Copyright © 1993 by Adam Robinson

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Published by Three Rivers Press, Ne w York, Ne w York.
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Printed in the Unite d States of America
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Libra ry of Congress Ca ta loging-in-P ublication Data
Robinson, Adam.
Wha t smart students know : ma ximum grades, optimum learning,
minimum time / by Adam Robinson.
Includes index.
1. Study, method of. 2. Students—Time management. 3. Test-taking
s kills . I. Title .
LB1049.R57 1993 93-20437
IS BN 0-517-88085-7
15 14 13 12 11
 About the Author

For more tha n a de ca de , Ada m Robins on has he lpe d thous a nds of s tude nts
dis cove r the ir a ca de mic pote ntia l. In 1980, Robins on de vis e d a nd pe rfecte d the
now-fa mous “J oe Bloggs ” a pproa ch to ta king s ta nda rdize d te s ts . This
re volutiona ry me thod forme d the founda tion of The P rince ton Re vie w’s e a rly
success, a na tionwide compa ny he he lpe d create in the e a rly 1980’s.
His in novative work in e duca tion has been ha ile d by the W all S treet Journal
The Ne w York Times, The Chris tian S cience Monitor, Forbes, a nd R olling S tone.
The country’s le a ding e duca tiona l pione e r, Robins on has s old ove r 2 million
books , including a Ne w York Times best-seller. For this book, his s e ve nth, he has
dra wn on his ye a rs of working with the s tude nts to uncove r the common
de nomina tors a mong the successful s tudents .
Robins on was born in 1955. Afte r a tte nding Eva ns ton Towns hip High
S chool in Illinois , he gra dua te d from the Wha rton S chool be fore e a rning a la w
degree a t Oxford Unive rs ity in Engla nd. Robins on is a ra te d chess ma s te r a nd
include s boxing a mong his hobbie s .

I’d Like to He a r from You

As a n a uthority in the fie ld of e duca tion, e ve rything I’ve le a rne d has come from
s tude nts like you. In this book I’ve shared the e xpe rie nce of hundre ds of s ma rt
s tude nts . Afte r re a ding this book, you might ha ve some inte res ting a ne cdote s,
tips , or comme nts you’d like to share with me . I a ppre cia te a ll your fe e dba ck,
both pos itive a nd ne ga tive . I promis e I’ll do my best to re s pond as promptly as I
can.
You ca n reach me a t the following address:

Ada m Robins on
: 284 Fifth Ave nue
Ne w York, NY 10001
 Acknowle dgme nts

Some twe nty-five years ago, my mothe r ha nde d me a ne w book she thought I
might like to read. How Childre n Fail, writte n by a te a che r na me d J ohn Holt,
was one of thos e ra re books tha t becomes a n ins ta nt classic. My pa re nts we re
a lways giving me books the y thought I would a pprecia te . S till, I have no ide a
why my mothe r thought this pa rticula r book would inte re s t he r te n-ye a r-old
son. Ce rta inly she kne w I ha d a bs olute ly no inte re s t in s chool. Inde e d, pe rha ps
tha t e xpla ins why she thought Holt’s book would a ppe a l to me .
In a ny e ve nt, I re a d it a nd quickly move d on to othe r things . I don’t re ca ll
the book ha ving ma de a ny ma jor impa ct a t the time . But toda y, as I try to trace
the genesis of my ideas, it is impos s ible to ove re s tima te Holt’s influe nce . I fre ely
a nd fully a cknowle dge my profound inte lle ctua l de bt to the la te , gre a t J ohn
Holt. No one has ever ha d a cle a re r unders ta nding of how childre n le a rn, nor
more cle a rly e xpre ss e d thos e ins ights. We are a ll fortuna te tha t his torch of
e duca tion re form has been a bly ta ke n up by J ohn Ta ylor Ga tto, thre e -time Ne w
York City Te a che r of the Year, Ne w York State Te a che r of the Year, a nd a uthor of
Dum bing Us Down a nd The Exhaus te d S chool.
La te r, my ideas on e duca tion we re sha ped by my own e xpe rie nce working
with hundre ds of s tudents individua lly, a nd thous a nds more in groups . My
obs e rva tions we re influe nce d by re ce nt work in motiva tion the ory as we ll as
cognitive science a nd cognitive ps ychology. I would like to s ingle out the work
of three profe s s ors whos e work has ha d a ma jor influe nce on my thinking:
Miha ly Cs iks ze ntimiha lyi, forme r cha irma n of the De pa rtme nt of P s ychology a t
the Unive rs ity of Chica go a nd the a uthor of Flow: The Psychology of Optim al
Expe rie nce; Da vid C. McCle lla nd, forme r profes s or of ps ychology a t Ha rva rd
Unive rs ity; a nd W. Edwa rds De ming, vis iting P rofe s s or a t Columbia Unive rs ity
a nd the world’s le a ding e xpe rt on qua lity ma na ge me nt.
A big colle ctive tha nks to Eve Le vy, J ohn Kre me r, J oa n Ma rgolis of the
Brooklyn Le a rning Ce nte r, Ca rrie Seares, Jessica Dorf, S a ra h Le be rs te in, J ill
Roths te in, J ohn Kre me r, Eve Le vy, La urie La ba , Ne a le Ecks te in, Be nja min
Ecks te in, Lis a Ecks te in, S a brina Padwa, Ka ra S te rn, Bra ndon Micha e l S mith,
a nd Lori Etringe r for a ll your he lp a nd s ugge s tions in s ha ping the fina l
ma nus cript.
Tha nks to my e ditor, Dick Ma re k, for be lie ving in the proje ct. Tha nks also
to his a ble a s s is ta nt Jason Gra ha m, a nd to a ll the othe r folks a t Crown who
he lpe d ma ke it ha ppe n: Andre w Ma rtin, Steve Ma gnus on, J im Da vis , Ke n
Sansone, Ka y S chuckha rt, J ohn Sharp, Andrea Connolly, De bra Ka mpel, Hila ry
Bass, He le n Zimme rma nn, Arle ne Dion-Borg, P hyllis Fleiss, Miche lle S idrane ,
a nd the dyna mite sales force . I re alize I’m not the easiest a uthor to de a l with.
The following individua ls deserve s pe cia l me ntion: J e rry Speyer, for e ncoura ging
me to ma ke a diffe re nce ; Ge orge a nd Na ncy O’S ulliva n, a nd Brad, Rya n, a nd
Chris tina , for the ir frie nds hip a nd s upport; Ke rry Conra d a nd the guys a t
O’S ulliva n Gra e v & Ka rabe ll for the ir he lp ove r the years; Cla ire Wyckoff for
he lping out with the ma rke ting e ffort; Joe Spencer, for re fining the S ma rt S tudent
logo; Ge ne vie ve “Alfa lfa ” Willia ms , for he r impe cca ble a e s the tic sense; a nd Elle n
Le wis, for a ll he r he lp a nd sense of humor in the e le ve nth hour.
I a m e s pe cially inde bte d to the following individua ls :
• Be tha ny Cha mbe rla in, Dia na Ams te rda m, Durra e J oha nek, a nd Es te lle
Kle inma n, for the ir inva lua ble e ditoria l sugge stions;
• J ulie Coope rsmith, for re pre s e nting me ove r the years a nd be ing a frie nd
(a ga in, 1 realize I’m not the easiest a uthor to re pre s e nt);
• Ale x Knowlton, Richa rd Te s oro, a nd J ohn T. P a rha m of P a rha m-S a nta na
De s ign for de s igning the book a nd giving vis ua l shape to the conce pts ;
9 Paige Willia ms a nd Ga il “Legs” Eis e nbe rg, for the ir wit, e nthus ia s m, a nd
outs ta nding e ditoria l input (Paige is also re s pons ible for the s tude nt note s
throughout this book);
• Sam Nis s on, Shane Nis s on, a nd Bessie Wohl, thre e frighte ningly s ma rt
s tude nts a t Brown, Columbia , a nd Ha rva rd re s pe ctive ly, for the ir
brillia nt fe e dba ck.
9 Ma tthe w Robins on, for going a bove a nd be yond the ca ll of duty as a
brothe r, pitching in to he lp out e ve ry aspect of the proje ct;
9 McDona ld Comrie , for his s tra te gic pla nning;
9 J e ff S mith, for his le ga l a nd business a cume n;
9 Noa h King, for his ins ights into s tude nts a nd his outs ta nding he lp on the
ma nus cript;
9 J ulie P a rha m, for he r s upport a nd a ll he r he lp in s e lling the dre am;
• Cha rles Nunn, for his profound wis dom; a nd
• P hilip Yee, a ll-round Ma cintos h compute r god a nd the closest thing to
S ta r Tre k’s S cotty tha t I’ll ever find. James Brown ma y be the ha rde s t
working ma n in s how business, but P hil is the ha rdes t working ma n in
the Ma c world.
Fina lly, a ve ry special tha nks to Amy Ma rgolis for he lping me a rticula te my ideas.
Amy is a n outs ta nding tutor in he r own right a nd without he r s ugge s tions this
book would not be wha t it is toda y. She deserves much cre dit for the fina l forma t
of the me thodology.
I de dica te this book to my mothe r, J oa n Robins on, for giving me the coura ge
to purs ue my ideas; to my la te gra ndmothe r, Cla ire Robins on, the goodlie s t,
s a intlie s t woma n I ha ve ever known; a nd a bove a ll to my la te fa the r, Wa lte r
We nde ll Robins on, the pe rs on who ta ught me how to think.
 jj Wha t This Book Will Do for You

PART I
How Smart Students Think About School
^ The Real Secret
^P Take This Quiz!
Iffll Attitude Shift!

PART II
How Smart Students Learn
@1 Le a rning the Old Wa y
Le a rning the Ne w Wa y: Introducing Cybe rLe a rning
UP Inte rmis s ion: Applying the Me thod in Classes a nd Lectures
^P Ans we ring Que s tion 1: W hat’s My Purpose for Reading This?
^P Ans we ring Que s tion 2: W hat Do IAlre ady Know About This Topic?
^P Ans we ring Que s tion 3: W hat’s the Big Picture Here?
^P Inte rmis s ion: The Trouble with Te xtbooks
Ans we ring Que s tion 4: W hat’s the Author Going to S ay Ne xt?
^P Ans we ring Que s tion 5: W hat Are the “Expe rt Questions”?
^P Ans we ring Que s tion 6: W hat Questions Does This Inform ation Raise for Me ?
0 Inte rmis s ion: Attitude Che ck #1
^P Ans we ring Que s tion 7: W hat Inform ation Is Im portant He re?
^P Ans we ring Que s tion 8: How Can IParaphrase and S ummarize This Inform ation?
Ans we ring Que s tion 9: How Can I Organize This Inform ation?
^ Ans we ring Que s tion 10: How Can IPicture This Information?
^ Ans we ring Que s tion 11: W hat’s My Hook for Remembering This Information?
^ Ans we ring Que s tion 12: How Does This Inform ation Fit in with W hat IAlre ady Know?
0 The Twe lve Que s tions : A Recap
^ Inte rmis s ion: Wha t Does It Me a n to Unders ta nd Something?
 PART III
How Smart Students Approach Different Subjects
f|J | Not All Subjects Are Alike : Modifying the Cybe rLe a rning Me thod
How S ma rt Students Le a rn Inte rpre ta tion Te chniq ues
How S ma rt Students Le a rn P roble m-Solving Te chniq ues
Inte rmis s ion: Attitude Che ck #2

PART IV
How Smart Students Get Their Grades
^ How S ma rt Stude nts Rehearse for Tests
How S ma rt Students Take Tests
Inte rmis s ion: Attitude Che ck #3
How S ma rt Students Write Papers
mi Inte rmis sion: Othe r S kills a nd Resources
You’ll Ne e d as a Smart S tude nt

PART V
How Smart Students Put It All Together
How Smart Stude nts Manage The ir Time
How S ma rt Stude nts Choose The ir Courses a nd Teachers
l|j|j| Inte rmis s ion: Attitude Che ck #4
A P a rting Look a t Wha t S ma rt Students Know
The Myth Be hind the Educa tion Cris is (a nd Wha t’s Re a lly Wrong)
® Index
 Wha t This Book
Will Do for You

IMAGINE...
You are in a room with thirty other pe ople . You are a ll a bout to be gin pla ying a The founding fathe rs
long a nd complica te d game, so a referee is on ha nd to e nforce the rule s a nd keep in the ir wis dom
score. de cide d that childre n
You look a round to size up the compe tition. He re ’s wha t you observe. A fe w were an unnatural
pla ye rs seem ve ry ta le nte d or s killful. S ome are highly motiva te d a nd have put in s train on the ir
e xtra hours of ha rd pre pa ra tion. And a fe w seem unpre pa re d or indiffe re nt. But parents. S o they
mos t playe rs, like you, have average ta le nt a nd e xpe rie nce . The y have pre pa re d provided jails called
for the ga me with a fa ir a mount of pra ctice . school, e quippe d with
The referee blows a whis tle a nd e ve ryone be gins pla ying ha rd. As the days tortures called
pass, the ga me progresses. All the pla ye rs are e a rning a t least a fe w points , but e ducation.
you notice incre as ingly more of the m be coming dis coura ge d, fa lling be hind, a nd J o h n Up d ik e
not trying as ha rd.
You notice s ome thing else. Ce rta in pla ye rs cons is te ntly ra ck up mos t of the
points . The re ’s s ome thing odd he re, because these are ne ithe r the mos t ta le nte d
nor the ha rde s t working playe rs. You can’t figure out why the y are s uccee ding
while othe rs s truggle a nd fa il.
The re ’s a nothe r odd thing a bout this game: you a ll pla y, even though the
referee didn’t e xpla in the rule s. In fa ct, if you we re to ask the referee s ome thing
as ba s ic as how points are scored, he wouldn’t be so sure hims e lf!
Who ca n compete in a ga me with no e s tablishe d rule s , a nd wha t kind of
ga me is this , anyway?

THIS ISN’T JUST A GAME

This is s chool.
The referees are your teachers, the pla ye rs are you a nd your classmates, a nd
the point tota ls are your grades. The uns poke n rule s are the a rbitra ry crite ria
teachers use to de te rmine grades. And re me mbe r: not even the referees—your
teachers—are e xa ctly sure how the y do this !
Now, if ne ithe r the mos t ta le nte d nor the ha rde s t working s tude nts e a rn the
highe s t grades, who does?
The ones who know the rule s , the ones who know how teachers a ctua lly
de te rmine grades. The s ma rt s tude nts .
S ma rt s tude nts not only ge t highe r grades tha n the ir classmates, the y also
le a rn more , in less time , a nd get more s a tis fa ction out of the e ntire process. This
book shows you how the y do it.

o
 Of course, the re’s more to s chool tha n grades. S chool is also a pla ce for you
WHAT SMART to ma ke frie nds , join clubs , compe te in s ports , a nd dis cove r wha t you’re a ll
STUDENTS KNOW
a bout. But the prima ry re a son you’re in s chool is to ge t a n e ducation.

W HO SHO ULD READ THIS BO O K

If you’re in high s chool or colle ge , this is a pra ctica l guide for improving your
a ca de mic pe rforma nce . If you a re younge r, the ma te ria l ma y be a little
s ophis tica te d to ha ndle on your own, so you ma y wa nt to ask s ome one olde r
(a frie nd, a pa re nt, a te acher) for s ome guida nce .
But even if you’re not in high s chool or colle ge , this book has much to offe r.
It’s for pa re nts who wa nt to know wha t the y ca n do to improve the ir childre n’s
le a rning s kills . It’s for teachers who wa nt to see s chool through the eyes of the ir
s tude nts so the y ca n te a ch be tte r. It’s for a dults who wa nt to ta ke up a ne w
s ubje ct a nd te a ch the ms e lve s . And it’s for vote rs , e ducators , politicia ns , business
leaders, a nd policymake rs who are conce rne d a bout the re a l cris is in our na tion’s
classrooms.

W HY YO U NEED THIS BO O K
Education may be Until now, your le a rning me thods have proba bly be e n hit-or-mis s —frus tra ting,
defined as that pe riod incons is te nt, a nd ine fficie nt. No one bothe re d to te a ch you the mos t importa nt
during which you are a ca de mic s kill: how to le a rn. Your teachers (a nd pe rha ps you) a ssume d tha t the
taught facts you do a bility to le a rn in a s chool s e tting was a na tura l gift—e ithe r you we re born with
not want to knoiv, by the kna ck or you we re n’t.
people you do not This be lie f is e ntire ly wrong.
know. Le a rning is a na tura l a bility, but le a rning in s chool is a nothe r ma tte r. If
G il b e r t Ke it h s chool we re s tructure d in a wa y tha t be tte r conforme d to how you le a rn
Ch e s t e r t o n na tura lly, you wouldn’t ne e d me or a nyone else te lling you how to le a rn. Afte r
a ll, you don’t ne e d a nyone te lling you how to le a rn a s ubje ct you’re pa ssiona te
a bout. If s chool didn’t dis tort the na tura l le a rning process a nd ma ke le a rning
its e lf a n a lie n e xpe rie nce, this book wouldn’t be necessary.
Mos t s tude nts e xha us t themse lve s with ine fficie nt, la borious , a nd s ome time s
comple te ly counte rproductive s tudy me thods because the y have mis conce ptions
a bout wha t a ctua lly goe s on in s chool. The y don’t know how grade s a re
de te rmine d, why te xtbooks are so ha rd to read, or wha t it me a ns to unde rs ta nd
s ome thing. The ir mis ta ke n ideas a bout s chool a nd le a rning le a d the m to a dopt
the wrong goals a nd strategies. The y’ve be e n conditione d to a cce pt s chool as it is
ins te a d of molding s chool to the ir needs. Wha t’s more , the y’ve come to be lie ve
(wrongly!) tha t a ny difficulty the y have is the ir fa ult, ra the r tha n s chool’s.
It doe s n’t ma tte r whe the r you’re ge tting s tra ight A’s or s truggling to
ge t C’s; your mis conce ptions a bout s chool a nd the le a rning proce s s a re
proba bly ma king s chool a lot toughe r tha n it has to be . Wha te ve r gra de you are
in, wha te ve r s ubje cts you are s tudying, wha te ve r ma rks you are ge tting, you
could be le a rning more in less time , e a rning higher grades, a nd ha ving more fun
in the process. In this book I’ll s how you how. WHAT THIS BOOK
WILL DO FOR YOU
I wis h I ha d known ba ck in high s chool the s kills a nd te chnique s you
are a bout to le a rn. Like you, my pe rce ptions a nd a ttitude got in my way. It
wa sn’t until colle ge tha t I re a lize d how painless—even fun—e xce lling a t s chool
could be.
This book de bunks the myths tha t s ta nd be twe e n you a nd a ca de mic success.
It’s going to be a long time be fore s chool systems cha nge , but you ca n cha nge
your e xpe rience toda y. You could le a rn how to be come a s ma rt s tude nt on your
own through years of tria l a nd e rror, but why bothe r? This book shows you how
to do it by s ha ring the e xpe rie nce of hundre ds of s ma rt s tude nts .

TWENTY QUICK AND EASY TIPS TO STRAIGHT A’S!

TRIPLE YOUR READING SPEED IN THIRTY MINUTES!
SPEED LEARN ANY SUBJECT IN A WEEK!
If you be lie ve cla ims like tha t—a nd I hope you don’t—you’ve got the wrong For every person
book. But if you wa nt to excel—a nd who doesn’t?—if you’re frus tra te d by how ivishing to teach, there
little you le a rn, or wa nt to s pe nd less time le a rning more , this book is for you. are thirty not wanting
If you’re in colle ge , you proba bly picke d up this book for yours e lf. If you’re to be taught.
in high s chool, I’ll be t a pa re nt bought it for you. “Ge e tha nks , Da d! Wha t a W. C. S e l l a r
te rrific pre s e nt. I think I’ll s kip the movie s S a turda y night a nd re a d this book!”
You we re proba bly so ove rcome with e nthus ia s m tha t you imme dia te ly flung it
on your books he lf.
I don’t bla me you. Whe n I was in s chool I ne ve r re a d books on how to s tudy
e ithe r. Sure, I picke d up a fe w s tudy guide s ove r the years. I e ve n s ta rte d to read
one or two, but I ra re ly got be yond the firs t cha pte r.
The s e guide s we re as boring as the te xtbooks the y we re s uppos e d to he lp me
unde rs ta nd. The ir a dvice was e ithe r obvious , trite , or impra ctica l. I trie d to
follow s ome of the ir re comme nda tions , I re a lly did, but I la cke d the s upe r-
dis cipline the ir s ugges tions a ppa rently re quired. I figure d tha t a ny s tude nt who
could do ha lf the things these books a dvis e d wouldn’t ne e d he lp in the firs t
place.
A fe w ps e udo-hip guide s cla ime d to te a ch s tude nts how to e a rn high grades
without le a rning much, but these guide s mis s e d the point. I wa nte d to le a rn as
much as I could a nd e a rn high grades; I jus t didn’t wa nt to s a crifice my wa king
hours in the process.

THIS BOOK IS DIFFERENT

Othe r books a s s ume tha t if you’re not doing as we ll in s chool as you’d like ,
s ome thing is wrong with you. I s ta rt from the pre mise tha t s ome thing is wrong
with s chool.

e
 ■ I’ll s how you how your pe rce ptions of s chool a ffect not only how we ll you
do a nd how much you le a rn but also how you fe e l a bout yours e lf. The n I’ll
STUDENTS KNOW
s how you how to a lte r your pe rce ptions a nd ge t your s ubcons cious a ttitude
working for you ins te a d of a ga ins t you.
This book lets you in on the secrets of s ma rt s tude nts. It provide s you with
prove n s kills culle d from obs e rva tions of a nd inte rvie ws with hundre ds of
successful s tude nts . S mart s tude nts do not a ll le a rn in pre cis e ly the same way,
but s urpris ingly the re are ma ny common de nomina tors . I’ve ta ke n wha t s ma rt
s tude nts do ins tinctive ly, or ha ve le a rne d through tria l a nd e rror, a nd cre a te d a
s ys te m out of it: the Cybe rLe a rning me thod.
Cybe rLe a rning turns you into a s e lf-propelle d le a rning ma chine. It a llows
you to re work a nd pe rs ona lize a ny s ubje ct so it be come s a n e xte ns ion of you.
Us ing Cybe rLe a rning, you ca n ta ke a ny s ubje ct, no ma tte r how a lie n, a nd
ma s te r it so we ll you’ll own it!
Eve n if you’re a lre a dy a s ma rt s tude nt, you’ll pick up pointe rs . You’ll dis cover
doze ns of tips a nd te chnique s on how to ma ximize your grades while incre a s ing
how much you le a rn, including the following:
• how to re a d in a wa y tha t ke e ps you conce ntra te d, involve d, a nd
inte re ste d
• wha t to do whe n you ca n’t unde rs ta nd your te xtbook
6 how to pe rsona lize a ny s ubje ct a nd ma ke it your own
• how to ta ke note s tha t improve your unde rs ta nding
• how to de cide wha t informa tion is importa nt to know, a nd wha t ca n be
s a fe ly ignore d
• how to re me mbe r wha t you need to know
• how to a nticipa te wha t kinds of que s tions will be on tests
• how to ta ke diffe re nt type s of tests
9 wha t to do whe n you’re s tuck on a te s t que s tion
9 how to express your ideas mos t e ffe ctive ly in pa pe rs
• wha t your teachers look for whe n de te rmining your grades
In s hort, I’ll te a ch you how to pla y a nd win the ga me of s chool. I’ll s how you
not jus t wha t to do a nd why, but a ls o wha t not to do. I’ll step you through the
e ntire process, from firs t a s s ignme nt to fina l e xa m, so tha t you ca n see how the
va rious le a rning s kills work toge the r.
If you ha te s tudying—even if you love s tudying—I’ll s how you how to ge t
more done in less time . With the time you’ll save you ca n purs ue things you’d
like to do, ra the r tha n things you we re a ssigne d to do: ta ke up a ne w s port, run
for s tude nt council, write for the s chool ne ws pa pe r, ge t a pa rt-time job.

Q
HOW TO READ THIS BOOK
WHAT THIS BOOK
This book will introduce you to an e ntire ly ne w wa y of looking a t s chool. A few WILL DO FOR YOU
ideas a nd te chnique s will ta ke some ge tting used to. Whe ne ve r the te xt bogs you
down, ta ke a bre a k. Don’t try to read this book s tra ight through in one s itting.
I s trongly suggest you s kim through the e ntire book le is ure ly to ge t a cqua inte d
be fore s e ttling down to business. S ta rt by s kimming the he a dings a nd bold te xt.
You’ll also find pra ctica l tips a nd s umma rie s highlighte d in gra y boxes.
I re comme nd tha t you re a d the cha pte rs in the orde r pre s ente d, as e a ch
cha pte r builds on the pre vious one. Ea ch pa rt, howe ve r, is a comple te unit, so if
you have an exam coming up or you’re unde r a de a dline to write a paper, you
might wa nt to turn imme dia te ly to the re le va nt se ctions. If you feel like s kipping
a round, you s hould a t least be gin with Part I: Hoiv S m art S tudents Think About
S chool. Wha te ve r you do, be sure you ta ke the quiz be ginning on page 15 be fore
doing a nything else.
To cha nge your pe rceptions a bout s chool, I’ll be us ing te rms you will not be
fa milia r with. For e xa mple , ins te a d of “pre pa ring” for an e xa m, s ma rt s tude nts
use the te rm “re he a rs ing” for one . If you’re looking for a s pe cific topic tha t you
don’t find in the Table of Contents, che ck out the Inde x on page 273.

ANYONE CAN BECOME A SMART STUDENT

S ma rt s tude nts le a rn more , in less time , e a rn higher grades, a nd have more fun S chool days, I believe,
in the process. This book shows you how to be come one. And if you’re a lre a dy a are the unhappiest in
s ma rt s tude nt, I’ll s how you how to be come even s ma rte r. the whole span of
S ound good? He re’s the ca tch. human existence.
I’ll provide the ba s ic blue print for a ca de mic success—Cybe rLe arning—but They are full ofdull,
you’ll ha ve to ta ilor s pe cific me thods to your unique needs a nd le a rning s tyle, uninte lligible tasks,
And s imply re a ding a bout it is not e nough; you’ll have to work through some new and unpleasant
exercises to ge t the full be ne fit of Cybe rLe a rning. ordinances, and
I wis h 1 could say tha t ge tting s tra ight A’s is a snap once you know a fe w brutal violations of
s imple te chnique s , but it is n’t tha t easy. Cybe rLe a rning enables you to le a rn common sense and
more e fficie ntly tha n other s tude nts , but you mus t s till ma ke an e ffort. common decency.
Tha t is , you’ll s till ha ve to think. Unlike pa s s ive lis te ning or re a ding, H. L. Me n c k e n
thinking re quire s a ctive e ffort. S ma rt s tude nt te chnique s are de ma nding. The y
re quire you to work with gre a te r conce ntra tion. But the y do work!
It will ta ke some time to give up your old ha bits a nd get used to the ne w
te chnique s you will be ma s te ring. This cha nge won’t ha ppe n ove rnight; a fter a ll,
your le a rning ha bits have forme d ove r years. The s e s ma rt s tude nt te chnique s will
save you a n a ma zing a mount of time , but initia lly you’ll have to s pe nd some
time ma s te ring the m; figure a fe w hours a we e k for the ne xt couple of months . If
you pra ctice the se me thods a little e a ch day, the y’ll s oon be come a utoma tic
ha bits .
 MY PROMISE TO YOU
WHAT SMART My me thod re quire s s ma ll changes in your le a rning ha bits a nd a big cha nge in
STUDENTS KNOW
the wa y you see s chool. The s e changes will re quire s ome e ffort on your pa rt—a t
time s a prodigious e ffort—but the y will le a d to s ta rtling improve me nts in how
much you le a rn a nd the grades you receive. Wha t you are a bout to le a rn will
be ne fit you for the re ma inde r of your a ca de mic career-—inde e d, for the re st of
your life .

WHY I WROTE THIS BOOK

Education is the I’m not a n e duca tor, a te a che r, a s chola r, or a ps ychologis t. If you’ve re a d a ny of
s tate -controlle d my othe r books , you know tha t I de ve lope d a s ys te m tha t cra cke d wide ope n
manufactory of echoes, s ta nda rdize d te s ts like the S AT, GRE, GMAT, a nd LS AT. The fe w s imple
No r ma n Do u g l a s te chnique s of my s ys te m e na ble te ns of thous a nds of s tude nts e a ch ye a r to
improve the ir scores dra ma tica lly. But be coming a s ma rt s tude nt involves more
tha n le a rning te s t-ta king s tra te gie s . My goa ls in this book are much more
a mbitious . I wrote it to s how you how to improve your grades by ma s te ring an
e ntire ly ne w wa y to le a rn.
I confe s s to ha ving mixe d fe e lings a bout this . Mos t s tude nts are fa r too
conce rne d with grades a nd not conce rne d e nough with ge nuine le a rning. Sadly,
this dis torte d priority is re inforce d in a ll too ma ny cla ssrooms.
Ea rning high gra de s a nd le a rning as much as you ca n are not the same
thing, nor do grades me a s ure how much or how little you le a rn. Grade s re fle ct
e ve rything from pe nma ns hip to popula rity, a nd are fre que ntly us e d to re wa rd
“good” be ha vior or punis h “ba d” be ha vior.
If you don’t know the rule s of the game, it is pos s ible to le a rn a lot a nd s till
receive me diocre ma rks. It is also pos s ible to le a rn ve ry little a nd re ce ive high
ma rks. The re ’s re a lly no big secret to how you do this . All it takes is figuring out
wha t’s on tests a nd wha t kind of answers your teachers e xpe ct.
Gra nte d, high grades do ma ke your life easier, but don’t jus t s e ttle for ge tting
by. You inve s t a s ignifica nt chunk of your life in s chool; you ha ve a
re s pons ibility to de ma nd more of yours e lf tha n jus t a chie ving a high GP A.
I wrote this book to improve your a ca de mic pe rforma nce by re turning you
to the ce nte r of the le a rning process. Your s chool e xpe rie nce has proba bly been
less tha n ide a l. I a m convince d tha t little s ubs ta ntive le a rning takes pla ce in our
s chools as the y are now orga nized. This book de mys tifie s the le a rning process
a nd shows you how to te a ch yours elf.
I a m not a ga ins t s chools , a nd I a m not a ga ins t teachers. I a m for you—the
s tudent. I a m a da ma ntly a ga ins t a nything tha t inte rfe re s with your de ve loping
ge nuine unde rs ta nding a nd a n inde pe nde nt, que s tioning, s e lf-confide nt sta te of
mind.
Although s chool might be the proble m, you are the s olution. I wrote this
book to cha nge the wa y you see s chool, to cha nge the wa y you see the world,
a nd to cha nge the wa y you see yours e lf.

O
THIS IS YOUR WAKE-UP CALL!
WHAT THIS BOOK
W hat S m art S tude nts Know is a ma nife s to. It urges you to re be l a ga ins t thos e WILL DO FOR YOU
who a tte mpt to s poon-fe ed you an e duca tion a nd force you to le a rn the ir way.
It’s time to a chie ve inte lle ctua l a nd a ca de mic success on your te rms as we ll as
the irs . And once e nough s tude nts do this , the y’ll set off a n e a rthqua ke unde r the
e duca tiona l e s tablis hme nt. The n ma ybe we ’ll see some real changes in the s chool
system.
You are pla ying for e normous stakes—the e duca tion you get toda y will be
with you for the rest of your life . S ta rting toda y you are going to ta ke cha rge of
your e duca tion. Afte r you finis h the ne xt cha pte r (The R e al S ecret), you will
ne ve r a ga in see s chool—or yours e lf—in the same way.
Are you ready? Because once you be gin to ta ke control of your e duca tiona l
de s tiny, the re is no turning ba ck. Once you de cide to be come the drive r ra the r
tha n a me re passenger, you won’t e ve r a ga in be conte nt ta king the ba ck seat.
From now on, how much you le a rn a nd how we ll you do will be e ntire ly up to
you.
Go for it!

BY THE WAY
This cha pte r is re a lly the introduction. I didn’t ca ll it one , howe ve r, because it
conta ins importa nt informa tion a nd I know you don’t a lwa ys re a d introductions
or pages numbe re d with Roma n numera ls . S orry a bout the minor de ce ption.

8181 P.S m
Any s tude nt trying to me morize a nything in this book is comple tely
mis s ing the point.
II : : Si m

9
 The Real
- Secret -

SMART STUDENTS AREN’T ANY “SMARTER” THAN OTHER STUDENTS

We a ll know, or have known, s tude nts who don’t seem to be tha t much s ma rte r
tha n a nyone else, or to work tha t much ha rde r, a nd ye t the y cons is te ntly excel,
I’m not ta lking a bout bra inia cs or kids who live a t the library. Ye t compa re d with
the ir classmates, s ma rt s tude nts le a rn more in less time , receive higher grades,
a nd have more fun in the process.
How do the y do it?
Motiva tion is one fa ctor, but s ma rt s tude nts are not motiva te d to work ha rd
for its own sake, or to le a rn because it’s e xpe cte d of the m, or to please a nyone
else. S ma rt s tude nts ma inly try to please themselves.
As for working ha rd, s ma rt s tude nts are a lwa ys looking for be tte r, more
e fficie nt ways of doing the ir work. In ma ny respects, s ma rt s tude nts are much
la zie r tha n the ir classmates!
Inte llige nce is a nothe r fa ctor. Now, whe n I say “intellige nce ,” I don’t me a n
high IQ. The kind of inte llige nce necessary in s chool, as we ll as in ma ny aspects
of life outs ide s chool, is not some kind of mys te rious , inborn a bility. Ins te a d, it’s
a ha bit. S ma rt s tudents are in the ha bit of a s king ce rta in sorts of ques tions . We ’ll
ge t to these que s tions la te r. In the me antime , re st assured tha t if you ca n read
this book, you ha ve s ufficie nt inte lle ctua l ca pa city to ha ndle your studie s.
Aca de mic s kills ce rta inly pla y a pa rt in the ir success: s ma rt s tude nts know
how to read e fficie ntly, ge t the mos t out of the ir classes a nd le ctures , unde rs ta nd
a nd me morize ma te ria l, pre pa re for a nd ta ke tests, a nd write we ll. But these are
not na tura l a bilitie s . The y, too, are s kills tha t can be ma ste re d.

WHERE DO SMART STUDENTS LEARN THESE THINGS?

S ome time s it’s a ma tte r of luck. A s tude nt will s tumble onto the secrets of doing
we ll. A fe w re s ource ful s tude nts dis cove r these secrets for the ms e lve s , le a rning
the ha rd wa y through pa tie nt obs e rva tion a nd pe rs is te nt tria l a nd e rror.
S ome time s a pa re nt or a n older brothe r or s is te r who le a rne d the hidde n rule s of
the game will pass the m on. And ma ny s ma rt s tude nts we re origina lly ins pire d
s ome whe re a long the line by a gre a t te a che r.
Yet mos t s ma rt s tudents assume (wrongly) tha t e ve ryone a pproa che s s chool
in the same wa y the y do. To the m there is nothing special a bout how the y s tudy
a nd le a rn: it seems to come na tura lly. But it does n’t. Whe the r the y we re
cons cious of it or not, a t s ome point s ma rt s tude nts le a rne d how to le a rn.
Fortuna te ly, you ca n, too.
it : • y :r> \
- Ye t the s e te chnique s a re not the re a l e xpla na tion for the success of s ma rt
WHAT SMART s tude nts .
STUDENTS KNOW
Wall ; :
SO WHAT’S THEIR REAL SECRET?
S ma rt s tude nts do not s imply s tudy more e fficie ntly tha n the ir classmates in the
wa y, say, tha t a n Olympic tra ck s ta r runs more e fficie ntly tha n a we e ke nd
jogge r—s ma rt s tude nts do comple te ly diffe re nt things . S ma rt s tude nts ha ve
diffe re nt s kills , goa ls , ha bits , prioritie s , a nd s tra te gie s because the y see s chool,
the le a rning proce s s , a nd e ve n the ms e lve s diffe re ntly. In a ve ry re a l sense, s ma rt
s tude nts a nd the ir classmates a ttend diffe re nt schools.

