5 on page 7.

Keep going!

16 Chapter 2 Meiosis (Paper 1) Mind the Gap

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Genetics
chapter 3
Paper 1

3.1 Key concepts

Make mobile notes (see instructions on page x) to learn these key concepts.

Term Explanation Diagram/Additional notes

Gene A small portion of DNA
coding for a particular Nucleus
Gene
characteristic.

Cell Chromosome DNA

Alleles Different forms of a Dominant allele (T) – tall plant

gene which occur at the Recessive allele (t) – short plant
same locus (position) on
homologous chromosomes. Alleles
Genotype Genetic composition (make- • Homozygous dominant (both
T T alleles are dominant)
up) of an organism.
Phenotype The physical appearance of • Genotype TT
an organism determined by • Phenotype – tall
the genotype, e.g. tall, short.
Dominant An allele that is expressed
allele (shown) in the phenotype
when found in the
heterozygous (Tt) and • Homozygous recessive (both
homozygous (TT) condition. t t
alleles are recessive)
Recessive An allele that is masked (not • Genotype tt
allele shown) in the phenotype • Phenotype – short
when found in the
heterozygous (Tt) condition.
It is only expressed in the
homozygous (tt) condition.
Heterozygous Two different alleles for a • Heterozygous (one dominant
particular characteristic, T t and one recessive allele)
e.g. Tt. • Genotype Tt
Homozygous Two identical alleles for a • Phenotype – tall
particular characteristic,
e.g. TT or tt.

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Term Explanation Diagram/Additional notes

Monohybrid Only one characteristic or Example: Flower colour only, e.g. yellow flower or white flower
cross trait is being shown in the or shape of seeds only, e.g. round seeds or wrinkled seeds.
genetic cross.
Complete A genetic cross where the In this type of cross the allele Tall (TT) × short (tt)
dominance dominant allele masks for tall (T) is dominant over the
(blocks) the expression of allele for short (t). The offspring
a recessive allele in the will therefore be tall because the
heterozygous condition. dominant allele (T) masks the
expression of the recessive allele Tall (Tt)
(t).
Incomplete A genetic cross between Example: If a red-flowered plant Red flower – White flower
dominance two phenotypically different is crossed with a white-flowered
parents produces offspring plant there is incomplete
different from both parents dominance – the offspring will
but with an intermediate have pink flowers (intermediate
phenotype. colour). Pink flowers
Co-dominance A genetic cross in which both Example: If a red-flowered plant Red flower × White flower
alleles are expressed equally is crossed with a white-flowered
in the phenotype. plant there is co-dominance
when the offspring has flowers
with red and white patches.
Flowers with red and
white patches
Multiple alleles More than two alternative Example: Blood groups are controlled by three alleles, namely IA,
forms of a gene at the same IB and i.
locus.
Polygenic A characteristic that is Many genes cause intermediate (a range of) expressions of a
inheritance controlled by two or more characteristic, e.g. skin colour or height.
genes which may be found
on the same or different
chromosomes.
Sex-linked Characteristics or traits Examples: Haemophilia and colour-blindness
characteristics that are carried on the sex The alleles for haemophilia (or colour-blindness) are indicated
chromosomes. as superscripts on the sex chromosomes, e.g. XHXH (normal
female), XHXh (normal female), XhXh (female with haemophilia),
XHY (normal male), XhY (male with haemophilia).
Karyotype The number, shape and
arrangement of all the
chromosomes in the nucleus
of a somatic cell.
Chromosomes

Cloning Process by which genetically Example: Dolly the sheep was cloned using a diploid cell from
identical organisms are one parent; therefore it had the identical genetic material of
formed using biotechnology. that parent.
Genetic The manipulation of the Example: The insertion of human insulin gene in plasmid of
modification genetic material of an bacteria so that the bacteria produce human insulin.
organism to get desired
changes.
Human The mapping of the exact Example: Gene number 3 on chromosome number 4 is
genome position of all the genes in responsible for a particular characteristic.
all the chromosomes of a
human.

18 Chapter 3 Genetics (Paper 1) Mind the Gap

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Activity 1

Choose an item from COLUMN 2 that matches a description in COLUMN 1.

Write only the letter (A to I) next to the question number (1–5), for example 6. J.
COLUMN 1 COLUMN 2

1. The allele that is not expressed in the phenotype when A. Gene

found in the heterozygous condition B. Recessive
2. Different forms of a gene which occur at the same C. Haemophilia
locus on homologous chromosomes
D. Dominant
3. A sex-linked condition where blood fails to clot
E. Homologous
properly
F. Genotype
4. The pair of chromosomes in a diploid organism that
have the same size and shape and control the same G. Phenotype
set of characteristics H. Alleles
5. The physical and functional expression of a gene I. Karyotype

[5]

Answers to activity 1
1. B3 2. H3 3. C3 4. E3 5. G3 (5 × 1)
[5]

3.2 Genetic crosses By following this

format you will already
Use the following genetic problem format or template to solve all have earned 2 marks,
monohybrid genetic problems: namely for stating P1
and F1, and meiosis
P1 Phenotype ×3 and fertilisation.

Genotype × 3
Meiosis
Gametes
3 3 Gametes ×3
Fertilisation OR
F1 Genotype 3
1 mark for correct gametes
Phenotype 3 1 mark for correct genotypes
[6]

1. The problem on the next page shows that a cross between a heterozygous parent (Tt) and a
homozygous recessive (tt) parent produces F1 offspring that are 50% heterozygous (Tt) and 50%
homozygous recessive (tt).
2. A cross between a homozygous dominant (TT) parent and a homozygous recessive (tt) parent produces F1
offspring that are 100% heterozygous (Tt).
3. A cross between a homozygous dominant (TT) and a heterozygous (Tt) parent produces F1 offspring that
are 50% homozygous dominant (TT) and 50% heterozygous (Tt).
4. A cross between two heterozygous (Tt) parents produces F1 offspring that are 25% homozygous
dominant (TT), 50% heterozygous (Tt) and 25% homozygous recessive (tt).

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3.2.1 Complete dominance

This refers to a genetic cross where the dominant allele masks (blocks) the
expression of a recessive allele in the heterozygous condition.
The following problem represents a genetic cross which shows complete
dominance:

E. G. Genetic problem 1
In humans the ability to roll the tongue is due to a dominant allele. A
man who is heterozygous for tongue-rolling and a woman who cannot roll
her tongue have children. Use the symbols T and t for the alleles of the
tongue-rolling characteristic and represent a genetic cross to determine
the possible genotypes and phenotypes of the children. (6)

Read the problem carefully and note the following steps:

• Identify the phenotypes of the man and the woman (parents/
P1), i.e. the man is a tongue-roller and the woman is a non-
tongue-roller..........................................................................Step 1
• Identify the genotypes of the two parents, i.e. the man is
heterozygous (Tt) and the woman can only be a non-tongue-roller
if she is homozygous recessive for this characteristic, i.e. she must
have the genotype (tt)................................................................... Step 2
• The next step is to show how the alleles are separated through
the process of meiosis into separate gametes, i.e. in the man the
gametes (sperm) will contain either the ‘T’ allele or the ‘t’ allele.
In the woman the egg can only contain the ‘t’ allele....................Step 3
• The next step shows that fertilisation takes place. Indicate all
possible combinations of how sperm cells fuse with a possible
egg cell to show the possible genotypes of the F1 generation that
could arise.......................................................................................Step 4
• Interpret the phenotypes of all the possible genotypes from the
cross................................................................................................Step 5

Solution to genetic problem 1

P 1 Phenotype Tongue-roller × Non-tongue-roller3.........Step 1
Genotype Tt × tt3..................Step 2
Meiosis
3 3 Gametes T and t × t 3..................Step 3
Fertilisation ..................Step 4
F1 Genotype Tt tt 3..................Step 4
Phenotype Tongue-roller Non-tongue-roller3........ Step 5
(Max 6 marks)

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3.2.2 Incomplete dominance

This refers to a genetic cross between two phenotypically different parents
producing an offspring different from both parents but with an intermediate
phenotype. The following problem represents a genetic cross that shows
incomplete dominance.

E. G. Genetic problem 2
A homozygous snapdragon plant with red flowers (R) was cross-pollinated
with a homozygous snapdragon plant with white (W) flowers. All the plants The solution
that grew from the cross had pink flowers. Represent a genetic cross to for incomplete
dominance and
show the possible genotypes and phenotypes of the F1 generation of plants. co-dominance is exactly

Solution to genetic problem 2

the same except for
the interpretation of
P1 Phenotype Red × White3............................Step 1 the phenotype of
the F1 generation
Genotype RR × WW3 .............................. Step 2 (step 5).
Meiosis
3 3 Gametes R × W3..................................Step 3
Fertilisation ........................................Step 4
F1 Genotype RW3 ......................................... Step 4
Phenotype Pink3 ........................................ Step 5

3.2.3 Co-dominance
This refers to a genetic cross in which both alleles are equally expressed
in the phenotype.
The following problem represents a genetic cross which shows co- dominance.

E. G. Genetic problem 3
A plant with white flowers was cross-pollinated with a plant with red flowers.
All the plants that grew from the cross had flowers with equal distribution
of red and white colour. Represent a genetic cross to show the possible
genotypes and phenotypes of the F1 generation of plants.

Solution to genetic problem 3

P1 Phenotype Red × White3 ............................Step 1
Genotype RR × WW3 ...............................Step 2
Meiosis
3 3 Gametes R × W3 ..................................Step 3
Fertilisation ..........................................Step 4
F1 Genotype RW3 ......................................... Step 4
Phenotype Flower with equal distribution
of red and white colour3 ..............Step 5

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3.2.4 Inheritance of sex

The following problem represents a genetic cross which shows inheritance
of sex.

E. G. Genetic problem 4
A couple has three sons and the woman is pregnant again. Show
diagrammatically by means of a genetic cross what the percentage chance
is of the couple having a baby girl.

Solution to genetic problem 4

P1 Phenotype Male × Female3............................ Step 1
Genotype XY × XX3................................ Step 2
Meiosis
3 3 Gametes X and Y × X3................................. Step 3
Fertilisation ...................................Step 4
F1 Genotype XX, XY3................................Step 4
Phenotype Female, Male3.............................. Step 5
50% probability3

3.2.5 Inheritance of sex-linked

characteristics
Sex-linked characteristics are characteristics (traits) that are carried on
the sex chromosomes.
The following problem represents a genetic cross which shows the
inheritance of sex-linked characteristics.

E. G. Genetic problem 5
Haemophilia is a sex-linked hereditary disease that occurs as a
result of a recessive allele on the X-chromosome (Xh). A normal father
and heterozygous normal mother have children. Represent a genetic
cross to determine the possible genotypes and phenotypes of their
children.
The alleles for haemophilia are indicated as superscripts on the
sex chromosomes, e.g. XHXH (normal female), XHXh (normal female),
XhXh (female with haemophilia), XHY (normal male), XhY (male with
haemophilia).

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Solution to genetic problem 5

P1 Phenotype normal father x normal mother3...................... Step 1
Genotype XHY x XHXh 3.............................. Step 2
Meiosis
3 3 Gametes XH and Y x XH and Xh3........................... Step 3
Fertilisation .................................... Step 4
F1 Genotype XH XH, XH Xh, XH Y, Xh Y3.........Step 4
Phenotype 2 normal 1 normal son 1 son with
daughters haemophilia ...Step 5

Activity 2

Question
Try solving this problem on your own before you look at the solution.
Fur colour in mice is controlled by a gene with two alleles. A homozygous
mouse with black fur was crossed with a homozygous mouse with brown
fur. All offspring had black fur. Using the symbols B and b to represent the
two alleles for fur colour, show diagrammatically a genetic cross between
a mouse that is heterozygous for fur colour and a mouse with brown fur.
Show the possible genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring. (6)

Answer to activity 2
P1 Phenotype Black × Brown3 The cross between
a mouse with black fur
Genotype Bb × bb3 and a mouse with brown
fur resulted in offspring having
Meiosis black fur. This shows that
3 3 Gametes B and b × b3 the allele for black fur (B) is
dominant over the allele
Fertilisation for brown fur (b).

F1 Genotype Bb and bb3

Phenotype Black and brown3
(Max 6)

Exams

For two further problems on genetic crosses, refer to the following

National Life Sciences exam papers:
• Life Sciences Paper 1 November 2010 – Question 2.2 on page 11.
• Life Sciences Paper 1 November 2011 Version 1 – Question 2.1 on page 8.

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3.3 Pedigree diagrams

A pedigree diagram is used to study the inheritance of characteristics in
a family over a number of generations. A pedigree diagram is also called
a family tree.

Remember the following steps when interpreting pedigree diagrams:

Step 1 Study any key and opening statement/s and look for dominant and recessive
characteristics and phenotypes.
Step 2 Write in the phenotypes of all the individuals as given in the problem.
Step 3 Fill in the genotype of all the individuals with the recessive condition – it must have two
recessive alleles (two lower case letters, e.g. ff).
Step 4 For every individual in the diagram that has the recessive condition, it means that each
allele was obtained from each of the parents. Work backwards and fill in one recessive
allele for each parent.
Step 5 If the parents showed the dominant characteristic, fill in the second letter which
represents the dominant allele (a capital letter, e.g. F).
Step 6 Any other individual showing the dominant characteristic will most likely be homozygous
dominant (FF) or heterozygous dominant (Ff).

Activity 3
The pedigree diagram in Figure 3.1 shows inheritance of eye colour
in humans over three generations of a family. Brown eye colour (B) is
dominant over blue eye colour (b). Study the diagram and then answer the
questions that follow.