ATTITUDE—THE CRITICAL DIFFERENCE

It’s a ll a ttitude . Attitude is the wa y you de fine a nd inte rpre t your experiences.
Your a ttitude is the s um tota l of your be liefs , a s s umptions , e xpe cta tions , a nd
values. It de te rmine s the me a ning or s ignifica nce you a tta ch to e ve nts, a nd your
response to the m. In s hort, your a ttitude is how you look a t the world.
Your a ttitude a bout le a rning a nd your s e lf-ima ge profoundly a ffe ct one
a nothe r. Afte r a ll, whe n you’re a s tude nt, s chool is the basis of your life . Your
a ttitude de te rmine s how you e xpe rie nce s chool, wha t goa ls you set, a nd the
te chnique s a nd stra te gie s you choose to re a ch the m. As a re s ult, your a ttitude
de te rmine s how much you le a rn a nd how we ll you do.
Whe n I firs t s ta rte d writing this book, I thought my job was a s imple ma tte r
of de s cribing how s ma rt s tude nts s tudy a nd le a rn. But the more I ta lke d with
s tudents, the more one thing be ca me cle a r: s ma rt s tude nts use comple te ly
diffe re nt s tudy a nd le a rning me thods because the y see things in a comple te ly
diffe re nt way. The y ha ve a comple te ly diffe re nt a ttitude . This is why the y use
comple te ly diffe re nt s tudy a nd le a rning me thods .
I ca n s how you the te chnique s a nd strategies s ma rt s tude nts use, but until
you see things diffe re ntly, these me thods will a ffe ct your pe rforma nce ve ry little .

WHAT SMART STUDENTS’ ATTITUDE IS NOT

Le t’s ge t s ome thing s tra ight here. Whe n I re fer to the a ttitude of s ma rt s tude nts ,
I’m not ta lking a bout the importa nce of ha ving a “pos itive me nta l a ttitude .”
And I’m ce rta inly not re fe rring to the a ttitude you he a r teachers ta lk a bout whe n
the y say things like “S a lly has a good a ttitude , it’s a sha me he r brothe r Billy has
s uch a ba d a ttitude .” A good a ttitude in tha t sense us ua lly me a ns ma king a s how
of che e rfully doing wha te ve r your teachers wa nt.

WHAT SMART STUDENTS’ ATTITUDE IS

S ma rt s tude nts know tha t you ca n te a ch yours e lf fa r be tte r tha n a ny s chool
pos s ibly ca n. Be caus e s ma rt s tude nts ha ve this e xtra ordina ry a ttitude , the y
a pproa ch e ve ry aspect of the ir s choolwork diffe rently.

e
Think of it this wa y: Micha e l J orda n doe sn’t jus t pla y ba s ke tba ll diffe re ntly from :
othe r pla ye rs—he sees the game diffe re ntly. He also sees hims e lf diffe re ntly. If ' THE REAL SECRET
II
you wa nt to ra ck up those baskets in the ga me of s chool, you mus t cha nge the 111 111
wa y you see it. You mus t a ls o cha nge the wa y you see yourse lf.

THAT’S THE HARD PART

Cha nging your le a rning ha bits a nd te chnique s is n’t tha t easy, but it’s a pie ce of
cake compa re d with cha nging your a ttitude . Your a ttitude is de e p-roote d, even
s ubcons cious . And you’ll ha ve to work doubly ha rd a t cha nging it. As you will
see, the s chool syste m re inforce s da ma ging a ttitude s e ve ry da y in ma ny s ubtle
(a nd not so s ubtle ) ways. Cha nging your a ttitude is so critica l to be coming a
s ma rt s tude nt tha t throughout this book we will be working through exercises
de s igne d to do jus t tha t.
Forget pa ss ive ly a cce pting wha t the e duca tion system has to offe r: be ing a
s ma rt s tude nt me a ns ta king cha rge a nd te a ching yours e lf. Be coming a s ma rt
s tude nt me a ns ta king re s pons ibility for your e duca tion. The ce ntra l message of
this e ntire book ca n be s ummed up in a sentence: No s chool ca n te a ch you the
wa y you le a rn be s t, so how much you le a rn a nd how we ll you do is up to you.

ACCEPTING RESPONSIBILITY
Be coming a s ma rt s tudent means tha t you’ll have to de ma nd more of yours elf. It
me a ns you’ll ha ve to ge t ove r the fears tha t go with be ing inde pe nde nt. It means
you’ll have to do more tha n your te a che r asks you to do. And it means no more
excuses.
S ome time s you’ll be s tuck with a boring te a che r, a s tupid a s s ignme nt, or a
lous y te xtbook. It’s s till your job to find wa ys to ma s ter the ma te ria l so you can
ace your pa pe rs a nd your exams. You ma y fe e l uncomforta ble with this notion.
You ma y be lie ve tha t s imply lis te ning to your te a che rs a nd comple ting your
a s s ignme nts me a ns tha t you’ll le a rn your s ubje cts a nd tha t you’re e ntitle d to
good grades. You be tte r get ove r tha t fe eling s oon because I’m te lling you right
now: the re is no s uch gua rante e.
You ma y ha ve to ge t ove r fe e lings of guilt. You ma y a ctua lly dis cover a mora l
conflict a bout doing be tte r in s chool with less work. “No pa in, no ga in” s ound
fa miliar? S ma rt s tude nts work ha rd whe n the y mus t, but the y don’t wa nt to
work a ny ha rde r or longe r tha n a bs olute ly ne ce ssa ry. S ma rt s tude nts ha te
wa s ting time or e nergy. The y would ra the r s pe nd ha lf a n hour in inte ns e ,
conce ntra te d s tudy tha n spread tha t e ffort out ove r several hours of aimless a nd
s upe rficia l re vie w.
Re me mbe r the ir motto: “Ma ximum grades, optimum le a rning, minimum
time .” Whe n s ma rt s tude nts work ha rd—a nd the re’s no ge tting a round it whe n
you te a ch yourse lf—it’s because the ha rd work is imme ns e ly s a tisfying.

Q
' ufHAT SMART The notlon tha t ha rd work ca n be s a tis fying ma y s ound we ird a t firs t, but if
STUDENTS KNOW you look a t the a ctivitie s you mos t e njoy, you’ll see tha t these are the a ctivitie s
, -■ you work ha rde s t at. Fe w things are as s a tis fying as ha rd work tha t gets re s ults ,
Is*' • 1
or as frus tra ting a nd de mora lizing as ha rd work tha t doe s n’t. S ma rt s tude nts
don’t mind working ha rd—whe n the y ha ve to—be ca us e the ir ha rd work
pays off.
Of cours e , if you e njoy s tudying a ll night without le a rning much, a nd wa nt
only the grades you “de se rve ,’’ you ma y not like this book. But if you wa nt to
le a rn more in less time a nd e a rn highe r grades, you’ll love this book.

O
 Ta ke This Quiz!
(Twenty Reasons You Could Be Working Ha rde r
a nd Longe r Than You Ha ve to, Yet Le a rning
------- Less a nd Re ce iving Lowe r Grades) -------

IF YOU WANT TO BECOME A SMART STUDENT

You ha ve to see things the wa y s ma rt s tude nts do. As I me ntione d in the There is too much
pre vious cha pte r, a ttitude is the critica l diffe re nce be twe e n s ma rt s tude nts a nd education altogether,
the ir classmates, a nd cha nging your a ttitude is no easy task. especially in American
You ma y a lre a dy have the right a ttitude without re a lizing it. Or you ma y fe e l schools.
guilty a bout tha t a ttitude , as if s ome thing’s wrong with you for ha ving it. We Al b e r t E in s t e in
will ke e p re turning to your a ttitude throughout the book (in pe riodic Attitude
Checks), but firs t le t’s ta ke a basic inve ntory.

YOUR INITIAL ATTITUDE INVENTORY

This is jus t a que s tionna ire , not a test you’re be ing gra ded on. It is de signe d to
give you ins ights into your a ttitude , so it is crucia l tha t you put down the
response tha t be s t re fle cts wha t you truly think a nd fe e l, not wha t you think is
the “right a ns wer.” If your opinions have a lre a dy been influe nce d by wha t you’ve
re a d so far, select the option tha t best indica te s how you fe lt be fore you picke d
up the book.

ATTITUDE CHECK
ISTS-:);

Ins tructions : Ne xt to each s ta te me nt be low, put a 1 if you agree

with it a nd a 0 if you disagree. Read each one ca re fully. The se
are not trick que s tions , so ta ke the m a t face va lue . This is an
importa nt exercise. Don’t a gonize ove r your s e le ctions , but do
give each s ta te me nt s ome thought be fore re s ponding. Ta ke a
s ta nd a nd a nswe r every que s tion.

[ ] 1. You are not na tura lly good a t or even inte re ste d in le a rning, so you
ne e d to be told by a te a che r wha t to le a rn a nd how to le a rn it.
[ ] 2. You ca nnot be e xpecte d to le a rn on your own or from othe r s tude nts .
[ ] 3. You le a rn in e s s e ntia lly the same wa y a nd a t the same ra te as e ve ry
othe r s tudent in your class.
[ ] 4. Te xtbooks are the best resource from which to le a rn a s ubje ct.
 [ ] 5. S ince you are not good a t le a rning, s ubjects ne e d to be s implifie d a nd
WHAT SMART
broke n down into a series of s kills (tasks, units , obje ctive s ) tha t are
STUDENTS KNOW
pre s e nte d as drills or workbook e xe rcise s. You find s uch exercises
e s pecia lly re wa rding.
[ ] 6. Your te ache r te lling you s ome thing is the same thing as te a ching it,
a nd you unde rs ta nd tha t ma te ria l whe n you ca n re pe a t wha t the
te a che r has told you.
[ ] 7. The more fa cts you ca n re pe a t, the more you unde rs ta nd.
[ ] 8. You would not be inte re ste d in le a rning if you we re not “motiva te d”
with re wa rds like good grades a nd public prais e , or with punis hme nts
like ba d grades a nd public criticis m.
[ ] 9. You would not be inte re s te d in le a rning if you we re not te s te d
fre que ntly.
[ ] 10. Ca lling on you ra ndomly in cla s s a nd e xpe cting a n imme dia te
response is a pa rticula rly e ffe ctive te a ching me thod.
[ ] 11. Gra de compe tition increases how much you le a rn a nd brings out the
best in you a nd your classmates.
[ ] 12. If you find, say, his tory boring, this is because the s ubje ct is dull ra the r
tha n because of the wa y you are forced to le a rn it.
[ ] 13. The re is a ce rta in body of ke y cultura l informa tion tha t you a nd
e ve ryone else s hould know; if you do not le a rn this informa tion by the
time you gra dua te , you ne ve r will.
[ ] 14. The importa nt informa tion tha t you ne e d to know is on te s ts ; if
s ome thing is not on a te s t, it’s not importa nt.
[ ] 15. Teachers de te rmine your grades on a cons is te nt, obje ctive basis.
[ ] 16. Your ma rks on tests a ccura tely re fle ct how we ll you unde rs ta nd the
cours e s ubje ct ma tte r; your gra de point average is a good indica tor of
how much you ha ve le a rne d in the pa s t a nd how s ma rt you are.
[ ] 17. If you lis te n to wha t your teachers say a nd do wha t your teachers te ll
you to do, you will le a rn as much as you are ca pa ble of le a rning.
[ ] 18. The fa s te r you le a rn, the more inte llige nt you are.
[ ] 19. Any le a rning tha t ta ke s pla ce in s chool is a re s ult of your te a che r’s
te a ching you; not le a rning is your fa ult.
[ ] 20. If the wa y s chool is run causes you to be come confus e d, dis coura ge d,
or re be llious in a ny wa y, s ome thing is wrong with you.

Add the individua l responses to compute your tota l score. Tota l S core :______
The ma ximum pos s ible score is 20, the minimum is 0. We will discuss this quiz
a nd wha t your score me a ns in the ne xt cha pte r.
 Attitude
- Shift! -

OKAY, LET’S TAKE A LOOK AT THE QUIZ YOU TOOK

1. You are not na tura lly good a t or even inte re s te d in le a rning, so you ne e d to I am always ready to
be told by a te a che r wha t to le a rn a nd how to le a rn it. learn, but I do not
Jeepers, I hope you disagreed with this one . You le a rn best from a always like being
tra ine d te a che r, who s hould be in tota l control of the le a rning taught.
process. S orry, but no te a che r knows how you le a rn best. And you’d Win s t o n
be tte r find out quickly if you don’t a lre a dy know! C h u r c h il l
2. You ca nnot be e xpe cte d to le a rn on your own or from othe r s tude nts .
S ma rt s tude nts s trongly disagree with this s ta te me nt. Be fore e nte ring
s chool we ma na ge to te a ch ourselves the funda me nta ls (with a little
coa ching from pa re nts ). And the re ’s no re a son you ca n’t le a rn as
much from your classmates as from your teachers.
3. You le a rn in e s s e ntia lly the same wa y a nd a t the same ra te as e ve ry othe r
s tudent in your class.
Nons e ns e ! Eve ry s tude nt le a rns diffe re ntly, which is a nothe r reason
why you a nd only you know how best to te a ch yours e lf.
4. Te xtbooks are the best resource from which to le a rn a s ubje ct.
Te xtbooks s e pa ra te s ubje cts from re a l life a nd s poon-fe e d you
is ola te d a nd dis conne cte d facts. How ma ny a dults do you know who
le a rn the ir jobs from te xtbooks ?
5. S ince you are not good a t le a rning, s ubje cts ne e d to be s implifie d a nd
broke n down into a s e rie s of s kills (ta s ks, units , obje ctive s ) tha t are
pres e nte d as drills or workbook exercises. You find s uch exercises e s pe cia lly
re wa rding.
I don’t think so. Ne xt.
6. Your te a che r te lling you s ome thing is the sa me thing as te a ching it,
a nd you unders ta nd tha t ma te ria l whe n you ca n re pe a t wha t the te a che r has
told you.
S orry, but te lling you s ome thing a nd ha ving you re pe a t it does not
me a n tha t you unde rs ta nd tha t ma terial. Don’t confus e me morizing
with unde rs tanding.
7. The more fa cts you ca n repeat, the more you unde rs tand.
Gong! Whe n was the la s t time a trivia e xpe rt won a Nobe l Prize?
 8. You would not be inte re ste d in le a rning if you we re not “motiva te d” with
WHAT SMART re wards like good grades a nd public pra is e , or with punis hments like ba d
STUDENTS KNOW .
grades a nd public criticis m.
Ta ke my word for it—you are inte re s te d in le a rning. The e ve r-
pre s e nt thre a t of ba d grades e ncoura ge s a nxie ty, not true le a rning.
9. You would not be inte re s te d in le a rning if you we re not te s te d fre que ntly.
See my pre vious comme nt. Of cours e you’re inte res te d in le a rning.
Wha t you’re not inte re s te d in is not le a rning, wa s ting your time , or
fe e ling s tupid.
10. Ca lling on you ra ndomly in class a nd e xpe cting a n imme dia te response is a
pa rticula rly e ffe ctive te a ching me thod.
Give me a bre a k! This “te a ching” me thod achieves little more tha n a
cla s s room a tmos phe re of ge ne ral pa nic a nd pos s ible humilia tion.
Le a rning through intimida tion? Not inte re s te d.
11. Gra de compe tition increases how much you le a rn a nd brings out the best
in you a nd your classmates.
De s ire for approval Compe tition in s chool is corros ive . It mos t ce rta inly does not bring
and re cognition is a out the be s t in a nyone trying to le a rn. Ins te a d, it cre a te s the
he althy m otive ; but impre s s ion tha t le a rning is worth doing only if you’re be ing gra de d
the desire to be on it. And s ince e ve ryone le a rns a t diffe re nt rates a nd in diffe re nt
acknowle dge d as wa ys , wha t could gra de compe tition pos s ibly be a bout? S ma rt
better, stronger, or s tude nts don’t ne e d the s pur of gra de s to ma ke the m le a rn. And
more inte llige nt than ironica lly, a nyone more inte re ste d in grades tha n in le a rning is going
a fe llow be ing or to be be a te n in the gra de ga me by s ome one who’s more inte res te d in
fe llow s cholar easily le a rning. I ca n’t stress this conce pt e nough.
leads to an excessively 12. Ifyou find, say, his tory boring, this is because the s ubje ct is dull ra the r tha n
egoistic ps ychological
because of the wa y you are force d to le a rn it.
de ve lopm e nt....
More like ly it’s the othe r wa y a round.
Therefore the school
and the teacher m us t 13. The re is a ce rta in body of ke y cultura l informa tion tha t you a nd e ve ryone
guide agains t else s hould know; if you do not le a rn this informa tion by the time you
e m ploying the easy gra dua te , you ne ve r will.
m e thod ofcre ating Who says le a rning takes pla ce only in school?
individual am bition, 14. The importa nt informa tion tha t you ne e d to know is on tests; if s ome thing
in orde r to induce the is not on a te st, it’s not importa nt.
pupils to dilige nt Obvious ly the informa tion you’re te s te d on is importa nt, but tests
work. don’t cove r e ve rything importa nt in a s ubje ct. And the y ce rta inly
Al b e r t E in s t e in don’t cove r a ll the informa tion you ne e d in your life .
15. Teachers de te rmine your grades on a cons is te nt, objective basis.
No wa y! Gra ding couldn’t be more incons is te nt, s ubje ctive , or ATTITUDE SHIFT!
a rbitra ry.
16. Your ma rks on tests a ccura te ly re fle ct how we ll you unders ta nd the course
s ubje ct ma tte r; your grade point average is a good indica tor of how much
you have le a rne d in the past a nd how s ma rt you are.
S chools seem to think so, but I hope you don’t. Gra ding is fa r from
be ing a n e xa ct s cie nce . Your ma rks on tests re fle ct a numbe r of
things , of which your unde rs ta nding is only one fa ctor; your
awareness of wha t your te a che r thinks is importa nt also pla ys an
importa nt role .
17. If you lis te n to wha t your teachers say a nd do wha t your teachers te ll you to
do, you will le a rn as much as you are ca pa ble of le a rning.
Tha t’s a comforting thought, but comple te ly wrong. Following
orde rs doe s n’t gua ra nte e le a rning.
18. The fa s te r you le a rn, the more inte llige nt you are.
Whe re wa s this e ve r proven? The re a re s printe rs a nd the re are
ma ra thoners ; e ve ryone le a rns a t a diffe re nt pace.
19. Any le a rning tha t takes place in s chool is a re s ult of your te a che r’s te a ching
you; not le a rning is your fa ult.
Please te ll me you dis a gre e d with this one . S tude nts who ha ve
difficulty le a rning as s chool ins is ts e ve ryone le a rn are unfa irly la be le d
lazy, s tupid, mis be have d, unmotiva te d, or “le a rning dis a ble d.”
20. If the wa y s chool is run causes you to be come confus e d, dis coura ge d, or
re be llious in a ny way, s ome thing is wrong with you.
More like ly s ome thing is wrong with s chool.

INTERPRETING YOUR “SCORE”

By now you proba bly realize tha t the lowe r your score, the be tte r. The highe r
your score, the more you’ve be e n bra inwa s he d by the s chool s ys te m. Not to
worry. Toge the r we ’re going to change tha t. I’ll be working on your a ttitude for
the rest of the book, a nd you’ll see how you’re progre s s ing with pe riodic Attitude
Checks.
If your gra nd tota l was a zero, congra tula tions—yours is the a ttitude of a
s ma rt s tude nt. We lcome to the club. But pe rha ps you ha ve n’t thought of
yours e lf as a s ma rt s tude nt. Ma ny pote ntia l s ma rt s tude nts ha ve the right
a ttitude a bout s chool a nd the le a rning process, but the y’ve be e n ma de to fe e l
guilty a bout the ir be lie fs . Like the ir classmates, the y’ve be e n bra inwa s he d by
s chool to think s ome thing is wrong with the m, whe n in fa ct the re’s s ome thing
wrong with s chool.

©
 WHAT YOU’RE UP AGAINST: HERE’S WHAT SCHOOLS
WHAT SMART
STUDENTS KNOW
THINK ABOUT YOU
You don’t a cquire your a ttitude in a va cuum—it’s s ha pe d to a la rge e xte nt by the
vie wpoint of the s chool syste m. This vie wpoint is not publicize d, but it’s not
ha rd to see wha t it is . To dis cove r how the s chool s ys te m sees you—-its
s ubje ct—we s hould not lis te n to wha t it says, but obs e rve wha t it does. If we
ta ke a n unflinching look a t the typica l s chool e xperie nce, if we e xa mine how
s chool is s tructure d, how classes are run a nd wha t class time is de vote d to, how
s ubje cts are ta ught, wha t books a re us e d a nd how the y a re writte n, wha t
a s s ignme nts are give n, a nd wha t kinds of tests are a dministe re d, it be come s ve ry
cle a r how s chools vie w you a nd your a bility to le a rn.
To find out, s imply turn ba ck to the a ttitude quiz you jus t took. The
purpos e of it was to give you a cha nce to see how much your a ttitude has been
indoctrina te d by the s chool system. You see, our s chool s ys te m s trongly agrees
with e ve ry one of thos e s ta te me nts !

DOES THAT SURPRISE YOU?

To me the worst thing It s hould. Of cours e , not a ll s chools or teachers be lie ve a ll thos e things a bout
seems to be for a you. If you a sked, mos t te a che rs would proba bly de ny ma ny of the m; s ome
schoolprincipally to might even be ins ulte d. But while you ma y not be a wa re of these ins titutiona l
work with methods of a ttitude s , be assured tha t the y are e mbodie d in our e duca tion s ys te m.
fear, force, and Unfortuna te ly, you, too, ha ve be e n conditione d by s chool a nd proba bly
artificial authority. share a t le ast s ome of these be lie fs . As a re s ult, you s pe nd more time a nd e ne rgy
S uch treatment tha n you ha ve to, while le a rning less a nd re ce iving lowe r grades. It is ha rd to
destroys the sound escape the ir influe nce because these a ttitude s are re fle cte d a nd re inforce d in
sentiments, the e ve ry a s pe ct of s chool life . Inde e d, the s e notions a re so ingra ine d in the
sincerity, and the s e lf Ame rica n consciousne ss tha t mos t pe ople ha ve difficulty a cce pting tha t the y are
confidence of the in fa ct myths .
pupil. It produces the
submissive subject. THE SMART STUDENT’S CREDO
Al b e r t E in s t e in All s ma rt s tude nts , cons cious ly or uncons cious ly, s ha re twe lve be lie fs or
principle s a bout s chool a nd the le a rning process. S tudy this lis t:

Principle #1: Nobody ca n te a ch you as we ll as you ca n te a ch yours e lf.

Principle #2: Me re ly lis te ning to your te a che rs a nd comple ting the ir
a s s ignme nts is never e nough.
Principle #3: Not e ve rything you are a s s igne d to re a d or a s ke d to do is
e qua lly importa nt.
Principle #4: Gra de s are jus t s ubje ctive opinions .
P rinciple #5: Ma king mis ta ke s (a nd occa s ionally a ppe a ring foolis h) is the
price you pa y for le a rning a nd improving.
P rinciple #6: The point of a que s tion is to ge t you to think—not s imply to
a ns wer it. ATTITUDE SHIFT!

Principle #7: You’re in s chool to le a rn to think for yourse lf, not to re pe a t

wha t your te xtbooks a nd teachers te ll you.
Principle #8: S ubje cts do not always seem inte re s ting a nd re le va nt, but be ing
a ctive ly engaged in le a rning the m is be tte r tha n be ing passively
bore d a nd not le a rning the m.
P rinciple #9: Fe w things are as pote ntia lly difficult, frus tra ting, or frighte ning
as ge nuine le a rning, ye t nothing is so re wa rding a nd
e mpowe ring.
P rinciple #10: How we ll you do in s chool re fle cts your a ttitude a nd your
me thod, not your a bility.
P rinciple #11: If you’re doing it for the grades or for the a pprova l of othe rs ,
you’re mis s ing the s a tis fa ctions of the process a nd putting your
s e lf-e s tee m a t the me rcy of things outs ide your control.
P rinciple #12: S chool is a game, but it’s a ve ry importa nt game.

You don’t ha ve to me morize these principles ; we ’ll be dis cus s ing a nd re inforcing
the m throughout the book. (By the wa y, the re ’s nothing ma gica l a bout the
numbe r twe lve . I jus t wa nte d to ke e p the numbe r of principle s ma na ge a ble .)

SEEING YOURSELF AS A SMART STUDENT

Ta king a look a t wha t a mounts to the founda tion for a ne w a ttitude , you I never le t schooling
proba bly notice tha t these principle s re fle ct not jus t how you see s chool a nd interfere with my
le a rning, but how you see yours e lf. education.
Your s e lf-image has a powe rful influe nce on your a ca de mic pe rforma nce . Ma r k Tw a in
Are n’t a ll our e fforts dire cte d a t proving our s e lf-conce ption? If you see yourse lf
as s ome one who can’t le a rn, you won’t, regardless of the te chnique s I’m a bout to
s how you. Your s e lf-ima ge is crucia l to your be coming a s ma rt s tudent, a nd this
is s ome thing you have to work out for yours e lf. If you see yours e lf as s ome one
who ca n le a rn, you will, de s pite the difficultie s you e ncounte r.
The s e lf-ima ge of mos t s tude nts is gre a tly a ffe cte d by how we ll the y do at
s chool, which is one of the reasons the y find s chool so difficult. P a radoxica lly,
the s e lf-ima ge of s ma rt s tude nts is not influe nce d by the ir pe rforma nce in
s chool, even though the y excel. S ma rt s tude nts are motiva te d to le a rn in s pite
of—not because of—s chool.
If you wa nt to s top s a bota ging yours e lf a nd your pe rforma nce in s chool, you
mus t firs t ge t some ide a of wha t truly makes you tick. I can’t cha nge the wa y you
see yours e lf—you have to do tha t—but I can cha nge the wa y you see s chool.

O
 Wha t I’ve trie d to do in this cha pte r is to be gin to ge t you to see s chool a nd the
s t u d e n t s 'k n o w ! le a rning process through the eyes of s ma rt s tude nts . Once you see s chool in a
ne w light, you’ll be gin to fe e l diffe re ntly a bout yours e lf.

ONWARD AND UPWARD!

It’s not e nough for me to te ll you wha t s ma rt s tude nts be lie ve . You mus t a cce pt
these things in your he a rt.
Your a ttitude has de ve lope d ove r your a ca de mic life time . It will not cha nge
ove rnight, but the process will pick up mome ntum the minute you be gin. As
your a ttitude be gins to cha nge , so will your success in s chool, which will le a d to
furthe r changes in your a ttitude , a nd s till gre a te r a chie veme nts .

WHAT’S COMING UP
Cha nging your a ttitude is ha lf the ba ttle , the ha rde r ha lf, but s till only ha lf.
We ’re now going to e xplore the te chnique s s ma rt s tude nts use to te a ch
the mse lve s: Cybe rLe a rning.

Q
 Le a rning the
_ OH Way _

THROWING YOU IN THE DEEP END

Oka y, le t’s ge t s ta rte d. For some ide a of the proble ms involve d with re a ding a nd
unde rs ta nding a te xtbook—as if you ha ve n’t e xpe rie nce d this be fore —we ’re
going to work through a s a mple te xtbook passage toge the r. You’ll le a rn how not
to a pproach a te xtbook, a nd you’ll see how a s ma rt s tude nt would ta ckle it.
S orry, but like mos t te xtbooks , the passage I’ve selected is ove rde nse with
informa tion, dry, a nd—le t’s be fra nk—dull. I’ve chose n this pa rticula r ge ology
passage for several reasons. Firs t, its le ve l of difficulty a pproxima te s tha t of mos t
te xtbooks a t the high s chool a nd introductory-colle ge le ve l. It a llows me to
de mons tra te a ll the te chnique s s ma rt s tude nts use to s trip down a nd a nalyze
comple x a nd confus ing te xt.
But I a ls o s e le cte d the following pa s sa ge be ca us e I think you’ll ha ve
a bs olute ly no inte re s t in the s ubje ct ma tte r. In fa ct, I’m fa irly sure you will find
nothing in the passage tha t seems even re mote ly re le va nt to a nything in your
life. I’m not trying to punis h you. It’s importa nt for you to see tha t by us ing
Cybe rLe a rning, you ca n ta ke a n inte re s t in a nything you read.
To ge t the full be ne fit of this book, you’ll have to work through va rious
exercises a long the way. You don’t have to a gonize ove r the m—we both know
you’re not be ing grade d here—but try to give the m a de ce nt s hot. More tha n
jus t re inforcing my points , these exercises will ge t you into the ha bit of looking
a t informa tion diffe re ntly, a ctive ly. It’s fun! It’s e mpowe ring! It’s the wa y s ma rt
s tude nts s a il through the ir courses. We lcome a boa rd!
Two exercises follow. We ’ll be dis cus s ing the m in the coming cha pte rs .
Please do the m in the orde r pre s e nte d. By the wa y, s ince la te r exercises will
re fe r to your work in e a rlier one s, do a ll your exercises on loos e sheets of pa pe r
(not in a s pira l note book). This wa y you’ll be able to move pages a nd compa re
your work as it progresses. Write on one side of each sheet only, numbe r the
exercises, a nd keep the m toge the r.

O
 WHAT SMART
EXERCISE #1
STUDENTS KNOW
—
; II:III_IS It. Ins tructions : A little fre e -a s s ocia tion. Be fore you re a d the
following te xtbook e xce rpt, ta ke a fe w minute s to jot down on a
sheet of pa per e ve rything you know a bout rocks , or wha t the y
re mind you of. If you think of a ny que s tions , jot down those ,
too. You don’t ha ve to write comple te s e nte nce s ; phra s e s or
a bbreviations are fine . Don’t be a fra id of be ing too obvious ,
s implis tic, or fa rfe tche d. To ge t you in the s pirit of things , I’ll
s ta rt you off with the firs t fe w thoughts a nd que s tions tha t
poppe d into my he a d: hard; old (How old? How do we measure?);
boulders.

EXERCISE #2
...

Ins tructions : Re a d the following passage as if you we re in a

cours e in ge ology or e a rth s cie nce , a nd your e ntire gra de
de pe nde d on a te s t you we re going to have on this passage ne xt
we e k. Ta ke note s a nd ma rk up the pa s s a ge the wa y you
norma lly would whe n s tudying for a n importa nt e xa m. (Of
course , we both know you a re n’t going to ta ke a te s t on it ne xt
we e k, but try to ge t into this exercise a nywa y.)

The purpos e of this exercise is to see how you re a d this passage a nd ta ke note s
on it, so you don’t have to s tudy it a t le ngth (though you’d ge t more out of the
exercise ifyou did). As you re a d a nd ta ke note s , try to be aware of your thoughts
a nd fe e lings .
You’re going to have to wre s tle with this passage a bit; it’s only 520 words ,
but it’s fa irly de nse . To see how you ha ndle pla in te xt, I ha ve re move d the
he lpful he a dings , dia gra ms , ita lics , a nd othe r gra phic a nd vis ua l aids you might
find in a te xtbook. S ince this is a le a rning e xe rcis e , you’ll ha ve to ma ke do
without s uch clues a nd s ignpos ts .

@
 ■ '

ROCKS LEARNING t h e
remains tha t have decayed or decomposed OLD WAV
Rocks are ha rd, na tura l masses of s olid
matter tha t make up the earth’s crust. With a in wa te r. Mos t lime s tone , for example, is
fe w e xce ptions (s uch as coa l), rocks are forme d from the mine ra ls of decomposed
compos e d of one or more mine ra ls . s he lls or s ke le tons of ma rine orga nis ms ,
Geologists cla ss ify rocks as either igneous, while coal is forme d from plants that have
sedimentary, or metamorphic, depending on de ca ye d in s wa mps . S e dime nta ry rock
how they were formed. us ua lly forms under water. It can fre que ntly
Igneous rocks are forme d from magma, be ide ntifie d by cha ra cte ristic layers or by
the molte n ma tter deep within the earth. pa rticle s of diffe re nt s ize s , a nd ofte n
The re are two type s of igne ous rock. If contains fossils.
magma rises towa rd the surface, it s lowly Me ta morphic rocks are forme d whe n
cools and some times s olidifie s underground. rocks of a ny type are cha nge d by long
The re s ult is intrus ive igne ous rock. If pe riods of inte nse heat or pressure within
ma gma re a che s the e a rth’s s urfa ce , it the e a rth. This proce s s , known as
emerges from volcanoes or fissures (cracks) metamorphism, alters the texture, structure,
as la va . La va cools ra pidly aboveground, and mine ra l compos ition of the e xis ting
s olidifying into e xtrus ive igne ous rock. rock, us ua lly ma king it roughe r and more
Intrus ive igneous rock, such as granite, can dense. Me tamorphic rock can sometimes be
be ide ntifie d by its la rge , cle a rly vis ible ide ntifie d by its dis torte d structure , or by
mine ral grains (crystals). Because extmsive wa vy bands. Whe n the s e dime nta ry rock
rock s olidifie s more quickly than intrus ive lime s tone unde rgoe s me ta morphis m, it
igne ous rock, it is cha ra cte rize d by tiny becomes marble. Shale, another sedimentary
crystals. Basalt, with its fine texture, high rock, becomes slate unde r me ta morphism,
density, and da rk color, is the most common while the igne ous rock gra nite becomes
e xtrus ive igne ous rock, lying beneath the gneiss.
vast ocean floor. Pumice, another common As ha rd as the y are, rocks do not la s t
e xtrus ive igne ous rock us e d in some fore ve r. Rocks above ground are contin-
abrasives, acquires its rough porous texture uously exposed to weathering and erosion.
from the explosive release of gas that often Ove r thousands or even millions of years,
accompanies volca nic eruptions. the y are broke n down and worn a way to
Virtua lly a ll s e dime nta ry rocks are s e diments , which ca n la te r form ne w
forme d when particles, known as sediments, sedimentary rocks. Rocks be low ground can
a ccumula te in s tra ta (la ye rs ). Mos t a ls o cha nge . Any rock s ubje cte d to
sediments are created whe n rocks of any s ufficie nt he a t a nd pre s s ure unde rgoe s
kind a re broke n down by e rosion or metamorphism and forms ne w metamorphic
weathering. Whe n these particles cement or rock. And if the heat is great enough, any
compa ct toge the r and ha rde n, the y form rock can be me lte d ba ck into magma and
sedimentary rock. Shale, the most common la te r form new igneous rock. Thus, any type
sedimentary rock, is forme d from mud and of rock can be transformed into one of the
cla y; sandstone, as its name suggests, is others. This dynamic, never-ending process
forme d from s a nd. S ome s e dime nts , of rock forma tion is known as the rock
however, are created from animal or pla nt cycle.