Joshua Ronel

Sarah Peter Veronica

Marlena Frank Jack John Gayle

Male with blue eyes Female with blue eyes

Male with brown eyes Female with brown eyes

Figure 3.1 Pedigree diagram showing inheritance of eye colour

24 Chapter 3 Genetics (Paper 1) Mind the Gap

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Note the following in the pedigree diagram on page 24:

• Squares represent males and circles represent females.
• The horizontal line between a square (Joshua) and a circle (Ronel)
shows that they have mated.
• The vertical line flowing from the horizontal line represents the
offspring (Sarah and Peter) of the two parents (Joshua and Ronel).
• Brown eye colour (B) is dominant over blue eye colour (b) –
stated in problem......................................................................... Step 1
• Joshua, Jack and John are males with blue eyes.
• Veronica and Marlena are females with blue eyes.
• Peter and Frank are males with brown eyes. Step 2
• Ronel, Sarah and Gayle are females with brown eyes.
• Joshua, Veronica, Marlena, Jack and John will have the genotype
‘bb’. The recessive characteristic only shows up in the homozygous Working out the
condition....................................................................................... Step 3 following questions will be
• Example: The genotype of Peter is ‘Bb’ – working backwards from the easy if you have followed
offspring Marlena or Jack or John who are homozygous recessive. the steps explained on
This means that one of the recessive alleles of Marlena, Jack and page 24.
John, i.e. ‘b’, must have come from parent Peter and the other one
from parent Veronica....................................................Steps 4 and 5
• Ronel could be homozygous dominant (BB) or heterozygous
dominant (Bb)............................................................................. Step 6

Questions
1. How many members of the family have blue eyes?  (1)
2. Is Veronica homozygous or heterozygous for eye colour? (1)
3. Write down the genotype of:
a) Joshua  (2)
b) Ronel (2)
c) Frank(2)
Exams
4. If Frank marries a woman with the same genetic composition
For two more
as Sarah, what is the percentage probability of them having a problems on
child with brown eyes? (1) pedigree diagrams
[9] refer to these National
Life Sciences exam

Answers to activity 3
papers:
• Life Sciences Paper 1
1. 53(1) March 2010 – Question
2. Homozygous3(1) 1.5 on page 7.
3. a) bb33(2) • Life Sciences Paper
b) BB/Bb33(2) 1 March 2012 Version
c) Bb33(2) 1 – Question 2.4 on
4. 75 (%)3(1) page 11.
[9]

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3.4 Genetic engineering

Genetic engineering is the process whereby the genes on the DNA are
changed, transferred or manipulated to produce a different organism.

Activity 4

Question
State FOUR disadvantages and FOUR advantages of genetic engineering.
 [8]

Answer to activity 4
Four disadvantages of genetic engineering:
• Expensive3/research money could be used for other needs
• Interfering with nature3/immoral
• Potential health impacts3
• Unsure of long-term effects3(4)
Four advantages of genetic engineering:
• Production of medication/resources cheaply3
• Control pests with specific genes inserted into a crop3
• Using specific genes to increase crop yields3/food security
• Selecting genes to increase shelf-life of plant products3  (4)
[8]

3.5 Genetic counselling

Couples with a risk of a genetic disease can undergo genetic counselling
to enable them to make informed decisions on whether they want to have
children or not.

Activity 5

Question
A young couple wants to have a child, but they are aware of a serious
genetic disorder in one of their families that could be carried through to their
offspring. State THREE benefits of genetic counselling in this case. [3]

Answer to activity 5
Three benefits of genetic counselling:
• To be given advice on the risk of transferring the defective gene3/
to find the probability of passing on the defective gene to the
offspring
• To be given an explanation of the procedure involved in DNA
testing3
• To be given an explanation of the results of DNA testing3 [3] Keep going!

26 Chapter 3 Genetics (Paper 1) Mind the Gap

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EVOLUTION
chapter 4Paper 1

4.1 Theories of Lamarck and Darwin

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck explained evolution using the following two ‘laws’:
1. The inheritance of acquired characteristics:
Characteristics developed during the life of an individual (acquired
characteristics) can be passed on to their offspring.
2. The law of use and disuse:
As an organism uses a structure or organ more regularly, it becomes
better developed or enlarged. If an organism does not use a
structure or organ frequently, it becomes less developed or reduced
in size and may disappear altogether.
Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace had similar ideas about evolution.
They explained evolution in terms of natural selection which states that:
• There is a great deal of variation among members of the same
species.
• Organisms with favourable characteristics, which enable them to
cope with challenges in the environment, survive.
• Organisms which do not have favourable characteristics that allow
them to cope with challenges in the environment, die.

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4.2 Applying the ideas of Lamarck and Darwin

Figure 4.1 below shows a series of changes involving cacti plants over a
period of time. Some notes are included on the events at A, B and C.

There are many cacti plants. There Only cacti plants with the longer Only the plants with longer roots
is variation among the plants. roots are present. The ones with were able to reproduce to form
Some have long roots and some shorter roots are absent (have offspring with longer roots.
have short roots. died).
A B C

Roots Offspring

Time

Figure 4.1 Changes in cacti plants over time

We can use Figure 4.1 to describe how Darwin would have explained how
modern cacti plants may have developed longer roots as compared to their
ancestors with shorter roots.

The second column in Table 4.1 below gives Darwin’s explanation for how
modern cacti plants may have developed longer roots. The first column
contains questions that guide the explanation from one point to the next.
You will be able to use the same questions to guide you when answering
questions on Darwin’s theory using any other example, for example the
development of longer necks in modern giraffes.

Guiding questions Darwin’s explanation

Describe the variation in the As a result of genetic variation3in the

population. cacti population, some cacti plants
had longer roots than others.3
What was the challenge? As a result of drought 3, competition
for water occurred.
What was the result of the challenge? Plants with shorter roots died3 and
those with longer roots survived.3
What is this called? This is called natural selection.3
What happened to the favourable The gene for longer roots was passed
characteristic? on to subsequent generations.3
What was the result of this? Eventually all the plants had longer
roots.3

Table 4.1 Darwin’s explanation for changes in cacti plants over time

28 Chapter 4 Evolution (Paper 1) Mind the Gap

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The second column in Table 4.2 below states how Lamarck would have
explained how modern cacti plants may have developed longer roots when
compared to their ancestors with shorter roots. The first column contains
guiding questions that will help you answer other questions on Lamarck’s
theory using any other example, for example the development of longer
necks in modern giraffes.

Guiding questions Lamarck’s explanation

What was the original characteristic at All cacti had short roots3 originally.
the start?

What did the organism do? Cacti frequently stretched3 their

roots.
Why did the organism do this? They did this to reach deeper for
water in the soil.3
What was the result? As a result, the roots became
longer.3
What happened to this new The characteristic of long roots
characteristic? acquired in this way was then passed
on to the next generation.3
What was the result of this? Eventually all the plants had longer
roots.3
Table 4.2 Lamarck’s explanation for changes in cacti plants over time

Activity 1

Questions
1. Write an account on how Lamarck would have explained the
development of longer necks in modern giraffes. (5) Use the NB!
guiding
2. Write an account on how Darwin would have explained the
questions
development of longer necks in modern giraffes.  (7)
in Tables 4.1 and 4.2.
3. Explain why Lamarck’s theory was rejected.  (2)
[14]

Answers to activity 1
1. l All giraffes had short necks3 originally.
• These giraffes frequently stretched3their necks.
• They did this to reach the leaves that were available only
higher up on the trees.3
• As a result, their necks became longer.3
• The characteristic of long necks acquired in this way was then
passed on to the next generation.3
• Eventually all the giraffes had longer necks.3(5)

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Answers to activity 1 (continued)

2. l As a result of genetic variation3in the giraffe population
some giraffe had longer necks than others.3
• As a result of leaves being available only higher up on trees,3
giraffes competed for these leaves.
• Giraffes with shorter necks died.3
• Giraffes with longer necks survived.3
• This is natural selection.3
• The gene for longer necks was passed on to subsequent
generations.3
• Eventually all the giraffes had longer necks.3(7)
3. There is no evidence3 to show that acquired characteristics
are inherited3/There is no evidence that structures used more
frequently become more developed or vice versa  (2)
[14]

Exams

For more questions on Lamarck and Darwin, refer to the following

National Life Sciences exam papers:
• Life Sciences Paper 2 November 2008 – Question 2.3 on page 12.
• Life Sciences Paper 2 November 2009 – Question 2.2 on page 9.
• Life Sciences Paper 2 March 2010 – Question 2.1 and 2.2 on page 9.
• Life Sciences Paper 1 November 2010 – Question 3.1 and 3.2 on page 11.
• Life Sciences Paper 1 November 2011: Version 1 – Question 3.3 on page 10.
• Life Sciences Paper 1 March 2012: Version 1 – Question 4.2 on page 14.

4.3 Differences between natural

selection and artificial selection
For a long time, humans have been doing breeding experiments to develop
organisms with a selected set of desirable characteristics, for example
increased quality and quantity of milk produced by cows, or drought
resistance and increased sugar content in sugar cane.
This is achieved by artificial selection, which is a similar process to natural
selection. However, artificial selection differs from natural selection in the
following ways:
Natural selection Artificial selection
The environment or nature is the Humans represent the selective force.
selective force.
Selection is in response to suitability Selection is in response to satisfying
to the environment. human needs.
Occurs within a species. May involve one or more species (as
in cross breeding).
Table 4.3 The differences between natural selection and artificial selection

30 Chapter 4 Evolution (Paper 1) Mind the Gap

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4.4 Speciation
As a result of natural selection taking place over a period of time, the
characteristics of organisms may change to such an extent that they
cannot reproduce with the original members of that species to produce
fertile offspring. We say that they have become a new species. This is
called speciation.
There are two types of speciation:
• Allopatric speciation: The population becomes split into two by a
geographical barrier, for example a river, lake or mountain range.
• Sympatric speciation: The population becomes split into two, not by a
geographical barrier (since they occupy the same area), but by other
factors that prevent the two parts of the same population from mixing,
for example, different feeding times.
We can show the process of speciation as follows:
Speciation

Allopatric speciation Sympatric speciation

1. A population of a particular 1. A population of a particular

species may become split... species may become
2. by a geographical barrier, e.g. separated...
a river. 2. because of differences in
behaviour, e.g. different
feeding times.
3. As a result, the two parts of the population cannot interbreed.
4. There is no gene flow between the two populations.
5. Natural selection occurs independently in each population.
6. This is due to different environmental conditions.
7. As a result, the two populations become genotypically and
phenotypically different over a period of time.
8. Even if the two populations mixed at a later time, they will not be
able to interbreed again.
9. We say that one or both parts of the population have become a new
species = speciation.

Exams

For more questions on speciation, refer to these National Life

Sciences exam papers:
• Life Sciences Paper 2 November 2008 – Question 3.3 on page 13.
• Life Sciences Paper 2 November 2009 – Question 2.1 on page 9.
• Life Sciences Paper 2 March 2010 – Question 3.2 on page 13.
• Life Sciences Paper 2 March 2011 – Question 3.1 on page 9.
• Life Sciences Paper 1 November 2011: Version 1 – Question 3.4 on page 10.
• Life Sciences Paper 1 March 2012: Version 1 – Question 3.4 on page 12.

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Activity 2

Question
Use the information in Figure 4.2 below to explain how a new species of
rabbit has risen through allopatric speciation. [9]
1 River

Gene flow
.

2 Landslide
River

Population A Population B
3 River

No gene
flow occurs

Species X Species Y
Figure 4.2 Allopatric speciation in a rabbit population

Answer to activity 2
• A population of rabbits become split3...
• by a geographical barrier/river.3
• As a result, the two parts of the population cannot interbreed.3
• There is no gene flow3 between the two populations.
• Natural selection occurs independently3 in each population...
• due to different environmental conditions3 on either side of the
river.
• As a result, the two populations become genotypically and
phenotypically different3over a period of time.
• Even if the geographical barrier is removed (ie the river returns to
its normal course at some later time), the rabbits will not be able
to interbreed again.3
• We say that one or both parts of the rabbit population have
become a new species3.
[9]

32 Chapter 4 Evolution (Paper 1) Mind the Gap

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4.5 Human evolution

So far in this chapter you have seen that:
• As a result of natural selection, the characteristics of organisms can
change over time due to changing environmental conditions
• New species can arise when a group of organisms change so much
that they can no longer reproduce with the original species (this is
called speciation).
Natural selection and speciation can also be used to explain how humans
have evolved.
Scientists identify trends in human evolution by comparing humans to
other primates in terms of similarities and differences. The differences
point to the existence of different species, while the similarities point to a
possible common ancestor.

4.5.1 Similarities between humans

(Homo sapiens) and other
primates
Figure 4.3 below shows characteristics of humans that are similar to that
of other primates (when compared to all other organisms).
Large brain

Eyes in front

Freely rotating arms

Long upper arms

Rotation around
elbow joints

Bare fingertips or
nails instead of claws

Opposable thumb

Upright posture

Figure 4.3 Characteristics humans and other primates have in common

Now try this:

1. Cover the labels on Figure 4.3 and try to list the common features of
humans and other primates by looking at the parts that the arrows
are pointing to.
2. Write down the EIGHT similarities without looking at the diagram.

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These are
easy marks.
Learn these
4.5.2 Differences between humans
features well.
(Homo sapiens) and other
primates
Table 4.4 below is a comparison of the skulls of humans and other primates
according to the features listed in the first column.

Feature Humans (Homo sapiens) Other primates

Cranium Larger cranium/brain Smaller cranium/brain

Forehead Less sloping forehead More sloping forehead

Brow ridges Brow ridges are not as pronounced Brow ridges pronounced

Face Flat face Sloping face

Canines Smaller canines Larger canines

Chin Lower jaw has a well-developed chin Lower jaw has poorly developed chin

Jaws Less protruding jaws/less prognathous More protruding jaws/more prognathous

Spaces between teeth Smaller spaces between the teeth Larger spaces between the teeth

Foramen magnum Foramen magnum forward/at bottom of Foramen magnum at the back of the skull
skull

Table 4.4 The differences between the skulls of humans and other primates

Now try this:

1. Study the differences listed in Table 4.4 above by referring to the

features shown in Figure 4.4 below.

Forehead slope
Cranium – size
Brow ridges – how
developed?

Face – slope
Foramen magnum
– position

Spaces between Canines – size

teeth
Chin – how
developed?