Q
 HOW DID YOU FEEL?
WHAT SMART
We ’ll re turn to the passage a nd the exercises s hortly. Be fore we do, though, le t’s
STUDENTS KNOW
ta lk a bout how you fe lt as you re a d it. We re you bore d? Dis tra cted? Confus e d?
Did you re s e nt be ing asked to do s ome thing? We re you ove rwhe lme d by the
facts? Did you fe e l pre s sure d to re me mbe r e ve rything as you we re re a ding? How
much do you re me mbe r? Did you unde rs ta nd the passage as a whole ? Are you
sure?

MEET JOHNNY, A TYPICAL STUDENT

He re ’s wha t J ohnny was thinking a bout a nd fe e ling as he re a d the passage a nd
took note s on it.

J ohnny glances a t the title a nd immedia te ly be gins re a ding the firs t sentence.

Le t’s see, how m any pages is this s tupid assignment? I hope it doesn’t take all
night. Gre at! A s hort passage on rocks. How hard can this be? Le t’s see here.
Rocks are hard, s olid m atte r—so te ll me s om e thing I don’t know. Mine rals ,
yeah, I kinda kne w that. Uh-oh, s cie ntific words. Igneous, sedimentary, and
m e tam orphic? I’v e never seen those before; be tte r copy them down—they’ll be
on the testfor sure.

Afte r re ading each sentence, he takes note s on wha te ve r seems importa nt, trying
to use as ma ny of the a uthor’s words as pos s ible . S ince he owns this “te xtbook,”
he a ls o highlights —a lot. He is n’t following a nything tha t he ’s re ading, but
s ome how highlighting ne a rly e ve rything reassures him tha t “he ’s not mis s ing
a nything.”

Intrus ive igneous rock? W hat does that m e an? Bas alt has a fine texture, high
density, a dark color, and lies beneath the ocean floor. I wonde r if that’s
gonna be on the test. S trata? W hat’s that? Who knows. Who cares. This s tuff
is incre dibly boring; when am I ever going to need it in re al life ? He y! W hat
tim e is it? I wonde r ifI s hould call Diane .

J ohnny is trying ha rd. He re a lly wa nts to finis h this a s s ignment, but he ’s ha ving
a ha rd time conce ntra ting or e ve n following wha t’s going on. He ’s bore d,
confuse d, a nd ove rwhe lme d; a nd, as the passage goes on, he ’s fe e ling pre tty
s tupid.

Le t’s see here. Huh? S ome s e dim e ntary rock is made from anim al remains.
That’s we ird. I wonde r how that happens. Oh we ll, I suppose I be tte r copy
that down, too; it m ight be im portant.
De s pite his s truggle s, J ohnny is cons cie ntious ; he’s de te rmined to complete the
a s s ignme nt even if it takes a ll night. So he plods through the te xt, word a fte r LEARNING THE
OLD WAY
dull word, de ta il a fte r dull de ta il, hour a fte r dull hour. li

Dis torte d s tructure , wavy bands. I’m not following any of this s tuff; no way
I’m gonna re me mbe r it allfor the test! W ait a second—now they te ll me any
type of rock can become any othe r type of rock. W hat the heck! Firs t they te ll
me there are diffe re nt kinds of rocks and now they te ll me any kind of rock
can become one of the others. This is ge tting complicated. Maybe I s hould
take a break. I’m ge tting hungry. I wonde r if there are any munchies in the
fridge . He y! Iforge t. W hat’s a rock?

And so on.
S ome time la te r, J ohnny comple te s his a s s ignme nt. De s pite ha ving ta ke n
de ta ile d note s a nd re re a d the m s e ve ra l time s , he re a lize s tha t he doe s n’t
unders ta nd or even re me mbe r more tha n a fe w words of wha t he read! Still,
J ohnny feels s a tis fie d because he has done pre cis e ly wha t the te a cher assigned.
(J ohnny is e vide ntly unawa re of S ma rt S tudent P rinciple #2: Me re ly lis te ning to
your teachers a nd comple ting the ir a s s ignme nts is never e nough.)

HOW NOTTO TAKE NOTES

He re are J ohnny’s note s on our s a mple passage (the y ha d to be re duce d a bit;
don’t worry if you can’t read e ve ry word).

-J tW, nflMa f jrm wA. of. auhA m iMa Fust amah eadka c mu P
- CsnyMed of. &rub OA a y W c c o/mxyW)OhCeuupt^M c m I )
- 3 -fwur ■ a/ynietas, , amdoofMAphi, d/ptAifuA OOLi Iu w J m *W
, jjdAUMMJL

JtlawtfML Aiadua. ^WLpvu,, d \Is iuMacM

t c a m D.) da Maou, death ic j , apitkbp ■ Ma k mc j l x ^ ma u o . A.
- oigC Idt mmaaJ apows-
- ertJucMun, dtMMfauie J Pj ItAuj aiufdaU'
- bcLM0-, u m A ia o c w m . 4lm A,4MVL Mdw*, dM &s Ic a , 4u!f, hm dfp
- pumiu-(uAtdMbafoAAOi'uM')/
-3 eAhModtiAM-: -JiMMcd JfA&rn paHidk^CAuhwMhb, (LMutmuldh Mupxo- CxttAdth)
ty&uw-trw wM*ahuaoA<Ag-
- tuheAopoktidiA. (m ih/cm piitt-bodfo\f\whx, huy MeA• A m T
-ashak- Qym ttaanm s rio) fowie d fMe m omaM •<-chug*
-MdAidH&ru. cptomyl Metric/
-Me nu, Mih/ytwvda iAtcdid fictm (iMx/0L(tl/phud~AeynuuA^ jh uJahn
-JjS Ynud&riit ufowmd J tfw Hu amimhaJk. op hawnpiMcd cheMs/sh-eAI,04a.i
e favtuviim t MffvhAvyuy
- Cj o o I jio fcrarm j JjJuBm daA&mfttitA pPvrdct ah McOWvn&Ay
-Md.A-fppttuihj Mhctiptd

©
 WHAT SMART
STUDENTS KNOW ■/ffefcwnrtpkU': -J(m rm)s im A a JjaAkj»of. am “fyfw. o A l chs Mjai by dm y puM&^L
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- JjyruL&u^ JlAtk CyOmte (wm<f Oyvteum
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'AA d JA IA&d< CjjAlc j &My Ayie Aj6 A m A tbJ«j Mo AIa {MAM JAlAo (lMtj- ObkeA

WHAT’S WRONG WITH THESE NOTES?

P le nty. J ohnny took note s on each se nte nce as he re a d it, without wa iting to see
whe the r the informa tion was importa nt or not. As a re s ult, he took fa r too ma ny
notes. He ra re ly used a bbre via tions or his own words . Notice tha t his note s give
e ve rything e qua l e mpha s is ; nothing sta nds out as e s pecia lly importa nt. J ohnny’s
note s follow the same line a r forma t as the passage; it’s impos s ible to see the
connections be twe e n the va rious fa cts a nd ideas.
The s e are the s ort of note s you might ta ke during a le cture , whe n you’re
rus he d a nd trying to ke e p up with your teacher. But as te xtbook note s the y are
practica lly useless s ince a ll the y do is re pe a t wha t the a uthor says.
In the coming cha pte rs I’ll s how you how a s ma rt s tude nt would ta ke note s .
Now le t’s ta ke a look a t J ohnny’s nota tions on the a ctua l passage te xt.
HOW NOT TO MARK UP YOUR TEXTBOOK
LEARNING THE
He re ’s how Johnny marke d up the s ample pas s age . OLD WAY

ROCKS
Rocks are hard, natural masses of s olid remains that have decayed or decomposed
matter that make up the earth's crust. With a in wate r. Most lime s tone , for e xample , is
fe w e xce ptions (s uch as coal), rocks are forme d from the mine rals of decomposed
compos e d of one or more mine rals . s he lls or s ke le tons of marine organis ms ,
Geologists clas s ify rocks as e ithe r igne ou* while coal is formed from plants that have
sedunenu%, or rtvetamorphio. depending on de caye d in s wamps . S e dime ntary rock
how they were formed. us ually forms under water. It can fre que ntly
Igneous rocks are forme d from magma, be ide ntifie d by characte ristic layers or by
the molte n matte r de e p within the e arth. particle s of diffe re nt s ize s , and ofte n
The re are two type s of igne ous rock if contains fossils.
magma rises toward the surface, it s lowly Me tamorphic rocks are forme d when
cools #nd sometimes s olidifie s underground. rocks of any type are change d by long
The re s ult is intrus ive igne ous rock. If pe riods of inte nse heat or pressure within
magma re ache s the e arth's s urface , it the e arth. This proce s s, known as
emerges from volcanoes or fissures (cracks) mciamorphism, alters the texture, structure,
as lava. Lava cools rapidly aboveground, and mine ral compos ition of the e xis ting
s olidifying into e xtrus ive igne ous rock. rock, us ually making it roughe r and more
fciniMve igneous rock, such as granite, can dens*. Me tamorphic rock can sometimes be
be ide ntifie d by its larg^ cle arly vis ible ide ntifie d by its dis torte d s tructure , or by
mine ral grains (crystals). Because e xtnttiva wavy bands. Whe n the s e dime ntary rock
rock s olidifies more quickly than intrus ive lime s tone unde rgoe s mciamorphis m. it
igne ous rock, it is characte rize d by tiny becomes marble. Shale, another sedimentary
crys tal^ Bas al! with its fine te xture , high rock, becomes slate under me tamoiphis m,
density, and dark color, is the meat commdb while the igne ous rock granite becomes
e xtrus ive igne ous rock, lying beneath the gneiss. _
vast ocean floor. Pumice, another common As hard as the y are, rocks do not last
e xtrus ive igne ous rock use d in s ome fore ve r. Rocks above ground are ■contin-
abrasives, acquires its rough porous texture uously exposed to weathering and erosion.
from the explosive release of gas that often Ove r thousands or even millions of years,
accompanies volcanic eruptions. the y are broke n down and worn away to
Virtually all s e dime ntary rocks are s e dime nts , which can late r form ne w
forme d when particles, known as sediments, sedimentary rocks. Rocks below ground can
accumulate m s trata (laye rs ). Mos t als o change . Any rock s ubje cte d to
s e dime nts are cre ated whe n rocks of any s ufficie nt he at and pre s s ure unde rgoe s
kind are broke n down by e ros ion or metamtxrphism and forms new metamorphic
weathering. When these particles cement or rock. And if the heat is great enough, any
compact toge the r and harde n, the y form rock can be melted back into magma and
sedimentary rock. Shale, the most common late r furm new igneous rock. Thus, any type
sedimentary rock, is formed from mud and of rock can be transformed into One of the
clay; sandstone, as its name suggests, is others. This dynamic, never-ending process
forme d from sand. Some s e dime nts , of rock formation is known as the rock
howe ve r, are created from animal or plant cycle.

O
 WHAT’S WRONG WITH JOHNNY’S TEXTBOOK NOTATIONS?
WHAT SMART
STUDENTS KNOW
J ohnny gave as little thought to ma rking his te xtbook as he did to ta king note s .
Ins te a d of de ciding wha t wa s importa nt a nd the n unde rlining tha t, he
unde rline d a nd highlighte d e ve rything tha t m ight be importa nt. In othe r words ,
J ohnny ma rks up his te xtbooks to a void thinking while re a ding. More ove r,
J ohnny ra re ly if ever takes note s on his thoughts a nd que s tions .
I’ll a ls o s how you how s ma rt s tude nts ma rk up the ir te xtbooks la te r
(page 99 ifyou wa nt to pe e k ahead).

LEARNING THE OLD WAY: DOES THIS SOUND FAMILIAR?

I’ll be t tha t your curre nt a pproa ch to s tudying a te xtbook proba bly goes
s ome thing like this .
1. You re a d the te xt, ta king note s as you go a long. If you own the book,
you highlight a nything tha t s e e ms importa nt, a nd unde rline
a nything tha t seems e s pe cia lly importa nt.
2. You re re a d your te xtbook, pe rha ps more tha n once , to see if the re’s
a nything you missed.
3. If you’re fussy, you might re copy your note s more ne a tly.
4. In the following we e ks, you re re a d your note s as ma ny time s as
pos s ible . As e xa m time a pproa che s , you’ll do this more ofte n,
re pe a ting the ma te ria l a nd quizzing yours e lf to be s ure you’ve
me morize d as much as you can.
You’re not a lone —this is how mos t s tude nts s tudy. And like mos t s tudents ,
you’re proba bly ofte n s urpris e d by the difficulty you e ncounte r on tests. You
don’t unde rs ta nd this because the ma te ria l doe sn’t seem so difficult whe n you are
“s tudying,” or whe n you quiz yours e lf the night be fore .
So why do tests seem so much ha rde r tha n you e xpe cte d, a nd why don’t you
score better?

@
 LEARNING THE
SUMMARY OLD WAY
I know tha t doing s ome thing a ga in a nd a ga in the s a me wa y is
comforting. But the s ta nda rd re a ding-highlighting-re re a ding a pproa ch
to s tudying a nd le a rning is a lmos t a complete wa s te of time . To lis t jus t
s ome of its problems :
• It’s passive. Although you fe e l as if you’re bus y “s tudying,” pa ssing
your eyes ove r the te xt re pe a tedly, you’re not re a lly doing a nything;
tha t is, you’re not doing a ny thinking. Trying to le a rn this wa y is
a bout as a ctive as wa tching te le vis ion. If you e ve r ha ve trouble
. . P . , , , , .
conce ntra ting while s tudying, its be ca use you re not doing a ny
a ctive thinking tha t engages your mind with the ma te ria l.
« It’s boring. Re a ding a nd re re a ding is by de finition monotonous .
And if you re pe a t informa tion ofte n e nough, chances are tha t not
only will you fa il to unde rs ta nd it but it will be come me a ningle s s .
• It’s ine ffe ctive . The s ta nda rd a pproa ch to le a rning—re a ding a nd
re re a ding—is n’t a n e fficie nt wa y to me morize fa cts , much less to
unders tand the m. S tudying this wa y ignores the wa y your mind
works . For ins ta nce , try s a ying a word ove r a nd ove r—e ve ntua lly it
becomes me a ningle ss!
8 It’s not practicing a nything importa nt. If you wa nt to improve at
footba ll, pra ctice footba ll. If you wa nt to improve your pia no
pla ying, pra ctice pla ying the pia no. You a re n’t pra cticing
unde rs ta nding whe n you highlight your te xtbook me cha nica lly a nd
re re a d your note s endlessly. Wha t you are pra cticing is highlighting
a nd re a ding; unfortuna te ly, you will not be te ste d on how we ll you
THe “Xyo, it, your a pproac, The W , S n ^
a
le a rning me thod tha t puts you in control of the proce s s , ke e ps you
inte re ste d a nd e nga ged in the ma te ria l you’re s tudying, a nd produce s
ge nuine unde rs ta nding!
 Le a rning the Ne w Wa y:
_ Introducing Cybe rLe a rning _

UNLEARNING SOME BAD HABITS AND ACQUIRING GOOD ONES

Cybe rLe a rning ma y re quire s ome imme dia te cha nge s in your s tudy ha bits . The one real object
Ins te a d of re a ding a te xtbook ove r a nd over, you’ll be re a ding it once thoroughly, of education is to
Ins te ad of highl ighting e ve ry third sentence, you’ll be ta king note s . If you do leave a person in
ma rk up your te xtbook, you’ll do so s pa ringly. Ins te a d of ta king note s on the condition of
e ve rything, you’ll be s e le cting only the mos t importa nt informa tion. And ins te a d continually asking
of re re a ding your note s a ll te rm long, you’ll be cons ta ntly cha nging a nd re vis ing questions.
the m, trying to re duce the m e ve ntua lly to a s ingle sheet. Bis h o p Ma n d e l l
C r e ig h t o n
WHAT SS CYBERLEARNING?
“Cybe r” come s from a n a ncie nt Gre e k word me a ning to pilot, or to be in
control. Cybe rLea rning is the dyna mic process by which you (not your teacher,
not s ome te xtbook a uthor) ta ke control a nd be come the pilot in your own
e duca tion.
Cybe rLe a rning be gins with dialoguing: the process of a s king a s pe cific cycle
of que s tions of the ma te ria l you’re s tudying. Gra dua lly, by orga nizing a nd
re orga nizing the informa tion, a nd by ma king conne ctions be twe e n the ne w
ma te ria l a nd wha t you a lre a dy know, you build ge nuine unde rs ta nding.

DIALOGUING: A MODERN VERSION OF AN ANCIENT TRADITION

The proce s s of us ing que s tions as a me a ns of dis cove ring knowle dge a nd The S ocratic
building unde rs ta nding has be e n a round for several thous and years. It is known Manne r is not a
as the S ocra tic me thod a fte r the fa mous Gre e k philos ophe r. S ocra te s wa s game at which two
immorta lize d in a numbe r of Dialogue s writte n by his e qua lly fa mous s tude nt, can play.
P la to. (If you ha ve n’t re a d a ny of P la to’s Dialogues, I highly re comme nd the m. Ma x Be e r b o h m
You’ll find the m highly e nte rta ining, a nd you’ll le a rn a lot a bout how to re a son.)
The S ocra tic me thod has be e n us e d as a te a ching tool for ce nturie s in
tra ditiona l Europe a n unive rs itie s such as Oxford a nd Ca mbridge . The trouble
with the S ocra tic me thod as typica lly used is tha t the te a che r does mos t of the
a s king a nd the s tude nt does mos t of the a ns we ring. As you’ll see, the te a cher is
the n doing the ha rd work (a s king the que s tions ), not the s tude nt.
You s hould be a s king the que s tions, not your te a che r. Knowing wha t
que s tions to a s k is much more importa nt tha n me re ly knowing “the a ns we rs .”
Once you know wha t que s tions to ask the answers will ra re ly be difficult to find.
I re fe r to this que s tioning process as “dia loguing” because you are s e tting up
a n inte rna l dia logue be twe e n yours e lf a nd the ma te ria l you’re s tudying. By
a s king a nd a ns we ring your own que s tions ins te a d of re lying on s ome one else’s,

©
 you be come your own teacher. Once dia loguing be come s a habit, you’ll be a ble
WHAT SMART
to te a ch yours e lf a ny s ubje ct. The ke y is knowing wha t que s tions to a sk a nd
STUDENTS KNOW
whe n to ask the m.

CYBERLEARNING: THE TWELVE QUESTIONS

Cons cious ly or uncons cious ly, a ll s ma rt s tude nts a s k the same twe lve ba s ic
que s tions whe n the y are le a rning a s ubje ct. The s e que s tions form the basis of
Cybe rLe a rning. We ’ll be s pe nding a n e ntire cha pte r on each que s tion, so for
now I’ll jus t outline the m for you. Don’t worry if the y don’t ma ke much sense;
once we ge t to the individua l que s tions you’ll see how a s ma rt s tude nt would
a pply the m to the ge ology passage a nd it will a ll be come clear.
He re ’s a brie f outline :

Question 1: What’s my purpose for reading this?

Before you be gin re a ding, you ne e d to know pre cis e ly why you’re
re ading so you’ll know wha t you s hould be looking for. You’ll
find a n in-de pth dis cus s ion of this que s tion in the cha pte r
be ginning on page 45.
Question 2: What do I already know about this topic?
Afte r gla ncing a t the title but s till be fore you s ta rt re a ding, you
s hould wa rm up by ta king a couple of minute s to jot down
quickly e ve rything you know a bout the topic. Turn to the
cha pte r be ginning on pa ge 49 if you’d like to see a n
e xa mina tion of this que s tion. Now it’s time to ma ke the firs t
pass ove r the ma te ria l.
Question 3: What’s the big picture here?
Be fore you s ta rt re a ding the ma te ria l closely, you s kim through
it to ge t a n outline of the ma in points . We ’ll look a t this
que s tion more thoroughly in the cha pte r be ginning on page 53.
Now tha t you’ve wa rmed up with the firs t thre e que s tions , you
s ta rt re a ding the te xt closely.
Question 4: What’s the author going to say next?
As you be gin to re a d the ma te ria l closely, you try to s ta y one
s te p ahead of the a uthor by a nticipa ting wha t he or she will say
ne xt. We ’ll look a t this que s tion in gre a te r de ta il in the cha pte r
be ginning on page 63.
Question 5: What are the “expert questions”?
Ea ch s ubje ct asks a unique set of que s tions tha t you ne e d to
ke e p in mind as you read. The cha pte r be ginning on page 67
e xplore s this que s tion a t le ngth.

Q
 Question 6: What questions does this information raise for me? LEARNING THE
As you read, you need to be a wa re of the other que s tions the NEW WAY
ma te ria l s hould be ra is ing in your mind. You’ll find a n in-de pth
dis cus s ion of this que s tion in the cha pte r be ginning on page 71.
Question 7: What information is important here?
As you’re re a ding, you ne e d to de cide wha t informa tion is
importa nt e nough to include in your note s. Wha t’s importa nt
will de pe nd on your purpos e (Que s tion 1). The cha pte r
be ginning on page 81 provide s a clos e r look a t this que s tion.
Question 8; How can 1 paraphrase and summarize this information?
As you ta ke note s on the importa nt informa tion you a re
s e le cting, you s hould tra nsla te the a uthor’s words into your
own, us ing as fe w as you can. You’ll find more on this que s tion
in the cha pte r be ginning on pa ge 89. Afte r you’ve finis he d
ta king note s on the passage, you s hould not ne e d to re fe r to the
passage furthe r.
Question 9: How can 1 organize this information?
Once you’ve finis he d ta king note s , e xplore the m to see how the
informa tion is orga nize d a nd whe the r you can create a ny ne w
groupings or links tha t ma ke sense. You’ll find a thorough
dis cus s ion of this que s tion in the cha pte r be ginning on
page 101.
Question 10: How can 1 picture this information?
Aga in looking ove r your note s, your goa l now is to tra ns la te as
much of the informa tion into s ymbols a nd picture s as possible .
I’ll de mons tra te how to a ns we r this que stion in the cha pte r
be ginning on page 107.
Question 11: What’s my hook for rememijering this information?
Now tha t you’ve worke d with the informa tion a nd be gun to
unde rs ta nd it, you need a hook or gimmick to e nsure tha t you’ll
be a ble to re me mbe r wha t you ne e d to know for tests. You’ll
find a de ta ile d dis cus s ion of this que s tion in the cha pte r
be ginning on page 111.
Question 12: How does this information fit in with what I already know?
As you look ove r your note s , you s hould be trying to see how
the ne w informa tion fits in with wha t you a lre a dy know—not
jus t a bout tha t topic but a bout othe rs as we ll. This que s tion is
e xa mine d in the cha pte r be ginning on page 121.
11111 Aga in, don’t try to me morize the s e que s tions —you’ll s oon be a s king the m
WHAT SMART a utoma tica lly! (By the wa y, it’s jus t a coincide nce tha t the re are twe lve que s tions
STUDENTS KNOW
as we ll as twe lve principles .)

SOME GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

We will be working through the Twe lve Que s tions in gre at de ta il in the coming
cha pte rs , but for now I’d like to ma ke a fe w pre limina ry obs e rva tions a bout the
ove ra ll process:

Question 11:
• De pe nding on your purpos e , s ome que s tions are more importa nt
What's my hook for tha n othe rs . If you’re in a class whe re you are grade d by pa pe rs
remembering this ins te a d of te s ts , for e xa mple , Que s tion 11 (me morizing) is less
information? importa nt. So tha t you ca n see a ll the que s tions in a ction, howe ve r,
I’m going to work through each one e xha us tive ly as if you ha d to
pre pare for a fina l exam.
• The s a me que s tions a pply whe the r you a re le a rning from your
te xtbook a nd othe r re a dings or from your te a che r in class. The re
are of cours e diffe re nce s be twe e n the two s itua tions , which I will
point out as we e xplore the individua l que s tions . (The ne xt cha pte r
will be an inte rmis s ion dis cus s ing classes a nd le cture s .)
• The orde r of the que s tions is a pproxima te only. S ome que s tions
ove rla p a nd you ca n combine the m, s ome you ask s imulta ne ous ly,
a nd s ome you ask ove r a nd over.
• Ha ve s ome s cra tch pa pe r re a dy. Your bra in has a limite d proces s ing
ca pa city, so you’ll ne e d to jot down your thoughts . S ince your bra in
ha ndle s vis ua l images more e a s ily tha n it ha ndle s words or a bs tra ct
concepts , pa pe r a llows you to give concre te shape to your ideas.

BEFORE WE BEGIN: A FEW WORDS ABOUT YOUR SUPERSONIC BRAIN

In this a nd the coming cha pte rs , you a nd I are going to be lis te ning in on the
thoughts of a s ma rt s tude nt as he or she analyzes the ge ology passage. Don’t be
intimida te d—this process is going to ta ke us much longer to follow a long tha n
the a ctua l thinking-involve d took.
Le t’s ta ke a s imple e xa mple so you can see wha t I’m ta lking a bout. Imagine
tha t you’ve jus t finis he d dinne r. A frie nd calls you up a nd asks if you’d like to see
a movie . He re are the thoughts (que s tions ) tha t fla s h through your head:
• Have Iseen the m ovie?
• Ifso, do I want to see it again?
• Ifnot, ivhat have I he ard about it?
• Do I want to see it?
• How will Ige t there?
 • Even if I don’t want to see this movie, would I s till like to go with this
LEARNING THE
pe rs on? NEW WAY
® Who else is going?
® How do I ef e l about that?
® Is there anyone I’m trying to avoid that I m ight run into at the the ate r?
• Is there anything else I s hould be doing?
• Can I afford the ticket?
• W hat’s happe ning afte r the movie?
® How will Ige t back home?
® How late?
• W hat do I have to do tom orrow?
• Is there anyone who m ight object to m y going?
• Do I have any othe r plans?
• Ifso, do I want to break them?
9 How am Ife e ling now?
® How will Ife e l in a couple ofhours?
• How would this person fe e l ifIs aid yes?
• IfI s aid no?
• Do I care?
• IfI say no, do I want to offe r an excuse or suggest an alte rnative ?
• IfI say yes, s hould I make any special requests?

P he w! Twe nty-five que s tions , a nd I proba bly mis se d some tha t occurre d to you!
Ye t a ll these que s tions fla s h through your he ad, your a ma zing bra in processes
the m fa s te r tha n a ma infra me s upe rcompute r, a nd in a s e cond or two you
re s pond: “Sure! S ounds like fun! Whe n ca n you pick me up?” Or you might say,
“No, tha nks , I’d like to but five got exams coming up a nd I’m wa y be hind in my
re a ding.” The point is tha t ifwe we re to discuss each of these que s tions in de tail,
it might ta ke us an hour or more to e xplore the m adequately.
I me ntion this so you won’t be intimida te d by the le ngth of the dis cus s ion
tha t follows in the coming cha pte rs. We ma y s pe nd five pages dis cus s ing a
que s tion tha t you ca n a ns we r in five seconds. I don’t wa nt you to lose your time
pe rs pe ctive .

WHAT’S COMING UP
The ne xt cha pte r is a brie f but importa nt inte rmis s ion on classes a nd le cture s . If
you’d like to ge t right into the Cybe rLe a rning me thod, you ca n s kip dire ctly to
the firs t of the Twe lve Que s tions on page 45 a nd re turn to the inte rmis s ion la te r.
 Ill MiP M
WHAT SMART
STUDENTS KNOW
SUMMARY llflliillillili
You ma y be fe e ling a little ove rwhe lme d by the Twe lve Que s tions .
Perhaps a ll of it seems so ne w, so fa r from a nything you’ve be e n ta ught,
tha t you ca n’t ima gine be coming comforta ble with a ny of it. S ome
e le ments of Cybe rLe a rning ma y a lre a dy be pa rt of your s tudy ha bits , so
don’t pa nic. .
In mos t cla s s rooms , te a che rs ask que s tions a nd s tude nts look for
a nswe rs. But a s king the right que s tions is us ua lly the ha rd pa rt—the
pa rt tha t ma ke s you think mos t a bout the ma te ria l. S ma rt s tude nts ’
le a rning is s e lf-guide d. The y a sk the ir own que stions . Whe n s ma rt
s tudents re a d a bout rocks (or a bout a nything e ls e ), the y ma inta in a
8|1| dia logue be twe e n the ms e lves a nd the te xt, cons ta ntly a s king que s tions
mmm a nd s e a rching for answers. So the y aren’t jus t re a ding the passage, the y’re
e nga ging it.
The following cha pte rs will e xplore the twe lve funda me nta l
que s tions tha t e ve ry s ma rt s tude nt asks. The s e que s tions ma y seem like a
lot the firs t time through, but with pra ctice you’ll be a s king the m
a utoma tica lly. S oon you’ll be us ing these twe lve que s tions to ma s te r a ny
body of knowle dge , a da pting the m to diffe re nt type s of classes, diffe re nt
s ubje cts , a nd diffe re nt s itua tions . For now, though, gra b s ome scra p
■

pa pe r, a nd ge t re a dy to ta ke control of your e duca tion.

©
 Inte rmis s ion:
Applying the Me thod in
- Classes a nd Le cture s -

GETTING INFORMATION FROM A TEACHER INSTEAD OF A BOOK

You lis te n in classes a nd le cture s for the same reason you read your te xtbooks : to
e xtra ct the importa nt informa tion you will ne e d to proce s s la te r for
unders ta nding. But lis te ning to your te a cher a nd re a ding your te xtbook are not
the same, as you we ll know. Whe n re a ding, you set the pace; whe n lis te ning,
your te a che r doe s . And e ve n more importa nt, the pe rs on you lis te n to in
class—unlike the pe rs on who wrote your te xtbook—is us ua lly the one who
de termine s your a s s ignme nts , makes up your tests, a nd decides your grade.
In this cha pte r we ’ll e xa mine the pluses a nd minus e s of proces s ing s poke n
(as oppos e d to writte n) informa tion. Once you re cognize these a nd unde rs ta nd
how to use the Twe lve Ques tions to uns cra mble the puzzle, you’ll be we ll on
your wa y to ne ve r be ing glazed, dazed, s urpris e d, or mys tifie d by a le cture a ga in.
Le t’s cons ide r the disadvantages firs t.

THE DISADVANTAGES
The ma jor dis a dva ntage of class le ctures is tha t you are force d to ke e p up with
your teacher. Als o, even gre a t le cture rs are not always cohe re nt, a nd jump from
topic to topic. Your te a che r not only sets the pace but also de te rmine s the
ge ne ra l topic a nd does mos t of the ta lking. In other words you are thrus t into a
pa ssive role . This is less true in a s e mina r or s ma ll class, or in classes whe re
s tude nts are e ncoura ge d to ask que s tions a nd contribute to dis cus s ions . But in
mos t classes you have little choice but to lis te n a nd ta ke notes.
No ma tte r how gre a t the le cture , it’s ha rd not to re s e nt this role . Your
pa s s ivity makes it difficult to conce ntra te a nd lis te n a tte ntive ly. It also creates the
illus ion tha t you unde rs ta nd a topic s imply because you can follow wha t your
te a che r is s a ying a bout it. Don’t think tha t be ing able to follow a le cture means
you’ll be a ble to a ns we r te s t que stions on the ma terial. Afte r a ll, your te a che r has
done a ll the ha rd work—s e le cting a nd orga nizing informa tion—for you.
Lis te ning to your te a che r is like wa tching a gymna s t pe rform a flip a nd s a ying,
“I wa tche d tha t ca re fully a nd it doesn’t look so ha rd. I can do tha t.”
While you are always limite d by ha ving to keep up with the te a che r, the re
are ways for you to ta ke a more a ctive role during le ctures . We ’ll cove r these in
the coming cha pte rs . Now le t’s e xa mine the advantages.
M THE ADVANTAGES
STUDENTS^KNOW While not the ide a l wa y to le a rn, le ctures are s till the be s t wa y to dis cove r wha t
the te a che r thinks is importa nt. Teachers ma ke it a point to cove r e ve rything
the y cons ide r worthwhile . Given the wa y mos t s tude nts re a d a nd s tudy, teachers
can’t be sure s tude nts are ge tting the informa tion from the ir te xtbooks .
The re also seems to be a unive rsa l uns poke n a gre e me nt be twee n te ache rs
a nd s tude nts tha t a nything not me ntione d in class is off-limits as fa r as tests are
conce rne d! In a ny e ve nt, mos t teachers fe e l guilty if the y te s t you on s ome thing
tha t was not a t least me ntione d in class.
Furthe rmore , your teachers, unlike the a uthors of your te xtbooks , know you
a nd your classmates. The y have a sense of wha t you do a nd don’t unde rs ta nd,
a nd ca n ta ilor the ir le cture to your needs a nd que s tions a bout the ir subje cts.
The a dva nta ge s of le cture s fa r outwe igh the dis a dva nta ge s . Although
a tte nding le cture s a nd ke e ping up with your re ading are both essential, le cture s
are ultima te ly much more importa nt to your grades.

111 ft CLASSES AND LECTURES: NUTS AND BO LTS

He re is some ge nera l a dvice a bout classes a nd le cture s .
• Comple te a ny a s s ignme nts from the pre vious cla s s , e s pe cia lly
a s s igne d te xtbook re a ding. Ke e p a step ahead. Don’t wa it to he ar the
le cture be fore you re a d the cha pte r on the topic. You ma y think this
will save you time , s ince the te a che r will s tres s the importa nt
ma te ria l (ins te a d of your ha ving to figure out wha t’s importa nt by
re ading e ve rything). But if you don’t read the a ssigne d cha pte r, you
ma y ha ve a ve ry difficult time following the le cture a t a ll. Wha t’s
more , if you re a d the cha pter be fore ha nd, you will see whe re a nd
how your te a che r de via te s from the te xtbook—a va lua ble clue for
pos s ible te st que s tions . (If you ha ve n’t done the re a ding—s ha me on
you—try the following s ma rt s tude nt ta ctic. As s oon as class be gins ,
ta ke the firs t opportunity to raise your ha nd a nd say s ome thing, no
ma tte r how s traightforwa rd. This wa y you’ll lessen the cha nce your
te a che r will ca ll on you la te r—-when you ma y not know the a ns we r!)
Re vie w your note s from the pre vious le cture as we ll as the a s s igne d
re a ding. Do this as close to the time of the le cture as you can. This
a llows you to a dd a nd conne ct wha t you le a rn in this le cture to wha t
you a lre a dy know.
• Bring your te xtbook. Your te a che r ma y re fer to it. An obvious point
but worth noting.
• Bring your note s from your te xtbook a s s ignment. You ma y find it
ft'!®
m fa s te r to a dd the le cture note s dire ctly to your te xtbook note s .

©
 APPLYING THE
GLASSES AND LECTURES: NUTS AND BOLTS (CONTINUED) METHOD IN CLASSES
Bring your note s from the la s t class only. Leave your othe r note s a t AND LECTURES
home . It’s too easy to lose a se me ste r’s worth of note s as you run
a round. You can e a s ily replace a los t te xtbook, but los t note s are a
ma jor headache.
S how up on time . Lateness will be inte rpre te d as dis re s pe ct or la ck
of inte re st or both, a nd you’ll miss the importa nt firs t fe w minute s of
the le cture . Teachers ofte n ma ke a nnounce ments or s umma rize the ir
ma in points during the firs t fe w minute s of class. If you know you
have to leave early, le t your te a cher know be fore the le cture a nd s it
ne a r the door so you won’t dis rupt the class whe n you e xit. If your
pres e nce won’t be mis s e d—like in one of thos e la rge colle ge
introductory courses tha t are he ld in rooms like colis e ums —jus t s lip
out dis cre e tly.
If you ca n choos e your s e a t, pick one tha t e ncoura ge s you to
conce ntrate . S ome s tude nts pre fe r to s it ne a r the front of the class
because the y ge t dis tra cte d looking a t other s tude nts . Others find it
more dis tra cting to have s tude nts be hind the m, so the y s it in the
ba ck. Othe rs a void window seats, a nd so on. S it ne xt to a frie nd (but
not one who is ta lka tive or makes you giggle!) so you can pe e k a t his
or he r note s ifyou miss s ome thing the te a che r says.
You don’t ha ve to s uck up to your te a che r, but don’t go out of your
wa y to cre a te a ba d impres s ion e ither. Don’t s louch in your seat. Pay
a tte ntion. Teachers like to see s tude nts who follow, or a t le a st seem
to follow, wha t the y are saying. Wha t the y’re looking for is a room
full of hea ds nodding in a gre e me nt {not nodding out in sleepiness).
Re a ding a book or ta lking with a frie nd is not going to win you a ny
points with your teacher. You’d be s urpris e d how fa r whis pers can
ca rry; if youve e ve r s poke n in front of a group, you know how
dis tra cting even minor sounds ca n be.
Wa it be fore a s king a que s tion. If you ha ve a que s tion a bout
s ome thing the te ache r says, put a que s tion ma rk in the ma rgin of
your note s a nd wa it to see whe the r your te a cher answers it. If not,
ra is e your ha nd. If it is ina ppropria te for s ome re a s on to a sk a
que s tion during class, ask your te a cher a fte rwa rd, or ask a classmate.
(Be ca re ful a bout a s king que s tions if you ha ve n’t done the assigned
re a ding, or you might be broa dca s ting tha t fa ct to your te a che r.)
If you’re confuse d about a s pe cific point,; a s k your te a e fie r for: a n
e xa mple. Exa mple s are us ua lly easier to unders ta nd tha n a bs tract
e xpla na tions . If you don’t unde rs ta nd the e xa mple the te a che r
provide s , ask for a nothe r.

e
 WHAT SMART
STUDENTS KNOW
G LASSES AND LECTURES: NUTS AND BO LTS (CO NTINUED)
• Whe n the te a che r ca lls for a re s pons e from the class, think a bout
the que s tion be fore you ra is e your ha nd. You s houldn’t be the firs t
pe rs on in the room to raise your ha nd. Wha t's more , if you lis te n to
the que s tions a nd ins ights of your classmates ins te ad of volunte e ring
your own thoughts , you’ll be s urpris e d a t how much you ca n le a rn
from the m.
• If you dis a gre e with s ome thing the te a che r s a ys , voice your
obje ctions ca utious ly. Don’t come a cross as a know-it-a ll. Your
te a che r has a n ego, jus t as you do. And don’t think tha t ego is n’t
pre s e nt a t gra ding time .
• Don’t us e a ta pe re corde r unle s s you a bs olute ly mus t. Ta pe
re corde rs s imply double the a mount of time you s pe nd lis te ning to
your teacher. The sense of s e curity the y provide is false; as you will
le a rn s hordy, not e ve ry word your te a che r utte rs is importa nt.
• Quiz yours e lf! Right a fte r the le cture —on your wa y to the ne xt
class, if necessary—ta ke a minute or two to s umma rize to yours e lf
wha t wa s jus t cove red in class. You ca n jot this down on pa pe r, or
jus t do it in your head. Doing this he lps “fix” the ma in points in
your me mory. You won’t be a ble to re me mbe r e ve ry ide a , but you
s hould be a ble to s um up the ma in ones in a fe w sentences. Doing
this is a n e xce lle nt wa y to be gin re he a rs ing for tests.
I’ll ha ve more to say a bout le ctures in the coming cha pte rs .

WHAT’S COMING UP
In the ne xt cha pte r I’ll be gin de mons tra ting how s ma rt s tude nts a ns we r the
twe lve ba s ic Cybe rLea rning que s tions . I ma y use s ome te rms you are unfa milia r
with, a nd you ma y not unde rs ta nd e ve rything I’m doing, but jus t pa y a tte ntion
a nd follow a long. In a s hort time e ve rything will be come so cle a r a nd obvious
you’ll wonde r why you we re n’t a lwa ys a pproa ching s chool this way.
Re me mbe r, you now know more a bout the ins a nd outs of le ctures tha n you
did a fe w pages ago. And it was re la tive ly painless. Now it’s time to move on to
the core of a n e ntire ly ne w system of le a rning.
Oka y, the n. Ready? Le t’s be gin with the firs t Cybe rLe a rning que s tion.
 Ans we ring Que s tion 1:
Wha t’s My Purpose
——- for Re a ding This ? ——

KNOW WHERE YOU’RE GOING AND WHAT YOU’RE LOOKING FOR

Do you e ve r go into a crowde d groce ry s tore with no re a l purpos e , jus t to Question 1:
wa nde r a imle s s ly a mong the ca nne d goods a nd produce ? Of cours e not. It What’s my purpose
for reading this?
would be a frus tra ting wa s te of time . Re ading a te xtbook without a cons cious
Question 2:
goa l is like a imle s s ly wa nde ring the aisles of a s tore—only it has more dis a s trous What do I already know
consequences. about this topic?
The wa y you s hop in a s tore will va ry de pe nding on wha t your s hopping Question 3:
goa l is. S hopping for a pa ir of ba s ke tba ll sneakers is diffe re nt from brows ing for What’s the big picture
a birthda y gift; doing your we e kly groce ry s hopping is diffe re nt from running to here?
a corne r s tore to cure a s udde n case of the munchie s . Question 4;
What's the author going to
The same fle xibility of a pproach s hould be true of the wa y you read. The re say next? ::
are ma ny reasons you might be re a ding s ome thing in s chool; Question 5:
• doing research for a pa pe r What are the “expert
questions”?
• s tudying for a fina l exam
Question 6:
• looking up importa nt informa tion What questions does this
information raise for me?
• s ca nning for ge ne ra l ideas
Question 7:
• pre paring for a class dis cus s ion What information is
important here?
Wha te ver your a s s ignme nt, you proba bly be gin by diving right into the ma te ria l
without cons ide ring why you’re re a ding it. But you s houldn’t do this , because Question 8:
How can I paraphrase
the wa y you read a nd wha t informa tion you ge t out of the ma te ria l will de pe nd and summarize this
on your purpos e . If you don’t de fine your purpos e in re a ding, how will you information?
know wha t informa tion to look for? Re me mbe r S ma rt S tude nt P rinciple #3: Question 9:
Not e ve rything you are a s s igned to re a d or a ske d to do is e qua lly importa nt. How can I organize this
information?
The wa y you s tudy—tha t is , the wa y you a sk a nd a ns we r the Twe lve
Question 10:
Que s tions—de pe nds gre atly on wha t a nd why you are s tudying. The wa y you How can I picture this
read your te xtbook s hould be diffe re nt from the wa y you read a ma gazine a rticle . information?
Like wise , the wa y you s tudy for a class in which your grade is de te rmine d by Question 11:
papers s hould be diffe re nt from the wa y you s tudy whe n it is de te rmine d by What’s my hook for
te s ts . For tha t ma tte r, the wa y you s tudy for a multiple -choice te s t will be remembering this
information?
diffe re nt from the wa y you s tudy for an essay test.
Question 12:
How does this information
fit in with what I already
know?
 Q UESTIO N 1 SETS THE STAG E FO R ALL THE O THERS
WHAT SMART
You don’t ne e d to write a nything for this que s tion, but it s hould a lwa ys be in the
STUDENTS KNOW
: ba ck of your mind as you s tudy. Although you can a ns we r it in a fe w seconds,
this que s tion is crucia l, because it forces you to assess how de e ply you ne e d to
e xplore the othe r eleven que s tions .
For e xa mple , if your purpos e is to scan for informa tion for a research paper,
Question 3:
What’s the big picture Que stion 11 is less importa nt tha n if you we re pre pa ring for a fina l e xa m. If
here? you’re s kimming a ma ga zine a rticle for pote ntia l pa per topics , the n the re’s no
Question 11: reason to go much be yond Que s tion 3. You’ll le a rn more a bout how to a ns wer
What's my hook for this que s tion in the coming cha pte rs .
remembering this
information?
BE SPECIFIC
Ke e p in mind tha t you ne e d to state your purpos e pre cis e ly. It’s not e nough to
say, for e xa mple , tha t your purpos e is to s tudy for a te s t—wha t type of te s t will
it be? If it’s an essay te st you’ll ne e d to pa y more a tte ntion to the ge ne ra l ideas,
whereas if it’s a s hort-a ns we r te st, the de ta ils will also be importa nt.
I’m not s a ying tha t you s hould re a d a nd s tudy only wha t will be on the
e xa m, but tha t you s hould ke e p it in mind. Like it or not, the te s t is s till the
s ta nda rd by which teachers judge your knowle dge a nd a bility.

ANSWERING QUESTION 1 ON THE ROCKS PASSAGE

In the ins tructions to Exe rcise #2 (page 26), we a ssume d tha t our grade in our
hypothe tica l e a rth science cours e de pende d on a te s t we we re going to ta ke on
the rocks passage. So tha t’s your purpos e : you’re s tudying this passage so you can
ace a ma jor exam.
Now, le t’s say we figure tha t based on our te a che r’s pre vious tests, this one
will include a bout two-thirds s hort-a ns we r que s tions -multipie -choice a nd true -
false que s tions -a nd a bout one -third essay que s tions . (In Part IV: How S m art
S tudents Ge t The ir Grades, I’ll s how you how to figure out wha t will be on your
exams a nd how to pre pa re for the m.)
Now you know wha t you’re looking for as you s tudy. S ince it’s a ma jor te st,
you’ll ne e d to e xplore a ll the eleven othe r ques tions in de ta il.

ANSWERING QUESTION 1 IN CLASSES AND LECTURES

It is jus t as importa nt to lis te n with a purpos e as to re a d with a purpos e .
Que s tion 1 now be come s W hat’s m y purpos e for lis te ning to this ? Be fore class
be gins you s hould give s ome thought to the same cons ide rations we ha ve jus t
discussed for te xtbooks . Will you be fa cing a pa pe r or test? Wha t kind? How
de e ply mus t we a na lyze the le cture ma te ria l by e xploring the re ma ining e le ve n
que stions?
Don’t worry if this doe s n’t ma ke comple te sense a t this point; you’ve jus t
be gun the process. It will a ll be come cle a r s hortly.
 WHAT’S IWY PURPOSE
SUMMARY it® FOR READING THIS?
It’s easy to ove rlook this importa nt que s tion in your rus h to comple te
a s s ignments , but be fore you be gin always ta ke a minute or two to de fine
your purpos e . Your purpos e is not s imply to re a d the a ssigne d pages.
You ne e d to be s pe cific a bout why you are re a ding the ma te ria l. Is it for
a te s t (if so, wha t kind of te s t), is it for a dis cus s ion in class, or wha t?
As you know, re a ding a ca de mic ma te ria l can ofte n seem te dious a nd
confus ing. If so, you proba bly ha ve n’t fully de fine d your purpos e . You
mus t know wha t you wa nt from the ma te ria l if you e xpe ct to find it.
S ta ting your purpos e is the ke y tha t lets you unlock the ma te ria l a nd
ma ke it work for you ra the r tha n confus e you. Once you be gin to ta ke
control of your s ubje ct, you’re re a dy to a s k yours e lf the ne xt
Cybe rLe a rning que s tion.
 Ans we ring Que s tion 2:
Wha t Do I Alre a dy Know
----— About This Topic? ——

GETTING WARDED UP
You proba bly s ta rt mos t of your a s s ignme nts without a ny pre pa ra tion. If you’re Question 1: sill
s uppos e d to re a d a cha pte r in your his tory book, you s it down a t your desk, What’s my purpose for
reading this?
ope n your book to the a ppropria te page, a nd imme dia tely s ta rt re a ding. Tha t’s
Question 2:
like going for a run without s tre tching your mus cle s firs t. Re ading a comple x
What do I already
te xt is a s tre nuous me nta l exercise. If you dive into difficult ma te ria l without faiow about this topic?
wa rming up, it won’t go s moothly. Question 3:
Of cours e , a t the be ginning of a te rm you ma y know ve ry little a bout a What’s the big picture
topic. Tha t’s oka y. You ca n wa rm up for your a s s ignme nt by jotting down here?
que s tions you have a bout the s ubje ct or a fe w note s a bout wha t you e xpe ct to Question 4:
What’s the author going to
le a rn in the re a ding. If your te a cher has a lre a dy cove re d the topic in a le cture , say next?
this s te p acts as a quick re vie w. Question 5:
What are the “expert
HERE’S WHAT YOU DO questions"?
Afte r you re a d the title but before jou be gin re a ding, quickly a nd brie fly jot down Question 6:
the following facts a nd ques tions : What questions does this
information raise for me?
® wha t you know a bout the topic Question 7: ,..
• wha t the topic re minds you of What information is
important here?
® wha t you’d like to know or e xpe ct to le a rn Question 8:
You’ll ge t more out of this step if you write things down ra the r tha n jus t “do it How can I paraphrase
in your he a d.” The phys ical a ct of writing a ctua lly a ctiva tes more of your bra in. and summarize this
information?
You won’t ne e d to save your work, so you ca n jus t use your own s hortha nd on
Question 9:
s cra tch pa pe r. The point of a ns we ring this que s tion is s imply to pre pa re you How can I organize the
bra in to receive the ne w informa tion, not to ta ke note s you’ll be s tudying from. information?
I re a lize tha t writing this informa tion down takes a lot of s e lf-control but Question 10:
Ans we ring Que s tion 2 s hould be easy a nd fun; tre a t it like a game a nd le t your How can I picture this
ima gina tion go. information?
Question 11:
What’s my hook for
HERE’S WHY YOU DO IT remembering this
If you’re used to rus hing into an a s s ignme nt, ta king even a fe w minutes to wa rm information?
up ma y seem s illy. But hold on a s e cond. Wa rming up is s uppos e d to turn Question 12:
re ading into a game by ge tting you curious : you’ll be re a ding the ma te ria l to see How does this information
fit in with what i already
how clos e ly you guessed wha t the a uthor says. know?
n Wa rming up has othe r be ne fits , too:
WHAT SMART
STUDENTS KNOW • It s ta rts the proce s s of ge ne ra ting que s tions . As you be come aware
of wha t you know a nd don’t know a bout s ome thing, you’ll think of
ke y que s tions tha t ne e d a ns we ring.
• It ma ke s you a wa re of wha t you know a nd don’t know a bout a
topic. You’ll ofte n be s urpris e d tha t you know more (or less) tha n
you thought.
• It puts you on the lookout for ne w informa tion. It paves the wa y
for the informa tion you’re a bout to a bs orb a nd he lps you re me mbe r
it by conne cting ne w ma te ria l with wha t you a lre a dy know.
• It’s va lua ble pra ctice in re s ource ful thinking. Eve n if you know ve ry
little a bout a topic, be ing able to “ma ke do” with wha t you a lre a dy
know will come in ha ndy whe n you’re fa ce d with a te st que s tion you
dra w a bla nk on.
• It acts as a re view. If you a lre a dy know quite a bit a bout the topic,
wa rming up gives you a cha nce to quiz yours e lf.
• If ma ke s you the a uthority. Be fore you a re influe nce d by the
a uthor’s ideas a nd opinions , wa rming up gets you to express your
own thoughts fre e ly. Doing this lessens your de pe nde nce on the te xt
a nd force s you to think for yours e lf.
Don’t s kip your wa rm-up! Aga in, I know this step seems like a lot of work but it
s hould ta ke five or te n minute s a t mos t a nd can save you hours of wa s ted s tudy
la te r. I promis e .

ANSWERING QUESTION 2 ON THE ROCKS PASSAGE

You a ns we re d this que s tion whe n you complete d Exe rcis e #1 on page 26, a nd
now I’ll s how you how I a ns we re d it. Ta ke out your work a nd compa re our
responses to this que s tion.
Aga in, the re’s no right or wrong wa y to a ns wer this que s tion as long as you
put s ome ge nuine e ffort into it. S till, compa ring is he lpful—you ma y look a t my
sheet a nd say “I kne w tha t; why didn’t I jot it down on my sheet?” which will
e ncourage you to pus h a little ha rde r on the ne xt exercise.
As I a dmitte d, I know ne xt to nothing a bout rocks . As I thought a bout wha t
I kne w a bout rocks (a nd wha t I didn’t know—also ve ry importa nt), he re’s wha t I
ca me up with in a fe w minute s :
 WHAT DO I ALREADY
-h ard - cjeolaw KNOW ABOUT THIS
- old C houj old 7how do we measure?) - landslides TOPIC?
- (700 Ide^ - d^ncnefe
- what -fypss of rwks A/edbcie? - s Concrete a . sort cf wa>t-
- u)hai' 4/e ioodk$ mode of 7 ceHtuVu WArle roeh 7
kiod$ cf mdals oc WMemk? - sb-ippincj stones
-^oil - -fossi Is
- how do toads rjef in rocks 7
- Wk&K -the difference between Where Cine %ey fWd 77
^od , ^a.iri<d And hmy /oe ks 73 - Archaeology, paiemiology'
- ujliai'^ -Hie. difference befweeiv, - coai
A. 6tor And cLrcc^,7 - d irLWOnds
- Acje - is Co a I c l nock?dees if become
- wkne£ one if jt" -forms iVvto a dutm/id7
- ^00/meA -
- 1cke/c dire. mines And gua/Wcs - preciOOS stones
lota3rcd ? - die gamS on jeWeis SpeCna-l
- cro&ioiA- fords of roots ?
- pebbles - me te or 1+e $
- cjnai/tsl - A/e meteorites noshs -from
outer s^e7

I told you I didn’t know much a bout rocks other tha n ge ne ra l knowle dge . Tha t’s
okay. Now tha t I have s ome ide a of the gaps in my knowle dge I ca n be gin filling
the m.

ANSWERING QUESTION 2 IN GLASSES AND LECTURES

S hortly be fore going to class or le cture , or while wa iting for it to s ta rt, guess
wha t topic the te a che r will cover. As with re a ding, this step turns the le cture into
a ga me a nd ma ke s it more cha lle nging a nd re le va nt. S ince mos t te ache rs a nd
le cture rs discuss a topic a fte r giving you a n a s s ignme nt to read, you s hould be
a ble to write quite a bit in response. It forces you to re ca ll wha t you read, a nd
readies your mind for the ne w ba tch of informa tion.
 Ililllill ■
WHAT SMART SUMMARY
STUDENTS KNOW
Que s tion 2 asks you to jot down brie fly a nything you know a bout a
topic be fore you s ta rt re a ding. You ma y dis mis s this s te p too quickly.
Don’t. It is impe ra tive tha t you write s ome thing down—e ve n if the ideas
seem s illy. Doing this will he lp you re cognize wha t you know a nd don’t
know a bout a topic. It also force s you to s ta nd on your two fe e t without
re lying on your te xtbook. In s hort, wa rming up force s you to think for
yours e lf. Fina lly, Que s tion 2 se rve s as a wa rm-up be fore you be gin
dia loguing with the te xt. Que s tion 3 will continue the wa rm-up process.

@
 Ans we ring Que s tion 3:
Wha t’s the
-------- Big P icture Here? ——

YOU MEED A ROAD MAP

You’ve wa rmed up by a ns we ring the pre vious que s tions , but you’re not quite Question 1:
re a dy to be gin a close ins pe ction of the te xt. Firs t you s hould get a n ove rvie w, What’s my purpose for
reading this?
the big picture .
Question 2:
It’s difficult to unde rs ta nd te xt because informa tion is pres e nte d line a rly, one What do I already know
fa ct or ide a a fte r the ne xt. Ra rely do you ge t a cha nce to see how ideas conne ct about this topic?
or whe re the dis cus s ion is le a ding. To unders ta nd s ome thing you ne e d to see the Question 3:
whole as we ll as the pa rts ; you need to see the ge ne ra l s tructure . What’s the big picture
Re a ding without a n ove rvie w is like driving to a n unknown de s tina tion, here?
with s ome one ne xt to you who wa its until the la s t s e cond to give directions: Question 4:
What's the author going to
“Oka y, turn right he re, now turn le ft, now right.” Wha t you’d like is a ge nera l say next?
ide a of the route a nd de s tina tion be fore you set out. Question 5:
The big picture is your pe rs onal roa d ma p. This cha pte r shows you how to What are the “expert
create one so you’ll be in charge. You’ll a lwa ys know whe re you are a nd whe re questions”?
you’re going. Question 6: Hi
What questions does this
information raise for me?
WHAT YOU’RE LOOKING FOR
Question 7:
Whe n you conce ntra te on the big picture , you’re not re a lly trying to unde rs ta nd What information is
the ma te ria l. Nor are you trying to me morize a nything. Ra the r, you’re jus t trying important here?
to ge t a ge ne ra l but s olid sense of wha t you’re re a ding. In s hort, you ne e dn’t Question 8:
s pe nd a lot of time on this que s tion. How can I paraphrase «
and summarize this
He re ’s a ll you ne e d to ge t the big picture : information?
• Ma in Ide a s a nd The me s Question 9:
The typica l cha pte r conta ins only a ha lf dozen or so ma in ideas. How can I organize this
Ma ke sure you “ge t” these be fore you are s wa mpe d with confus ing information?
de ta ils . Question 10:
How can I picture this
• Importa nt Te rms a nd Conce pts information?
Don’t try to le a rn the m a t this point; jus t fa milia rize yours e lf Question 11:
with the m. What’s my hook for
remembering this
« Ove ra ll Orga niza tion information?
While you read you’ll need to keep in mind the orde r in which the Question 12:
ma in ideas a nd importa nt concepts are pre s e nted. How does this information
fit in with what I already
For now you s hould s kip mos t of the facts a nd minor de ta ils . know?

©
 Now tha t you know what you’re looking for, I’ll te ll you where you’ll find
WHAT SMART
tha t informa tion. Whe re you look to find the big picture will de pe nd on
STUDENTS KNOW
whe the r you are re a ding a book or a cha pte r. We ’ll cons ide r each separately.

GETTING THE BIG PICTURE OF A BOOK

To ge t the big picture of a book, re a d the following ite ms in this ge ne ra l order:
• P re face a nd Introduction
You ma y think these s e ctions are a wa s te of time (s ince te a che rs
ra re ly “assign” the m) but the y fre que ntly s umma rize the e ntire book.
No kidding! Re a d the m ca re fully (ye s , e ve n if the pa ge s a re
numbere d with Roma n numera ls ).
® Author Biogra phy
A brie f biogra phy is s ome time s on the ins ide of the book cover, or in
the ba ck of the book. You can s kim this quickly. Knowing s ome thing
of the a uthor’s ba ckground he lps you unders ta nd his or he r point
of vie w.
• Ta ble of Conte nts
Re a d e a ch of the cha pte r title s , not jus t the cha pte r you a re
looking for.
• Cha pte r S umma rie s
Of cours e , not a ll books include cha pte r s umma rie s . If the
s umma rie s are long, read the firs t a nd la s t fe w pa ra gra phs of each.
It’s not a ba d ide a to ge t the big picture of a n e ntire book e ve n if you’re going
to re a d only pa rt of it. This s te p doe s n’t ta ke tha t much time , a nd a n
unde rs ta nding of the whole will he lp you grasp the pa rt you’re re a ding.

GETTING THE BIG PICTURE OF A CHAPTER

To ge t the big picture of a cha pte r or a long a rticle , re a d the following ite ms in
this ge ne ra l order:
• Cha pte r Title
S pe nd a minute re fle cting on the title . A we ll-worde d title ca n
s umma rize a n e ntire cha pte r.
• Firs t a nd La s t P a ra gra phs of the Cha pte r
Re a d the e ntire pa ra gra phs , s ince the y ofte n s um up the fe w ke y
ideas.
• S e ction He a dings
Gla nce a t the s ubhe a dings , too.
 • Ta ble s , Gra phs , Cha rts , P ictures , a nd Dia grams
WHAT’S THE
You might be te mpte d to s kip ove r figure s because the re’s tha t much
BIG PICTURE HERE?
less to re a d. Don’t. Figure s are ofte n us e d to conve y complica te d
ide a s tha t a re difficult to e xpre s s in words . S pe nd a mome nt
inte rpre ting wha t informa tion these gra phic devices provide .
• The Firs t S e nte nce of Ea ch P a ra gra ph in the Cha pte r
The las t sentence of each pa ra gra ph is also us e ful, but you ca n s kip it
on longe r a s s ignme nts . Tf it’s a re a lly long cha pte r, re a ding the firs t
a nd la s t sentences of each s ubs e ction is s ufficie nt.
The ne xt two ite ms are also ve ry importa nt for ge tting the big picture .
• Cha pte r S umma ry
See if you ca n s umma rize the cha pte r based on your quick s urve y
before you re a d the a uthor’s s umma ry. It’s an e xce llent wa y to build
your unde rs ta nding as we ll as to pre pa re for exams.
9 Que s tions a t the End of the Cha pte r
Aga in, try to come up with que s tions on your own before re ading the
a uthor’s.
Ge tting the big picture of a s hort a rticle is not much diffe re nt. Read the firs t a nd
la s t pa ra gra phs ca re fully a nd s kim the firs t sentences of a ll othe r pa ra gra phs .

WRITE IT DOWN
It’s a good ide a to ta ke rough note s on s cratch pa per whe n you’re ge tting the big For an individual,
picture . Ha ving a pe ncil in ha nd a nd jotting down your impre s s ions force s you however, there can be
to think. It’s also he lpful to have a writte n roa d ma p tha t you can follow whe n no question that a fe w
you be gin to read the ma te ria l in de pth as you a ns we r the othe r Cybe rLe a rning clear ideas are worth
que s tions . If you’re going on a long a nd comple x journey, re fe rring to a ta ngible more than many
ma p is much easier tha n trying to re me mbe r a series of complica te d dire ctions in confused ones.
your head. (In a passage the size of the rocks passage, a writte n roa d ma p is n’t C h a r l e s S. P ie r c e
re a lly ne ce s s a ry; for a le ngthy cha pte r it’s e xtre me ly us e ful.) Whe n you’ve
finis he d the cha pte r or a rticle , you can throw your big picture note s away.

STEP SACK FOR S0S1E PERSPECTIVE

Ima gine yours e lf in the following s itua tions : pa inting s ome one ’s portra it,
s upe rvis ing the cons truction of a skyscraper, a nd driving a car. Wha t do the y
ha ve in common with le a rning? In each one you are cons ta ntly s hifting your
pe rs pe ctive ba ck a nd forth be twe e n the de ta ils a nd the big picture .
As a pa inte r you work on a pa rticula r fe a ture , the n you step ba ck to see how
the fe a ture fits in with the re st of the portra it. As a cons truction s upe rvis or, you
ne e d to ins pe ct the work on each floor, but you also need to move a wa y from
the building to see how the ove rall cons truction is going. And as a drive r you
ta ke in your imme dia te s urroundings as we ll as wha t’s ha ppe ning down the road.

©
: : i Whe n you’re le a rning s ome thing you mus t do the s a me . S te p ba ck
WHAT SMART pe riodica lly. Don’t ge t so ca ught up in trying to me morize a ll the fa cts a nd
STUDENTS KNOW
HMfe-. P de tails tha t you miss the fe w ma in ideas the cours e is trying to ge t across.
If you e ve r find yours e lf confus e d by s ome thing you’re re a ding, you’ve
proba bly jus t los t your be a rings mome nta rily. A good wa y to re orie nt yours e lf
is to go ba ck to the big picture a nd ge t it firmly in mind be fore continuing.

QUIZ YOURSELF!
Afte r you’ve gotte n the big picture , you’re re a dy to be gin re a ding the ma te ria l.
But be fore you jump in, I re comme nd tha t you try the following two drills ,
which s hould ta ke no longer tha n a fe w minute s .
Eve n though you ha ve only a ge ne ra l ide a of wha t the ma te ria l is a bout
(a fte r a ll, you ha ve n’t even be gun to read the ma te ria l clos ely), give the m your
best s hot. You ca n do the m a loud or on pa pe r, but ha ve fun.
9 Firs t, try to s umma rize the e ntire cha pte r in a fe w sentences.
* S e cond, try to outline brie f a ns we rs to the cha pte r que s tions a t
the e nd.
You’ll proba bly miss a lot but tha t’s oka y You’ll be s urpris e d a t how much you
ca n pie ce toge the r from the fe w ma in ideas you’ve picke d up a lre a dy, a nd to
think you’ve only jus t be gun to a tta ck the te xt. The s e drills will not only he lp
you unde rs ta nd a nd re me mbe r the ma te ria l—the y’re a ls o gre a t te s t-ta king
pra ctice !

ANSWERING QUESTION 3 ON THE ROCKS PASSAGE

We ll, le t’s see. Wha t are the ma jor ide a s in our s a mple passage? He re ’s my
roa d ma p:

- mOtAe mrvst&k
- -fypes. or MCTO:
-iqifie ooi, wch, -formed 4roni maltetc- m&H*ef
fodko -^ormrA -Prom pw+icies. in,
- w\&kLmo/pbid tvaks. -Pot/ncd! uvidt/qfoand -ftorn
roc.oi^de r he at an.J
d^y -h|pg erf ro6.h g a y \ a Wi^c i a /iy oiMcr

Tha t’s re a lly a ll the re is to this step for our passage. You don’t ha ve to write out
comple te or gra mma tica lly corre ct sentences; you’re the only pe rs on who’s going
to use this roa d ma p.
ANSWERING QUESTION 3 IN CLASSES AND LECTURES
WHAT’S THE
As you know, one of the advantages of books ove r le ctures is tha t you ca n s kip BIG PICTURE HERE?
a round in a book. S till, you can us ua lly get the big picture of wha t your te a cher
will say if you’re a le rt.
Firs t, mos t te ache rs assign s ome thing to re a d be fore cove ring it in class,
Doing your a s s ignme nt will give you a s ummary of the ma in points your te a cher
will cove r in class a nd will ma ke the le cture much easier to follow. This is one
more good reason for comple ting a s s ignme nts be fore class.
S e cond, if teachers cove r ne w ground, the y will ofte n s umma rize the ir ma in
point in the firs t fe w minute s of the ir le cture . So lis te n up.

SUMMARY
Ge tting the big picture is like be coming a cqua inte d with s ome one
you’ve jus t me t. You don’t be gin by a s king for intima te de ta ils of the ir
live s ; you ge t to know the m firs t in a more ge ne ra l sense.
Re a ding is the s a me wa y. Ge tting the big picture for a n a rticle
s hould ta ke five , ma ybe te n minute s tops , while ge tting it for a
complica te d cha pte r might ta ke up to ha lf a n hour. This is a n e xce lle nt
inve s tme nt of your time a nd with pra ctice it will be come a n e fficie nt
ha bit. Ge tting the big picture will focus your re a ding a nd give you a
fra me work you’ll ne e d to ma ke sense of ne w informa tion. Without it, a
re a ding a s s ignme nt ofte n seems like a long s tring of de ta ils . With it,
you’ll know the ma jor points the a uthor is trying to ma ke , a nd you’ll
unders ta nd the re le vance of the de ta ils .
This is a critica l s te p a nd will save you a lot of time la ter, so don’t
s kip it. In fa ct, for much of the re a ding you ha ve to do in s chool,
ge tting the big picture is all you ha ve to do. If, for e xa mple , your
te a che r ha nds out a long lis t of “re comme nde d” re a dings , it is us ua lly
e nough to ge t the big picture of e a ch by s kimming the cha pte r
s umma rie s . (Of cours e, if you ha ve the time a nd you'd like to s tudy
clos e ly each re comme nde d book, be my gue s t.) J us t re me mber S ma rt
S tude nt P rinciple #3: Not e ve rything you are a s s igne d to re a d or a ske d
to do is e qua lly importa nt. Question 4:
You’ll le a rn how to te ll wha t’s worth re a ding clos e ly a nd wha t’s What’s the author going
not whe n we re vie w Que s tion 7 be ginning on page 81. Be fore moving to say next?
on to Que s tion 4, le t’s ta ke a bre a k for a critica l look a t s ome thing ne a r Question 7:
a nd de a r to your he a rt—the te xtbook. What information is
important here?
 m
Inte rmis s ion:
'The Trouble with Te xtbooks

GO FIGURE
S tude nts are ra re ly e ncoura ge d or even a llowe d to le a rn from me a ningful re a l-life
a ctivitie s , the wa y mos t a dults outs ide s chool do. Ra the r, the prima ry m m
e duca tiona l tool in the cla s s room is the te xtbook. Why teachers re ly so he a vily |
on te xtbooks ma y puzzle you since you proba bly find re a ding one a bout as easy
as wa ding wa ist-de e p through quicks a nd.
It ma y come as no s urpris e to he a r tha t as a ve hicle for conve ying
informa tion, te xtbooks leave a n a wful lot to be de sire d.
Te xtbooks pre s e nt only one point of vie w. This is true even though
a gre a t ma ny te xtbooks are writte n not by e xpe rts with te a ching
e xpe rie nce but by te a ms of e ditors . The a s s e mbly-line fa s hion in
which ma ny te xtbooks are produce d leaves them riddle d with e rrors .
I don’t jus t me a n typos or omis s ions or s illy gra mma tica l lapses; I’m
ta lking bla ta nt fa ctua l ina ccura cie s , including some real bloopers . A
re ce nt inve s tiga tion of his tory te xtbooks , for e xa mple , came across
one tha t told the fa mous s tory of how P re s ide nt Truma n e nde d the
Korea n Wa r by dropping a nucle a r bomb (Eis e nhowe r was pre s ident
a t the time , a nd the nucle ar bombs the y we re thinking of we re
droppe d on Ja pa n in World Wa r II.) So much for e ditoria l re vie w
boa rds.
Te xtbooks are notorious ly dull, poorly writte n, informa tion-de ns e ,
a nd cra mme d with ja rgon. No, it’s proba bly not your fa ult if you
find your te xtbook difficult to read.
Te xtbooks try to be e ve rything to e ve rybody. S ince publis hing
compa nie s wa nt the ir te xtbooks a dopte d by as ma ny s ta te s a nd
s chool dis tricts as pos s ible , the y wa te r down the ir s ubje cts to the
“lowe s t common de nomina tor.” The re ’s no wa y a ny one te xtbook
can conform to your pa rticula r needs a nd le a rning style.
Te xtbooks ca n’t pre se nt the big picture . Eve n if you ha d a te xtbook
writte n jus t for you, it would s till not be the ide a l le a rning tool. As
you know from the previous cha pte r, te xtbooks pre s e nt s ubje cts
logica lly, which is not the wa y le a rning—a proce s s of tria l a nd
e rror—ta ke s pla ce . Doe s this s ound we ird? It’s not. Le a rning a
s ubje ct is like putting toge the r a puzzle whe n you have no ide a wha t
the fina l picture is s uppos e d to look like . Te xtbooks he lp create the
 illus ion tha t the only wa y to le a rn a s ubje ct is to bre a k it down into
WHAT SMART topics a nd the n pres e nt the m in a s pe cific orde r. S ome teachers ge t
STUDENTS KNOW
a round this by a s s igning cha pte rs in a diffe re nt orde r, but the
e sse ntia l proble m re mains : te xtbooks ca n only pre s e nt informa tion
line a rly, one pie ce a t a time , while your mind needs to see how thos e
pieces fit toge the r.
I me ntion these things so you don’t think it’s your fa ult if you ha ve difficulty
re a ding your te xtbooks —e ve ryone doe s , e ve n s ma rt s tude nts . As a lwa ys ,
howe ve r, s ma rt s tude nts do s ome thing a bout it. Re me mbe r S ma rt S tude nt
P rinciple #2: Me re ly lis te ning to your te a che rs a nd comple ting the ir
a s s ignme nts is ne ve r e nough.