Jaws – protrusion
Figure 4.4 Labelled diagram of a primate skull

2. Now write down the differences using the above diagram but without
referring to Table 4.4.

34 Chapter 4 Evolution (Paper 1) Mind the Gap

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Activity 3

Question 1
Study the two skulls shown in Figure 4.5 below and answer the questions
that follow.

Skull A Skull B
Figure 4.5 Skull diagrams of two organisms

1.1 Which skull (A or B) is that of a non-human primate?  (1)

1.2 List FIVE OBSERVABLE reasons (based only on features that are
visible in the diagram) for your answer in question 1.1. (5)
[6]

Answers to question 1
1.1 Skull B3  (1)
1.2 Sloping forehead3
Pronounced brow ridge3
No chin3
Protruding jaw/prognathous3
Large canine3
Sloping face3
Small cranium3 (any 5) (5)
[6]

Question 2
The diagrams in Figure 4.6 below represent the skulls of three organisms:
Taung child (Australopithecus africanus), a modern human (Homo
sapiens) and a gorilla (Gorilla gorilla). The arrow indicates the position of
the foramen magnum (the opening that allows the spinal cord to connect
with the brain). Study the diagrams and answer the questions that follow:

Skull A Skull B Skull C

Figure 4.6 Skull diagrams showing position of foramen magnum

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2.1 Identify the organisms that are represented by each of skulls A, B

and C.  (3)
2.2 Assuming that the diagrams were drawn to scale, list THREE
observable differences between the skulls of organisms A and B. (6)
2.3 Which organism (A, B or C) represents a carnivore?  (1)
2.4 Explain your answer in question 2.3 using features observable in
the diagram.  (2)
2.5 By looking at the position of the foramen magnum (indicated by
the arrows), state which TWO organisms are best adapted for
walking on two legs rather than four legs.  (2)
2.6 Rewrite the letters A, B and C in the order that shows progressive
trends (from least developed to most developed) in evolution.  (3)
2.7 Explain, using observable features, why the organism to which
skull C belongs can be regarded as a transitional species
(a species that is in the process of changing). (3)
[20]

Exams
Answers to question 2
For more questions 2.1 A – Homo sapiens/human3
on human evolution, B – Gorilla gorilla/gorilla3
refer to the following
C – Australopithecus africanus (Taung child)3(3)
National Life Sciences
2.2
exam papers:
• Life Sciences Paper Skull A Skull B
2 November 2008 –
Flat forehead3 Sloping forehead3
Question 3.1 on
page 13. Brow ridge reduced/absent3 Pronounced brow ridge3
• Life Sciences Paper
Well-developed chin3 No chin3
2 March 2009 –
Question 1.5 on Non-prognathous/non-protruding Prognathous/protruding jaw3
page 8. jaw3
• Life Sciences Paper
Poorly developed canines3 Large canines3
2 March 2010 –
Question 4.2 on Flat face3 Sloping face3
page 16.
• Life Sciences Paper Large cranium3 Small cranium3
1 November 2010 –
 (any 3 × 2) (6)
Question 3.3 on page
12. 2.3 B3(1)
• Life Sciences Paper 2 2.4 Canines3 are large.3  (2)
March 2011 – Question 2.5 Homo sapiens/human3 AND Australopithecus africanus
3.2 on page 10. (Taung child)3(2)
• Life Sciences Paper 2.6 B3, C3, A3(3)
1 November 2011: 2.7 It has features of the skull that are intermediate3 between that
Version 1 – Question of skulls A and B, e.g. jaw protrudes more than in skull A but less
3.1 and 3.2 on pages 9 than in skull B3 and face slopes less than in skull B but more
and 10. than in skull A.3(3)
[20]

36 Chapter 4 Evolution (Paper 1) Mind the Gap

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4.5.3 Phylogenetic trees

A phylogenetic tree (or evolutionary tree) represents the evolutionary
relationships among a set of organisms or groups of organisms. The tips
of the tree represent descendants (often species) and the points where
the tree branches represent the common ancestors of those descendants.

Hint Hints on interpreting phylogenetic trees

Reading a phylogenetic tree is similar to understanding a family tree.
The root of the tree represents the ancestor and the tips of the branches
represent the descendants of that ancestor. As you move from the root of
the tree to its tips, you are moving forward in time.

Descendants 1 2 3 4
Recent

Ancestor Past

When speciation occurs, it is represented as branching on the tree.

A single ancestral lineage gives rise to two or more daughter lineages.

Speciation event
Ancestral lineage
Each lineage has a part of its history that is unique and parts that are
shared with other lineages.

A B C

Unique history of B
Unique history of C
Shared history of B and C
Similarly, each lineage has ancestors that are unique to that lineage and
common ancestors that are shared with other lineages.

A B C

Unique ancestor of C

Shared ancestor of B and C

Common ancestor of A, B and C

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E. G. Worked example
H. sapiens

Look at the phylogenetic tree in Figure 4.7

(left) and read the following information:
H. neanderthalensis
• Start in the past (4,5 mya) and read
H. erectus H. erectus towards the present. This means that
(China) (S.E. Asia)
the oldest common ancestor of all the
H. heidelbergensis hominids on this tree is A. ramidus.
• Each branch on the tree represents
a point where the common ancestor
split into one, two or more groups.
In this case, the new species that
H. ergaster evolves is shown as a side branch
P. robustus P. boisei while the original species continues its
H. habilis evolutionary line up the trunk of the
H. rudolfensis
tree. For example, A. aethiopicus forms
a side branch with A. africanus evolving
from the common ancestor that existed
at point X (this took place about 3 mya).
A. africanus
A. aethiopicus • Progression up the ‘trunk of the tree’
represents a movement in time from
the past to the present. This shows the
relationships between the hominids
through time. Hominids that share
a recent common ancestor are the
A. afarensis most closely related to each other. For
example, P. robustus shares a most
recent common ancestor with P. boisei,
namely A. africanus.
A. ramidus

Figure 4.7 A phylogenetic tree

Questions
Let us look at the type of questions that can be asked about this
Hint mya = a million phylogenetic tree:
years ago
1. Give the common ancestor of H. neanderthalensis and H. sapiens.(1)
2. How long ago did H. rudolfensis split from its common ancestor? (2)
3. Name the direct ancestor of H. ergaster.(1)
4. How long has it taken H. heidelbergensis to evolve from A. afarensis?(3)
5. Give the common ancestor of all the hominids. (1)

Answers
1. H. heidelbergensis3(1)
2. 2,43 million years ago3/mya(2)
3. H. habilis3 (1)
4. 3,8 million years ago – 0,7 million years ago3 = 3,13million
years3(3)
5. A. ramidus3(1)

38 Chapter 4 Evolution (Paper 1) Mind the Gap

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Activity 4
Study the phylogenetic tree in Figure 4.8 below and answer the questions
based on it.

0 Old World monkeys

Orang-utans
Lemurs

New World monkeys

Gorillas

Humans
Tarsiers

Gibbons

Chimps
10

20
Million years ago

30

40

50
Ancestral primate
Figure 4.8 Phylogenetic tree

Questions
1. How long ago did the ancestral primate live on earth? (2)
2. Name the organism that shares the most distant common
ancestor with humans. (1)
3. Name the organism that is most closely related to humans. (1)
4. How many years ago did the New World monkeys split from the
common ancestor that gave rise to the Old World monkeys? (2)
5. For how long did the common ancestor that evolved into the
gibbons exist? Show your working. (3)
6. Humans and gorillas share many common characteristics with
primates. List THREE of these common characteristics. (3)
[12]

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Answers to activity 4
For more 1. 503 million years ago3/mya  (2)
questions on
2. Lemurs3  (1)
phylogenetic trees,
refer to these National
3. Chimpanzee3  (1)
Life Sciences examination 4. 333 million years ago3/mya  (2)
papers: 5. 22 million years – 15 million years3 = 73million years3(3)
6. l Large brain3
• Life Sciences Paper
2 November 2009 – • Eyes in front3
Question 1.5 on • Freely rotating arms3
page 7. • Long upper arms3
• Life Sciences Paper • Rotation around elbow joints3
2 March 2009 – • Bare fingertips or nails instead of claws3
Question 3.4 on • Opposable thumb3
page 11. • Upright posture3 (any 3) (3)
• Life Sciences Paper [12]
2 March 2010 –
Question 1.4 on
page 6.
• Life Sciences Paper 2
4.5.4 Out of Africa hypothesis
March 2011 – Question The ‘Out of Africa’ hypothesis states that modern humans originated in
1.4 on page 5. Africa and then migrated out of Africa to the other continents.
• Life Sciences Paper 1 The following lines of evidence have been used to support this hypothesis:
March 2012: Version
• The oldest fossils of australopithecines/Homo habilis/bipedal
1 – Question 1.4 on
organisms have been found in Africa.
page 8.
• The oldest fossils of Homo erectus have been found in Africa.
• Analysis of mutations in mitochondrial DNA shows that the oldest
female ancestors of humans are from Africa.
• Analysis of mutations on Y chromosome shows that the oldest male
ancestors of humans are from Africa.

Try to give
your own answers to
Activity 5
the terminology questions
in activity 5 before you look
at the answers on the next Question 1
page! If you do not know Give the correct biological term for each of the following descriptions.
an answer, try to find it
Write only the term next to the question number (1.1 to 1.18).
in your textbook or
class notes. 1.1 The development of new species from existing species within the
same habitat
1.2 A study of the distribution of organisms in different parts of the
world
1.3 Similar structures in different organisms indicating common
ancestry
1.4 Having a pointed face because of projecting jaws and nose
1.5 A group of similar organisms that can breed to produce fertile
offspring
1.6 A group of organisms of the same species that occupy a particular
habitat

40 Chapter 4 Evolution (Paper 1) Mind the Gap

Diversity, change and continuity Life Sciences
 © Department of Basic Education 2012

1.7 The development of new species from existing species

1.8 Only organisms with favourable characteristics survive
1.9 Using parents with particular desirable characteristics to obtain a
combination of these desirable characteristics in the offspring
1.10 An opening in the skull through which the spinal cord passes
1.11 Locomotion involving the use of a pair of hind limbs only
1.12 Mechanisms that prevent different species from reproducing with
each other
1.13 The study of fossils which provides evidence for evolution
1.14 Sudden change to the genetic composition of an organism
1.15 Branched diagram showing evolutionary relationships among
organisms
1.16 Remains of organisms that have existed in the past
1.17 Genus to which Little Foot, Mrs Ples, Karabo and Taung Child
belong
1.18 Genotypic and phenotypic differences among organisms of the
same species
[18]

Answers to question 1
1.1 Sympatric speciation3 Use mobile notes
1.2 Biogeography3 to help you learn the
answers to the key
1.3 Homologous3 concepts you don't
1.4 Prognathous3 know.
1.5 Species3
1.6 Population3
1.7 Speciation3
1.8 Natural selection3
1.9 Artificial selection3
1.10 Foramen magnum3
1.11 Bipedal3
1.12 Reproductive isolation3
1.13 Paleontology3
1.14 Mutation3
1.15 Phylogenetic tree3
1.16 Fossil3
1.17 Australopithecus3
1.18 Variation3
[18]

Mind the Gap Chapter 4 Evolution (Paper 1) 41

Life Sciences Diversity, change and continuity
© Department of Basic Education 2012

Question 2
Indicate whether each of the statements in COLUMN 1 applies to A only,
B only, both A and B or none of the items in COLUMN 2. Write A only, B
only, Both A and B, or None next to the question number (2.1 to 2.8).

COLUMN 1 COLUMN 2

2.1 A study of the distribution of individual A: Palaeontology

species in different parts of the world B: Biogeography

2.2 The evidence used to support the 'Out of A: Mitochondrial DNA

Africa' hypothesis by tracing the maternal B: Y chromosome
lineage

2.3 First Homo species to have migrated out of A: Homo habilis

Africa B: Homo sapiens

2.4 Used natural selection as an explanation for A: Alfred Wallace

evolution B: Charles Darwin

2.5 Development of new species after a A: Allopatric speciation

population is split by a geographical barrier B: Sympatric speciation

2.6 Desirable characteristics are chosen to A: Natural selection

satisfy a human need B: Artificial selection

2.7 Evidence of possible common ancestry A: Homologous structures

B: Analogous structures

2.8 Organisms have an inherent (internal) drive A: Lamarck

to change B: Wallace

(8 × 2)
[16]

Answers to question 2
2.1 B only33
2.2 A only 33
2.3 None33
2.4 Both A and B33
2.5 A only 33
2.6 B only 33
2.7 A only 33
2.8 A only 33 8×2
[16]

Keep going!

42 Chapter 4 Evolution (Paper 1) Mind the Gap

Diversity, change and continuity Life Sciences
© Department of Basic Education 2012

PLANT RESPONSES
chapter 5 Paper 2

This short chapter introduces you to plant responses, which are part of the Phototropism:
knowledge area Life processes in plants and animals, which is examined Stem Growth of a
in Paper 2. plant stem
towards light
Tropism is the growth or turning movement of a plant or part of a plant in
response to an environmental stimulus.
• Phototropism is the growth of a plant in the direction of a light Geotropism:
Growth of
source. a plant root
• Geotropism is the growth of a plant in response to gravity. downwards
into the soil in
The growth movement of phototropism and geotropism is due to chemical Root response to
messengers (hormones) called auxins in a plant. gravity

Figure 5.1 A germinating

Activity 1 seedling

Questions
Complete the table:

Term Description

a. Chemical messenger in the plant

b. Growth of a plant stem towards light

Geotropism c.

Tropism d.

[4]

Answers to activity 1
a) Plant hormone3
b) Phototropism3
c) Growth of a plant root in response to gravity3
d) Growth movement of a part of a plant in response to an
environmental stimulus3 [4]

Keep going!

Mind the Gap Chapter 5 Plant responses (Paper 2) 43

Life Sciences Life processes in plants and animals
 © Department of Basic Education 2012

chapter 6
HUMAN NERVOUS Paper 2

SYSTEM
The nervous system is responsible for processing and transmitting
information throughout the body:
• It tells the body how to react to stimuli (changes in the environment
to which the body responds). For example, it regulates body
temperature on a hot or cold day. It is also responsible for the reflex
action, for example, when you step on a pin or touch a hot surface.
• The nervous system also coordinates the various activities of the
body, such as walking, hearing, seeing, and so on.
The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord.

6.1 The brain

6.1.1 Structure and functions
of the brain
Figure 6.1 below shows the different parts of the brain and their functions.

A. Cerebrum
D. Hypothalamus
• Controls voluntary Control centre for
actions hunger, thirst, sleep,
• Receives and body temperature
interprets sensations and emotions
from sense organs
• Higher thought
processes

Pituitary gland

C. Medulla oblongata B. Cerebellum

• Transmits nerve • Coordinates
impulses between the all voluntary
spinal cord and the movements
brain • Controls muscle
• Controls involuntary tension to
actions such as maintain balance
heartbeat and
breathing

Figure 6.1 The structure and functions of the brain

44 Chapter 6 Human nervous system (Paper 2) Mind the Gap

Life processes in plants and animals Life Sciences
 © Department of Basic Education 2012

Mind the Gap Chapter 6 Human nervous system (Paper 2) 45

Life Sciences Life processes in plants and animals
© Department of Basic Education 2012

Activity 1

Questions
Write down the name of the part which:
1. Controls heartbeat  (1)
2. Contains the centres that control balance, muscle tone and
equilibrium(1)
3. Has centres that interpret what you see (1)
4. Coordinates voluntary muscle movements (1)
5. Controls body temperature  (1)
[5]

Answers to activity 1
1. Medulla oblongata3(1)
2. Cerebellum3(1)
3. Cerebrum3(1)
4. Cerebellum3(1)
5. Hypothalamus3(1)
[5]

6.2 Neurons
Neurons are specialised cells which connect the brain and spinal cord to
all other parts of the body.
Cell body
A note about mind Dendrite: Transmits impulses towards
maps: the cell body of the neuron
Look at the information
about mind maps on Nucleus
page xii. Information
represented in a mind
map resembles the way Axon: Transmits impulses away from
information is stored in the cell body of the neuron
our brains. A mind map Myelin sheath
is an excellent technique
for studying.
Figure 6.2 A neuron

46 Chapter 6 Human nervous system (Paper 2) Mind the Gap

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 © Department of Basic Education 2012

There are three types of neurons, namely sensory (afferent) neurons,

motor (efferent) neurons and interneurons (or connectors). Table 6.1
below shows the structure and function of these neurons.

Type of neuron Function Structure

Sensory Transmits impulses

(afferent) from the sense organs
neuron or receptors to the
spinal cord and brain. Direction of
impulses
Senses the
stimulus

Cell
body

Figure 6.3 Sensory neuron

Motor (efferent) Transmits impulses

neuron from the brain and
spinal cord to the
effectors (muscles and Cell Direction of
Response to body impulses
glands). The effectors
the stimulus
bring about the
response.

Figure 6.4 Motor neuron

Interneuron Links the sensory

(connector) neuron to the motor
Found in the neuron.
brain and Cell You must know
spinal cord body the structure and
function of the different
neurons in order to
Figure 6.5 Interneuron understand the reflex
action, which will be
Table 6.1 Sensory, motor and interneurons discussed next.

Mind the Gap Chapter 6 Human nervous system (Paper 2) 47

Life Sciences Life processes in plants and animals
© Department of Basic Education 2012

6.3 Reflex arc

A reflex action is a quick, automatic action that involves the spinal cord and
does not involve the brain. It is an important function to protect the body
from harm. Examples are blinking the eye, coughing, sneezing, dilation
and constriction of the pupil of the eye, and quickly withdrawing your hand
when it touches a hot surface.
The reflex arc is the path along which an impulse is transmitted to bring
about a response to a stimulus during a reflex action.
Figure 6.6 below shows what happens when you hold your finger close to
a flame. The grey arrows represent the reflex arc.

The path of a reflex arc:

Receptor (A) → Sensory neuron (B) → Interneuron (C) → Motor neuron (D) → Effector (E)

A Receptor: A structure which receives a C Interneuron: Carries the impulse

stimulus and converts it into an impulse from sensory neuron to the motor
(the heat sensor of the finger feels burn) neuron in the spinal cord

B Sensory
neuron:
Carries the
impulse from
the receptor to Grey matter
the spinal cord
White matter
E Effector:
A structure
which
produces the
reaction (the
muscles in the
D Motor neuron: Carries
the impulse from the
finger contract
spinal cord to the
and the finger
effectors
is pulled
away)

Figure 6.6 The reflex action of withdrawing a finger when placed in a flame

48 Chapter 6 Human nervous system (Paper 2) Mind the Gap

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 © Department of Basic Education 2012

Activity 2

Questions
Use the diagram of the reflex arc in Figure 6.6 on page 48 to answer the
following questions.
1. Part B indicates the …
A dendrite of the motor neuron.
B axon of the motor neuron.
C dendrite of the sensory neuron.
D axon of the sensory neuron. (2)
2. The correct sequence in which impulses move from the receptor to
the effector in the reflex arc in Figure 6.6 is ...
A A → B → C → D→ E
B C → A → B → E→ D
C C → B → E → D→ A
D A → D → E → B→ C (2)
3. Give the correct term for the following definitions:
a) A structure which receives a stimulus and converts it into
a impulse
b) A structure which responds to a stimulus, e.g. a muscle
or gland
c) A neuron that carries impulses from the central nervous system
to the effectors
d) A neuron that carries impulses from the receptors to the central
nervous system
e) A neuron that carries impulses from a sensory neuron to a
motor neuron in the spinal cord
f) A very quick, automatic action that involves the spinal cord
and not the brain
g) The pathway along which an impulse is transmitted to
bring about a response to a stimulus during a reflex
action 7 × 1 = (7)
[11]

Answers to activity 2
1. C33(2)
2. A33(2)
3. a) Receptor3
b) Effector3
c) Motor/efferent neuron3
d) Sensory/afferent neuron3
e) Interneuron3/ connector
f) Reflex action3
g) Reflex arc3 7 × 1 = (7)
[11]

Mind the Gap Chapter 6 Human nervous system (Paper 2) 49

Life Sciences Life processes in plants and animals
© Department of Basic Education 2012

6.4 The human eye

Figure 6.7 below shows the different parts of the eye and their functions.

Retina: Contains Sclera: The tough

the light-sensitive white outer coat,
receptor cells, i.e. which protects the
the rods and cones eye against damage
Choroid: A dark-
coloured layer
which:
• Reduces
reflection
• Is rich in blood
vessels which
supply the cells
of the eye with
nutrients and
Suspensory oxygen
ligament:
Holds the lens
in position
Yellow spot: Has
Pupil: A the greatest
circular number of cones;
opening in this area offers the
the iris which clearest image
allows light
into the eye
Optic nerve:
Carries nerve
Aqueous impulses from the
humour: retina to the brain
Watery fluid
that supports
the cornea
and the front
chamber of
the eye
Blind spot: This area
has no rods and
Iris: The Lens: Changes Vitreous cones; therefore
coloured shape for near humour: there is no vision at
part of the and distant A jelly-like this point
eye (far) vision substance
which gives
shape to the
eye

Figure 6.7 The structure of the eye

50 Chapter 6 Human nervous system (Paper 2) Mind the Gap

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 © Department of Basic Education 2012

6.4.1 Accommodation
Accommodation is the adjustment of the shape of the lens to see objects
clearly whether they are far away or close by. This is shown in Table 6.2 and
Figures 6.8 and 6.9 below.

Distant vision (objects further than 6 m) Near vision (objects closer than 6 m)
1. Ciliary muscles relax 1. Ciliary muscles contract
2. Suspensory ligaments tighten (become taut) 2. Suspensory ligaments slacken
3. Tension on lens increases 3. Tension on lens decreases
4. Lens is less convex (flatter) 4. Lens becomes more convex (more rounded)
5. Light rays are refracted (bent) less 5. Light rays are refracted (bent) more
6. Light rays are focused onto the retina 6. Light rays are focused onto the retina

Ciliary muscles Ciliary muscles

relax contract
Suspensory Suspensory
ligaments ligaments
become taut slacken
Lens becomes Lens becomes
less convex more convex

Figure 6.8 Distant vision Figure 6.9 Near vision

Table 6.2 Accommodation of the eye for distant and near vision

6.4.2 Pupillary mechanism

The pupillary mechanism (or pupil reflex) regulates the amount of light
entering the eye by adjusting the size of the pupil. This is shown in Table 6.3
and Figures 6.10 and 6.11 below.

Light is bright Light is dim

1. Radial muscles of the iris relax 1. Radial muscles of the iris contract
2. Circular muscles of the iris contract 2. Circular muscles of the iris relax
3. Pupil constricts (gets smaller) 3. Pupil widens (gets bigger)
4. Less light enters the eye 4. More light enters the eye

Sclera Sclera
Radial Radial
muscles of muscles of
Pupil Pupil iris contract
iris relax widens
constricts
(becomes Circular Circular
smaller) muscles of muscles of
iris contract iris relax
Figure 6.10 The pupil in bright light Figure 6.11 The pupil in dim light

Table 6.3 Pupillary mechanism

Mind the Gap Chapter 6 Human nervous system (Paper 2) 51

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© Department of Basic Education 2012

Activity 3

Questions
1. Figure 6.12 (left) shows a longitudinal section through the human
eye. Study the diagram and answer the questions that follow.
2 a) Label parts 2, 3, 4 and 5 respectively. (4)
b) Name and describe the process that causes part 1 to dilate
3 (become wider). (5)
1
2. Figure 6.13 (below left) is a longitudinal section through the human
eye. The structures which enable the eye to focus on objects are
4
missing in this diagram. Study the diagram and answer the questions
5
that follow.
Draw a longitudinal section through the missing parts of Figure 6.13
Figure 6.12 Longitudinal to indicate the appearance of these structures when you are...
section through the human
eye a) reading a book.  (6)
b) looking at an object more than 6 metres away. (6)
[21]

Answers to activity 3
1. a) 2 – Cornea3
3 – Lens3
4 – Suspensory ligaments3
Figure 6.13 Longitudinal 5 – Ciliary muscles3/ body (4)
section through a human eye b) Pupillary mechanism3/ pupil reflex
The radial muscles3of the iris contract3and the circular
muscles3 relax.3
The pupil dilates and more light enters the eye.3  (5)
2. a) b)

Ciliary muscle3 Ciliary muscle3

contracts3 relaxes3

Lens3more Lens3less
convex3 convex/flatter3
Suspensory Suspensory
ligaments 3 ligaments3
slacken3 tighten/become
taut3

(6)  (6)
[21]

52 Chapter 6 Human nervous system (Paper 2) Mind the Gap

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 © Department of Basic Education 2012

6.5 The human ear

6.5.1 Structure of the ear
The human ear consists of three main parts:
• The outer ear
• The middle ear
• The inner ear

Outer Middle Inner

Figure 6.14 below shows the structure and function of each part of the
human ear.
Ossicles
Pinna:
Directs Hammer Anvil Stirrup
sound
waves to
eardrum Ossicles:
Tympanum Transmit
(eardrum): Transmits vibrations from
sound waves to the the eardrum to
middle ear inner ear
Ear canal (auditory
canal): Transmits
sound waves to the
Eustachian
eardrum
tube: Equalises
pressure on
either side of
A. Outer ear B. Middle ear the eardrum

Semi circular canals:

Oval window: Balance of the body
Transmits sound
waves to the
inner ear Sacculus and utriculus:
Balance of the body
Round window:
Releases Auditory nerve: Transmits
pressure from impulses to the brain
the inner ear
Cochlea: Contains the
organ of Corti which
converts sound waves
into nerve impulses

C. Inner ear
Figure 6.14 The structure of the ear

Mind the Gap Chapter 6 Human nervous system (Paper 2) 53

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© Department of Basic Education 2012

6.5.2 Hearing
Figure 6.15 below shows how the three parts of the ear work together to
make it possible for us to hear. The grey arrows show the path of a sound
wave.

Ossicles

hammer anvil stirrup

Pinna
Semi circular
canals
Tympanum
(eardrum) Sacculus and
utriculus
Ear canal
Auditory nerve

Cochlea

Oval window

Round window
Eustachian
tube
Outer ear Middle ear Inner ear

Figure 6.15 How hearing takes place

Look at Figure 6.15 above and read the information in Table 6.4 below to
understand how hearing takes place.

Part of ear What it does during the hearing process

Pinna Traps the sound waves and directs them into the
auditory canal.

Tympanic membrane Vibrates and transmits the vibrations to the ossicles

in the middle ear.

Ossicles The ossicles amplify the vibrations and carry them via
the middle ear to the membrane of the oval window.

Oval window Vibrates and causes pressure waves in the inner ear.

Cochlea These vibrations cause the sensory cells in the organ

of Corti to be stimulated in the cochlea and nerve
impulses are generated.

Auditory nerve Transmits nerve impulses to the cerebrum to be

interpreted.

Table 6.4 The hearing process

54 Chapter 6 Human nervous system (Paper 2) Mind the Gap

Life processes in plants and animals Life Sciences
 © Department of Basic Education 2012

Activity 4

Questions
Study Figure 6.16 below and answer the questions that follow.
C D E

A B G F
Figure 6.16 Parts of the ear

1. Identify the parts labelled B, C and F. (3) Exams

2. Give the function of the pinna. (2)
3. Write the letter of the part which: For more
a) contains receptors for balance. (1) questions on the
human nervous
b) equalises the pressure on either side of part B. (1)
system, refer to the
c) transmits impulses to the brain. (1) following National Life
4. Describe how hearing occurs. (8) Sciences exam papers:
[16] • Life Sciences Paper 2
March 2012: Version

Answers to activity 4
1 – Question 2.1 on
page 9 and Question
1. B –Tympanic membrane3 2.2 on page 10.
C – Malleus/hammer/an ossicle3 • Life Sciences Paper
F – Cochlea3 (3) 2 November 2011:
2. It directs sound waves3 into the auditory canal3.  (2) Version 1 – Question
3. a) D3 1.4 on page 9;
Question 2.1 on page
b) G3
11 and Question 2.2 on
c) E3  (3) page 12.
4. l Sound waves are directed into the auditory canal3 by the
pinna3.
• The sound waves make the tympanic membrane vibrate3 and
the vibrations are passed on to the ossicles3 in the middle
ear.
• The ossicles make the oval window vibrate3 and this causes
pressure waves to be set up in the inner ear.
• These vibrations also cause the organ of Corti3 to be
stimulated and it generates impulses which are sent to the
cerebrum3 along the auditory nerve3.
• The cerebrum interprets the impulses as sound3.(8)
[16]
Keep going!