DON’T BEAT YOUR HEAD AGAINST A WALL

Le t’s say you’re ha ving trouble with the rocks passage. Wha t to do? You could
s truggle with it for hours , or you could seek out a nothe r s ource of informa tion.
Anothe r s ource of informa tion? Your te a che rs a nd te xtbooks ma y be the
only informa tion sources you re ly on now. The s e are the mos t obvious sources,
of course, but why s top there? Libra rie s a nd books tores conta in othe rs .
Don’t limit your s e a rch to othe r te xtbooks . You ca n le a rn a lot from
e ncyclopedia e ntrie s , ma ga zine a rticle s , a nd vide o documenta rie s . Anything tha t
he lps you unde rs ta nd a s ubject is gre a t, so don’t be proud—e ve n a childre n’s
book on the s ubje ct ca n ge t your fe e t we t be fore ta ckling s ome thing cha lle nging.
Eve n if you ha ve no trouble unde rs ta nding your prima ry te xtbook,
cons ulting a s upple me nta ry re s ource on the s ubje ct provide s be ne fits . Eve ry
a uthor a pproa che s a s ubje ct from a diffe re nt point of vie w, e xpla ins it diffe re ntly,
emphasizes diffe re nt aspects, a nd provide s diffe re nt e xa mple s . Expos ing yours e lf
to more tha n one point of vie w is a n e normous a dva nta ge even in s trictly fa ctua l
subje cts like ge ology, but it’s e s pe cia lly a dva nta ge ous in the huma nitie s .

HOW TO CHOOSE A SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION SOURCE

Within the firs t fe w weeks of a ne w course, you s hould ha ve found an outs ide
te xtbook or othe r s ource of informa tion tha t s upple me nts your “officia l”
te xtbook. S ince a ca de mic ma te ria ls cos t a lmos t as much as a s ma ll s ports car,
che ck out wha t your public libra ry or s chool libra ry has to offe r be fore you
purcha se a nything.
He re are some tips on choos ing s upple me nta ry informa tion sources:
• As k your te ache r. Mos t teachers will be impre s s e d by your initia tive
a nd will be gla d to suggest othe r books in the fie ld. You might also
ask s ome one who has a lre a dy ta ke n the class or s ome one ma joring in
the fie ld.
• Find a book tha t has lots of e xa mple s , de ta ile d e xplana tions , a nd
que s tions (pre fe ra bly with a ns we rs ).
 ® Be wa re of popula r outline or s tudy guide s . Ma ny of the m are more
THE TROUBLE WITH
difficult tha n the te xtbooks the y pre te nd to replace! The y also omit a
TEXTBOOKS
lot of ke y informa tion a nd are us ua lly s hort on e xa mples a nd
e xpla na tions .
® Find a diffe re nt a uthor a nd publis he r. S ome publis he rs put out
workbooks or outline guide s to a ccompa ny the ir ma in te xtbook. If
you’re ha ving trouble with the te xtbook, howe ve r, you proba bly
won’t be he lpe d by a nything else the a uthor has writte n. In a ny
e ve nt, you’re trying to ge t a diffe re nt pe rs pe ctive on the s ubje ct.
® Choos e a n e xpe rt with re a l e xpe rie nce in the fie ld, a nd pre fe ra bly
s ome of tha t e xpe rie nce in te a ching. Don’t be impre s s e d by a lis t of
cons ulta nts or a n e ditoria l boa rd of a dvis e rs ; the s e books a re
compile d by committe e . Look ins te a d for a book tha t promine ntly
a nnounce s the na me of one or two a uthors .
• Look for s ome thing tha t seems inviting to re a d. On the othe r
ha nd, don’t be foole d by s pla s hy gra phics . P ublis he rs will s pe nd a
ton of mone y trying to ma ke a me diocre te xtbook look good, so be
sure it reads as good as it looks . In s hort, don’t judge a book by its
cover.
® The la te r the e dition, the be tte r. Mos t ne w te xtbooks have kinks
tha t ta ke a fe w e ditions to we e d out. A book tha t has s urvive d ove r
the years cle a rly has s ome thing going for it. You ca n find out the
e dition on the copyright page in the front of a book.
While we ’re a t it, the re’s no reason you have to re ly on jus t one outs ide source
of informa tion. One his tory te xtbook ma y ha ve a n e xce lle nt e xpla na tion of
the Civil Wa r whe re a s a nothe r te xtbook ha s a be tte r e xpla na tion of
Re cons truction—use the m both.

HOW TO USE YOUR SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION SOURCE

Once you’ve chos e n a s upple me nta ry s ource of informa tion, look up your
s pe cific topic in the index or ta ble of conte nts . For our passage, you would be
looking up rock, s e dim e ntary rock, m e tam orphic rock, a nd rock cycle, so you might
have to s kip a round. Afte r you have gotten a ha ndle on the ma te ria l, you’ll ha ve
a much easier time whe n you re turn to the “officia l” passage.
I’m not s a ying you s hould re ly e xclus ive ly on outs ide sources of informa tion.
You are s till re s pons ible for re a ding the ma te ria l in your prima ry te xtbook s ince
your class dis cuss ions a nd tests will be based on it, not on your outs ide source.
Be a le rt—the re’s also the pos s ibility tha t your outs ide source will s ome time s
contradict the informa tion pres e nte d in your prima ry te xtbook. If it does—great!
Compa ring the conflicting vie wpoints will force you to think. (Of course , whe n
it come s to a ctua lly a ns we ring a te st que s tion in s uch gra y areas, the te xtbook
your te a che r uses is the safer choice to go with.)

o
 WHAT’S COMING UP
WHAT SMART S mart s tudents are a lwa ys on the lookout for a nything tha t he lps the m le a rn.
STUDENTS KNOW
I re a lize tha t finding a nd us ing a s upple me nta ry informa tion s ource for a cours e
takes time , but it is time we ll s pe nt. Ha ving one ha ndy will save you hours a nd
hours whe n you hit thos e ine vita ble s e ctions of your officia l te xtbook tha t jus t
don’t seem to ma ke sense.
Le t’s move on to Que s tion 4. The firs t thre e que s tions pre pa re d you to read;
the ne xt que s tion force s you to s ta y a step a he a d of the a uthor as you do.

©
 Ans we ring Que s tion 4:
Wha t’s the Author
------ Going to Say Ne xt? -----

M?If YOU’RE READY TO READ

Que s tion 1 de fine d your purpos e ; Que s tion 2 wa rme d you up by ma king you Question 1:
think a bout wha t you a lre a dy know; a nd Que s tion 3 gave you the big picture . What's my purpose for
reading this?
Now tha t you’ve a ns we re d the se que s tions , re turn to the be ginning of the
Question 2:
ma te ria l. You’ll be re ading it clos e ly to a ns we r the ne xt set of Cybe rLe a rning What do I already know
Que s tions , be ginning with wha t the a uthor is going to say ne xt. about this topic?
Question 3:
STAYING ON THE EDGE OF YOUR SEAT What's the big picture
Anticipa ting wha t s ome one is a bout to say is a na tura l a nd importa nt pa rt of here?
communica tion. If I say “I like s tra wbe rry...” you’re a lre a dy thinking “ice cre a m” Question 4:
What’s the author
e ve n though I might say “s hortca ke .” For some reason, s tude nts s top thinking going to say next?
a he a d whe n the y read a ca de mic ma te ria l. Question 5:
But your bra in ne ve r s tops ma king conne ctions . Whe n you’re re a ding your What are the “expert
che mis try te xtbook a bout “s trong a cid re a ctions ,” wha t do you s uppos e the questions"?
a uthor will dis cus s ne xt? Think a bout it. Eve n if you know nothing a bout Question 6:
che mis try you proba bly corre ctly a nticipa te d “we a k a cid re a ctions .” What questions does this
information raise for me?
You ha ve a ge ne ra l ide a wha t the s ubje ct is a ll a bout a nd you’re re a dy to
Question 7:
ha ndle the spe cifics. It’s time to dig out a nd e xtract the informa tion you ne e d by What information is
a ctive re a ding. Anticipa ting wha t the a uthor will say ne xt while you re a d is a big important here?
pa rt of the a ctive a pproa ch; wa iting is passive a nd boring. So don’t wa it to read Question 8:
wha t the a uthor will say, te ll the a uthor wha t he or she is a bout to say. How can I paraphrase
and summarize this
As king wha t the a uthor will say ne xt is not re a lly a s e pa ra te s te p, but information?
s ome thing you do in the ba ckground as you re a d to a ns we r the othe r Question 9:
CyberLe arning que s tions . In fa ct, as you re a d you s hould e xpe ct the a uthor to How can I organize this
a ns we r your que s tions . information?
Now you’re be ginning to see why I ca ll this process “dia loguing.” You’ve Question 10:
be e n cre a ting a dia logue be twe e n you a nd the a uthor, though obvious ly the How can I picture this
information?
othe r pe rs on is not pre s e nt. Whe n you ca rry on a dia logue with the a uthor,
Question 11:
you’re force d to ta ke a n a ctive role . You’re not jus t pa s s ive ly lis te ning to the What's my hook for
a uthor; you’re ta lking with the a uthor, too. S ince the a uthor does not “he a r” remembering this
your que stions , you’ll ha ve to be pa tie nt; the a uthor might not “re s pond” information?
imme dia te ly. The a nswe r ma y appear several pages la te r or ma y not a ppe a r a t a ll. Question 12:
How does this information
Tha t’s fine , because the point of this que s tion is s imply to keep you a ctive ly
fit in with what I already
involve d in the ma teria l a nd give you fe e dba ck. It hooks you into wha t you’re know?
re a ding a nd turns wha t might be a dull ta s k into a fun exercise—now you’re

q
 re ading to a ns we r your que s tions a nd to see if your guesses we re corre ct. If the y
WHAT SMART we re n’t, it’s a tip-off tha t you ne e d to re e va lua te your thinking—a nd be tte r now
STUDENTS KNOW
tha n during a n exam.

THE CLUES
The two ma in clues tha t he lp you a nticipa te wha t the a uthor will say ne xt are
orga niza tiona l a nd gra mma tica l. Le t’s cons ide r each.
Your a bility to a nticipa te will de pe nd on wha t you a lre a dy know a bout the
s ubje ct. If the s ubje ct is ne w to you, you ma y not be fa milia r with its common
orga niza tiona l pa tte rns . In his tory, for e xa mple , conflicts le a d to e ve nts . In
phys ics , la ws are followe d by formula s a nd e xa mple s. In ps ychology, e xpe rime nts
are followe d by conclus ions . In ma the matics , the ore ms are followe d by proofs .
In nove ls , goals are followe d by obstacles, which are followe d by re s olutions .
Once you be come fa milia r with the basic s tructure of a s ubje ct, it is easier to
a nticipa te wha t the a uthor will s a y ne xt. He re a re s ome more ge ne ra l
orga niza tiona l pa tte rns :
• proble m followe d by s olutions
e de finition followe d by e xa mple s
• ge ne ra l rule followe d by e xce ptions
• claim followe d by reasons
• whole followed by its pa rts
• que s tion followe d by a ns we r
® cause followe d by effects
If you’re re a ding a bout a proble m, you ca n e xpe ct tha t a dis cus sion of pos s ible
s olutions will follow; if the a uthor is cla iming s ome thing, you ca n e xpe ct the
reasons to follow.
Gra mma tica l clue s include the words a nd phra s e s tha t te ll you wha t the
a uthor is a bout to say ne xt. S ome s igna l words a le rt you tha t the a uthor is
a bout to
• introduce a ne w ide a : but, although, nevertheless, despite, however,
except
• e la bora te on or e mpha s ize the ide a unde r dis cus s ion: and, moreover,
also, furthe rmore , in addition
• offe r a conclus ion: so, therefore, as a result, consequently, thus, hence
• provide reasons for a conclus ion: because, since, owing to, as a re s ult of
• provide a lis t of ite ms : firs t, second, next, last
You ge t the idea.
The s e lis ts are incomple te , so don’t bothe r me morizing the m. The y are
s imply inte nde d to give you a sense of wha t to look for as you try to s ta y one
step ahead of the a uthor.

®
ANSWERING QUESTION 4 ON THE ROCKS PASSAGE
WHAT’S THE AUTHOR
He re a re the thoughts (in ita lics ) tha t we nt through my he a d as I a ns we re d this
GOING TO SAY NEXT?
que s tion on the firs t two pa ra gra phs of the pa s s a ge . Notice tha t I s ta rte d with
.
the title .

That’s a pre tty general title, I guess this is

going to be a ge ne ral re vie w discussing the
diffe re nt types of rocks, what they’re made
of, and how they ’re forme d.

7
W hat else makes up the e arth’s crust? Is the
ROCKS /
crus t made ofs olid rock? Maybe the author
Rocks a re ha rd, na tura l ma s s es of s olidZ- will te ll me.
ma tter tha t ma ke up the e arth’s crus t.-Witha \
fe w e xce ptions (s uch as coa l), rocks a re Iguess not. Okay, now the passage will te ll
compos e d of one or more mine ra ls .— me what m inerals are, or m aybe what
Geologis ts cla s s ify rocks as e ithe r igneous , m ine rals rocks are made of.
s e dime nta ry, or me ta morphic, depending on
how they we re forme d. ----------------- --------------- Nope, struck out again. But now I’m sure
Igneous rocks a re formed from ma gma , the passage is going to talk about igneous
the molte n ma tte r dee p within the e a rth. \ rocks, I remember thatfrom ge tting the big
picture .
The re a re two type s of igne ous rock. If
magma ris es towa rd the s urface , it s lowly V
I thought lava was the m olten s tuff in the
cools a nd s ometime s s olidifies underground. \ /
earth. I wonde r what the difference is.
The re s ult is intrus ive igne ous rock.y If
ma gma re a che s the e a rth’s s urfa ce , it W hat happens if it rises above the surface
e merges from volca noes or fis s ure s (cra cks )' and cools aboveground is s urely ne xt.
as la va.'T<a va cools ra pidly a boveground, Maybe firs t I’ll find out what causes
s olidifying into e xtrus ive igne ous rock. m agm a to rise, or ivhat makes it cool, or
Intrus ive igneous rock, s uch as gra nite , ca n what causes it to solidify.
be ide ntifie d by its la rge , cle a rly vis ible
minera l gra ins (crys ta ls).J lcca us e e xtrus ive || Guess not. Maybe the passage will give
rock s olidifie s more quickfyqha n mtras ive me an e xam ple of an intrus ive igneous
igne ous rock, it is cha ra cte ris e d by tihy. rock next.
crys ta ls . Ba s a lt, with its fine te xture , high
W e ll, that answers one of my ques tions :
de ns ity, a nd da rk color, is the mos t comlnon
magma is jus t underground lava.
e xtrus ive igne ous rock, lying be ne a th the
va s t oce a n floor. T(umice , a nothe r common
Finally an example. Now the author ivill
e xtrus ive igne ous ro^k us e d in s ome
give me an e xam ple of e xtrus ive igneous
a bra s ives , a cquires its rougtNgorous te xture rock. I’m beginning to get the hang of this
from the e xplos ive re le as e of gas '-that ofte n passage.
a ccompa nie s volcanic e ruptions .
Does that mean most fissures and volcanoes
are underwate r? Maybe I’llfind out what
the most common extrusive igneous rock on
land is.

@
 And so on. Tha t s hould be e nough to give you the ge ne ra l ide a . You don’t ne e d
WHAT SMART
write a nything for this step unle ss an importa nt que s tion occurs to you, which
STUDENTS KNOW
you ca n jot down in your note s or in the ma rgin of your book.
You’ll notice tha t my pre dictions we re ra re ly “right.” More ofte n tha n not
the a uthor chose to ta lk a bout s ome thing I didn’t e xpe ct. Tha t’s okay, e s pe cia lly
in a s ubje ct I know nothing a bout. The point of Que s tion 4 is not to be right,
but jus t to ke e p you e ngage d in the ma te ria l a nd ask othe r que s tions , to ma ke
you a n a ctive pa rticipa nt ra the r tha n a bore d a nd re lucta nt s pe cta tor. Eve n if
the passage is boring, pla ying with it in this wa y keeps you on your toes a nd
inte re s te d.

ANSWERING QUESTION 4 IN CLASSES AND LECTURES

Of course , in classes a nd le ctures this que s tion becomes W hat’s the teacher going
to say ne xt? Because you are passive during a le cture , it’s importa nt to ta ke a ctive
steps to pre ve nt your mind from wa nde ring. J us t as in re a ding, dia loguing keeps
you focus e d in le cture s .
Whe n you read, you de te rmine the pace a t which you dia logue a nd a bs orb
informa tion. If you don’t unders ta nd s ome thing, you ca n s pe nd time puzzling it
ove r. On the othe r ha nd, in class your te a cher sets the pa ce . Don’t ge t so
involve d in dia loguing tha t you fa ll be hind the dis cus s ion. S till, you’ll be
s urpris e d how ma ny of your te a che r’s le cture you ca n a nticipa te . Try it.
Exce pt for tha t minor diffe re nce , dia loguing while lis te ning is the same as
dia loguing while re a ding—you’ll jus t be a ble to do less of it.

SUMMARY
Que s tion 4 asks you to guess wha t the a uthor is going to say ne xt. Us ing
gramma tica l a nd s tructura l clue s , you ca n “ask” the a uthor que s tions
tha t you e xpe ct the te xt to answer. Obvious ly you will not a lwa ys be able
to a nticipa te wha t dire ction the te xt will ta ke . The point is not to be
right a ll the time, but to s ta y involve d so you are cha lle nge d to e xtract
the importa nt informa tion.
Don’t ma ke a big de a l of this que s tion. Re me mbe r how quickly
thoughts fla s h through your he a d whe n s ome one invite s you out to a
movie , thinking a nd dia loguing ta ke fa r less time for you to do tha n for
me to e xpla in. With a little pra ctice , you won’t even ha ve to think a bout
the que s tioning process—it will arise na tura lly. In pra ctica lly no time ,
a s king a nd a ns we ring Que s tion 4 will be come an uncons cious ha bit.
The ne xt que s tion ta ke s us de e pe r s till into the ma te ria l, a nd is
inva lua ble in he lping you de mys tify your s ubje ct s ys te ma tically. In time ,
it too will be come a n a utoma tic response to ne w informa tion.
_____

©
 Ans we ring Ques tion 5:
Wha t Are the
——“Expert Que s tions”? ——

BECO M E AN INSTANT EXPERT O N ANY SUBJECT!

Ea ch s ubje ct raises a unique set of que s tions a bout its e lf tha t mus t be asked a nd Question 1:
a ns we re d s ys te ma tica lly if you are to unde rs ta nd it. I ca ll the s e the e xpe rt What’s my purpose for
reading this?
que s tions . The e xpe rt ques tions for ge ology include the following:
Question 2:
• W hat is this made of? What do I already know
• What are its chemical, physical, and te xturalproperties? about this topic?
Question 3:
® How can this be ide ntifie d? What’s the big picture
® W hat process causes this? here?
Question 4:
® W hat othe r processes te nd to happen at the same time ?
What’s the author going to
• Where is this usually found? say next?
® W hat else is usually found with or near this? Question 5:
What are the “expert
• W hat processes can cause this to change, and in what ways? questions”?
• W hat can I te ll about the his tory of this? Question 6:
What questions does this
The s e are not the que s tions you would ask while s tudying Englis h or ps ychology information raise for me?
or a lgebra , e a ch of which has its own set of e xpe rt ques tions . The s e are the Question 7:
ques tions a n e xpe rt in ge ology a s ks -if you wa nt to unde rs ta nd a s ubje ct the wa y What information is
a n e xpe rt does, you’ll have to a sk the m, too. important here?
The s e are fill-in-the -bla nk-type que s tions . To use the m, s imply s ubs titute Question 8:
How can I paraphrase
wha te ve r te rm you’re re a ding a bout for the word this in the lis t above. and summarize this
He re are s ome examples from the rock passage: information?
Question 9:
How can I organize this
Ge ne ra l Expe rt Ques tion S pe cific Exa mple information?
® W hat is this made of? ® Wha t is lime s tone ma de of? Question 10:
How can I picture this
• How can this be ide ntifie d? ® How ca n ba s a lt be ide ntifie d? information?
® W hat process causes this? • Wha t process causes volcanoes? Question 11:
• Where is this usually found? • Whe re is s e dime nta ry rock What’s my hook for
remembering this
us ua lly found? information?
* W hat can I te ll about the his tory • Wha t ca n I te ll a bout the his tory Question 12:
ofthis? of slate? How does this information
fit in with what I already
know?
 DETERMINING THE EXPERT QUESTIONS
STUDENTs 'k n OW The s oone r you le a rn to figure out the e xpe rt que s tions , the s oone r the s ubje ct
; wil1 begin to ma ke sense. But you won’t find a lis t of the m in your te xtbook.
You’ll ha ve to work the m out for yourse lf. You ca n do this by s tudying the
introduction to your te xtbook a nd e s pecia lly the cha pte r s umma ry que s tions .
If a ce rta in type of que s tion re curs fre que ntly throughout a te xtbook, it’s
proba bly a n e xpe rt que s tion.
He re ’s how you do it. Scan the que s tions to see if you find a ny common
phra s e s. If you ignore the s pe cifics of e a ch que s tion, you will dis cove r tha t
ce rta in forms of que s tions a ppea r ove r a nd ove r. The s e ge ne ral forms are the
e xpe rt ques tions .
For e xa mple, the cha pte r s umma ry to our rocks passage might include the
following que s tions :
• How can one de te rmine whe ther igneous rock is intrus ive or e xtrusive?
• How can s e dim e ntary rock be ide ntifie d?
• Me tam orphic rock is characte riz e d by what phys icalfe ature s?
De s pite the a ppa re nt diffe re nce s , these que s tions are jus t diffe re nt wa ys of a s king
how a rock ca n be ide ntifie d.

THE ORIENTATION QUESTIONS

Be s ide s the e xpe rt que s tions , you mus t be s ure to a ns we r a nothe r s e t of
que s tions -the “orie nta tion que s tions .” I ca ll the m orie nta tion que s tions because
the y he lp ge t you orie nte d to a s ubje ct. The y a ls o ha ppe n to be the mos t
popula r te s t ques tions .
He re the y are.
• W hat’s the de finition ofthis?
• W hat’s an example ofthis?
• W hat are the diffe re nt types ofthis?
• W hat is this re late d to?
• W hat can this be com pare d with?
Tha t’s a ll, jus t five . Unlike the e xpe rt que s tions which a re s pe cific, the
orie nta tion que s tions are ge ne ra l a nd do not va ry from s ubject to s ubje ct. As
with the e xpe rt que s tions , you use these by s ubs tituting whate ve r you’re re a ding
a bout for the word this.

©
He re are some e xa mple s from the rocks passage:
WHAT ARE THE
“EXPERT QUESTIONS”?
Ge ne ra l Orie nta tion Que s tion S pecific Exa mple
9 W hat’s the de finition ofthis? ® Wha t’s the de finition of mine ra l?
9 W hat are the diffe re nt types ® Wha t are the diffe re nt types of
ofthis? igne ous rock?
9 W hat is this re lated to? 9 Wha t is e ros ion re la te d to?

KEEP THESE QUESTIONS IN MIND!

You’ll be a s king the e xpe rt a nd orie nta tion que s tions re pe a te dly. You don’t ha ve
to write the m down, but do ke e p the m in mind as you read. S oone r or la te r
you’ll ha ve to a ns we r the m, too—the y will ve ry like ly s how up on your tests.

ANSWERING QUESTION 5 ON THE ROCKS PASSAGE

We could ask the e xpe rt a nd orie nta tion que s tions a bout a lmos t a nything in the
rocks passage, but the pre vious e xa mple s are s ufficie nt to illus tra te the process.
Turn ba ck to the passage (page 27) a nd try your ha nd a t a s king orie nta tion a nd
e xpe rt que s tions , or use some te rms I’ve selected for you:
9 ma gma (for e xa mple , W hat is magma made of?)
9 fissure (for e xa mple , W hat causes fissures?)
9 basalt (for e xa mple , How can basalt be ide ntifie d?)
9 s e dime nts (for e xa mple , Where are sediments us ually found?)
9 fossils (for e xa mple , W hat can I te ll about the his tory offossils?)
9 we a the ring (for e xa mple , W hat is we athe ring re late d to?)
Once you’ve ge ne ra te d some que s tions , try to a nswe r the m!

ANSWERING QUESTION 5 SN CLASSES AND LECTURES

Ke e ping the e xpe rt a nd orie nta tion que s tions in mind while you lis te n to your
te a che r is no diffe re nt from ke e ping the m in mind while you read. You jus t ha ve ------ ---- -
to pace yours e lf more s trictly so you can ke e p up with your teacher. Knowing Question 4.
, . ■ r F 1 • & What's the author going
the e xpe rt que s tions he lps you a nticipa te wha t your te a cher is going to say ne xt ^
(Que s tion 4).
 WHAT SMART
STUDENTS KNOW n..... ......
Que s tion 5 invite s
“RY .
you to ask the que s tions tha t a n e xpe rt would ask.
bhU1 ■ ” ■'. ■' ’ A |
Ea ch s ubje ct has its own set of these e xpe rt que s tions , a nd the s ooner
you de te rmine wha t the y a re , the be tte r. Ke e p the m in mind as you
re a d; the y’ll a llow you to pick out the informa tion tha t is mos t

The re are only fire ,

a nd the y’re the s a me for e ve ry s ubject. As the na me s ugge s ts , the se
que s tions he lp you ge t orie nte d to a ne w topic. Ke e p the m in mind
a long with the e xpe rt que s tions as you read.
The e xpe rt a nd orie nta tion que s tion, a llow yon to ge , to the me ,, of
a s ubje ct a nd a na lyze it jus t like a n e xpe rt. Wha te ve r othe r que s tions
you ask as you read, be sure you ask—a nd try to a ns wer—the m.
In the ne xt cha pte r we ll discuss how you bring your pe rs ona lity into
the dia loguing process. P e rs ona ting the ma te ria l like this ma ke s i, tha t
much more a live a nd re le va nt to your e xpe rie nce s. All this a dds up to a
fa milia rity with the s ubje ct tha t you a bs olute ly ca nnot ha ve
othe rwis e—even with s ome thing as dry a nd dense as rocks .
__________

©
 Ans we ring Que s tion 6:
Wha t Que s tions Doe s This
_ Informa tion Raise for Me? _

MAKING IT YOUR OWN

In the la s t cha pte r you le a rne d to a sk the e xpe rt a nd orie nta tion que s tions . Question 1:
The s e que s tions are crucia l, but the y’re a ls o s ys te ma tic. You s imply plug in What’s my purpose for
reading this?
words a nd come up with “How ca n s ha le be ide ntifie d? ” or “Whe re is
Question 2:
s e dime nta ry rock us ua lly found? ” Since you’re following a formula of sorts, your
What do I already know
que s tions will be the same as e ve ryone else’s. about this topic?
This cha pte r invite s you to come up with que s tions tha t are unique ly your Question 3:
own. The y are suggested by the ma teria l but are based on your ba ckground a nd What’s the big picture
inte re s ts , a nd he nce a ppe a l dire ctly to your curios ity. S ince no one has your here?
inte re s ts , your knowle dge , or your ba ckground, no one ’s que s tions will be the Question 4:
Whafs the author going to
same as yours . say next?
Question 5:
GET CURIOUS! What are the “expert
You ca n s ta rt by a s king the six “journa lis t’s que s tions ”: questions”?
• Who? Question 6:
What questions does
® Wha t? this information raise
for me?
• Where ?
Question 7:
• Whe n? What information is
• Why? important here?
Question 8:
• How? How can I paraphrase
You ma y notice tha t some of these will not always a pply to a give n s ubje ct or and summarize this
information?
topic. In ge ology, for e xa mple , only ra re ly will you ask the que s tion W ho? In
Question 9:
his tory or English, on the othe r ha nd, you ask it fre quently. How can I organize this
In ge ne ra l, que s tions be ginning with the words How a nd Why force you to information?
dig into the ma te ria l a nd analyze it more de e ply tha n do ones be ginning with Question 10:
Who, W hat, Where, or When. As king why the Ame rica n Civil Wa r was fought, How can I picture this
say, is going to re quire more analysis tha n a s king when or where it was fought. information?
Question 11:
What’s my hook for
WHAT MAKES A QUESTION GOOD? remembering this
It would be impos s ible to lis t e ve ry conce iva ble que s tion you can devise; you are information?
limite d only by your ima gina tion. Ha ving s a id tha t, some que s tions are be tte r Question 12:
tha n othe rs . How can you te ll if a que s tion is “good”? A good que s tion te nds to How does this information
ha ve more tha n one a ns we r. fit in with what I already
know?
 ) He re are four powe rful que s tions you s hould include in your arsenal.
WHAT SMART
STUDENTS KNOW • So wha t? How is this s ignifica nt? Wha t does it te ll us a bout
1 othe r things ?
(W hat doe s the fact that fos s ils are found in
s e dim e ntary rock te ll us?)
• Says who? Is this a fa ct or s ome one’s opinion? How ca n this
be ve rifie d? Doe s this de pe nd on a pa rticula r point
of view?
{How do we know that bas alt lies unde rne ath the
ocean floor?)
• Wha t if...? Wha t would ha ppe n if... ? Wha t if I... ?
(W hat would happen if m agma stopped ris ing to the
surface?)
® WTia t doe s this Whe re ha ve I se e n s ome thing like this be fore?
re mind me of? Wha t does tha t suggest a bout this?
(W hat does the rock cycle re m ind me of?)
Ea ch of the se que s tions will he lp you unde rs ta nd wha te ve r you are re a ding,
pa rticula rly the la s t two.

GET CREATIVE WITH THE TWO MOST POWERFUL,

IDEA-GENERATING QUESTIONS!
. Ill thought is a fe at of Whe n a s king a nd a ns we ring the que s tions W hat if..? a nd W hat does this re m ind
association: having me of? you s hould loos e n up a nd be as cre a tive a nd even outra ge ous as you can.
what’s in front ofyou Don’t re s trict yours e lf to “logical” responses. Fantasize a nd a na logize !
bring up something in The que s tion W hat if...? gets you wonde ring a nd fa nta s izing a bout the
your m ind that you informa tion. The re are three common va riations : applying the informa tion as it
almost didn’t know is, changing it, a nd pe rs onaliz ing it.
you knew. • To a pply informa tion from our s a mple passage, you might ask, W hat
Ro b e r t Fr o s t kind of rock would I expect to find if a volcano e rupte d unde rwate r?
Only by a pplying a nd us ing informa tion ca n you ma ke it yours .
• To cha nge informa tion from our s a mple passage, you might ask,
W hat would happen to the rock cycle if m agma stoppe d ris ing to the
surface? By cha nging a nd ma nipula ting things , you be tte r unde rs ta nd
the m as the y are.
• To pe rs ona lize the informa tion from our s a mple passage, you might
ask, If I were a rock, what type would I be? This seems like a s illy
que s tion, but it re a lly gets you involve d in the ma te ria l a nd he lps
you re la te to it. Eins te in de ve lope d his the ory of re la tivity by a s king
que s tions like , IfI were traveling on a light beam and holding a m irror,
would I be able to see myself? (Albe rt was one ra d cybe rdude.)
The que s tion W hat does this re m ind me of? gets you thinking in te rms of WHAT QUESTIONS
a na logie s a nd me ta phors , a nd s ta rts the proce s s of conne cting the ne w ■ DOES THIS
INFORMATION RAISE
informa tion to wha t you a lre a dy know. For e xa mple, the rock cycle might FOR ME?
re mind you of othe r cycles in na ture , s uch as the wa te r cycle (e a rth science) or
the nitroge n cycle (biology). Wha t you know a bout the rock cycle will he lp you
unde rs ta nd these othe r cycles; wha t you know a bout these cycles, in turn, will
he lp you unde rs ta nd the rock cycle.
W hat does this re m ind me of? is the mos t importa nt que s tion in this e ntire
book! This que s tion a lone will le a d to a ll the othe rs . If you re me mbe r nothing
else from this book, re me mbe r to ask it cons ta ntly.

DIG, DIG, DIG!

The goa l is to see how ma ny que s tions you ca n ask a nd how ma ny diffe re nt Thinking means
answers you ca n come up with for each. This is a ne ve r-e nding process! Ea ch connecting things, and
que s tion you think of will le a d to a n a ns we r, which will s ugge s t a nothe r stops if they cannot be
que s tion, which will le a d to a nothe r answer, a nd so on. This is how you build connected.
unde rs ta nding. It’s also the wa y you s ta y inte re s te d in a s ubje ct. G il b e r t Ke it h
You ma y wonde r why we a s k so ma ny s ophis tica te d que s tions of the Ch e s t e r t o n
ma te ria l we ’re s tudying whe n te a che rs us ua lly a s k compa ra tive ly s imple
ques tions on tests. One of the ke y points of Cybe rLe a rning is this: the only wa y
to le a rn a nd be inte res te d in s chool is to do more tha n your teachers re quire .
You’re bore d not because you’re doing too much in s chool, you’re bore d because
you’re doing too little . Re me mbe r S ma rt S tude nt P rinciple #2: Me re ly lis te ning
to your tea che rs a nd comple ting the ir a s s ignme nts is ne ve r e nough.

EXERCISE #3

Ins tructions : Be fore continuing, ta ke out a sheet of s cra tch paper.

Turn ba ck to the rocks passage (pa ge 27) a nd see how ma ny
que s tions you can ge nera te as you re a d, as I did in the passage a
fe w pages ba ck. Feel fre e to re fer to the e xpe rt a nd orie nta tion
que s tions (pages 67 a nd 69) for ins pira tion. Ta ke as much time
as you ne e d, but don’t s top until you’ve ge ne ra te d at le as t
a doze n ques tions .
 ANSWERING QUESTION 6 ON THE ROCKS PASSAGE
WHAT SMART
STUDENTS KNOW
He re are some of the a dditiona l que s tions I ca me up with as I wa s re a ding the
■iiiliaS passage. I wrote these down so you could see the m, but I would not have ta ke n
note s on a ll these que s tions . You’ll notice tha t some are e xpe rt a nd orie nta tion
que s tions , but mos t are ones tha t jus t seemed inte re s ting to me . Ke e p in mind
tha t your que s tions will proba bly be diffe re nt.

- lOVvibf -)qt>e of mincrofo 0/e rocks, made of ?

-is , pos s ible ~b hrm ma /i-nta de each. ?
- What of rocks, a/e -bond on -flee u /io o k 7
- ulha t ca us e d magma, -to n<>e9yoe s rf kcuJe anythi'icg to Wi'+k e a thguoke s7
- HfouJ long dees it tote . ma gma ho cool 7 :
- Where do Volcanoes te nd do occur most e ffe te ?
- How do ce me nt a fo compa ct toqe the < a nd horde *,?
I
- Wha t causes. se dime nta ry rock -fe> accumulate fa la ye rs .'’
- Wlcat type of sedimo/rtary rock does not-form unde rwa te r. 7
- How) do -fossils ge t hVrV ^e dima a ta /y rock?
- Ane -fos s ils -found in igneous a nd me fa nwphic a xik7
- Where do we -find me famorpkie rock ?
- -How do s foime ita ry rocks, which a /e -formed above tjfoond, undergo
me+amorpfoismy which daises pla ce be-louu ground 7
- JJimce marble IS -formed -from lime s tone a nd limestone is -forme d from
ma rine organisms, doe s -Head me a n tha t ma rble is -found only
Where foote r fo or used to be ?
- Wha t would happen to the root cycle i-P magw c l s toppe d rki i<g 0
- What type of rock is the hardest7
- flow do UJe de te rmine -the a ge of CL n? ck?
- What douses erasiew and weathering ?
- What type of rock, is most/leastSubject"-fo crosiort? why?
- poes erosion occur at the bottom £>f oceans,?
- What kind of heat does it take to melt rocks?
- If it possible it? determine what different -types of Cyel es a .
rock has gone, through in its ''lifetime".
- What do rocks tell us about the em/iVcmnoemt a?'the time
they Were -formed 7

I know this seems like a lot of que s tions for s uch a s hort passage, but re me mbe r
tha t several ques tions ca n fla s h through your mind in a se cond. At firs t you’ll
ha ve to re a d a passage several time s to ge ne ra te que s tions , but in time the e xpe rt
a nd orie nta tion que s tions will arise as na tura lly as your own.