Mind the Gap Chapter 6 Human nervous system (Paper 2) 55

Life Sciences Life processes in plants and animals
© Department of Basic Education 2012

The names
of the hormones
chapter
ENDOCRINE
7
Paper 2
are printed in
bold italics.

SYSTEM
7.1 The human endocrine system
The endocrine system is responsible for chemical coordination and regulates
activities that take place inside the body. The endocrine system consists
of glands that produce different hormones, which are the body's chemical
messengers. Figure 7.1 below shows the glands of the endocrine system,
the hormones they produce and the function of these hormones in the body.

Hypothalamus:
ADH (antidiuretic hormone) Pituitary gland (hypophysis):
• Target organ: Kidney GH (growth hormone)
• Controls the concentration of • Controls growth
water in the blood TSH (thyroid stimulating
hormone)
Thyroid gland: • Stimulates thyroid gland to
Thyroxin secrete thyroxin
• Controls basic metabolic rate Reproductive hormones:
FSH, LH and prolactin
Adrenal gland: • Refer to the section on
Adrenalin human reproduction in
Chapter 9
Increases:
• heartbeat
• blood pressure
• conversion from glycogen to Pancreas: Islets of Langerhans
glucose Glucagon
• blood supply to the cardiac • Stimulates conversion
and skeletal muscles of glycogen to glucose
• skeletal muscle tone (increases blood glucose
• rate and depth of breathing levels)
• diameter of pupils Insulin
Decreases: • Stimulates conversion of
glucose to glycogen (reduces
• blood flow to the digestive the blood glucose levels)
system and skin
Aldosterone
• Target organ: Kidney Testes (only males):
• Regulates salt concentration Reproductive hormone:
in the blood Testosterone
Ovary (only females): • Refer to the section on
Reproductive hormones: human reproduction in
Chapter 9
Oestrogen and progesterone
• Refer to Chapter 9
Figure 7.1 The human endocrine system

56 Chapter 7 Endocrine system (Paper 2) Mind the Gap

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 © Department of Basic Education 2012

7.2 Negative feedback

Homeostasis maintains a constant internal environment (blood and tissue
fluid) within the body. This enables the body to function efficiently, despite
changes in the external or internal environment.
Negative feedback mechanisms operate in the human body to detect
changes or imbalances in the internal environment and to restore the
balance.

7.2.1 General sequence of events in a

negative feedback mechanism
Step 1: An imbalance is detected. Down the

Step 2: A control centre is stimulated. Street

Step 3: Control centre responds. Cross

Step 4: Message sent to target organ/s. Main

Step 5: The target organ responds. Road and go

Step 6: It opposes/reverses the imbalance. OveR the

Step 7: Balance is restored. Bridge

Create a direction
Street
Down

mnemonic, like this

example, to remember
these steps.
Cross

Main Road

Ov
eR

Bridge

Mind the Gap Chapter 7 Endocrine system (Paper 2) 57

Life Sciences Life processes in plants and animals
© Department of Basic Education 2012

7.2.2 Example of negative feedback

mechanism
We will look at the regulation of thyroxin in the human body. There are two
glands involved in the control of thyroxin levels:
• Gland 1: Thyroid gland (releases thyroxin)
• Gland 2: Pituitary gland (releases TSH)
Let us now look at the sequence of events in this feedback mechanism.
When you read the flow diagrams, start with NORMAL THYROXIN LEVELS.

Situation 1 Pituitary gland Thyroid gland

releases less TSH releases less
Step 1: Thyroxin levels increase above normal limits
thyroxin
Step 2: Pituitary gland is stimulated

Step 3: Pituitary gland produces less TSH

Thyroxin level Thyroxin level
Step 4: Low TSH level stimulates the thyroid gland increases decreases
Step 5: The thyroid gland secretes less thyroxin

Step 6: The thyroxin level thus decreases

NORMAL THYROXIN
Step 7: Thyroxin level returns to normal LEVELS

Situation 2 NORMAL THYROXIN

Step 1: Thyroxin levels decrease below normal limits LEVELS

Step 2: Pituitary gland is stimulated

Step 3: Pituitary gland produces more TSH Thyroxin level Thyroxin level
increases decreases
Step 4: High TSH level stimulates the thyroid gland

Step 5: The thyroid gland secretes more thyroxin

Step 6: The thyroxin level thus increases Thyroid gland Pituitary gland
releases more releases more TSH
Step 7: Thyroxin level returns to normal
thyroxin

58 Chapter 7 Endocrine system (Paper 2) Mind the Gap

Life processes in plants and animals Life Sciences
 © Department of Basic Education 2012

Activity 1

Question
The flow chart in Figure 7.2 below shows the control of glucose levels.
Provide labels for 1 to 6.  [6]

Liver and muscles: Glucose

Pancreas: Releases 1 ............
converted to 2 ...................

Glucose level increases Glucose level 3 ......................

NORMAL GLUCOSE LEVEL

Glucose level 4 .................. Glucose level increases

5 ......................... releases Liver and muscles: Glycogen

glucagon converted to 6 ...............

Figure 7.2 The negative feedback system to control glucose levels in the body

Answers to activity 1
1. Insulin3 2. Glycogen 3
3. Decreases3 4. Decreases3
5. Pancreas 3 6. Glucose3
[6]

Keep going!

Mind the Gap Chapter 7 Endocrine system (Paper 2) 59

Life Sciences Life processes in plants and animals
© Department of Basic Education 2012

TEMPERATURE
chapter 8
Paper 2

REGULATION
8.1 The process of
temperature regulation
Temperature regulation is the control of body temperature to keep it as
close to 370C as possible to enable the body to function normally.
Body temperature is regulated by the hypothalamus in the brain and the
blood vessels and sweat glands in the skin.
Figure 8.1 below shows how the body temperature is regulated by the
hypothalamus and the skin.

ON A HOT DAY the hypothalamus is ON A COLD DAY the hypothalamus is

stimulated and sends impulses to the stimulated and sends impulses to the
blood vessels blood vessels
Less sweat
is released.
More sweat There is less
is released. evaporation
Evaporation of sweat and
of the sweat Blood less cooling Blood vessels
cools the vessels dilate of the skin. constrict
skin. (become (become
wider). This narrower).
is called This is called
vasodilation. vasoconstriction.
• More blood Sweat • Less blood
Sweat flows to the gland flows to the
gland skin. becomes skin.
becomes • More heat less
active. • Less heat is
more is lost from lost from the
active. the skin. skin.
• More blood • Less blood
is sent to is sent to the
the sweat sweat glands.
glands.
Figure 8.1 The homeostatic mechanism to regulate body temperature

If the homeostatic mechanism to regulate body temperature as shown in

Figure 8.1 does not work, it can lead to hypothermia or hyperthermia.
Both of these conditions can lead to death.

60 Chapter 8 Temperature regulation (Paper 2) Mind the Gap

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 © Department of Basic Education 2012

8.1.1 Hypothermia (hypo = low)

Hypothermia occurs when the core body temperature drops below 370C
for an extended time. It is caused by extended (for a long time) exposure to An easy way to
cold conditions. More heat is lost than the body is able to produce. remember the difference
between HYPER and
HYPO:
8.1.2 Hyperthermia (hyper = high) HYPER sounds like
HIGH ↑ and HYPO
Hyperthermia occurs when the core body temperature increases above rhymes with
370C for an extended time. It is caused by prolonged exposure to high LOW ↓
temperatures. The body produces and absorbs more heat than it can lose.

Activity 1

Questions
1. Name the heat regulation centre in the brain. (1)
2. What happens to the blood vessels of the skin on a cold day? (1)
3. Describe how the state of the blood vessels mentioned in
question 2 decreases heat loss. (4)
4. What happens to blood vessels of the skin on a hot day? (1)
5. Describe how the state of the blood vessels mentioned in
question 4 increases heat loss. (4)
6. State the condition that can result if the core body temperature
of a person is:
a) higher than 370C for an extended period of time. (1)
b) lower than 37 C for an extended period of time.
0
(1)
[13]

Answers to activity 1
1. Hypothalamus3  (1)
2. Blood vessels constrict3/vasoconstriction  1)
3. l Less blood flows to the surface of the skin.3
• Less heat is lost from the surface of the skin.3
• Less blood flows to the sweat glands.3
• Sweat glands release less sweat.3
• Less evaporation of sweat.3
• Less cooling of the skin on a cold day.3 (any 4)(4)
4. Blood vessels dilate3/vasodilation(1)
5. l More blood flows to the surface of the skin.3
• More heat is lost from the surface of the skin.3
• More blood flows to the sweat glands.3
• Sweat glands release more sweat.3
• Evaporation of sweat3 cools the skin on a hot day.3
 (any 4)(4)
6. a) Hyperthermia3(1)
b) Hypothermia3(1)
[13]
Keep going!

Mind the Gap Chapter 8 Temperature regulation (Paper 2) 61

Life Sciences Life processes in plants and animals
© Department of Basic Education 2012

REPRODUCTION
chapter 9
Paper 2

9.1 Life cycles in plants and insects,

and reproductive strategies in animals
A life cycle is a series of developmental steps that organisms go through
during their lives. Reproductive strategies are methods used by organisms
to ensure success in producing offspring under different environmental
conditions.

Activity 1

Question
Indicate whether each of the statements in COLUMN 1 applies to A only,
B only, both A and B or none of the items in COLUMN 2. There are four
possible answers. Choose only one option to answer by writing A only, B
only, Both A and B or None next to the question number (1 to 9).

COLUMN 1 COLUMN 2

1. Oviparous A. Eggs are produced

B. Eggs are always incubated by the female

2. Complete A. Egg, larva, pupa and adult

metamorphosis B. Egg and adult

3. Incomplete A. Occurs in all insects

metamorphosis B. No pupa stage

4. Ovoviviparous A. Eggs incubated in nests

B. Eggs incubated in the female’s body

5. Precocial development A. Small, helpless offspring born

B. Intense parental care required

6. Viviparous A. Gestation period required

B. Live offspring born

7. Altricial development A. Intense parental care required

B. Offspring can look after themselves

8. Wind-pollinated flower A. Large flower

B. Colourful petals

9. Insect-pollinated flower A. Large flower

B. Colourful petals

62 Chapter 9 Reproduction (Paper 2) Mind the Gap

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Answers to activity 1
1. A only (B is wrong, because some animals, like insects, simply lay
their eggs and do not incubate them. In some birds both the male
and female incubate the eggs.)
2. A only (B is wrong, because complete metamorphosis consists of
the four stages given in A.)
3. B only (A is wrong, because incomplete metamorphosis only
applies to some insects, like grasshoppers. Insects like silk moths
have complete metamorphosis.)
4. B only (A is wrong, because the eggs are not released from the
female’s body.)
5. None (Precocial animals are born quite well developed, they can
live independently from their parents and find their own food, so
parental care is not required.)
6. Both A and B
7. A only (B is wrong, because altricial animals are born small and
helpless. They cannot look after themselves or find their own food.
Their parents must look after them, protect them and feed them.)
8. None (Flowers that are pollinated by the wind are small and
without large petals so that the pollen can be released and
received easily. They do not need coloured flowers to attract
pollinators.)
9. Both A and B

9.1.1 Pollination
Flowers can be pollinated by the wind or by pollinators, for example birds, Exams
insects or bats. In Figure 9.1 below, Flower A is wind pollinated and Flower
B is insect pollinated. For a challenging
question on
Flower A: Wind-pollinated flowers are small (X50 means that it is magnified pollination, refer
50 times) and without large petals so that the pollen can be released and to the following National
received easily. They do not need coloured flowers to attract pollinators. Life Sciences exam paper:
Their anthers are relatively large and hang out of the flower. The stigma is • Life Sciences Paper
feathery to trap pollen. 1 November 2010 –
Flower B: Insect-pollinated flowers have large, colourful petals. They usually Question 3.3 on
also have nectar to attract insects. The flowers are larger than wind-pollinated page 13.
flowers. X1 means that the real flower is the same size as the diagram.

Flower A Flower B
Scale: X50 Scale: X1
Figure 9.1 Wind-pollinated flower (left) and insect-pollinated flower (right)

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Life Sciences Life processes in plants and animals
© Department of Basic Education 2012

9.2 Human reproduction

9.2.1 Male reproductive system
Figure 9.2 below shows the different parts of the male reproductive system
and their functions.
Prostate gland: Produces an
alkaline fluid that neutralises the
acids produced in the vagina,
which would kill sperm cells
Seminal vesicle: A gland
that produces a nutrient- Sperm duct: Transports sperm
rich fluid that that provides from the epididymis to the urethra
energy for the sperm cells

Cowper’s gland: Produces Urethra: Transports semen and

mucus that helps with the urine out of the body
movement of sperm cells
Epididymis: Sperm cells mature
Scrotum: Skin sac that and are stored here
protects the testes
and holds the testes
‘outside’ the body, at a
temperature that is 2°C
below 37°C. This is the
best temperature for the Testes: Produces sperm cells and
production of sperm the hormone testosterone

Figure 9.2 Structure of the male reproductive system

Functions of testosterone
The testes produce the hormone testosterone, which has the following
functions:
1. Development of male secondary sexual characteristics, such as
beard, pubic hair, deep voice and a muscular body.
2. Stimulates the maturation of sperm cells.

Structure of a sperm cell

Figure 9.3 below shows the different parts of a sperm cell and their
functions.
Acrosome: Contains
enzymes to digest wall of
egg cell for fertilisation
Head
Nucleus: Contains
23 chromosomes

Mitochondria: Provide
Middle section or energy for swimming
body

Tail: Used for swimming

Tail

Figure 9.3 Structure of a sperm cell

64 Chapter 9 Reproduction (Paper 2) Mind the Gap

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 © Department of Basic Education 2012

Activity 2

Questions
1. Name the accessory glands of the male reproductive system and
give ONE function of each.  (10)
2. Name the organ where testosterone is produced. (1)
3. Give TWO functions of testosterone. (2)
4. Name all the parts of the sperm cell that are responsible for
movement. State what the function of each part is.  (4)
5. Explain the role of the nucleus of the sperm cell in fertilisation. (3)
[20]

Answers to activity 2
1. Seminal vesicle3 produces a fluid that contains nutrients3 for
the sperm cells, so that they have energy to swim.3
Prostate gland3 produces an alkaline fluid3 that neutralises
acids3produced in the vagina, so that sperm cells are
protected.3
Cowper’s gland3 produces mucus3 that helps with the
movement3of sperm cells. (10)
2. Testes3(1)
3. Testosterone is responsible for the development of male
secondary sexual characteristics3 and it stimulates the
maturation of sperm cells.3(2)
4. Mitochondria3 provide energy for swimming.3
Tail3 moves in a whip-like fashion to propel the sperm cell
forwards.3 (4)
5. The nucleus contains 23 chromosomes (n)3, and fuses
with the nucleus of an egg cell, which also contains 23
chromosomes (n)3. The result is a zygote with
46 chromosomes (2n).3(3)
[20]

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9.2.2 Female reproductive system

Figure 9.4 below shows the different parts of the female reproductive
system and their functions.

Fallopian tube: Connects the

ovaries to the uterus, transports
egg cells from the ovary; it is
Uterus: Carries the
the site of fertilisation
embryo and foetus during
pregnancy
Ovary: Produces egg cells,
secretes progesterone and Endometrium: Inner lining
oestrogen of uterus; place where the
embryo implants and the
placenta forms

Cervix: Lower, narrow part

Vagina: Receives the penis of uterus. It stretches to
and semen during sexual allow the baby through
intercourse; it is the passage during childbirth
through which the baby is born

Figure 9.4 Structure of the female reproductive system

Activity 3

Questions
Provide the correct biological term for the following definitions.
1. The inner lining of the uterus (1)
2. Tube that connects the ovaries to the uterus (1)
3. The part that produces female hormones (1)
4. The part where the embryo and foetus is kept during pregnancy (1)
[4]

Answers to activity 3
1. Endometrium3
2. Fallopian tube3
3. Ovary/placenta3
4. Uterus3
[4]

66 Chapter 9 Reproduction (Paper 2) Mind the Gap

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Menstrual cycle
The series of diagrams in Figure 9.5 below shows the events occurring in
the ovary (ovarian cycle) and uterus (uterine cycle) during the menstrual
cycle. The days are not exact, but are averages.

Day 8–13
Ovaries: Mature Graafian
follicle develops:
• The Graafian follicle moves
to edge of the ovary
• It secretes oestrogen
Uterus: Oestrogen stimulates
the endometrium to become Day 14
thicker and develop more
blood vessels and glands Ovaries: Graafian
follicle bursts to
release an egg cell.
The process is called
ovulation

Start here!

Day 1–7
Ovaries: New follicles
develop and secrete Day 15–22
oestrogen Ovaries: The Graafian
Uterus: Lining breaks follicle becomes
down and is released a corpus luteum
(menstruation) that secretes
progesterone
Uterus: Progesterone
stimulates the
endometrium to
Day 23–28 become even thicker
Ovaries: and to develop more
If fertilisation does not take blood vessels and
place: glands, ready to
receive the embryo
• The corpus luteum shrinks if an egg cell is
and stops secreting fertilised
progesterone
If fertilisation takes place:
Whoever said
• The corpus luteum remains Life Sciences is
active in the ovary and hard was ovary-
continues to secrete
acting!
progesterone
• No more follicles develop in
the ovaries
• No menstruation takes place

Figure 9.5 The menstrual cycle

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Life Sciences Life processes in plants and animals
© Department of Basic Education 2012

68 Chapter 9 Reproduction (Paper 2) Mind the Gap

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 © Department of Basic Education 2012

Hormonal control of the menstrual cycle

The graph in Figure 9.6 below shows changes in the ovary, uterus and in
the level of hormones during a 28-day menstrual cycle.

A FSH LH
Pituitary/
hypophysis
hormone levels

B
Growth of follicle

Oestrogen
C Progesterone
Ovarian hormone
levels

D Thickness of
uterine lining/
endometrium
0 7 14 21 28
Days
Figure 9.6 Hormonal regulation of the female reproductive cycle

The hormonal changes that take place at A, B, C and D in the graph in

Figure 9.6 above are explained in Table 9.1 below.

A B C D
Day 0–11 Pituitary gland Follicle is developing to Oestrogen levels Thickness of
produces become a Graafian follicle increase as the endometrium
FSH which containing an egg cell. hormone is produced increases from day 7
stimulates by the follicle. (after menstruation
development of has ended) as a result
the follicle. of oestrogen.
Day 11–17 FSH and LH Follicle development is Oestrogen levels Endometrium thickens
(produced by completed as a result of the reach a maximum further.
the pituitary influence of FSH by day 14. towards day 14 until
gland) levels Ovulation is stimulated by ovulation takes place,
are highest high levels of FSH and LH but then start to
around day 14. on day 14. decrease because the
Graafian follicle stops
LH then stimulates the
functioning.
development of the corpus
luteum.
Day 17–28 LH levels Corpus luteum produces Oestrogen levels Progesterone prepares
decrease and progesterone. increase again and endometrium fully for
then remain Corpus luteum gradually then decrease towards pregnancy.
constant to disintegrates since the end of the cycle. Decreased
maintain the fertilisation does not take Progesterone levels progesterone levels
corpus luteum. place. increase towards from around day 21
day 21. cause endometrium
Progesterone levels to shed after day 28
decrease when corpus by menstruation since
luteum disintegrates no fertilisation took
and stops functioning. place.
Table 9.1 Hormonal changes during the menstrual cycle

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Activity 4
Study Figure 9.7 below and answer the questions that follow.

Hormonal regulation of the menstrual cycle

Growth of follicle

B
A

Ovarian
hormone levels

0 7 14 21 28
Days
Figure 9.7 Hormonal changes during the menstrual cycle

1. Name the hormones A and B. (2)

NB! Make
2. Give reasons for your answers in question 1. (2)
sure you
3. What event occurs on day 14? (1)
know how
to interpret the graph 4. Name the other two hormones involved in this cycle. (2)
in Figure 9.7 before 5. Did fertilisation occur during the cycle shown in Figure 9.7? (1)
you try to answer the 6. Explain your answer in question 5.  (2)
questions:
[10]
• All the information
refers to the ovary.
• The information is Answers to activity 4
presented in graph 1. A – Oestrogen3 B – Progesterone3(2)
form. The days of
2. A: The Graafian follicle secretes oestrogen3/Oestrogen reaches
the menstrual cycle
its maximum level before ovulation.3
are indicated on the
X-axis.
B: The corpus luteum produces progesterone3/Progesterone
reaches its maximum level after ovulation.3(2)
• The graph should
3. Ovulation3(1)
be read from left
to right in the same 4. LH3 and FSH3(2)
way that you read a 5. No3(1)
sentence. 6. Progesterone levels decrease3 towards the end of the cycle.
• The graph illustrates The corpus luteum decreases3 in size. (2)
the concentrations [10]
of two hormones,
namely oestrogen and
progesterone.
Hint Here is a hint to help you to remember the names of the two
hormones:
• O stands for Oestrogen and when it is high, Ovulation occurs.
• P stands for Progesterone and when it remains high, there is a
Pregnancy.

70 Chapter 9 Reproduction (Paper 2) Mind the Gap

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Development of foetus
Figure 9.8 below shows the stages in the development of the foetus.

Fallopian tube
Embryo
Fertilisation

Sperm cell

Egg cell
Ovulation
Foetus
Chorion
Umbilical cord
Ovary Amnion

Placenta Amniotic fluid

Figure 9.8 Stages in the development of the foetus

Use this word
Explanation of Figure 9.8 mnemonic to help you
1. In the ovary a mature Graafian follicle bursts (usually on day 14 of remember the stages in
the development of the
the menstrual cycle) and releases an egg cell. This process is called
foetus.
ovulation.
2. Fertilisation takes place high up in the fallopian tube. The egg
cell (containing 23 chromosomes) and sperm cell (containing 23
chromosomes) fuse to form a zygote (containing 46 chromosomes).
3. The zygote divides by mitosis to form an embryo (a ball of cells) as it
moves down the fallopian tube.
4. It takes about 5 to 7 days for the embryo to reach the uterus.
5. In the uterus the embryo settles on the endometrium and sinks
into it, embedding itself in the endometrium. This process is called
implantation.
6. After implantation, the embryo produces many finger-like structures
called villi from the outer membrane of the embryo, which is known
as the chorion. Ovulation O → Old
7. The villi grow into the tissue of the uterus to form a placenta. Fertilisation F → Fred
8. The placenta is attached to the embryo by the umbilical cord.
Embryo E → Explains
9. The embryo is enclosed in a fluid-filled sac called the amnion. The
fluid is called the amniotic fluid. Uterus U → Understanding
10. After about 8 weeks, the embryo develops structures such as limbs Implantation I → Important
and all the organs of the body. Now it is called a foetus. Chorion C → Concepts
Placenta P → Prevents

Activity 5 Umbilical U → Unnecessary

Amnion A → Anxious
F → Feeling
Questions
Foetus

1. On which day of the menstrual cycle does ovulation usually take

place?(1)
2. What happens to the Graafian follicle after ovulation? (1)
3. Name the TWO hormones that are released by structures in the
ovaries.(2)

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© Department of Basic Education 2012

4. Give THREE functions of the amniotic fluid.  (3)

Exams 5. Give TWO substances that can move from the mother to the foetus
through the placenta. (2)
For more questions 6. Give TWO substances that can move from the foetus to the mother
on the female through the placenta. (2)
reproductive system, [11]
refer to the following
National Life Sciences
exam paper: Answers to activity 5
• Life Sciences Paper 1. Day 143 (1)
1 November 2010 – 2. It changes into a corpus luteum.3 (1)
Question 3.1 on 3. Oestrogen3 and progesterone.3 (2)
page 12. 4. The amniotic fluid protects the foetus against shock3,
• Life Sciences Paper 1 drying out3 and temperature changes.3  (3)
March 2011: Version 5. Oxygen3, nutrients3 (amino acids, glucose, other sugars),
1 – Question 3.1 on viruses3 and drugs3 (2)
page 11.
6. Carbon dioxide3 and waste products3 (urea).  (2)
[11]

9.2.3 Contraceptive methods and their

effect on human reproduction
Contraceptives are used by humans to prevent pregnancy. There are many
different methods that can be used to do this. Table 9.2 below lists some
contraceptive methods and how they affect human reproduction.

Method Effect on human reproduction

Condom Acts as a barrier, stops sperm getting into the vagina
Loop/IUD Prevents fertilised eggs/embryos from becoming attached to the uterine wall
Female condom Acts as a barrier, stops sperm getting into the uterus/fallopian tubes
(femidom)
Diaphragm Acts as a barrier as it covers the cervical opening and prevents sperm from entering the
uterus
Contraceptive pill Contains artificially produced hormones which prevent the production of eggs/ovulation
Spermicide Contains a chemical substance that kills sperm and it also acts as a barrier, which
prevents sperm from entering through the cervix
Contraceptive Contains progesterone/combination of oestrogen and progesterone, which stops ovulation;
injection it works for 2 to 3 months
Male sterilisation The sperm ducts are cut and tied; semen without sperm is produced
(vasectomy)
Female sterilisation The fallopian tubes are cut and tied during a small surgical operation preventing the fusion
(tubal ligation) of sperm and egg

Withdrawal The penis is taken out of the vagina before ejaculation, but this is not a safe method
because many sperms can be released before ejaculation
Rhythm Sexual intercourse is avoided three to four days before and after ovulation (between
days 10 and 18 of the menstrual cycle)

Table 9.2 Contraceptive methods and their effect on human reproduction

72 Chapter 9 Reproduction (Paper 2) Mind the Gap

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Activity 6

Questions
1. Name TWO:
a) contraceptives that contain female hormones. (2)
b) methods of contraception that involve surgery. (2)
c) barrier methods of contraception. (2)
2. Explain how an IUD prevents pregnancy. (2)
3. Explain the difference between a barrier method of contraception
and a contraceptive that uses hormones. (5)
[13]

Answers to activity 6
1. a) Contraceptive pill3 and contraceptive injection3(2)
b) Vasectomy3 and tubal ligation3(2)
c) Condom3, female condom3 and diaphragm3(2)
2. It prevents the embryo3 from becoming attached to the uterine
wall.3(2)
3. A barrier method blocks the pathway of sperm cells3 and they
are prevented from reaching the egg cell3. Fertilisation cannot
take place. A hormonal contraceptive contains female hormones3
that prevent ovulation3. No egg cells are produced,3 therefore
fertilisation cannot take place3.(5)
[13]

Keep going!