Q
DON’T FORGET TO ANSWER YOUR QUESTIONS WHAT QUESTIONS
Sill

DOES THIS
You ma y be re me mbe ring S ma rt S tudent P rinciple #6: The point of a que s tion INFORMATION RAISE
is to ge t you to think—not s imply to a ns we r it. You s hould think, but you FOR ME?
s hould also try to a ns wer your que s tions . The point of P rinciple #6 is tha t your
thinking a bout a que s tion s houldn’t s top s imply because you’ve found a n answer;
the re ma y be m any answers.
Ans we ring que s tions is a n inte gra l pa rt of dia loguing. Once you’ve a ske d a
que s tion, don’t wa it to re a d the a ns we r—guess wha t it will be ! You won’t
always be right, e s pecia lly whe n a s ubje ct is ne w to you, but give it your best
s hot. If you guessed corre ctly, great. But even be ing wrong has its be ne fits : whe n
you dis cover the corre ct answer, you’ll be much more like ly to re me mbe r it. In
a ny e ve nt, continua lly gues s ing the a ns we r to your que s tions keeps you involve d
in the ma te ria l. It’s also e xce lle nt pra ctice for ta king exams.
Dia loguing as you re a d is a lot like proble m s olving. Ea ch que s tion you ask
is a proble m, which you the n set out to solve. S ome of your que s tions will be
a ns we re d by the te xt, but ma ny will not be. You ma y ha ve to do s ome ha rd
thinking or turn to your s upple me nta ry informa tion source.

CO NSIDER YO UR Q UESTIO NS IN O RDER O F IM PO RTANCE

Expe rt a nd orie nta tion que s tions mus t be a nswe re d if you wa nt to unde rs ta nd
the m a nd do we ll on tests (I trus t you wa nt to do both). Your othe r que s tions
ca n ra nge from the importa nt to the wildly s pe cula tive . I’ve a rra nge d a number
of que s tions from my pre vious note s (page 74) in orde r of priority:
• W hat type ofm ine rals are rocks made ofl
(Expe rt a nd orie nta tion que s tion; high priority; che ck my
s upple me nta ry s ource of informa tion or ask teacher.)
• W hat causes m agma to rise?
(Expe rt que s tion; me dium to high priority.)
• W hat causes erosion and weathering?
(Expe rt que s tion; me dium to high priority.)
• Are fossils found in igneous or m e tam orphic rocks?
(Expe rt que s tion; not ha rd to find or figure out; me dium to low
priority.)
• W hat would happen to the rock cycle ifmagma stopped rising?
(An intere s ting s pe cula tion a nd proba bly not tha t ha rd to figure out,
but ve ry low priority.)
• W hat types ofrocks are found on the moon?
(Re la te d s ubje ct; ve ry low priority.)
While it’s importa nt to ra is e as ma ny que s tions as you ca n, you’ll ne ve r have
e nough time to a ns we r the m a ll. Te lling the diffe re nce be twee n low- a nd high-
priority que s tions re quire s s ome judgme nt, but with pra ctice you’ll ge t the
 kna ck. High-priority que s tions s hould be ta ckle d imme dia te ly. You’ll ha ve to
WHAT SMART
cons ult your s upple me nta ry informa tion s ource s or a sk your te ache r. Low-
STUDENTS KNOW
priority que s tions s hould be ponde re d for a mome nt a nd the n droppe d, to be
ta ke n up a nothe r da y if you have the time a nd inclina tion. Who knows ? Ma ybe
your curios ity will be so pique d you’ll dis cove r a ne w hobby or career.

ANSWERING QUESTION 6 SN CLASSES AND LECTURES

The basic principle s be hind this que s tion are the same whe the r you’re re a ding a
book or lis te ning to your teacher. Of cours e , ke e ping up with your te a cher will
severely limit the numbe r of que s tions you ca n ask, a nd you’ll ha ve to wa it until
the class is ove r be fore you have time to work out a ny answers.

SUMMARY
This step is whe re you pe rs ona lize the informa tion a nd ma ke it yours .
You s hould ha ve fun with your que s tions . W hat does this re m ind me of?
invite s you to a na logize ; W hat if.. ? invite s you to fa nta s ize . One
que s tion will suggest a nothe r, so go with the flow. Ge t curious a bout the
ma te ria l. The more que s tions you ask, the more the ma te ria l becomes
your own, so ta ke your time to a ns we r Que s tion 6.
Dia loguing while you re a d gets you thinking a nd keeps you focus e d;
your mind ca n’t wa nde r whe n you ke e p it bus y formula ting a nd
a ns we ring que s tions . It makes you intere s ted in wha t you re a d because
a nything the a uthor says is in re s pons e to your que s tions . Fina lly,
dia loguing gets you re a dy for exams s ince you’re pra cticing e xa ctly wha t
you’ll ha ve to do—a ns we r que s tions. It’s going to be ha rd for your
te a che r to come up with que s tions you ha ve n’t a lre ady thought of.
Ana lyzing the m be fore ha nd puts you wa y ahead of the game.
Try to a ns we r your que s tions , too. Guess wha t the a ns we r will be
be fore se e ing wha t the a uthor will say. Eve n if you’re wrong you’ll be
e ngaging the ma te ria l. S ome of your que s tions won’t be a ns we re d a t a ll,
but tha t’s oka y (even if it is a little frus tra ting). You’ll s oon le a rn to judge
which que s tions are high priority.
Knowing how to ask s pe cific, probing que s tions is one of the mos t
importa nt s kills you’ll ne e d in s chool. I promis e tha t your a bility to pose
ins ightful que s tions will improve dra ma tica lly with pra ctice .
Now tha t you’ve unle a s he d your s imme ring curios ity a nd
pe rs ona lize d the ma te ria l, it’s time to de cide wha t informa tion you ne e d
Question 7: to know. Que s tion 7 is whe re you focus on the informa tion of the
What information is gre ate s t importa nce . But firs t, a n inte rmis s ion. (If you’re in a groove
important here? with Cybe rLea rning you ca n s kip the inte rmis s ion a nd re turn la te r.)

Q
 Inte rmis s ion:
Attitude Che ck #1

TAKE THIS QUIZ!

The firs t quiz you took, ba ck
initia l a ttitude a bout s chool a nd the le a rning process. You’ve been doing quite a
bit of re a ding since the n, so now is a good time to see how much your a ttitude
has be gun to cha nge . (By the way, don’t e xpe ct a ll the answers necessarily to be
0’s a ga in.)

ATTITUDE CHECK

Ins tructions : For each s ta te me nt be low, in the space provide d

indicate whe the r you agree (1) or disagree (0) with it. Choos e
the response tha t best re fle cts wha t you truly be lie ve, not wha t
you think is the “right” answer.

[ ] 1. If you lis te n to wha t your teachers say a nd fa ithfully comple te a ll the

work the y assign, you will receive high grades.
[ ] 2. A pe rs on’s grades say a lot a bout his or he r basic inte llige nce .
[ ] 3. A pe rs on’s grade in a course gives you a pre tty good ide a of how much
he or she has le a rne d.
i
[ ] 4. Whe n de ciding grades, teachers s hould give e qua l we ight to how ha rd AiP
you try as we ll as how much you le a rn.
« .if
f ] 5. Mos t te a che rs put the ir pe rs ona l fe e lings a side a nd are re a s ona bly
obje ctive a bout the grades rhey ha nd out.
Ilf
[ ] 6. Gra de s are re ma rkably a ccura te pre dictors of a pe rs on’s future success,
both in s chool a nd a fte r gra dua tion.
[ ] 7. A grade is jus t one pe rs on’s opinion of your work so there ’s not much
point to working ha rd to ge t high ma rks whe n the y don’t re a lly me a n
tha t much.
[ ] 8. Good grades improve your s e lf-e s tee m; ba d grades lowe r it.

The “answers” to this quiz follow the ne xt brie f dis cuss ion.
 plliilpjil
HOW SMART STUDENTS THINK ABOUT GRADES
WHAT SMART
You a nd your classmates are forced to compete for grades tha t be come a pa rt of
STUDENTS KNOW
your “pe rmane nt re cord.” Your grade point average ca n a ffe ct whe re you go to
colle ge , whe re you go to gra dua te s chool, a nd e ve n wha t kinds of jobs you get
for years a fte r you leave s chool.
Cons ide ring the impa ct grades can ha ve on your life choice s , it’s re ma rka ble
how ma ny mis conce ptions s urround the gra ding process. Your grades are not a
me as ure of how s ma rt you are, or of how much you know. Nor s hould you
e xpe ct to e a rn high grades me rely by working ha rd. While s tudying five hours a
night without unde rs ta nding much ma y e a rn you the s ympa thy of a
compa s s iona te te a che r, s ympa thy a lone is n’t going to ge t you a n A; it might not
even ge t you a C. The only thing ha rd work gua ra ntee s is fa tigue .
And don’t e xpe ct high gra de s as a re wa rd for obe ying your
te a che rs—lis te ning to wha t the y say, re a ding wha t the y a ssign, a nd ge ne ra lly
doing wha t you’re told. Following orde rs does not e ntitle you to high grades,
though it’s easy to see why ma ny s tude nts be lie ve this . Gra de s are a powe rful
tool tha t te a che rs ofte n use to e ns ure your conformity by re wa rding “good”
be ha vior a nd punis hing “ba d” be ha vior with a ppropria te ma rks .
You ma y see grades as obje ctive measures of your pe rforma nce , but the y are
nothing more tha n a te a che r’s opinion of wha t you de s erve . Ea ch te a che r
de te rmine s wha t type of a ca de mic work receives cre dit a nd how much, whe the r
pa rtia l cre dit is a warde d for incomple te work, a nd whe re to set gra de cutoffs .
Gra ding is a highly s ubje ctive proce ss which is ofte n based on a rbitra ry or
even e motiona l conside ra tions . To some e xte nt, of cours e , grades do re fle ct how
much you ha ve le a rne d. But the y ca n also re fle ct, de pe nding on the te a che r, how
ha rd you trie d, how much you improve d, how ne a tly you wrote or dressed, how
inte re ste d you seemed, how ofte n you pa rticipa te d in class, a nd how much your
te a che r like d you. Unfa ir? You be t. But now tha t you know, ma ke this
knowledge work for you.
S ma rt s tude nts re a lize tha t te a che rs ofte n a wa rd gra de s more to the
s tude nt tha n to his or he r work. J udging from e xpe rie nce , I’d be t tha t ha lf the
gra de a pa pe r or e xa m receives is de te rmine d by the na me a t the top of it. If a
te a cher de cide s you are a n A s tude nt, your work will receive As ; if your te a che r
decides you are a C s tudent, your work will receive C’s.
So work ha rd the firs t fe w weeks of te rm. It’s importa nt tha t you convince
your te ache rs e a rly on tha t you are a s ma rt s tude nt whos e work inva ria bly
deserves A’s. The n, whe n you ma ke mis ta ke s —as e ve n the s ma rte st s tude nts
will—your te a che r will think the y are the mis ta ke s of a n A s tude nt a nd inte rpre t
the m a ccordingly. Teachers have been known, whe n gra ding a te s t, to “ove rlook”
the mis ta ke s or ove rs ights of a top s tude nt while pe na lizing cla s s mate s for
ma king the ide ntica l e rrors!
 For the mos t pa rt, teachers base your grades on how we ll you a nd your work
live up to the ir e xpe ctations . The proble m is tha t teachers do not a lwa ys state ATTITUDE CHECK #1
wha t the y e xpect from you. Inde e d, ma ny of the ir e xpecta tions are s ubcons cious .
“But teachers us ua lly te ll us how the y gra de ,” you say. Sure, mos t teachers
will te ll you how the y gra de ; tha t is, the y’ll te ll you how the y think the y grade.
Look, this s hould come as no s urpris e , but teachers are jus t pe ople . Like the rest
of us, the y ma ke mis ta ke s , wa nt a pprova l, a nd wre s tle with the ir ins e curities .
Fe w teachers are aware how much the ir gra ding opinions are sha ped by the ir
pre judice s a nd e motions . S ma rt s tude nts are proba bly more a wa re of the ir
te a che rs ’ pe rs ona l bia s e s a nd uns ta te d e xpe cta tions tha n the te a che rs are
thems e lve s ! Pay clos e a tte ntion to the little wa ys tha t te ache rs unknowingly
reveal wha t the y re ally e xpe ct of you. How the y express the mse lve s. The words
the y use. How the y phra s e que s tions in class. How the y re s pond to que s tions
from s tude nts . The clues are often s ubtle , but you’ll s pot the m if you’re a le rt.
Afte r dis cove ring a ll this a bout the gra ding process, you’re proba bly more
ce rta in tha n ever tha t grades are unfa ir. Exa ctly! Now you’re ca tching on! Who
ever s a id s chool was fair?

“ANSWERS” TO ATTITUDE CHECK #1

Once a ga in, the s ma rt s tude nt’s re s pons e to e a ch of these que s tions would
be a 0. Don’t worry if your responses are diffe re nt; your a ttitude will come
a round s oone r or la te r.
Afte r the pre ce ding dis cus s ion, I’ll jus t say a fe w words a bout each que s tion:

1. If you lis te n to wha t your teachers say a nd fa ithfully comple te a ll the work
the y assign, you will receive high grades.
[ 0 ] Not only ma y you not ge t high grades, you ma y not even le a rn
much. If you put a 1 on this one , you a nd I have a lot of work to do
on your a ttitude . Re me mbe r S ma rt S tude nt P rinciple #2: Me re ly
lis te ning to your teachers a nd comple ting the ir a s s ignme nts is ne ve r
e nough.
2. A pe rs on’s grades say a lot a bout his or he r basic inte llige nce .
[ 0 ] As we ha ve dis cus s ed, your grades re fle ct doze ns of things ,
inte llige nce pe rha ps least a mong the m. The re ’s nothing re mote ly
objective or s cie ntific a bout the gra ding process. Gra de s aren’t IQ
scores (which, by the way, re fle ct only an e xce e dingly na rrow ba nd
“inte llige nce ”). Re me mbe r S ma rt S tudent P rinciple #4: Gra de s are
jus t s ubje ctive opinions .
3. A pe rs on’s gra de in a course gives you a pre tty good ide a of how much he or
she has le a rned.
[ 0 ] See the pre vious comme nt.
 mm 4. Whe n de ciding grades, teachers s hould give e qua l we ight to how ha rd you
WHAT SMART
try as we ll as how much you le a rn.
STUDENTS KNOW
[ 0 ] How ha rd you work ma y influe nce how much a te a che r like s
you a nd tha t in turn ma y a ffe ct your gra de , but the re’s nothing in
the rule book tha t say teachers s hould cons ide r how ha rd you work.
5. Mos t teachers put the ir pe rs ona l fe e lings aside a nd are re as ona bly obje ctive
a bout the grades the y ha nd out.
[ 0 ] Te a che rs a re no more a ble to ignore the ir e motions tha n
you are.
6. Grades are re marka bly a ccura te pre dictors of a pe rs on’s future succe ss, both
in s chool a nd a fte r gradua tion.
[ 0 ] While your grades ce rta inly a ffe ct your choice s , the y are not
a ccura te pre dictors of a nything. In fa ct, your high s chool grades are
not e ve n pa rticula rly good pre dictors of your colle ge grades, le t a lone
your future success in life . Re me mbe r S ma rt S tude nt P rinciple #4.
7. A gra de is jus t one pe rson’s opinion of your work so the re’s not much point
to working ha rd to ge t high ma rks whe n the y don’t re a lly me a n tha t much.
[ 0 ] Gra de s are jus t opinions , but ones tha t can ha ve a ma jor impa ct
on your options in s chool a nd a fte r gra dua tion. Your grades don’t
perma ne ntly de te rmine your future success (see pre vious comme nt),
but the y de finite ly a ffe ct your initia l ca re e r options . Re me mbe r
S ma rt S tude nt P rinciple #12: S chool is a ga me, but it’s a ve ry
importa nt ga me .
8. Good grades improve your se lf-e ste e m; ba d grades lowe r it.
[ 0 ] This s ubtle que s tion trips up ma ny s ma rt s tude nts -in-tra ining.
If grades are jus t s ubje ctive opinions —a nd the y are—why s hould
good grades cha nge your s e lf-es te e m one wa y or a nothe r? Sure it’s
nice ge tting a n A a nd it’s a ma jor bumme r ge tting a C. But wha t
gra de you ge t s hould not cha nge how you fe e l a bout yours e lf. Gra de s
are jus t the wa y score is ke pt in the highly s ubje ctive a nd impe rfe ct
ga me of s chool. Re me mbe r S ma rt S tude nt P rinciple #10: How we ll
you do in s chool re fle cts your a ttitude a nd your me thod, not your
a bility.

We ll, I guess a ll the s ma rt s tude nt responses we re 0’s a fte r a ll. But I’m sure you
we re n’t foole d for long.
Oka y, bre a k’s over. Le t’s ge t ba ck to work on the Twe lve Que s tions .
 Ans we ring Que s tion 7:
Wha t Informa tion
—— Is Importa nt Here? ——-

LOOKING BACK
Que s tions 4 through 6 e s ta blis hed a dia logue be twe e n you a nd the te xt. Question t:
You’ve be e n re a ding like ne ve r be fore , a s king que s tions a nd unle a s hing your What’s my purpose tor
na tura l curios ity. Now it’s time to re in in the que s tions a nd informa tion
Question 2;
you’ve ge ne ra te d a nd be gin the s e le ction proce s s .
What do I already know
about this topic?
DECIDING WHAT TO TAKE NOTES ON Question 3:
While you’re a s king que s tions of the ma te ria l as you read, you s hould be ta king What’s the big picture
note s . Que s tion 7 te lls you what you ne e d to ta ke note s on, while Que s tion 8 here?
te lls you how to ta ke note s. Question 4:
What's the author going to
All you’re doing a t this stage is de ciding wha t informa tion in the ma te ria l say next?
you’re s tudying is importa nt for your purpos e s . Don’t worry if the ma te ria l s till Question 5:
seems confus ing a nd you ca nt re membe r a nything. Que s tions 9 through 12 will What are the “expert
re me dy tha t. questions"?
Question 6:
LISTEN UP: HOW THE 80-20 RULE, PARETO’S PRINCIPLE, AND What questions does this
information raise for me?
ZIPF’S LAW CAN SAVE YOU A WHOLE LOT OF STUDY TIME!
Question?:
About a ce ntury ago, a n Ita lia n e conomist na me d Vilfre do Pa re to notice d tha t of What information is
a ny group of obje cts , a tiny fra ction contribute s mos t of the tota l va lue . If a important here?
compa ny, say, s old five products, one would a ccount for a lmos t a ll the sales; if it Question8:
ha d a hundre d cus tome rs , the best twe nty or so would ma ke a lmos t a ll the How can I paraphrase
and summarize this
purchases. If you a rrange d the products or cus tome rs or wha te ve r in orde r of information?
importa nce , each a dditiona l one a fte r the firs t would be less a nd less va luable .
Question 9:
Afte r a ce rta in point the va lue of a ne w product or cus tome r would be come How can I organize this
ins ignifica nt. information?
Ha lf a ce ntury la ter, a n Ame rica n linguis t na me d Ge orge Kings le y Zipf Question 10:
(who proba bly wore thick glasses as a kid a nd got teased a lot by his classmates) How can I picture this
information?
notice d s ome thing s imila r in language. If a ll the words in the Englis h la ngua ge
Question
are ra nke d in orde r of how fre que ntly the y are used, the mos t fre que ntly used What’s my hook for
word (the ) appears a pproxima te ly twice as ofte n as the s e cond ra nke d word (of), remembering this
thre e times as fre que ntly as the third ra nke d word (and), te n time s as fre que ntly information?
as the te nth ra nke d word (I), a nd so on. Question 12:
S ince the n, othe r researchers have ma de s imila r obs erva tions in ma ny diverse How does this information
fit in with what I already
fie lds . The unde rlying principle has been s umme d up in the 80-20 rule . This know?
nifty rule of thumb states tha t 80 pe rcent (four-fifths ) of the tota l va lue , impact,
 or s ignifica nce of a ny group of ite ms will come from only 20 pe rce nt (one -fifth)
WHAT SMART
of thos e ite ms . The flip side, of course , is tha t the re ma ining 80 pe rce nt of the
STUDENTS KNOW
ite ms contribute only 20 pe rce nt of the va lue .
If you look a t a ny a s pe ct of your da ily life , you’ll see wha t I me a n. For
e xa mple :
• If you own five pa irs of shoes, you’ll we a r one of the m 80 pe rce nt of
the time .
• If you ha ve thirty frie nds , you’ll do 80 pe rce nt of your s ocia lizing
with s ix of the m.
• If the re are twe nty s tude nts in your class, four of the m will hog 80
pe rce nt of the dis cus s ion time .
Don’t ge t hung up on the ma the matics ; the numbe rs are jus t inte nde d as rough
guide line s . The point is this : Mos t of the va lue of a ny group of ite ms is
contribute d by ve ry fe w of thos e ite ms . Conce ntra te your e fforts on the fe w
importa nt things be fore bothe ring with the rest of the s tuff—you ma y not ne e d
it a t a ll!

HEBE’S WHAT ALL THAT MEANS IN TERMS OF YOUR READING LOAD

The art of reasoning Contra ry to popula r s tude nt be lie f (but proba bly not to yours ), some fa cts a nd
consists in getting hold ide a s in your te xtbook are more importa nt tha n othe rs . Re me mbe r S ma rt
of the subject at the S tude nt P rinciple #3: Not e ve rything you are a s s igne d to re a d or a ske d to do is
right end, ofseizing e qua lly importa nt.
on the fe w general If you have fifty pages to re a d in your te xtbook this we e k, the 80-20 rule
ideas that illum inate says tha t 80 pe rce nt of the importa nt fa cts a nd ideas are going to be found in
the whole, and of only 20 pe rce nt—count ’e m: te n—of thos e pages. The othe r forty pages conta in
persistently organizing ma te ria l tha t is less importa nt for you to know a nd e ve n irre le va nt for your
all subsidiary facts purpos e s.
round them. Nobody In a sense, this is wha t outline s a nd s tudy guides try to do for you—separate
can be a good reasoner the importa nt 20 pe rce nt you re a lly need to know from the 80 pe rce nt of wha t
unless by constant is less importa nt. Tha t’s why s tudy guide s are a lot thinne r tha n te xtbooks ,
practice he has which try to pre s ent e ve rything.
realized the One ma jor dis a dva nta ge of s tudy guide s , howe ve r, is tha t the y don’t le t
importance ofge tting you s e le ct the importa nt informa tion for yours e lf. Us ing one force s you to re ly
hold ofthe fe w big on s ome one else's judge me nt a bout wha t is or is not importa nt. As you know,
ideas and hanging on the process of de ciding wha t informa tion you ne e d or don’t ne e d is a ke y pa rt of
to them like grim building unde rs ta nding.
death.
Al f r ed No r t h NO MORE GUILT ABOUT NOT READING EVERYTHING
Wh it e h e a d By not ove rloa ding your bra in, you’re doing yours e lf a big fa vor. You ma y not
re alize this , but you can a bs orb only a limite d volume of fa cts a nd ideas a t a ny
one time . And the only wa y you ca n e ffe ctive ly a bs orb the re le va nt
informa tion is to ignore the irre le va nt informa tion. (I figure d you’d be gla d to
he a r this .)

©
 Tha t’s right—not only a m I te lling you it’s oka y to s kip ove r ma te ria l, I’m :
s a ying you’d be tte r! You ma y fe e l uncomforta ble with this s ugge s tion. You ma y WHAT INFORMATION
IS IMPORTANT HERE?
be a fra id tha t if you don’t try to re a d a nd le a rn e ve ry de tail, you’ll be mis s ing
s ome thing importa nt. Or pe rhaps s kipping ove r ma te ria l makes you fe e l guilty,
while re a ding each a nd e ve ry word makes you fe e l s tudious a nd cons cie ntious ,
even ifyou don’t unders ta nd much.
This a ttitude ca n ge t you in big trouble pronto. If we we re to a rra nge the
ha lf-doze n ideas in a cha pte r in orde r of importa nce , we would ge t s ome thing
like the following progre s s ion:

I lie [Most Important Idea

2nd Most Important Idea
3rd Most Important ScSsa
4th Most Important idea
Sth Most Important Idea
6th Most Important idea

And so on. As you ca n see, the importa nce of each ide a drops off ra pidly. Ma ke
sure you ma s ter the fe w importa nt ideas be fore a tte mpting to incorpora te the
lesser ideas. Trying to dige s t and unde rs tand all the information in a te xtbook
is not only a colos s a l wa s te of time , it’s a ls o a n e xce lle nt wa y to be come
quickly a nd hopele s s ly confus e d! If you wa nt to unde rs ta nd wha t is going on in
s chool, it is a bs olutely vita l tha t you know how to te ll the differe nce be twe e n:
® which informa tion you s hould focus on;
• which informa tion you s hould s kim;
• which informa tion you s hould ignore complete ly.
The following cha rt will give you a ge ne ra l ide a of how to budge t your
s tudy time :
Total Pages Total Available
Assigned Study Time

2©% -

Focus Ora
(Read Carefully) 80%

80%

20%

If, for e xa mple , you ha ve one hour to re a d fifte e n pages, you s hould s pe nd
roughly 80 pe rce nt of your time (forty-e ight minute s ) thinking a bout the mos t
importa nt 20 pe rce nt of the informa tion (thre e pages).

©
 THE TRICK, OF COURSE, IS KNOWING WHAT’S IMPORTANT AND
WHAT SMART
STUDENTS KNOW
WHAT’S NOT
It is not a lwa ys cle a r whe the r s ome thing be longs to the importa nt 20 pe rce nt
(which you will ta ke note s on) or the not-s o-importa nt 80 pe rce nt (which you
will la rge ly ignore); s ome time s it’s a judgme nt ca ll. In the firs t fe w we e ks of a
course , e ve rything will seem importa nt (a nd since the ma in concepts of a course
are us ua lly cove re d then, e ve rything ma y ve ry we ll be importa nt). But ha ng in
the re—as you be come fa milia r with your course a nd your te a che r, you’ll ge t a
ha ndle on wha t you ne e d to know a nd wha t you ca n s a fe ly ignore .
You s hould re a d a t le a s t a fe w pa ra gra phs a he a d to see whe the r s ome thing
is importa nt be fore ba cktra cking to ta ke note s on it. If you ca n’t de cide
whe the r s ome thing s ounds importa nt, assume it is a nd jot it down in your
note s . La te r, as you le arn more in the cours e , you’ll be be tte r a ble to judge
whe ther you s hould ke e p it in your fina l note s or chuck it.
Wha t’s de finite ly importa nt include s the following:
• Any fa cts or ideas you ne e d to a ns we r the e xpe rt a nd orie nta tion
que s tions . We cove re d this e a rlier.
• Your thoughts , que s tions , a nd re a ctions . Your responses to the
ma te ria l are s ome time s more importa nt tha n the ma te ria l its e lf. Be
on the lookout also for a nything tha t s urpris e s or confus e s you. S uch
informa tion points e ithe r to gaps in your unde rs ta nding tha t you’ll
need to cle a r up, or to e xce ptions or contra dictions tha t e mphas ize
ge ne ra l rules.
• Any ke y te rms , conce pts , or ide a s . Ea ch s ubje ct has importa nt te rms
tha t you s hould know. Te xtbooks typica lly ca ll your a tte ntion to
the m with ita lics or bold print, or in glossaries. And as you know
Question 3: from the big picture (Que s tion 3), each te xtbook cha pter has only a
What's the big picture
ha ndful of ma jor ideas (though unfortuna te ly you ma y ha ve to wa de
here?
through doze ns of pages of complex te xt to e xtract the m).
Facts a nd de ta ils ma y or ma y not be importa nt; it re a lly de pe nds . Mos t e xa mple s
a re include d to s upport the ma in ide as a nd a re not critica l to your
unders ta nding if you ca n devise your own. As you will le arn whe n we discuss
Que s tion 8, be ing a ble to come up with your own de finitions a nd e xa mple s as
we ll as to express ideas in your own words is a crucia l s ma rt s tude nt s kill.
Fina lly, re me mbe r tha t wha t’s importa nt will de pe nd on your purpose. A fa ct
tha t is irrele va nt if you are pre pa ring for an e xa m might be e sse ntia l if you are
writing a research pa pe r. I’m not s a ying tha t wha t’s importa nt de pe nds e ntire ly
on whe the r or not s ome thing will a ppea r on a te s t, but it’s ce rta inly a ma jor
cons ide ra tion.

©
HERE ARE SOME CLUES
WHAT INFORMATION
The re are s ome fa irly re lia ble s ignpos ts a uthors provide to tip off importa nt
IS IMPORTANT HERE?
ideas. He re are s ome places to look a nd some things to look for:
• The be ginning a nd the e nd. Authors ope n a nd close with the ir mos t
importa nt ideas. You will find the m a t the be ginning a nd the e nd of
the book, of each cha pte r, of each s e ction, a nd of each pa ra gra ph.
® Anything e mpha s ize d gra phica lly. Anything in bold or ita lics is
being stressed by the a uthor for a re ason. You can’t re ly s ole ly on
a uthors , howe ve r, because wha t the y de e m importa nt ma y not be
importa nt for your purpos es . S till, do not dis re ga rd the a uthor’s
e mpha sis.
• The gis t of a ny cha rt or dia gra m. Cha rts a nd dia gra ms are a nothe r
form of gra phic emphasis. The cha rt or dia gra m its e lf ma y not be
importa nt, but the ide a it conveys proba bly is.
* The cha pte r s umma ry. The whole point of a s umma ry is to include
only the mos t importa nt informa tion, but ke e p in mind tha t it
re pre s e nts the a uthor’s point of vie w, not yours . Don’t re ly on it
blindly.
You ma y ha ve notice d tha t these are the same places you look to get the big Question 3:
picture (Que s tion 3). The s e aren’t the only places you’ll find the informa tion What’s the big picture
here?
you need, but the y’re the firs t ones to check.

THE SCOOP ON SKIMMING AND “SPEED READING”:

ST’S ALL A MATTER OF SHIFTING GEARS
S kimming is an e s s e ntia l re a ding s kill tha t is e s pe cially vita l whe n you ne e d to
re vie w masses of ma te ria l to e xtra ct a fe w ke y ide a s or fa cts . S kimming is
s canning a te xt to de cide wha t’s importa nt a nd wha t’s not. Obvious ly, tha t
means you mus t be a ble to te ll the diffe re nce be twe en the two.
Ma ny s tude nts suppose tha t s kimming me a ns zipping through te xt, re a ding
e ve ry fourth or fifth word a nd ignoring the rest. It doesn’t. Ima gine driving a
race car on a long winding track. You cool it on the curves a nd the n le t he r rip
on the s tra ighta wa ys . While the phys ica l clues are not as obvious , the principle is
e xa ctly the same with s kimming. You are continua lly s hifting gears, s lowing
down whe n you ne e d to conce ntra te on the importa nt ideas a nd s pe e ding up
whe n you ge t to pa tche s of ins ignifica nt or irre le va nt de ta ils .
Which brings me to speed re a ding. If you’re thinking a bout ta king a speed
re a ding course, save your mone y. It’s no gre at fe a t to read a book in an hour or
two—if a ll you’re conce rne d with is ge tting a ge ne ra l sense of the ma in ideas. Of
course , s ome times tha t is a ll you wa nt, but tha t’s jus t ge tting the big picture . You
a lre a dy know how to do tha t.

©
 ililil The secret is not re ading e ve rything quickly, it’s knowing wha t you s hould
WHAT SMART
re a d s lowly, wha t you s hould re a d quickly, a nd wha t you s hould ignore tota lly.
STUDENTS KNOW
! You ca n re a d fa s te r s imply by not linge ring ove r useless informa tion. Speed
re a ding ma y e na ble you to re a d fa s te r, but it will not s ignifica ntly re duce the
time it ta ke s you to unde rs ta nd a give n s ubje ct. (The y’re not ca lled “speed
unde rs ta nding” courses.)
This book shows you how to le a rn, a nd how to le a rn e fficie ntly. But the re’s
no ge tting a round it: you s till have to a ns wer the Twe lve Que s tions —some of
the m ove r a nd ove r—a nd tha t ta ke s time . While you ca n ga in a s upe rficia l
unders tanding of s ome thing in a s hort pe riod, the re is a bs olute ly no limit to
how thoroughly a nd profoundly you ca n unders ta nd it if you put in the time .
It’s a ll a que s tion of your prioritie s a nd how much time you’re willing to inve s t.

ANSWERING QUESTION 7 ON THE ROCKS PASSAGE

You’ll see wha t informa tion I thought was importa nt in the ne xt cha pte r whe n
I s how you the note s I took (page 90).

ANSWERING QUESTION 7 IN CLASSES AND LECTURES

While not e ve rything the y say is importa nt, mos t teachers do not wa s te much
class time dis cus s ing things the y cons ide r trivia l or s upe rfluous . P re tty much
e ve rything the te a che r says during a le cture is importa nt for you, e ithe r for
unde rs ta nding the ma te ria l or for a nticipa ting wha t will be on the te st. As you
know, ke e ping up with your te a che r me a ns you won’t ha ve much time to de cide
whe the r s ome thing’s importa nt. So you’ll be doing a lot less s e le cting during a
le cture tha n while re a ding.
Pay s pe cia l a tte ntion to the following:
• The be ginning a nd the e nd of the le cture . J us t as the firs t a nd la s t
pa ra gra phs of a cha pte r are ve ry importa nt, the firs t fe w minute s a nd
the la s t fe w minute s are the mos t importa nt of the e ntire le cture .
Te a chers ofte n s umma rize the ir e ntire le cture during the firs t fe w
minute s ; in the la s t fe w minute s, ma jor points are s umme d up, a long
with a ny importa nt points the re wa s n’t time to cover.
• Anything tha t goes on the boa rd. Your te a che r wa nts to be sure
e ve ryone’s got it.
• Anything your te a che r re pe a ts , e mpha s ize s , or othe rwis e stresses.
Aga in, your te a che r is obvious ly trying to drive home a message.
• Your te a che r’s use of la ngua ge . Pay special a tte ntion to pe t words or
phrases tha t your te a che r uses fre que ntly. You’ll wa nt to incorpora te
the m into your pa pe rs a nd te s t answers!