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Life Sciences Life processes in plants and animals
© Department of Basic Education 2012

POPULATION AND
chapter 10 Paper 2

COMMUNITY ECOLOGY
10.1 Population size
Figure 10.1 below shows how the size of a population changes. The
factors indicated by arrows entering the circle will lead to an increase in
population size. The factors indicated by arrows leaving the circle will lead
to a decrease in population size.
Migration
• Periodic movement of
organisms into and out of a
population

Natality Migration Mortality

• Births • Deaths
• Increases population size • Decreases
population size

Population size

Emigration
Immigration
• One-way movement
• One-way movement of of organisms out of
organisms into a population a population
• Increases population size • Decreases
population size

Figure 10.1 Changes in population size

Remember the difference between EMIGRATION and

IMMIGRATION:
Emigration is when you EXIT a population (E)
Immigration is when you come INTO a population (I)

74 Chapter 10 Population and community ecology (Paper 2) Mind the Gap
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 © Department of Basic Education 2012

10.2 Population growth forms

10.2.1 Logistic (S-shaped)
growth form
The graph in Figure 10.2 below shows a logistic (S-shaped) growth form.
Note how the graph is divided into four phases.
Environmental resistance
Carrying capacity
Population size (number of organisms)

2.
Accelerating
(geometric)
growth
phase

3. 4.
Decelerating Equilibrium
(growth) phase
phase (stationary
phase)
1.
Lag
phase

Time

Figure 10.2 Logistic (S-shaped) growth form

Study the graph in Figure 10.2 and then read the explanations below:
1. Lag phase: Population grows slowly, because the organisms are
becoming acclimatised to (getting used to) the new environment.
2. Accelerating (geometric) growth phase: The population size
increases rapidly because there is plenty of food and space, and very
little competition.
3. Decelerating growth phase: The growth rate decreases due to an
increase in environmental resistance.
4. Equilibrium (stationary) phase: The population size reaches carrying
capacity and environmental resistance occurs. In general natality
equals mortality.
Carrying capacity is the maximum population size that can be supported
by a particular environment.
Environmental resistance refers to all the factors that prevent a population
from increasing, for example, shortage of food and water, limited space,
disease, and so on.

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10.2.2 Geometric (J-shaped)

growth form
The graph in Figure 10.3 below shows a geometric (J-shaped) growth form.
Note that this growth form only has two phases: a lag phase and an
accelerating (geometric) growth phase. Study the graph and then read the
explanations below.

Population size (number of organisms)

2.
Accelerating
(geometric)
growth phase

1.
Lag
phase

Time

Figure 10.3 Geometric (J-shaped) growth form

In this growth form the population size increases rapidly with time because
of availability of enough food, water and space.
The increase in the human population, in general, follows the same
geometric growth form. Possible reasons for this are:
• Decrease in mortality (death rate)
• Increase in natality (birth rate) of a population
• Improved health services
• Improved quality of nutrition
• Little or no environmental resistance

76 Chapter 10 Population and community ecology (Paper 2) Mind the Gap
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Life Sciences Environmental studies
© Department of Basic Education 2012

Activity 1
The graph in Figure 10.4 below shows the growth of a population over a
period of time. Study the graph and answer the questions that follow.

Growth of a population over time

C

Population size

B
A

Time

Figure 10.4 Growth of a population over a period of time

1. Identify the growth form indicated by the graph. (1)

2. Identify the phases labelled A, B and C.(3)
3. Write down the letter (A, B or C) of the phase in the graph which
shows rapid growth. (1)
4. Explain why the population size at C stayed constant. (3)
5. Give TWO reasons why the population growth at A was slow. (2)
[10]

Answers to activity 1
1. Logistic3 growth form/S-shaped (1)
2. A – Lag3 phase
B – Accelerating3/ geometric phase
Exams C – Equilibrium3/stationary phase (3)
3. B3(1)
For another l
4. Environmental resistance increased3
question on
• causing the carrying capacity of the area to be reached3
population size
(graphing skills), refer
• leading to increased competition3
to the following National
• resulting in the death rate increasing to equal the birth rate3
Life Sciences exam paper: • or resulting in increased emigration that balances with
immigration3 (any 3)(3)
• Life Sciences Paper 2
5. l Population is acclimatising/adapting to its new environment3
March 2012: Version
1 – Question 3.1 on • Few pairing partners3
page 12. • Time required to produce offspring is relatively long3
• Not all individuals are sexually mature3 (any 2) (2)
[10]

78 Chapter 10 Population and community ecology (Paper 2) Mind the Gap
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 © Department of Basic Education 2012

10.3 Age and gender distribution pyramids

of developing and developed countries
Study the graphs in Figures 10.5 (top right) and 10.6 (bottom right) and
then read the explanations:
Age groups (years)
Figure 10.5 shows the age and gender 81–90
pyramid of a developing country: 71–80
• This pyramid has a triangular shape 61–70
with a wide base and a narrow top. 51–60
• It shows a small number of old 41–50
31–40
people (older than 50 years). This is
21–30
an indication that the population has
11–20
a high birth rate, a high death rate 0–10
and a short life expectancy. 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8
• Examples of developing countries are Females (%) Males (%)
South Africa, Brazil and India.
Figure 10.5 Age and gender pyramid of a developing
country

Age groups (years)

81–90
Figure 10.6 shows the age and gender 71–80
pyramid of a developed country: 61–70
• This pyramid has a narrower base. 51–60
• It shows a large number of old 41–50
31–40
people. This is an indication that the
21–30
population has a low birth rate, a low
11–20
death rate and a long life expectancy. 0–10
• Examples of developed countries are 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6
Germany and the USA. Females (%) Males (%)

Figure 10.6 Age and gender pyramid of a

developed country

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10.4 Methods to determine population size

There are two ways of determining population size:
• Direct technique: This involves counting all the individuals in a
population. It is also known as the census method.
• Indirect techniques: We use these techniques to estimate the
population size. There are two indirect techniques, namely the mark–
recapture method and the quadrant method (also called the simple
sampling method).

10.4.1 Mark–recapture method

This method is used to estimate the size of an animal population and it
involves two stages:
• A sample of animals (first sample) are captured and marked in some
way. The marked animals are then released into the population.
• A second sample is then taken and the number of animals in this
sample is recorded. The number of marked animals (from the first
sample) in this second sample is also recorded.
We use the following formula to estimate the population size:

P = F × S
M
Where:
P = Estimated population
F = Total number of animals caught in first sample and marked
S = Total number of animals caught in second sample (ie recaptured)
M = Total number of marked animals in the second sample

Activity 2
A group of Grade 12 learners wanted to use the mark–recapture method
to determine the population size of a type of fish (Tilapia sparrmanii) in a
large dam. Their results are shown in the table.

October 2010 November 2010

Number marked Number in Number marked

and released in recaptured/ in recaptured/
first sample second sample second sample

Tilapia sparrmanii 15 150 10

80 Chapter 10 Population and community ecology (Paper 2) Mind the Gap
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Question
Use the formula below to estimate the population size of Tilapia sparrmanii
in the dam. Show ALL working. [3]

P = F × S
M
Where:
P = Estimated population
F = Total number of animals caught in first sample and marked
S = Total number of animals caught in second sample (ie recaptured)
M = Total number of marked animals in the second sample

Answer to activity 2
P = F × S = (15 × 150)3 = 225 fish [3]
M 103

10.4.2 Quadrant or simple sampling Note the

method following NB!
when
With this method, you make a physical count of all the plants in a small
solving
sample area of the habitat and then calculate the total population using
problems using the
the formula:
quadrant or simple
Estimated total number of plants = Number of plants × Habitat size sampling method:
in sample Sample size
• If more than one
sample was taken, you
Activity 3 need to first calculate
the average.

Question
• In some problems
you will need to
In an investigation to find the number of African potato plants in a field calculate the area of
of area 6 000 m2, three plots were selected, each with an area of 10 m2. Plot the habitat plot: use
1 contained three African potato plants and the other two plots contained length × width.
seven and two African potato plants, respectively. • In some problems
1. What indirect method was used to estimate the population size? (1) you will need to
calculate the area of
2. How should the plots be selected to obtain a reliable estimate? (1)
the sample plot: use
3. Estimate the total number of African potato plants in the field. length × width.
Show all working. (3)
[5]

Answer to activity 3
1. Simple sampling3/quadrant method  (1)
2. Randomly3(1)
3. (Average number per plot 3 + 7 + 2 = 12 = 4)
3
Estimated total
number of plants
=
Number of
plants in sample
×
Habitat size
Sample size
= 43 × (
6 000
10 )
3 = 2 4003plants

(3)
[5]

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10.5 Interactions in a community

10.5.1 Predation
Predation is the feeding interaction between a predator and
Number of organisms

prey.
• The predator is an animal that hunts, captures and kills
A other animals (prey) for food.
B • The prey is the animal being hunted and killed. As the prey
population increases, the predator population will also
increase, and vice versa.
In a balanced habitat the number of prey is always greater
Time (years) than the number of predators. In Figure 10.7 (left), A is the
Figure 10.7 Predator–prey graph prey population and B is the predator population.

10.5.2 Competition
Competition is the interaction between organisms that compete for
resources in the environment when these are in short supply. There are
three types of competition:
• Intraspecific competition: This is competition between organisms
of the same species that depend on the same resources, such as
food, space, shelter, water and access to mates. Example: two lions
competing for a mating partner.
• Interspecific competition: This is competition between organisms of
different species that depend on the same resources, for example
light, space, water, shelter or food. Example: a lion and hyena
competing for food.
• Competitive exclusion: This is a type of competition where one of the
two competing species is much more successful than the other, such
that the successful species survives and the other species dies out.
In the graph in Figure 10.8 below, P. aurelia is much more successful
and survives, while P. caudatum dies out.
Relative population density

P. aurelia

P. caudatum

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Days

Figure 10.8 Competitive exclusion

82 Chapter 10 Population and community ecology (Paper 2) Mind the Gap
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10.5.3 Resource partitioning

This is a type of interaction where different species co-exist in the same
habitat since they use the resources slightly differently.
In Figure 10.9 (right), three different species co-exist in the same habitat
because they eat leaves of a plant at different heights. In other words, they
use the resource slightly differently and this reduces competition.

10.5.4 Symbiosis
Symbiosis is a type of interaction where organisms are either directly
or indirectly dependent on each other for survival. The flow diagram in
Figure 10.10 below illustrates three types of symbiotic relationships,
namely mutualism, commensalism and parasitism. Figure 10.9 Resource
partitioning

Symbiosis: Individuals of two or more species who live in direct and close relationships

Mutualism Commensalism Parasitism

Both species benefit from the One species benefits and the The parasite benefits while the
relationship. other species is not harmed. host is harmed.

  
Example: Bees get nectar Example: Birds nest in trees. Example: Ticks (parasite) suck the
from flowers and flowers get Birds benefit and trees are not blood of a dog (host). The ticks get
pollinated. harmed. food while the dog suffers blood
loss and runs the risk of infection.

Figure 10.10 The three types of symbiosis

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Exams

For an additional
10.6 Ecological succession
question on Ecological succession refers to a gradual change in the numbers and
community variety of organisms living in a habitat, leading to a climax community (a
interactions, refer to the relatively stable community). There are two types of succession:
following National Life • Primary succession: This is a gradual change in the numbers and
Sciences exam paper: variety of organisms living in a new habitat, beginning with pioneer
• Life Sciences Paper 2 plants and ending with a climax community. Example: pioneers
November: Version 1 occupying a new sand dune.
2011 – Question 3.4 on • Secondary succession: A gradual change in the numbers and variety
page 18. of organisms that occupy a disturbed habitat or when an established
community has been disturbed due to a catastrophic event.
Example: succession after a veld fire.

Activity 4

Question
Indicate whether each of the statements in COLUMN 1 applies to A only,
B  only, both A and B or none of the items in COLUMN 2. Write A  only,
B only, both A and B or None next to the question number (1 to 8).

COLUMN 1 COLUMN 2
1. This would have no effect on the population size A: Emigration
B: Immigration
2. A small portion of the population is counted and then used to work out A: Census
the size of the whole population B: Simple sampling
3. Competition between cows and goats for grass A: Interspecific
B: Intraspecific
4. A relationship between different species in which both benefit A: Commensalism
B: Mutualism
5. The periodic movement out of and return to a habitat by living A: Immigration
organisms B: Emigration
6. The elimination of one species by another in a habitat as a result of A: Intraspecific competition
dependence on a common resource B: Competitive exclusion
7. The maximum size of a population that can be supported by a habitat A: Carrying capacity
under the conditions prevailing at any particular time B: Environmental resistance
8. The use of resources in slightly different ways by different species in A: Resource partitioning
the same habitat allowing them to co-exist B: Competitive exclusion
 (8 × 2)
[16]

Answers to activity 4
1. None33 5. None33
2. B only33 6. B only33
3. A only33 7. A only33
4. B only33 8. A only33
 (8 × 2)
[16]
Keep going!

84 Chapter 10 Population and community ecology (Paper 2) Mind the Gap
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chapter 11
SKILLS Pap
er 1 and 2

11.1 Drawing graphs You need to know

how to draw these four
different graph types.
Graphs and charts condense large amounts of information in a format that
is easier to understand, showing important points clearly and effectively.
1. Line graphs show the relationship between two types of information
where the independent variable is continuous. Line graphs are useful
in showing trends over time and are often used for biological data.
2. Bar graphs show different categories of data and are used when
the independent variable is not a set of continuous numbers or
continuous groups (discontinuous data). They are best used to
compare values across categories.
3. Histograms have connected bars displaying continuous data.
They are used when the values of the independent variables are
continuous but fit into categories or groups that follow on after the
other.
4. Pie charts are circular charts used to compare parts of the whole.
They are divided into sectors that are equal in size to the quantity
represented. They are used for discontinuous data.