0
 How your te a che r re s ponds to que s tions or comme nts from the
class. Don’t ta ke note s only on wha t your te a cher says. S ome time s WHAT INFORMATION
IS IMPORTANT HERE?
your cla s s ma te s a s k note worthy que s tions or ma ke ins ightful
comme nts . Pay a tte ntion to how much time your te a cher spends on
the que s tions a nd how he or she answers the m.
Your thoughts , re a ctions , a nd que s tions . Note a ny thoughts or
que s tions tha t occur to you tha t you’d like to think a bout la te r.
Anything the te a cher says a fte r a long pa us e, ta ke s a long time to
e xplain, or has difficulty e xpre s s ing. Be aware tha t if your te ache r
goes to the trouble of e xpre s s ing s ome thing difficult—it is ve ry
importa nt informa tion tha t is like ly to a ppe a r on a test.
Anything your te a che r dis cus s e s tha t is not cove re d in your
te xtbook, a nd e s pe cia lly whe n your te a che r dis a gre es with the
te xtbook. Whe n te a che rs offe r you the ir pe rs ona l vie ws , lis te n
ca re fully! This is the officia l word from the pe ople who de cide your
grades.
Whe the r your te a che r conce ntra te s on de tails or trie s to pre s e nt
the la rge r the me s a nd the big picture . This te lls you wha t kind of
te s t que s tions you ca n expect.
Whe the r your te a che r ke e ps re fe rring to ma te ria l cove re d
pre viously. If so, the re’s a good cha nce your e xa m will be cumulative
a nd include this older ma te ria l.
Que s tions your te a che r ra is e s but doe s not a ns we r. The s e are
known as rhe torica l que s tions , a nd the re’s a ve ry good cha nce your
te a che r will e xpe ct you to a nswe r the m on the ne xt test.
Anything in ha ndouts . If your te a che r goes to the trouble of
pre pa ring a ha ndout, it’s us ua lly for a good re a s on. Re a d tha t
ha ndout ca re fully!

YOU’LL BE ASKING QUESTION 7 OVER AND 0¥ER

You ask Que s tion 7 the firs t time as you’re re a ding s ome thing a nd ta king note s . Nothing in education
But each time you go through your note s during the semester, you ask it a ga in, is so astonishing as the
Ma ny things tha t seemed importa nt e a rlie r in the te rm will seem less so as you amount of ignorance
le a rn more . Ins te a d of mindle s s ly re re a ding your old note s ove r a nd ove r, it accumulates in the
continue upda ting a nd conde ns ing the m. Ma ke it a ga me to see how much you form of inert facts.
ca n s implify your note s (a nd your life ) e a ch time you re view the m. In the He n r y Br o o k s
coming cha pte rs you’ll see how much the s imple proce s s of re ducing a nd Ad a ms
conde ns ing your note s as much as pos s ible improve s your unde rs ta nding
imme a s ura bly.

O
11 : : v : T
WHAT SMART * SUMMARY
PIHUIIUUDV
STUDENTS KNOW
Focus on figuring out wha t the importa nt informa tion is a mong your
re a ding ma te ria l a nd the n s kim or ignore the re s ,! Re me mbe r the
cons e que nce s of the 80-20 rule : 80 pe rce nt of the importa nt
informa tion is conta ine d in 20 pe rce nt of the a ssigne d pages. Once you
le a rn to pick out the importa nt informa tion, you’ll be a ble to slash your
re a ding time dra matica lly. :
How do you know which informa tion is importa nt? It is n’t a lways
easy to te ll in the be ginning of a cours e , but you do ha ve guide line s .
Informa tion tha t answers e xpe rt or orie nta tion que s tions , for e xa mple , is
a lways importa nt. More ove r, a uthors a nd te a che rs provide a whole
va rie ty of clue s to wha t informa tion the y think is importa nt. With
pra ctice you s hould ha ve no proble m te lling the diffe re nce be twe e n
informa tion you ne e d to know a nd tha t which you s hould ignore.
Now tha t you know wha t you s hould be ta king note s on, the ne xt
cha pte r will s how you how to ta ke thos e note s. The re ’s a lot more to it
tha n writing down e ve rything you he a r in class or re a d; or ra the r, a
lotle s s .
 Ans we ring Que s tion 8:
How Ca n I Paraphrase a nd S umma rize
-_______ This Informa tion?________

TAKING NOTES
The pre vious que s tion de a lt with what you s hould be ta king note s on. Now Question 1:
we re going to cove r how you s hould be ta king thos e note s. What’s my purpose for
reading this?
yiiili
Question 2:
GET IT DOWN ON PAPER What do I already know
While you are s e le cting the importa nt informa tion as you read, you s hould be about this topic?
ta king note s . S ome s tude nts , howe ve r, don’t like ta king note s . The y would Question 3:
ra ther re a d, highlight, a nd re re a d the ir te xtbooks to de a th. But ta king note s What's the big picture
while you re a d will cla rify a nd dis till the te xt so tha t you can a bs orb it la te r. Is n’t here?
this more e fficie nt tha n re re a ding the e ntire te xtbook? Question 4:
What’s the author going to
The purpos e of ta king note s a t this stage is not only to re cord the importa nt say next?
informa tion you’ve se le cte d but also to keep you a ctive ly involve d a nd thinking Question 5:
a bout the ma te ria l. Ta king note s he lps you unde rs ta nd a nd re me mbe r the What are the “expert
informa tion by writing down phys ica lly wha t you’ve jus t e ncountere d vis ua lly. questions”?
Tra ns la ting the te xt into note s with a bbre via tions a nd s ymbols furthe r engages Question 6:
your vis ua l sense. The more senses you ca ll upon while re a ding, the more you What questions does this
information raise for me?
involve your bra in, a nd the more you unde rs ta nd a nd re me mber.
Question 7:
What information is
RULE #1: WHEN TAKING NOTES, USE YOUR OWN WORDS important here?
Alwa ys try to pa ra phra s e an a uthor’s words . It ma y be difficult to do much Question 8:
tra ns la ting, e s pecia lly in te chnica l subjects like geology. None thele s s , you mus t How can I paraphrase
and summarize this
try us ing as ma ny of your own words as pos s ible . If you aren’t us ing your own
information?
words but me re ly re pe a ting wha t some one else has said, the re’s no guara nte e you
Question 9:
unde rs ta nd the informa tion. (Wa rning: whe n tra ns la ting the a uthor’s words , How can I organize this
ma ke sure you don’t cha nge the me a ning! Als o, if the a uthor continua lly uses information?
ce rta in te rms or phra s e s , you’ll wa nt to note the s e buzz words down e xa ctly.) Question 10:
How can I picture this
information?
RULE #2: USE AS EEW WORDS AS POSSIBLE . .r :

Question 11:
Squeeze, condense , a nd compre s s the informa tion down to the fe we s t pos s ible What's my hook for
words . Doing this force s you to pa ra phra se the ma te ria l (Rule #1). Conde ns ing remembering this
the ma teria l also force s you to think; a ga in, the more you think, the more you information?
unde rs ta nd a nd re me mbe r. Fina lly, once you’ve dis tille d informa tion down to its Question 12:
essence, you’ll have tha t much less to re me mbe r. (Wa rning: don’t use so fe w How do^ this Intormation
, / j , * , • l .film with what I already
words tha t your note s dont ma ke sense whe n you re view the m!) |^n0W9
 I
lli
i HO W YO UR NO TES SHO ULD LO O K
WHAT SMART
He re ’s how a s ma rt s tude nt would ha ve ta ke n note s on our rocks passage,
STUDENTS KNOW
pa raphras ing, s umma rizing, a nd a bbre via ting whe ne ve r pos s ible .

Compa re these note s with the ones you took (Exe rcise #2, page 26) a nd thos e
J ohnny took (pages 29 a nd 30). Which ve rs ion would you ra the r s tudy from?

rocks, - -forme d -from mine ra ls, 6e «ie pt coni')

-3 fqpe $ ; igne oo^, me kcmorphi’c , ^e diVne rria /Y

igneous rock- Oirdrc^iU£,cnde ^roond;m^nia J(mcl+-eic,nv)cH-er\tfcols,slDujli/

large. (Jitmas fgra nffe )
2s) evdriKiVe, abode around, la ra ikot^oe S jCook ^oie kly, 6maJ\
a rys ia is ("pumice, bO£aA+~)
:
Qe dlwe dacu re ck-S e dirr^^Cpic^^)-^^-form s +ra iu6la ,^c)
iVocks. broken- la ie r ce me nTor comfxmfo
a nd ha /de io{s ha le -from mud /cla yy s ondcf-one )
zVe ma lrre a} animak(difodded,decomposH ^he lls /s ke ldons
of ma rine life )(limes twi<Q>
b)>plamf• (dis ked,de caye d insiCounpei kra a l)
- usually forms , onde rica de r-
- idcn-h-ffod by -la ye rs .
'-pa rh'ole s of ra m I red .s ize r,
Hbccils 1
1
m^dmorphio rock-forme d iohen recks, undeforound ahanged by gre at"he a d/p ressure
- we ktmorphi^m^ makes ra ck^ rougher, denser; diTgrs cowpositia?
- idmhfie d by -dis +orka l s foue nure
- vJdvivj ba nds
-s ha le be come s s la te
limesfone " ma rble
gra nite " gne is s

rock cycle -a ny rxk ca n cha nge fiat© one of The o+hecs

This , howeve r, is fa r from be ing our fina l se t of note s . We s till ha ve to include

Question 9:
How can I organize the our cla s sroom note s on the passage, a nd Que s tions 9, 10, a nd 12 are each going
information in my notes? to re quire e xte ns ive re vis ions .
Question 10:
How can I picture this
—
Question 12.
How does this
information fit in with
what I already know?
. ■
 HOW CAN I
PARAPHRASE AND
TAKING NO TES O N YO UR READING : NUTS AND BO LTS SUMMARIZE THIS
INFORMATION?
• Don’t ta ke note s s e nte nce by s e nte nce . Try dia loguing with a t least
a pa ra gra ph, a nd pre fe ra bly a s e ction, be fore de ciding wha t is
importa nt. Once you’ve finis he d ta king note s on tha t s e ction, move
on to the ne xt a nd continue the process.
• Turn a wa y from the te xt a nd try to ta ke note s from me mory. You’ll
proba bly ha ve to pe e k ba ck. This is n’t so much to me morize the
ma te ria l as to force you to re ca ll, think, a nd use your own words . It’s
also good pra ctice for exams. Try re cons tructing importa nt dia gra ms
a nd cha rts from me mory, too. Tre a t this step like a game.
• Orga nize your note s with a cle a r s tructure ra the r tha n s imply
ma king a lis t. You’ll be doing this in the ne xt two steps (Que s tions Question 9:
9 a nd 10), whe n you process your note s for unde rs ta nding. S till, it’s How can I organize this
a good ide a to give the m some s tructure from the s ta rt to ma ke the information?
conne ctions be twe e n ideas a ppa re nt. Question 10:
How can I picture this
• Tra ns la te a ny dia gra ms , gra phs , ta bles , a nd cha rts into words . information?
Figure out the ma in ide a conve ye d by the gra phic e le me nt a nd
express it in your own words . A picture ma y be worth a thous a nd
words , mos t te ache rs e xpe ct pros e re s pons e s to the ir que s tions
ins te a d of dra wings .
® De ve lop your own s hortha nd of s ymbols a nd a bbre via tions . This
saves time a nd be gins s ha ping a nd tra ns forming the informa tion
into s ome thing pe rs onal tha t you’ve ha d a ha nd in cre a ting. And as
Question 11:
we will discuss a t le ngth unde r Que s tion 11, your mind is more What's my hook for
a ttune d to gra phic images tha n words ; cre a ting s ymbols out of the remembering this
te xt he lps your mind re me mbe r a nd unde rs ta nd. information?
• P rint ra ther tha n use s cript. You’ll work a lot faster. Ifyou’re used to
s cript, you ma y find this ha rd to be lie ve but with a little pra ctice
you’ll see tha t your fastest legible s cript is not ne a rly as fa s t as your
fa s te s t le gible printing; che ck it out. Als o, you’ll work a lot more
ne a tly if you use ba ll-point pe ns or fe lt-tip ma rke rs ra the r tha n
pe ncils , which s mudge . Save founta in pens for your love le tte rs ; the y
s low you down a nd le a k a ll ove r the place.
• Us e loos e she e ts of pa pe r. Whe n you s tudy you’ll need to spread
your note s out; you won’t be a ble to do this if the y’re in a bound
note book. Line d pa pe r is be s t, e ithe r from le ga l pa ds or thos e
punche d for 3-ring notebooks. Since you’ll be us ing loose pa pe r, it’s
a good ide a to da te a nd numbe r your sheets, a nd to re cord the pages
the y re fe r to in your te xtbook.

Q
 WHAT SMART si TAKING NOTES ON YOUR READING: NUTS AND BOLTS (CONTINUED)
STUDENTS KNOW
Write only on one s ide of e a ch s he e t. Aga in, from time to time
you’ll ne e d to s pre a d out your note s to ge t the big picture . (1 realize
tha t you’ll use twice as much pa pe r, but you ca n re cycle your pa per
a t the e nd of the te rm.)
• Don’t re copy your note s . This is a wa s te of time . You’ll be re writing
the m comple te ly a nywa y, as you’ll see s hortly. (Yes, I know this
seems like e xtra work, but it pays big divide nds .)
• Don’t use a compute r to type your note s . Now tha t la ptops are
be coming a fforda ble , s ome s tude nts are us ing the m to ta ke note s .
Don’t. You don’t ha ve the s a me fre e dom or involve me nt with a
ke yboard as you do with pe n a nd pa pe r. (I’m a gre a t cha mpion of
compute rs for othe r purpos es , howe ve r, like writing pa pe rs.)

Don’t forge t tha t you’ll us ua lly ha ve class note s tha t cove r much the same
ground as the note s you took on your re a ding. S ince you’ll be combining these
two sets of note s s hortly, save a ny ma jor re vis ions for tha t step.

TAKING NO TES IN CLASSES AND LECTURES

The same basic rule s a pply to ta king cla s s room note s as ta king re ading note s.
Aga in, ke e ping pace with your te a che r will force s ome conce ssions in how you
ta ke note s , but the basic rule s are the same.
Don’t be come a cla s s room s te nographe r. Atte mpting to ta ke word-for-word
note s ma ke s it a lmos t impos s ible to lis te n, le t a lone le a rn. Lis te ning me a ns
he a ring a nd unde rs ta nding. Ins te a d of furious ly s cribbling down e ve ry word
your te ache r utte rs , lis te n ca re fully to a fe w sentences be fore you write down
only the mos t importa nt points . Don’t worry a bout fa lling be hind; the re will be
natura l breaks in the le cture whe n you ca n ca tch up. If you do fa ll be hind or you
find your a tte ntion has lapsed, leave s ome bla nk space a nd a couple of words so
you ca n pick up the thre a d la te r. You can a lwa ys ge t the mis s ing note s from a
frie nd a fte r class.

m
 ' ywyAfy ,
HOW CAN I
PARAPHRASE AND
TAKING CLASSROOM NOTES: NUTS AND BOLTS SUMMARIZE THIS
In a ddition to the nuts a nd bolts on ta king te xtbook note s , he re are a INFORMATION?
fe w a dditiona l tips on ta king le cture note s :
• Be on the lookout for te rms, buzz words , a nd pe t phra s e s your
te a cher uses fre que ntly. It pays to drop a fe w of the se into your
pa pe rs a nd your e xa m responses.
• If a n ide a or que s tion occurs to you. tha t you’d like to think a bout,
jot it down in the ma rgin with a ca pita l Q for “que s tion to think
a bout la te r.”
* If you a re n’t s ure how to s pe ll a word your te a che r uses, put sp?
a fte r the word a nd ve rify the corre ct s pe lling la ter.
* If you mis s e d the le cture e ntire ly (a nd you s hould a void this ),
borrow note s from a cla s sma te as s oon as you ca n. Borrow from
s ome one who—unlike you—takes down e ve rything the te a che r says
compuls ive ly. The n you can de cide wha t’s importa nt a nd wha t’s not.

COMBINING YOUR TEXTBOOK AND CLASS NOTES

Your te xtbook a nd cla s s room notes will not be ide ntica l. The re will be things the
a uthor s a id tha t you thought we re importa nt but tha t your te a che r didn’t
me ntion during class, a nd things your book didn’t me ntion tha t your te a che r
s pe nt a gre at deal of time discussing.
I don’t ne e d to re mind you tha t wha t your te a che r cons iders importa nt
s hould be give n cons ide ra ble we ight. In a ny e ve nt, you’ll need to combine your
two sets of note s into one , re moving duplica te d ma te ria l a nd incorpora ting
a nything ne w your te a che r has a dde d. This is why s ome s ma rt s tude nts ta ke
the ir te xtbook note s to class a nd the n copy the ir class note s dire ctly into the
a ppropria te s pots . This te chnique works we ll if your te a che r follows the
te xtbook in a cons is te nt way.

CO M BINING YO UR TEXTBO O K AND CLASS NO TES O N THE

RO CKS PASSAG E
I re a lize you don’t ha ve a ny class note s on the rocks pa s s a ge -you’ll ha ve to
borrow J ohnny’s. As I jus t note d, J ohnny’s e xte ns ive a nd me ticulous notes serve
your purpos e s quite we ll, e ffective ly a cting like a huma n tape re corde r.
He re the y are.

©
 WHAT SMART — cym-iSMx- c^nc^iM^a^-'
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©
Be fore continuing, ple a s e comple te the following e xe rcis e. HOW CAN I
PARAPHRASE AND
SUMMARIZE THIS
EXERCISE #4 INFORMATION?

Ins tructions : Compa re your note s on the pa s s a ge (Exe rcis e #2,

pa ge 26) with J ohnny’s clas s note s (pre vious pa ge ). S ome
informa tion will be the s a me but you’ll notice tha t the cla s s you
“mis s e d” cove re d s ome a dditiona l ma te ria l. On J ohnny’s cla s s
note s a bove , circle or unde rline the ne w informa tion “your
te a che r” provide d.

He re ’s wha t you s hould ha ve s e le cte d:

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-doJs M : js iAurnm tt ^lnr\ AMkfOjdidx^CAkAL^-MwJ^ \
-clnim itd. 'jvwtoJ\d& dioAs iW 1m uxrteti Jjurf Myofaiiy- (oiMk Mill (j^ypoiurnj^
-s k c l o mu a $hJtlU-,£k£itfo«&-(Mm uife n^ Mryiaious-
‘ p/aActr CceoH) J u m waiM .
V____ -y^dtatuc curL blAdre l i/ub O j a , uuttfarj*^
' - c /m O ,AMk~UMQ>My uAidtAioaXiA jjluovvuyn^ l o S G a
/ JlgluyCyp^ctJj Aid^rne/vS ^ Jfr JUriAvi J j u u a m .
| - y)&Al '\drA-Jjj>vm AMk by chAwuiI pAMxA^CcmuAcliM^. <A vu^aMtjcdie u-)
1 ^a j m m A c ( ae m poduKA)
I - jXjA&rci£/\drooiu a m ! 1 a Ia q mu I oAyAilMo/^^Loi,MucY 'juy.s >%A'ol^_J m A
- AUdM'n-MiJnM junk O'itr^Z Adc/vij^xid ou iriy/us -, by pMiie hA- ay,
m awiA juv&jojl#*' . , j
-um Mtm s Uykui JltcJc Jy^vrm A tdkn/^amy u m A ok AMk u/YidiAystMud
lo olxAA^H bkj. AActeMAc hurt S AaAyMtMM
 WHAT SMART
STUDENTS KNOW - 4mt/jUUMvAJ, CtiJJAld ku -JtrnM/mtV
djjUp6^OMM LtuikjM juvdk, , '
-jm $U/vd'QjA^ bu2ld^/nA Oudi'JxttM' jLfi*~ CAu£y
fl/nJLLU-C ru.it.') _____
Mtk rude i buzJ ilkwAo bq, —_____
r. yi&uJto-(^ m m A haAuC&t
I - a^^,J^Um A Mula,, wW- fa ^f ^os chdu^ u x l c ^, \
wa iw o /h 4 dzAwi .2*. uxrfUA. '
wWliM^xA/- bu^iU^L
“-jtwo -fup<V: io4^^p^^vli
“ ' -JbujqiAtA UiittijA.MrCAoUct, WW*f
{djA<±°JtM& !
(JwYYU.aU - (cJiUWJM jm/mtAai CMn^iiHou-) j
-JMj Au cj^:a£mMfUiAuz c mo t iLc a x a I

This ne w informa tion is ve ry importa nt. As you know, a ny informa tion your
te a che r provide s tha t is not include d in your te xtbook de ma nds a high-priority
ra nking.
You now ha ve to combine your cla s sroom a nd te xtbook note s . Be fore
continuing, please comple te the following exercise.

Ins tructions : On a s e pa ra te s he e t of pa pe r, use wha t you’ve

le a rne d a bout pa ra phra s ing a nd s umma rizing to update your
origina l te xtbook note s (Exe rcis e #2, pa ge 26) with the
a dditiona l informa tion you’ve s e le cte d from J ohnny’s
pa ins ta king cla s s room note s .

Your combine d te xtbook a nd cla s s room note s s hould look s ome thing like this :

Q
 -rocks (ercepf coal)made of minerals Csobsfances with definate physical/chemical propelids) HOW CAN I
PARAPHRASE AND
-most minerals are compounds ^exceptions i carbon, iron., oxygen) SUMMARIZE THIS
-42. natural elements; Q-Wioof<3-11 wk mass INFORMATION?

is-?,
stliconj
aluminum
iron
Halcium 23%
Sodium
potassium
magnesioirij
04 others „
- 3 fypes of rocks: igneous, ^imeoigLr^ metamorphic (rock cycle)
- I /jneous: I) intrusive z) extrusive fissuresCamsed by
urxdsr^round above ground emerges from ear-Hoauofeadeep
mdVetrfen+scf crust
magma/md-ten rode) lavafmagma above g.) volcanoes Cu s ix l Ily
rises,tools slowly emerges, cook goickjy -formed from lava,
OCCOmulatma around
large grams,crystals -fins grains a,-fissure J
(granite) (basalt, pumice')

-Sedimentaryo sedlmerts(par-Wd«)-Hiafformstrata(layers),usually+ra«sported by wafe^

-particles usually formed from rocks under i)erosion, 2) weathering
- erogjon(rubblug/abrasion) caused by: ^laefers, -ftulifu^ rocks, running water *-
waves (+ debris), wind-born particles
'Weafheruu^ (breaking down, decomposing)
^physical Woes nstcbange mineral Compositionfreezing hao in crack, plant" roofs
z)cbemical( changes 11 11 )sun,gas, altmcpteria chemicals
- particles-form rocks, t>y i)cherwcal process (eementitg, cry stall ization)
z)physical process f compacting = pressure)
-4 types impediments
i\olastic- rock, particles (shale, sandstone)
zVhem leal -minerals dissolved in water that crystallize (rock salt, gypsum)
or
decomposed
k)plants (coal) -----'Iin water
4)^roclastic-violcani<L ask, blasted into air, settling +0 eartfo
- identified by layers; particles of different sizes; fossils
- usually found in large,flat regions.

- metamorpfe.: rocks changed by great hca+/pressore^-dee^oriab(d,^

-metaworpkism ■ makes rocks rougher,denser, changes composition

-identified by wavy bands;, distorted .structure
- shale becomes slate
limestone “ marble
granite 11 gneiss ("nice”)

- n?ck cycle 1 any type of rock can become any otter

o
 By the wa y, e ve n though you ha ve combine d your two sets of note s , don’t
STUDENTS KNOW throw out the origina ls ; you ma y ne e d to re fe r to the m a t a nothe r time .

SHO ULD YO U M ARK UP YO UR TEXTBO O K?

If you don’t own your te xtbook, of course , this is not a n issue. If you do own
your te xtbook, whe the r you choos e to ma rk it up de pe nds on a fe w
cons ide ra tions .
In the firs t place, you s houldn’t ne e d to ma rk it up. Once you’ve ta ke n out
the importa nt informa tion in note form, you won’t ne e d to re fer to a te xtbook
much, if a t a ll. (Als o, if you’re cons ide ring s e lling your te xtbook whe n you
comple te the course, a ma rke d-up te xtbook is us ua lly worth cons ide ra bly less.)
On the othe r ha nd, if your te a cher re fe rs to the te xtbook fre que ntly during class
dis cus s ions , a nnota ting it be fore class is worth doing.
If you choos e to ma rk up your te xtbook, doing it the old wa y (libe ra l
highlighting a nd unde rlining) is a wa s te of time .

MARKING UP YOUR TEXTBOOK; NUTS AND BOLTS

If you’re going to ma rk up your te xtbook—a nd ma ny s ma rt s tude nts
don’t—ke e p the following points in mind.
• Throw a wa y your highlighte rs ! Highlighte d te xt is
Question 7: dis tra cting a nd give s e ve rything e qua l importa nce . Mos t
What information is
s tude nts highlight me cha nica lly; tha t is, without de ciding
important here?
firs t whe the r s ome thing is importa nt (Que s tion 7).
8 Avoid pe ns tha t s mudge . And don’t go cra zy with diffe re nt
colors ; one or two are a ll you s hould ne ed.
B Re a d a n e ntire pa ra gra ph be fore de ciding wha t to
unde rline . The same principle tha t’s be hind wa iting to ta ke
note s a pplie s here, too.
• Unde rline as fe w words as pos s ible , not e ntire s e nte nces .
De ciding pre cis e ly wha t words to unde rline re quire s a lmos t
as much thought as tra ns la ting the a uthor’s words into your
own whe n you ta ke note s . For le ngthy ide a s , use ve rtica l
ma rks in the ma rgin.
Don’t forge t to re cord your thoughts a nd que s tions in the
ma rgin. Besides he lping you formula te ideas, this will save
you re vie w time la te r.
• Don’t use a rule r. Rule rs force you to unde rline sentences
without giving a de qua te thought to wha t you’re re a ding.

©
IF YOU’RE GOING TO HARK UP YOUR 'TEXTBOOK HOW CAN I
PARAPHRASE AND
He re ’s how a s ma rt s tude nt would ha ve ma rke d up a te xtbook. SUMMARIZE THIS
INFORMATION?

ROCKS
Rocks are ha rd, na tura l masses of s olid remains that have decayed or decomposed
matter that make up the earth’s crust. With a in wa te r. Mos t lime s tone , for e xa mple , is
fe w e xce ptions (s uch as coa l), rocks are forme d^rtmrtEe ^mine ra ls of decomposed
compos e d of one or more mine ra ls . s he lls or s ke le tons of ma rine organis ms ,
Geologists cla s s ify rocks as either igneous, while coal is forme d from plants that have
sedimentary, or metamorphic, depending on ow3 de ca ye d in s wa mps. S e dime nta ry rock
how they were formed. •!^^usually fonns under wa te r. It can fre que ntly
Igneous rocks are forme d from magma, M be ide ntified by cha ra cte ristic layers or by
the molte n ma tte r deep within the earth. pa rticle s of diffe re nt s ize s , a nd ofte n
The re are two type s of igne ous rock. If contains fos sils.
magma rises towa rd the surface, it s lowly Me ta morphic rocks are forme d whe n
cools and sometimes s olidifie s underground. ^W^irocks of a ny type are cha nge d by long
The re s ult is intrus ive igne ous rock. pe riods of intense heat or pressure within
ma gma re ache s the e a rth’s s urfa ce, it the e a rth. This proce s s , known as
emerges from volcanoes or fissures (cracks) metamorphism, alters the texture, structure,
as la va . La va cools ^pidly a bove ground, and mine ra l compos ition of the e xis ting
s olidifying into e xtrus ive igne ous rock. rock, us ua lly ma king it roughe r and more
Intrus ive igneous rock, such as granite , can dense. Me tamorphic rock can sometimes be
be ide ntifie d by its la rge , cle a rly vis ible ide ntifie d by its dis torte d s tructure , or by
mine ra l grains (crysta ls). Because extrusive wa vy bands. Whe n the s e dime nta ry rock
rock s olidifie s more quickly than intrus ive lime stone undergoes me tamorphis m, it
igne ous rock, it is cha ra cterize d by tiny becomeghna rble. Shale, another sedimentary
crysta ls . Ba s a lt, with its fine te xture , high rock, becomes slate under me tamorphis m,
density, and da rk color, is the most commoton^ while the igne ous roe ;ra nite be come s
e xtrus ive igne ous rock, lying beneath th^Y°gneiss.
vast ocean floor. Pumice, another common1'^1- As hard as the y are, rocks do not la st
e xtrus ive igne ous rock us e d in some fore ve r. Rocks a bove ground are contin-
abrasives, acquires its rough porous texture uously exposed to weathering and erosion.
from the e xplosive release of gas that often Ove r thousands or even millions of years,
accompanies volca nic eruptions. the y are broke n down and worn a wa y to
Virtua lly a ll s e dime nta ry rocks are s e dime nts, which ca n la te r form ne w
forme d when particles, known as sediments, sedimentary rocks. Rocks be low ground can
a ccumula te in s tra ta (la ye rs ). Mos t'/J ^flS o cha nge . Any rock s ubje cte d to
sediments are created whe n rocks of a ny^^e Trfufficie nt he a t a nd pre s s ure unde rgoe s
kind are broke n down by e ros ion ora da ^ie ta morphism and forms new metamorphic
weathering. When these particles cement or ^rock. And if the heat is great enough, any
—-----------
compa ct toge the r and ha rde n, the y form hoto rock can be me lte d ba ck into magma and
sedimentary rock. Shale^the most common later form new igneous rock. Thus, any type
sedimentary rock, is forme dTroin-mud and of rock can be transformed into one of the
cla y; s a nds tone , as its name suggests, is others. This dynamic, never-ending process
forme d from sa nd. S ome s e dime nts, of rock forma tion is known as the rock
however, are created from a nima l or pla nt cycle.
 Aga in, why don’t you compare these nota tions with J ohnny’s (page 31) a nd the
WHAT SMART ones you ma de (Exe rcise #2, page 26). Which ones mos t e ffe ctive ly highlight the
STUDENTS KNOW
importa nt points in the rocks passage?

SUMMARY
Ta king note s is a n importa nt step towa rd unde rs ta nding the ma te ria l.
S imply copying doe s n’t work; you ne e d to process the informa tion in
your mind a nd in your own words . S tructure a nd organize the ma te ria l;
use a pe rs ona l s hortha nd; ta ke note s on a t le a s t a pa ragra ph a t a time ;
pa raphras e whe ne ve r pos s ible . To do a ll this , you’ll ne e d to think de e ply
a bout wha t you’re re a ding. Re membe r: the more a ctive your mind is
while you read, the more you’ll unde rs ta nd a nd re me mbe r la te r.
You s hould a pproa ch cla s s room note s in the same ba s ic wa y—don’t
s cribble down e ve rything, but find the points tha t are mos t importa nt.
As you be gin to revise your note s (s ome thing you’ll be doing a lot), you
nrr „
Question 8:
s hould combine your cla s s room a nd te xtbook note s . Que s tion 8 is only
the be ginning. As you will see s hortly, s tudying s hould cons is t not of
How can I paraphrase
and summarize this re re a ding your note s , but of continua lly re s ha ping a nd re vis ing the m.
information? And you revise the m by a s king the Cybe rLe a rning que s tions ove r a nd
Question 9: ove r (e s pe cia lly Que s tions 8 through 12).
How can I organize this Don’t be put off by the pros pe ct of re vis ing “pe rfe ctly good” note s.
information? It’s ne ithe r re pe titive nor boring be ca us e you’ll be uncove ring ne w
Question 10: informa tion as you do it. I know it s ounds like work (a nd it is !), but it
How can I picture this
will save you a n incre dible a mount of time down the roa d.
information?
Once you ta ke note s on a s e ction or cha pte r, you s hould not ne e d to
Question 11:
What’s my hook for
reread the cha pte r ever a ga in. You might ne e d to re fer to it for ce rta in
remembering this fa cts or dia gra ms , but you’ve a lre a dy e xtra cte d the importa nt
information? informa tion it conta ins . From he re on out you are communica ting with
Question 12: the informa tion comple te ly in your own la nguage a nd on your own
How does this te rms. Ea ch ne w set of note s brings you clos e r to unde rs ta nding a nd
information fit in with ma s tering the s ubject.
what I already know?
___
 Ans we ring Que s tion 9:
How Ca n I Orga nize
------- This Informa tion? ——

PUT ASIDE YOUR TEXTBOOK

Now tha t you have finis he d ta king note s on your te xtbook (in our case, on the Question 1:
passage), you will not need to look a t it a ga in; you ca n a nswe r the re maining What's my purpose for
reading this?
que s tions (9-12) us ing only your note s. Alre a dy you’re more indepe ndent by
Question 2:
be ing less tie d to a grindingly dull te xtbook a nd more plugge d into a la ngua ge What do I already know
you unders ta nd—your own! about this topic?
By the wa y, since we combine d our cla s s room a nd te xtbook notes, we will Question 3:
no longe r ne e d to dis tinguis h be twe e n the two sets in our dis cus s ion of the What’s the big picture
Cybe rLe a rning me thod. here?
Question 4:
What’s the author going to
GROUPING AND REGROUPING say next?
Orga nizing informa tion means colle cting informa tion into groups or categories Question 5;
so tha t you ca n see diffe re nt pa tte rns , conne ctions , a nd re la tions hips . J us t as What are the “expert
e a ch s ubje ct asks diffe re nt que s tions , e a ch s ubje ct orga nize s informa tion questions”?
diffe re ntly. S ociology a nd ps ychology, for e xa mple , both e xa mine huma n Question 6:
be havior, but each de fine s a nd organizes a nd categorizes it diffe re ntly. What questions does this
information raise for me?
Furthe r, a ny body of informa tion ca n be orga nize d a nd re orga nize d in a
Question 7:
numbe r of wa ys, de pe nding on your purpos e s a nd wha t que s tions you are trying What information is
to answer. Ea ch orga niza tion will reveal a diffe re nt aspect of the ma te ria l while important here?
hiding othe rs . Though s ome me thods of orga niza tion are more us e ful tha n Question 8:
othe rs , the re is no “be s t” wa y to orga nize informa tion. How can I paraphrase
and summarize this
Our s a mple passage, for e xa mple , divide s rocks into thre e ca te gorie s : information?
igne ous , s e dime nta ry, a nd me ta morphic. This orga nizes the diffe re nt type s of Question 9:
rocks de pe nding on how the y we re forme d. Why not ca te gorize rocks de pe nding How can I organize
on where the y we re forme d? this information?
He re ’s wha t you’re looking for whe n trying to a ns we r this que s tion. Question 10:
How can I picture this
9 In how ma ny diffe re nt wa ys ca n the va rious pieces of informa tion information?
be compa re d? Rocks ca n be compare d by looking a t how the y we re Question 11:
formed, whe re the y we re forme d, wha t the y we re forme d from, a nd What’s my hook for
so on. You s hould try re orga nizing the informa tion in as ma ny remembering this
information?
wa ys as pos s ible . You’re looking for ne w groupings tha t ma ke some
kind of sense or reveal ne w conne ctions . This is n’t a logica l process, Question 12:
How does this information
so e xpe rime nt—you ne ve r know wha t you’ll dis cove r. The fit in with what I already
importa nt thing is tha t you try to re orga nize the ma te rial, e ve n if know?
you e nd up not be ing a ble to do it.
 f§] • Wha t ite ms are s imila r in s ome way? Colle ct the m into a group a nd
WHAT SMART
na me it. Tha t na me is the group’s “he a ding” or “ca te gory,” a nd
STUDENTS KNOW
s hould indica te wha t the ite ms ha ve in common. (Try to ke e p the
numbe r of groups to a ma na ge a ble numbe r—pre fe ra bly fe we r tha n
te n—so the informa tion does not be come too complica te d for you
to use or re me mbe r.)
• Wha t ite ms are diffe rent? Separate the m into diffe re nt ca te gorie s .
(I’ll s how you s ome e xa mple s s hortly.)
• Wha t ite ms de pe nd on e a ch othe r? Link the m so you see a nd
re me mbe r the conne ction. (Aga in, I’ll s how you s ome e xa mple s
s hortly.)
• How do the diffe re nt ite ms compa re in te rms of the e xpe rt a nd
orie nta tion que s tions ? One of the purpos e s of orga nizing
informa tion is to he lp you a ns we r que s tions on it. S ince the mos t
importa nt que s tions are the e xpe rt a nd orie nta tion que s tions , you
Question 5: will find it he lpful to cre a te one ta ble or cha rt tha t e ns ure s you
What are the “expert
a ns we r the m. (For a dis cus sion of these que s tions , see the cha pte r
questions"?
cove ring Que s tion 5 tha t be gins on page 67.)
Be fore we see how a s ma rt s tude nt would go a bout a ns wering this que s tion on
the rocks passage, comple te the following exercise.