11.1.1 How to draw a line graph

Step 1
Identify the dependent and the independent
variables from the information you are given
(usually in table format).
Time (hours) Temperature (°C)
• Dependent: This is the variable or factor that is being
measured, i.e. the temperature in degrees Celsius in 0 16
this example.
• Independent: This is the variable that the investigator 5 24
can change. The dependent variable changes as the
independent variable changes, i.e. the time in hours 9 28
in this example.
13 26

17 21

20 19
The independent variable is 24 17
usually given in the first column
of the table. Table 11.1 Air temperature recorded
over a 24 hour period

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Step 2 30

Temperature (°C)
Draw a set of axes and label the X and Y axes. 25
The dependent variable goes on the Y-axis and 20
the independent variable on the X-axis. Include 15
the unit in each label, e.g. temperature in °C and time
10
in hours. Do NOT forget to label the axes.
5
0
Step 3 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Choose a scale for the X and the Y axes. Time (hours)
Make sure that the scale includes the highest
Figure 11.2 Draw the axes and choose a scale
numbers in the table for each of the variables.
Do not use the values for the Y-axis directly from the
table unless they have regular intervals. The independent variable
must be plotted on the
X-axis

{ 0 5 9 13 17 20 24 }X – wrong

Step 4 30
Temperature (°C)

Place a dot at the point where the two values 25

for each result intersect (meet). In the example, 20
the point where 5 hours and 24°C intersect on 15
the graph is indicated by the second dot on the graph.
10
Plot all the points using the information in the table.
5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Step 5 Time (hours)
Join the dots using a ruler until all the dots have
Figure 11.3 Plot the points on the graph and join
been joined in sequence.
them

Step 6
Give the graph a heading or caption. The
heading or caption should include both
variables. In this case both air temperature and
the time period of 24 hours must be mentioned in the
heading.
If the graph has The change in temperature over
two lines on it, then you a period of 24 hours
should draw a key to show what 30
the different lines represent. For
Temperature (°C)

25
example if there was another line on
this graph for rainfall, then your key 20
might look like this: 15
KEY 10
temperature 5
rainfall 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Time (hours)
Figure 11.4 Final line graph with heading

86 Chapter 11 Skills (Paper 1 and 2) Mind the Gap

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11.1.2 How to draw a bar graph

Steps 1 to 3
To draw a bar graph, you follow the same first
three steps that you followed to draw a line
graph. Use the table to identify the dependent
and independent variables. Draw the axes and choose a
scale. Note that there will be no units when labelling the
X- and the Y-axes in this particular graph.

Number of oragnisms
Point number Number of organisms 10
1 10 8
2 12 6

3 8 4
2
4 8
0
5 4 0 1 2 3 4 5
Table 11.2 Number of organisms found in the water at Point along the river
different points along a river Figure 11.5 Draw the axes and choose a scale

Step 4
Number of organisms

Draw a bar to show that 10 organisms were

found at point number 1 on the river. Then draw 10
bars to represent the number of organisms 8
found at each of the points along the river.
6
Since this is a bar graph, the bars should not touch as
the points along the river have no direct relationship 4
with each other. 2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Point along the river
Figure 11.6 Draw the first bar

Step 5 Bar graph to show the number of

Give the graph a heading or caption. See step organisms at different points along a river
6 under the line graph for instruction on how to
give your graph a heading or caption. 12
Number of oragnisms

10
Note the following: 8
• The spaces between the bars
6
should all be the same width.
• The bars themselves should all 4
be the same width. 2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Point along the river
Figure 11.7 Final bar graph with heading

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11.1.3 How to draw a histogram

A histogram is drawn in exactly the same way as a bar graph. The only
difference is that a histogram is used when the independent variable is
groups of information along a continuous scale. Note that in a histogram,
the bars are drawn without any spaces between them. Use the
information in Table 11.3 below to draw a histogram. Your graph should look
like the one in Figure 11.8 below.

Range (%) Number of pupils

0–19 0
20–39 5
40–59 11
60–79 16
80–100 3
Table 11.3 Number of learners with a particular percentage (%) score
Number of pupils

20
15
10
5
0
0-19 20-39 40-59 60-79 80-100
Data range (%)
Figure 11.8 Final histogram with heading

NOTE:
When the independent variable is
continuous data (an infinite number of
values are evenly distributed), we use a
line graph or histogram.
When the independent variable is
discontinuous data (a fixed number of
values that do not form an ordered scale),
we use a bar graph or pie chart.

88 Chapter 11 Skills (Paper 1 and 2) Mind the Gap

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11.1.4 How to draw a pie chart

Step 1 Contraceptive Number of women
Add all the data in the table together. In this case, you will
Sterilisation 34
add all the numbers in the 'Number of women' column to
find out how many women took part in the investigation. Pill 38
34 + 38 + 22 + 30 + 76 = 200 Condom 22
When you do the calculations for the pie chart, then ‘200’ will be Rhythm method 30
the denominator (the number that you divide by).
None 76
Table 11.4 Table of contraceptive use by a
sample group of women

Step 2
Convert your data to angles. Divide each number by 200. Then, since there are 360° in a circle, the
angles are worked out by multiplying by 360.
34 30
200 × 360 = 61,2° (round down to 61°) 200 × 360 = 54°
38 76
200 × 360 = 68,4° (round down to 68°) 200 × 360 = 136,8 (round up to 137°)
22
200 × 360 = 39,6°(round up to 40°)

Check that your calculations are correct. All the degrees should add up to
360°. In our example:
61° + 68° + 40° + 54° + 137° = 360°
If the degrees don’t add up to 360°, you have done something wrong. Go back and check your work.

Step 3
Use a mathematical compass to draw a circle.

Step 4
Draw in one radius on the circle. Start at the exact
middle of the circle and draw a line to the edge of
the circle Figure 11.9 Draw a circle and then draw a
radius

Step 5
Use a mathematical protractor to measure out the sectors of
the pie chart according to the angles you calculated in step 2.

Figure 11.10 Measure out the

sectors

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Step 6
Label each of the sections of the pie chart with the Pie chart to show
correct information. In this example, each section should contraceptive use among a
sample group of women
be labelled with the correct contraceptive method used
by women (OR provide a key for the different sections).

Sterilised
Step 7 34
Give the pie chart a heading or caption. Remember that
None
both variables should be included in the heading or 76
caption. In this example the two variables are the type of Pill
contraceptive and the number of women. 38

Rhythm Condom
method 22
30
Remember to take
a calculator, a compass and
a protractor into the exam
with you. Figure 11.11 Final pie chart with heading

Exams

For four more problems on graphs, refer to the following National

Life Sciences exam papers:
• Life Sciences Paper 1 March 2012 – Question 4.1 on page 14 –
an example of a pie chart.
• Life Sciences Paper 2 March 2012 – Question 3.1 on page 12 –
an example of a line graph.
• Life Sciences Paper 1 November 2011: Version 1 – Question 2.3 on
page 8 – an example of a histogram.
• Life Sciences Paper 1 March 2011: Version 1 – Question 4.2 on page 14 –
an example of a bar graph.

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11.2 Answering essay questions

The essay in the final examination is allocated 20 marks. Answering this
question requires planning. Let us look at the planning steps using the
following essay question, which appeared in the Life Sciences Paper 2
March 2012: Version 1 exam paper, as an example.

Describe the role of the hypothalamus and the adrenal glands in bringing
about changes to the blood vessels of the human skin and explain why
these changes take place.
Content (17)
Synthesis (3)
(20)

Step 1
Read the essay question thoroughly to determine the topics that
are being covered. Underline the key words in the essay question
that provide clues to the different topics:

Nervous system – since the hypothalamus (a part of the brain)

is involved
Endocrine system – since adrenal glands are involved
Temperature regulation – since this involves blood vessels of the skin

Make sure you

Step 2 are answering the
Interpret and analyse the essay question. Identify the aspects or question. Keep
referring back to
processes that are required from each of the topics identified. You may the question to
need to read the question more than once to enable you to do this. guide you.

Hypothalamus – What effect does it have on the blood vessels

of the skin?
Adrenal glands – What effect do they have on the blood vessels
of the skin?

If you cover the above in your essay you will only be answering the ‘describe’
part required by the essay question.
Note that the essay also requires an ‘explanation’ of why these changes
take place. For the explanation, you need to elaborate on the functions of
the hypothalamus and the adrenal gland that involves the blood vessels of
the skin as follows:

Hypothalamus – controls body temperature by stimulating a change in

the diameter of the blood vessels of the skin.
Adrenal glands secrete adrenalin into the bloodstream, which decreases
the diameter of the blood vessels of the skin so that more blood (with
oxygen and glucose) can be directed to other parts of the body to
prepare for an emergency.

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A mind map is a
useful way to brainstorm Step 3
your ideas. It is then Write the first draft of your essay in a logical and organised
easy to structure your manner, linking each aspect that is discussed. This will help you
essay in a clear and
obtain a high mark from the 3 marks allocated for the synthesis of your
organised manner.
essay.
Your plan or draft of the essay may take the form of a flow diagram. But
note that you final answer to the essay CANNOT be in the form of a flow
diagram.

Adrenal glands –
Hypothalamus – regulates secrete adrenalin
body temperature

Sends impulses Adrenalin – prepares

via neurons body for an emergency.
Travels in bloodstream.
Blood vessels
of skin

Increases diameter: more Decreases diameter: less

blood sent to surface blood sent to skin so
of skin to increase heat that more blood (with
loss on a hot day. glucose and oxygen) can
More blood to sweat be directed to parts of
glands increase loss of the body that prepare for
Decreases diameter: less blood an emergency.
sweat and therefore sent to surface of skin so less
increases heat loss. heat is lost on a cold day.
Less blood to sweat glands
decrease loss of sweat and
therefore reduces heat loss.

Step 4
Write out the final version of your essay. Put a line across the plan of
your essay so that the marker assesses your final answer and not
your plan or draft.

Step 5
Now read the question again one more time to check if your answer
corresponds to the question.

Proofread your essay carefully. This is your

opportunity to pick out any spelling errors or
incomplete words, sentences or ideas.

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11.3 Line drawings

In the exam, you may be asked to draw a labelled diagram. Keep these
tips in mind if you are asked to draw a labelled diagram:
• Draw in pencil and use neat, strong lines.
• Do not use shading in your diagram.
• Your diagram must not be too small. It must be clear and correctly
proportioned.
• The label lines must point directly to the structure that is being
labelled.
• The label lines should not have arrow points.
• If possible, label lines should all end at the same point so that the
labels are neatly aligned.
• Label lines should never cross. If two label lines cross, neither label
will be marked.
• Print the labels neatly in pen.
• Finally, give your diagram a descriptive heading that states exactly
what it illustrates.
To enable you to practise your drawing and labelling skills, we have included
the diagrams from this guide on the following pages.

Good luck
with the exam!

You are there,

well done!

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Appendix 1: Blank drawings

Before you
write on the diagrams,
photocopy the pages In this section you will find a number of key diagrams from this study guide.
so you can use them These blank diagrams can help you prepare for the exam in two ways:
to practise, practise, 1. You can use them to practise your drawing and labelling skills. You may
practise! be asked to draw a diagram in the exam, so make sure you follow the
guidelines set out on page 93 when you redraw and label a diagram.
2. These diagrams are a valuable study aid. They summarise key information
and important processes in Life Sciences. If you can label all these diagrams
correctly on your own, without looking at them in the text, you'll be well
prepared for the exam.

The following diagrams are included:

Topic 1: Nucleic acids
Nucleotide
DNA
RNA
Replication of DNA
Protein synthesis
Topic 2: Meiosis
Homologous chromosomes
Stages in meiosis I
Stages in meiosis II
Topic 4: Evolution
Characteristics we share with primates
Characteristics that make us different
Topic 6: Human nervous system
Brain
Neuron
Reflex arc
Eye
Accommodation
Pupillary mechanism
Ear
Topic 7: Endocrine system
Name, position and functions of glands
Topic 8: Temperature regulation
Skin regulating temperature on a hot and cold day
Topic 9: Reproduction
Male reproductive system
Sperm cell
Female reproductive system
Hormonal control of the menstrual cycle
Fertilisation and gestation
Topic 10: Population and community studies
Factors that influence the size of a population
Logistic (S-shaped) growth form
Geometric (J-shaped) growth form
Predator–prey relationship
Symbiosis relationships

94 Appendix 1 Mind the Gap

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Topic 1: Nucleic acids

1. Nucleotide

2. DNA

3. RNA

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4. Replication of DNA

CG
A–T
AT

G-C
G–C
T–A
G–C
G– –C
T– –A
G–
T– –C
A –A
A–
T A–T
C–G C–G
T–A T–A
A–T A–T
A–T A–T
T–A T–A
T–A T–A

T-A T-A
C–G C–G
G-C G-C

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5. Protein synthesis

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Topic 2: Meiosis
1. Homologous chromosomes

2. Meiosis I

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3. Meiosis II

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Topic 4: Evolution
1. Characteristics we share with primates

2. Characteristics that makes us different

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Topic 6: Human nervous system

1. Brain

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2. Neuron

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3. Reflex arc

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4. Eye

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5. Accommodation

6. Pupillary mechanism

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7. Ear

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Topic 7: Endocrine system

1. Name, position and functions of glands

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Topic 8: Temperature regulation

108

1. Skin regulating temperature on a hot and cold day

Appendix 1
© Department of Basic Education 2012

Life Sciences
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Topic 9: Reproduction
1. Male reproductive system

2. Sperm cell

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3. Female reproductive system

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28
21
Days
14
7
4. Hormonal control of the menstrual cycle

0
D
B
A

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5. Fertilisation and gestation

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Topic 10: P
 opulation and
community studies
1. Factors that influence the size of a population

2. Logistic (S-shaped) growth form

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3. Geometric (J-shaped) growth form

4. Predator–prey relationship

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
Example:

Example:

5. Symbiosis relationships

Example:

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Appendix 2: Past Grade 12 exam

papers
In this section you will find:
• Grade 12 National Life Sciences Paper 1 from February/March 2012
(pages 117 - 124)
• Grade 12 National Life Sciences Paper 1 marking Memorandum from
February/March 2012 (pages 124 - 129)

• Grade 12 National Life Sciences Paper 2 from February/March 2012

(pages 130 - 137)
• Grade 12 National Life Sciences Paper 2 marking Memorandum from
February/March 2012 (pages 138 - 142)

Use these exam papers and memoranda to help you prepare for your
exams:
1. Answer the questions in Life Sciences Paper 1. Make sure you take a
break before doing the same with Paper 2. Treat them as “real” exams
by preparing yourself as if these were real exams, so have the paper,
pens, pencils, eraser and other materials that you need. Time yourself
so you complete each paper within the 2 ½ hours that is allocated to
them. This exercise is meant to test your own knowledge – so don’t
cheat yourself by looking up the answers in the memo before you’ve
finished each exam.
2. Use the memoranda to check whether or not your answers are
correct. Note where you have got answers wrong – these are the
sections of the curriculum that you need to do more work on. Go back
to your textbooks and to the relevant sections of this study guide, and
spend time learning the sections for which you got the lowest marks.

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The Mind the Gap study guide series assists you to make the leap by studying
hard to achieve success in the Grade 12 exam.

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