EXERCISE #6

Ins tructions : Looking ove r your la te s t s e t of comple te note s

(Exe rcis e #5, page 96), cons ider the diffe re nt wa ys rocks we re
compa re d (othe r tha n the obvious groupings of igne ous ,
s e dime nta ry, a nd me ta morphic). See how ma ny diffe re nt
groupings you ca n come up with in the space be low. (Hint:
Re me mbe r the e xpe rt que s tions : for e xa mple , W hat process causes
this? or W hat’s this made of?)
ORGANIZING AND REORGANIZING INFORMATION IN
THE ROCKS PASSAGE HOW CAN I ORGANIZE
THIS INFORMATION?
He re are the s ix orga nizationa l schemes I ca me up with:

"Rcnfo formed bsloiU ground "Rocks. -fivmed abode groond

Q - (forodde ignoos, -C'&rod^c igmooc
- m ctayw/fkic.

foock& formed using tout" 'frocks, formed Wrf hoot half Q<~
or pressure pressure
(z) - igneou$ 'Odfofo Sadi men'Tar'/
- me +a rwrffoc -cbe wia a l sedimerTfary
-pirocla&hc. sedimerrta/y 'Orga nic. SediVnerrkwy

"Rocks -formed wi-fTpof wafer "Rockc, formed wfjfa wafe r-

dT) -igneous -cla s tic sediwienfary
- mefamorphic - che mica l S e dlwe nWy
- pyrocla s tic s foiVne uta ry -orga nic ^ediVwerrta/y

/^S Tocks "In/Vganic * J~Qghs

^ -organic, s e dime /rfa rg -Ah ethers,

''Rooks net jocmed -Pmm Tcefo -formed -Prom ofher

© foher rocks
-orga/Hc -Sedimentary
rocks
- igneous,
-dne micai s e dime nta ry - me ttLmorphic.
-da s +ic s e dime nta ry
- pqrocia s tie s a t i mentors./

Possi 1 - bearing rooks don-fos s il-be a ring rochs

(k) -cla s tic S e dime nta ry -/111 others
-orga nic s a diwe rrta ry
.

And so on. Perhaps you thought up othe r wa ys to orga nize the informa tion.
You ca n continue this process of bre a king the ma teria l down a nd cre a ting
categories as long as you’d like . I know this seems time -cons uming, but looking
ove r the diffe re nt ca te gorie s will give you ne w ins ights a nd unde rs ta nding. For
e xa mple , the firs t two groupings suggest tha t rocks re quire he a t, pre ssure , or
wa te r to form; the la s t grouping suggests tha t fossils form only ne a r wa ter. I ha ve
a bs olute ly no ide a wha t use I’ll be a ble to ge t out of these ne w ins ights , but I
now have a be tte r unders ta nding of rock forma tion. I also have the pleasure of
ha ving ma de a dis cove ry.
This process is a lot like s huffling a nd re s huffling cards to see if you ha ve a
good ha nd. It’s oka y tha t ma ny—pe rha ps mos t—of your groupings will not give
 WHIMMABT y°U ^ s i8niflca nt ins iShts into the ma te ria l. But the s e groupings are s till
STUDENTS KNOW worthwhile . To unde rs ta nd why informa tion is orga nize d the wa y it is, you mus t
e xplore othe r wa ys of orga nizing it. Building unde rs ta nding is la rge ly a ma tte r
of tria l a nd e rror.

LINKING INFORMATION IN THE ROCKS PASSAGE

An inte gra l pa rt of a ns we ring this que s tion is hunting for links be twe e n is ola te d
bits of informa tion. Be fore continuing, please comple te the following exercise.

EXERCISE #7

Ins tructions : Aga in looking ove r your la te s t s e t of note s

(Exe rcis e #5, page 97), on a nothe r sheet of s cra tch pa pe r lis t a ny
fa cts or ideas tha t ca n be linke d. (Hint: Look for processes, or
for a nything me ntione d in more tha n one conte xt.)

He re are the links I found:

IS Iils S i ..... ••................... 1 /TT,......T.".--

©
ORGANIZING THE PASSAGE INFORMATION TO ANSWER THE EXPERT
HOW CAN 1 ORGANIZE
AND ORIENTATION QUESTIONS THIS INFORMATION?
Although this s te p is ba s ica lly uns tructure d, you s hould a pproa ch the e xpe rt a nd
orie nta tion que s tions s ys te ma tica lly so you’re s ure you’ve a ns we re d the m.
Cre ating a ta ble or cha rt a llows you to do jus t tha t.

EXERCISE #8

Ins tructions : I pre pa re d the bla nk ta ble be low to organize my

answers to some of the e xpe rt a nd orie nta tion que s tions . Be fore
looking a t my comple te d ta ble, which follows , try to fill it in
yours e lf. You’ll proba bly ne e d to copy it onto a la rge r sheet of
pa per, s ince I ha d to re duce my note s so the y could squeeze
onto this page. By the way, comple ting this ta ble from me mory
is an excellent wa y to rehearse for exams, but fe e l fre e to cons ult
your note s whe n ne ce s s a ry. (You ma y not ha ve e nough
informa tion to comple te the ta ble , a nd s ome of the boxes ma y
be irre le va nt.)

identified
example fluid6 of cdxneA by Where -found foonA re ar
bV
Volea.no

■figure

iMrUfeine iqneoOi

ex+rdaivje. qaeoOS

elastic ce&msM/'j
tbe m aii

ocqanic.
J ^edimaatan/
•pyroe-la-sric

Sediments

strerffle

erosion

wJe&,+hen*q

a
 He re ’s how I complete d the cha rt:
WHAT SMART
STUDENTS KNOW
example milie . of
identified
by anned t>y ult-ierc -foond foond ne ar
la.\J <L fc>i le d up eaur+ h4.oak.eSj
Volcano NE- a round -fi^ore /JR croQ (U KYlO'Jdl'ffetTfe a JR. ajr 7
-fe ote ME- MR ME. II
MR?7
S ol'di-fied la rge
invivitewe igneao^ gro-flife Cf'|6dru£ 11 , too\i^q UndcrgfBO/id vola tnae s

ex-h^Ne.
pumice
buiaJf
S olidifie d Io a J o .
c^iU ii, cool i ^ d-boue ground uol cjvno e,<~,

la rge Jlat
cAtfUrt-ic ^cdimsda.^ Shale,
•Sd/icte-fane rock par-Wcles
-fossils,
[o^efi,
CemenfiK4>
CO^pCtC-H™}
aboue around
Under^td-er re qionz
Chemical
^crlivrientay'Y
rock $aJ+; wineraJs
-fO£Si\*?.
Cr\|5du-lliz.odion
ggpsuroi le ts ?
OTfld/H’d.. l(me6ton<s/ dnimnlj p la nt ■fossil*? com proc+iw-a.? ,
rerm.irs lagers ? dni^+a.Ili'zttPion /
J ^edimei/rtary
ce me nting r
pyroclasrid , ? volcanic -fossils ? volcanic OSh i
Se-Wi iug -to ground d-boJe ground <*, Volcanoes
Sediwetftayy asw lexers ?
rocks, anirnoJ erosi'oH-j ■ „ ahoHto qT*jThl,,1-l5o
Sedi merits MR remainS/deft, MR uJeert-He^i
CrHstnJt'za+ian
, UhtfiTiOdiEh m/r
5£dimevrt? u&J-er -frzmspor+i'hg
stvaia- MR MR urVeoua.+'ev
MR
mataxrorphic Slate, marble,
gneiss
■feUlinq rocks.
raifcs
SSP tore.
hnaomd.) deep burial,
mo i Mu 'm - bu i Id i w-g
Uhde-h^rootocl mOOtrfouMS

erosion meei'efo, water

CoiVd-bofo portiate
yue. Aifc we aring at4u/ Me Mr
sun, tjtLS.atnioS'
physical or
iMeotheniq pnefic, frees i1^ MR ME. chemical MP MR
M, plank roots

Aga in, I re a lize this ta ble ma y be ha rd to re a d but I ha d to re duce it to fit onto

this page. The que s tion ma rks s ta nd for informa tion I ne e d to colle ct, though a ll
of it ma y not ne ce s s a rily a ppe a r on a te st. The “NR” s ta nds for “not re le va nt.”
Tha t does it for Que s tion 9.

NUMMARY
The re is no one right wa y to organize a s ubje ct. 1 he ke y to Que s tion 9
is e xpe rime nta tion. Ea ch me thod of orga niza tion you try re ve a ls
Hilt
diffe re nt aspects of the informa tion, so try a nything you ca n think of.
:...... ..................■

How ma ny wa ys ca n you group the informa tion? Which ite ms ca n you

link? Wha t ins ights do the e xpe rt que s tions re ve a l whe n orga nize d?
This e xpe rime nting a nd orga nizing ma y s ound like more work, but
it leads to true unders ta nding a nd saves time la te r. Be coming engaged
with the ma te ria l in this wa y pre ve nts you from me re ly “looking a t” it
a nd re ma ining mys tifie d. It’s also e xce lle nt te s t-ta king pra ctice!
Orga nizing the informa tion is jus t one more step in ma s te ring your
s ubje ct. If you do it thoroughly, you gre a tly re duce the ris k of be ing
ca ught unpre pa re d by “s urpris e a tta cks ” on e xa ms. Wha t’s more , this
step, like the othe rs you’ve be e n comple ting, will re ve a l a ny de ficie ncie s
in your unde rs ta nding we ll be fore the test!
Onwa rd. With Que stion 10 we pe rs ona lize our note s s till furthe r.
 Ans we ring Que s tion 10:
How Ca n I P icture
———- This Informa tion? -------

PUTTING YOUR PERSONAL STA1VJP ON THE MATERIAL

Que s tion 8 asks you to pa ra phra se a nd s umma rize the importa nt informa tion Question 1:
you are e xtra cting from your re a ding. In othe r words , it asks you to tra ns late the What’s my purpose for
reading this?
ma te ria l into your own words , a bbre via tions , a nd s ymbols . In so doing you are
re ma king the ma te ria l into s ome thing you’ve cre a ted a nd furthe ring your Question 2:
What do I already know
unders ta nding of it. about this topic?
Que s tion 10 continue s the dis tilla tion process by a s king you to tra ns late as Question 3:
much of the ma te ria l as pos s ible into picture s . What’s the big picture
here?
A PICTURE IS WORTH A THOUSAND WORDS Question 4:
What's the author going to
You’re not jus t “be ing cre ative ” here. Re pre s e nting informa tion as picture s is a say next?
critica l step in building unders ta nding. Informa tion has form a nd s tructure ; to Question 5:
unde rs ta nd informa tion, you mus t “see” this form. Re pre s e nting it gra phica lly is What are the “expert
an e xce llent wa y to do this . questions"?
Although we like to think tha t the huma n race has progresse d a lot since the Question 6:
da ys whe n our ma in conce rn would ha ve be e n hunting for pre y while What questions does this
information raise for me?
outrunning la rge r a nd fa s te r pre da tors , our bra ins haven’t cha nge d much.
Question 7:
Your primitive bra in is quite good a t ha ndling picture s , a nd it’s not ba d a t What information is
ha ndling words tha t create picture s . Gra phic words like e le phant or m ilk shake important here?
'
don’t give it much trouble , but whe n confronte d with a bs tra ctions like democracy Question 8:
or magnetism or fre e will, your bra in is not sure wha t to do. If you wa nt your How can I paraphrase
ca ve ma n bra in to process a nd unde rs ta nd a bs tra ct words a nd conce pts , you have and summarize this
information?
to he lp it as much as pos s ible by tra ns la ting the m into concre te vis ua l images.
Question 9:
Eve n the a ct of de s igning a picture or dia gra m will improve your unde rs ta nding How can I organize this
of informa tion a nd he lp etch it on your bra in. information?
Question 10:
THERE’S NO ONE WAY TO DO THIS How can I picture this
information?
J us t as you ca n organize informa tion in diffe re nt wa ys , you ca n re pre s e nt it
Question 11:
gra phica lly in diffe re nt wa ys, too. He re are s ome points to keep in mind: What's my hook for
• Ha ve s ome s cra tch pa per ha ndy. Be fore committing your picture s to remembering this
your note s , e xpe rime nt with the informa tion a nd with diffe re nt information?
types of dia gra ms to see wha t works be s t for you. Question 12:
How does this information
fit in with what 1 already
know?
 Us e diffe re nt te chnique s to e mpha s ize the re la tions hips a nd re la tive

'
ss,
1 s , •' •
importa nce of the va rious ide a s you are trying to ca pture . Va ry the
size, shape, le tte ring, a nd even color of your dia gra ms .
Be cre a tive in de s igning your dia gra m, but not too cre a tive . Ke e p it
The words or s imple e nough to re cons truct from me mory. Ta ble s , gra phs , a nd
language, as they are ba s ic ge ome tric figure s are be s t; complica te d dia gra ms hide the
writte n or spoken, do unde rlying orga niza tion of the informa tion. If your picture or
not seem to play any dia gra m is too “a rtis tic,” you will have trouble re me mbe ring or us ing
role in my mechanism it whe n you are ta king an e xa m. You don’t wa nt your vis ua ls more
of thought.... The comple x tha n the ideas the y are trying to s implify!
phys ical e ntitie s which The tra ditiona l outline —with its le tte rs , numbe rs , a nd Roma n
seem to serve as nume ra ls —is too ve rba l a nd line a r, a nd not gra phic e nough. It ma y
elements in thought be he lpful whe n writing a pa pe r, but it is ine ffe ctive as a vis ua l
are ce rtain signs and me a ns of re pre se nting informa tion.
more or less cle ar
Don’t re ly on the pictures or dia gra ms provide d by your te a che r or
im age s .... The
te xtbook. Your bra in relates to picture s you de vise much be tte r tha n
above-me ntione d
to thos e de vis ed by s omeone else.
elements are, in any
case, of vis ual and You won’t be a ble to ma ke e ve rything vis ua l, but try a nywa y. You’d
some of m us cular type. be s urpris e d how much you ca n re pre s e nt gra phica lly if you put your
Conve ntional words mind to it. I’ll be t you could e ve n ta ke thos e a bs tra ct words I
or othe r signs have me ntione d e a rlie r (democracy, magnetism, fre e will) a nd come up with
to be sought for s ymbols or picture s to re pre s e nt the m. As with a ll the Cybe rLe a rning
laborious ly only in the que s tions , ma king the e ffort is the importa nt thing.
secondary stage.
Al ber t Ein s t e in YOUR ALMOST-FINAL NOTES FROM THE ROCKS PASSAGE
In a mome nt you will see my le a n a nd me a n, picture -rich ve rs ion of note s. But
be fore continuing, please comple te the following exercise.

EXERCISE #9

Ins tructions : Re turn to your la te s t ve rs ion of note s

(Exe rcis e #6, pa ge 102). Re write the m comple te ly, this time
transla ting as much of the informa tion to pictures as pos s ible .

He re ’s wha t a s ma rt s tude nt’s note s might look like a fte r a ns wering Que s tion 10.
How do yours compa re ? Your dia grams will proba bly be ve ry diffe re nt from
these; no two s ma rt s tude nts picture informa tion in the same wa y. S till, these
note s will give you s ome ide a of how fa r a s ma rt s tude nt ca n ta ke the process.
 - 'Ka s Q: -Pom wme/o-U (feweptcoat: planted wt'futi OVe Compooncte (e xccp+ic^s: C&r bonbon, 0xy^e *-Q HOW CAN I PICTURE
THIS INFORMATION? 'm

^ {‘E ip. '■ s*E] »■*

a luminum 8fat tf&hwJ $\cm<dr6-=-%0lo of- rock m os t
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Cjxli’w m 2.1° o
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rb-ra-^iurY ]
fAaqr\C6iom _
" l^€O04> (old laW)
1<ML cooliM
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-hjpe^ \fwiru6iiic
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- Idctrtvfiedi by ^r&m^/cr-jc15?
- foond ne a r riwnta i/&/Volcanoes
-iWfyhe rfkuy. da d-fc Erosion Weathering
fnost common .ry^ioa jibta tiwi '**'£ -pbjrita.l(-fre«i™ wa te cpla nt r-oe+s)
4 da^+ic. . 1$, I'lQk.fil -chemica l&i>n,<p,atmos phe ric s Viewa ils )
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by lw« ,p u 4 W« .rf^
—found; ne a r : \Qsqe, -flost" regions-
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aeq>ra r]^^
mounta in buildmq 1 hea t' .. fpcx£ -rowVie r
-------------de n&e f ...
- Compa nion
~* iderrtvAed by; di^-forfed ^tructufc, wa>/y fcanfe
—Poondi we a r: rrwo/rtams, ?
-'kc&k. fyde
mud/clay ~s - -»s h a le s la te
s e a s te lls / —5—^limestone f4nwbla
ste letons granite -HS->gneiSS , Maumee
cooling |
hp/i±/pr^^r
laneousK-j
we ^tkie nnj
fieri imentarvJ me ta wpbid
reck. erosion J S fid i me ntfi L e ffldnn root
we ake riv\q y----------- > wea-meriV^

hfi^/prfi«Q CfL

You’ll notice tha t I cre a te d s ome s ymbols for the proce s s , a nd s ome rough
Question 7:
picture s to go a long with the ide ntifying cha ra cte ris tics . You’ll a ls o note tha t
What information is
I de pa rte d from the line a r s tructure of my origina l note s . important here?
' ‘ ~ ' V'c- ' Y,\,h
If you gla nce ba ck a t the origina l note s we took ba ck in Que s tion 7, you Question 12:
ma y be s urpris e d a t how fa r the y’ve e volve d. But we ’re not finis he d. I ca lle d this How does this
our a lmos t-fina l ve rs ion be ca us e in Que s tion 12 we will be conde ns ing the s e information fit in with
note s one s te p furthe r (ye s , e ve n more ). what I already know?

€>
 .i :
WHAT SMART
STUDENTS KNOW
s u mmar y
Doe s dra wing picture s s ound like fun? We ll, it s hould be. But de vis ing
picture s is also one of the be s t wa ys to ma ke informa tion s tick because
your mind a bsorbs a nd unde rs ta nds ima ge s be tte r tha n it does words . As
you go through your note s , re pre s e nt vis ua lly a nything you ca n. Use
shapes, line s , le tte ring, a nd e ve n color to ca pture your ideas. I gua ra nte e
you’ll find your picture s much easier to re me mbe r tha n your words .
_____
 Ans we ring Que s tion 11:
Wha ts My Hook for Re me mbe ring
——-— This Informa tion? ---------

CONGRATULATIONS
You s hould be fe e ling much more confide nt in your unde rs ta nding of rocks . Question 1:
Ima gine for a mome nt tha t ra the r tha n a pplying the pa s t te n que s tions , What’s my purpose for
reading this?
I ha d s imply ins tructe d you to reread the passage a nd your note s as ofte n as you
Question 2:
thought necess ary. Do you think your unders tanding would be a nywhe re near What do I already know
wha t it is now? More to the point, do you think le a rning the ma te ria l the old about this topic?
wa y (cons ta ntly re re a ding) would have be e n as intere s ting? Of cours e not. Question 3:
As you’ve been a dding to your knowle dge , both of rocks a nd of the s ma rt What’s the big picture
s tude nt a pproa ch, you ma y have notice d tha t s ome thing is mis s ing: a nxie ty. By here?
following these steps, a s king a nd a ns we ring the que s tions , you have e limina te d Question 4:
What's the author going to
the pa nic tha t come s from s tudying without s pe cific goals in mind. say next?
Now le t’s move on to the ne xt step—de vis ing hooks . Question 5:
What are the “expert
YOU’VE MEMORIZED MORE THAN YOU REALIZE questions”?
Until now, the Cybe rLe a rning que s tions ha ve focus e d your e fforts on Question 6:
unde rs tanding importa nt ma jor ideas a nd conce pts ra the r tha n on m e m oriz ing What questions does this
information raise for me?
minor fa cts a nd de ta ils . We de la ye d me morizing not because fa cts a nd de ta ils are
Question 7:
unimporta nt, but because it’s ha rd to re membe r ma teria l you don’t unde rs ta nd. What information is
By a ns we ring the firs t te n Cybe rLe a rning que s tions you’ve de ve lope d a s olid important here?
grasp of the ma te ria l. You now have a fra me work tha t will he lp you re membe r Question 8:
the de ta ils . How can I paraphrase
and summarize this
By the wa y, the work you put into building tha t fra me work has also pla nte d information?
mos t of the informa tion firmly in your long-te rm me mory. And you thought Question 9:
you we re jus t a s king ques tions , orga nizing informa tion, a nd dra wing picture s ! How can I organize this
information?
YOU DON’T HAVE TO MEMORIZE EVERYTHING Question 10:
How much a nd wha t kind of me morizing you mus t do varies from course to How can I picture this
information?
course . S ome s ubje cts re quire less me morizing tha n othe rs . P hilosophy has fe we r
Question 11:
facts to re membe r than, say, biology. Wha t’s more , some teachers place greater What’s my hook for
e mpha s is on re me mbe ring informa tion. A cours e whe re your gra de is remembering this
dete rmined by tests re quire s fa r more me morizing tha n does one whe re your information?
gra de is de te rmine d by papers. For tha t ma tte r, pre paring for a s hort-res pons e, Question 12:
fill-in-the -bla nk te s t will re quire more me morizing tha n a multiple -choice test How does this information
fit in with what I already
(whe re re cogniz ing the a nswe r is as good as re me mbering it). know?

#
 WHATEVER WORKS, WORKS
STUDENTS^KNOW As youve seen> building unders ta nding of informa tion re quire s a s king a s pe cific
series of que s tions , the Cybe rLe a rning que s tions . While the y a ns we r thos e
que s tions diffe re ntly, a ll s ma rt s tude nts a s k the sa me ones whe the r the y are
a wa re of it or not.
Me moriza tion te chnique s a re a nothe r ma tte r. Ea ch s ma rt s tude nt has
deve lope d pe rs ona l fa vorite s , de pe nding on wha t ne e ds to be me morize d.
De s pite the ir diffe re nce s , howe ve r, a ll me moriza tion te chnique s are based on the
same unde rlying principles . Don’t worry if a te chnique seems s illy or illogica l;
the only thing tha t ma tte rs is whe the r it aids your me mory.

HAVING SAID THAT, HERE’S WHAT DOESN'T WORK

Me morizing tra ditiona lly e ntails re pe ating informa tion so ma ny time s tha t you
can’t he lp but re me mbe r it, even if you don’t unde rs ta nd it. By s a ying or seeing
s ome thing ofte n e nough, you hope your bra in will s ome how a bs orb the
informa tion. Unfortuna te ly, passive re pe tition is one of the le a st e ffe ctive wa ys to
me morize . It’s also the mos t boring.

THERE’S NOTHING WRONG WITH YOUR MEMORY

Ma ny pe ople compla in tha t the y ha ve a “ba d” me mory the wa y the y might
compla in a bout ha ving we a k e ye sight. But me mory is not a sense, a nd you are
not born a nd s tuck with yours . Me morizing is a s kill tha t ca n be de veloped a nd
improve d like a ny othe r.
You ca n do this by us ing s pe cific te chnique s tha t pe ople ha ve us e d for
thous a nds of years. The s e te chniques , or “tricks ,” do not improve your me mory;
ra the r, the y improve how you use it. As s uming your bra in functions norma lly,
you ca n le a rn to me morize be tte r. This cha pte r shows you how.

YO UR BRAIN NEEDS A HO O K
As I pointe d out in the pre vious cha pte r, your bra in e volve d to e ns ure your
phys ica l s urviva l, which, unlike your a ca de mic s urviva l, did not de pe nd on
s tockpiling mounta ins of informa tion. None the le s s , your ca ve ma n bra in has an
a we some ca pa city for proce s s ing a nd s toring ce rta in types of informa tion.
If you’re ha ving trouble re me mbe ring s ome thing, it’s because you a re n’t
pre s e nting it to your bra in in a wa y it ca n ha ndle e fficie ntly. The trick is to find
a wa y to hook tha t informa tion to things your bra in ca n s tore a nd re ca ll easily.
In a wa y, the ha rd-to-re me mbe r informa tion piggyba cks on the e a s y-to-
re me mbe r informa tion.
Ea rly e le me nta ry s chool teachers re alize this , which is why the y introduce
ne w words ne xt to a vis ua l re pre s e ntation. While a s tude nt re cognize s the shape
a nd color of a n a pple , he or she is re cognizing the le ngth a nd shape of the word
a longs ide .
THE FO UR HO O KS WHAT’S MY HOOK FOR
While your bra in has a ve ry difficult time with a bs tract ideas or is ola te d fa cts , it REMEMBERING THIS
stores four things ve ry we ll: flpORMATIQN7
• picture s
® pa tte rns
9 rhyme s
9 stories
If you find a wa y to link a n is ola te d fa ct or a n a bs tract ide a (ha rd-to-re me mbe r
things ) with s ome thing you a lre a dy know or with a picture , a pa tte rn, a
rhyme , or a s tory (e a s y-to-re me mbe r things ), me morizing become s a s na p!

THE G REEKS HAD A W O RD FO R SI

Mne monics (nih-MAHN-iks ) is de rive d from the Gre e k word for me mory
(a mne s ia is de rive d from the same word). Mne monics is jus t a te n-dolla r word
for te chnique s tha t he lp you re me mbe r things . A mne monic is nothing more
tha n a me mory hook.
Mne monics ha ve be e n a round for thous a nds of years. Ora tors in a ncie nt
Gre e ce used the m to me morize e pic poe ms te ns of thous a nds of words long.
Mode rn me mory e xpe rts use the m to pe rform circus s tunts like me morizing
e ntire phone books of s ma ll towns . Impre s s ive , though you ha ve to wonde r why
the y couldn’t put the ir time a nd a bility to be tte r use.
Which brings us to the chie f dra wba ck of mne monics : the y are s imply
gimmicks . True , de vis ing a mne monic does force you to engage the ma te ria l
a ctive ly. And mne monics come in ha ndy whe n you have masses of informa tion
to me morize , like a fore ign la nguage voca bulary or his torica l dates. But use the m
as a la s t re s ort. While the y he lp you re me mbe r informa tion, the y do not he lp
you unde rs ta nd it.

ALL YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT MEMORIZING: THE TEN KEYS

We have a lre a dy discussed s ome basic principle s of me morizing. In a ll the re are
te n keys tha t form the basis of our four-s te p a pproa ch to me morizing, which
you will be le a rning s hortly. (As always, you don’t have to me morize this lis t; I’ve
numbe re d the points so tha t we could re fe r to them.)
Ke f #1: Try to unde rs ta nd it firs t.
Ke y #2: Cre a te a hook—a picture , a pa tte rn, a rhyme , or a s tory.
Ke y #3; Link it.
Ke y #4: Don’t bite off more tha n you ca n chew, a nd che w tha t bite
thoroughly be fore ta king a nothe r.
Ke y #5: Ge t e motiona lly involve d.
Ke y #8: Engage as ma ny senses as pos s ible .

0
 Ke y #7: S me ll the roses.
WHAT SMART
STUDENTS KNOW Ke y #8: Sleep on it.
Ke y #9: Use it or lose it.
Ke y #10: Quiz yours e lf pe riodica lly.

KEY #1: TRY TO UNDERSTAND IT FIRST

It’s not by cha nce tha t me morizing come s a t the ta il e nd of the Cybe rLe a rning
que s tions . Informa tion tha t is orga nize d, logica l, or tha t otherwis e ma ke s sense
to you is more e a s ily me morize d tha n informa tion tha t is n’t. Inde e d, if
s ome thing ma ke s logica l sense, if it’s conne cte d to wha t you a lre a dy know, you'll
ra re ly ne e d to me morize it; it’s is ola te d fa cts a nd dis conne cte d ideas tha t are
trouble s ome .
Think of your me mory as a filing system tha t stores informa tion for future
access. An e fficie nt filing s ys te m mus t be orga nize d so you’ll know “whe re to
look” whe n you’re trying to re me mbe r s ome thing. (You’ll a ls o re ca ll from
Question 9: Que s tion 9 tha t informa tion needs to be orga nize d to be re a dily unde rs tood.)
How can 1 organize this If you ca n’t orga nize informa tion in a me a ningful way, organize it in a ny
information? ■ wa y you can. If this s ounds pointle s s , it’s not. Aga in, e ve n if you can’t find a wa y
to organize the informa tion, ha ving trie d keeps you involve d a nd working with
the ma te ria l, a nd this he lps you re me mbe r it. In fa ct, the re’s less to me morize .
Once you’ve groupe d informa tion, for e xa mple , the principle tha t unites tha t
informa tion is less to re me mbe r a nd va s tly s imple r to re trie ve tha n a ll the
individua l facts.
Once you unders ta nd informa tion, you ca n ofte n re cons truct it whe n you
ca n’t re membe r it. Try the following exercise:

EXERCISE #10|

Ins tructions : In wha t ye a r did Abra ha m Lincoln de live r the

Ge ttys burg Address? (Hint: If you can re me mbe r the da te of the
Ame rica n Re volution as we ll as the firs t line of the Ge ttys burg
Addre s s , you can re cons truct the date it was de live re d.)

RECONSTRUCTING FORGOTTEN INFORMATION

Le t’s say you don’t re me mbe r the da te Lincoln wrote the Ge ttys burg Addre s s
(I didn’t), but you do re ca ll tha t it be gins , “Four score a nd seven years a go...”
Tha t’s e ighty-s e ve n years. If you a dd 87 to 1776 (the da te Lincoln’s re fe rring to,
a nd one you do re me mbe r), you ge t 1863. Voila ! You’ve re cons tructe d a fa ct
you’d forgotte n—or pe rhaps a fa ct you’d ne ve r known!
Whe n me morizing informa tion, continua lly a s k yours e lf how you would my HOOK FOR
re cons truct a n ite m if you forgot it. This re s ource ful ta ctic force s you to think REMEMBERING THIS
a nd ma ke conne ctions , a nd comes in ha ndy on tests whe n you ca n’t re me mbe r INFORMATION?
s ome thing.

KEY #2: CREATE A HOOK—A PICTURE, A PATTERN, A RHYSIE

OR A STORY
The re is compe lling e vide nce tha t the le ft he mis phe re (ha lf) of your bra in stores
informa tion diffe re ntly from the right. The le ft side of your bra in a ppa re ntly
deals in words , numbe rs , pa rts , a nd logic, while the right is more a ttune d to
picture s , wholes , pa tte rns , rhythms , a nd e motions . In s chool we te nd to re ly too
much on our le ft bra in. You will re me mbe r more if you engage your right bra in
by vis ua lizing wha t you are trying to le a rn, by finding rhyme s or pa tte rns in it,
a nd cre ating s tories tha t engage your e motions .
The following points a bout hooks are worth noting:
• Hooks work be s t whe n you ha ve de vis e d the m yours e lf.
• Don’t re ly on one ; the y work be s t in combina tion.
• While a hook tha t ma ke s logica l sense is be tte r tha n one tha t
doe s n’t, any hook tha t he lps you re membe r informa tion is doing
the job.

KEY #3: LINK IT

Informa tion linke d with s ome thing you a lre a dy know, or with a hook
(Ke y #2), becomes e a s ily me morized. Linking ne w informa tion with old is pa rt
of unde rs ta nding it (Ke y #1), but if you ca n’t find logica l connections, a ny
conne ction will he lp. In fa ct, if the link is not logica l, ma ke it cra zy—the
wilde r, wa ckie r, a nd more biza rre it is , the e a sie r it will be to re me mbe r!
Le t’s s a y you’re trying to me morize tha t wa te r a t sea le ve l boils a t
212 degrees Fa hre nhe it, a nd these ha ppe n to be the digits of your te le phone area
code . Link these two fa cts us ing a hook (Ke y #2). You could ima gine throwing
your te le phone into a boiling ocean. It’s not a logica l conne ction, but by linking
the ne w informa tion to s ome thing you a lre a dy know a nd incorpora ting a
me mora ble hook, you’re more like ly to re membe r it. Abs tra ct numbe rs like
2—1—2 do not ma ke much impa ct on our ca ve ma n bra ins ; images like tos s ing a
phone into a boiling oce a n do.

KEY #4: DON’T BITE OFF MORE THAN YOU CAN CHEW, AND CHEW THAT
BITE THOROUGHLY BEFORE TAKING ANOTHER
You have not one but two type s of me mory—s hort-te rm a nd long-te rm. S hort-
te rm me mory la s ts ha ll a minute or so, while long-te rm me mory ca n la s t
decades.
 Ne w informa tion is more or less a utoma tica lly s tore d in s hort-te rm me mory
WHAT SMART
without a ny e ffort on your pa rt. For e xa mple , whe n you ca ll a n ope ra tor a nd ask
STUDENTS KNOW
for a phone numbe r you are a bout to dia l, it gets s tored in s hort-te rm me mory.
If you don’t ma ke an a ctive e ffort to re me mbe r the numbe r, you will proba bly
forge t it s oon a fte r you’ve dia le d it because your bra in quickly “de cide s” it is
unimporta nt a nd promptly dis ca rds it. To be s ure you ca n re me mbe r a pie ce of
informa tion for more tha n a fe w mome nts , you mus t ma ke vigorous e fforts to
tra ns fe r it to long-te rm me mory. Cre a ting a hook (Ke y #2) a nd us ing the
informa tion (Ke y #9) are e xce lle nt wa ys to do this .
Be fore informa tion ca n be s tore d in your long-te rm me mory, howe ve r, it
mus t be pla ce d in s hort-te rm me mory. Now, the inte res ting thing a bout s hort-
te rm me mory is tha t it has an e xtre me ly limite d ca pa city.
Ge orge A. Mille r, a linguis t a nd ps ychologis t, dis cove red tha t the bra in can
s tore only s e ve n pie ce s of informa tion, give or ta ke a couple , be fore it
“ove rloa ds .” If you ta ke in more tha n seven bits a t one time , s ome will ge t
dis carded (tha t is, forgotte n) be fore the y are processed a nd s tore d into long-te rm
me mory. It’s kind of like a ga me of mus ica l cha irs with only seven seats; once
you go be yond tha t, some informa tion gets “erased.”
Of course , you don’t have to count facts as you’re me morizing the m. The
rule he re is s imply to me morize a ma na ge able numbe r of ite ms a t one time
be fore ta king in ne w informa tion.

KEY #5: GET EMOTIONALLY INVOLVED

You re me mbe r informa tion more e a s ily if it arouses or e motiona lly a ffe cts you.
P e rs ona lize the informa tion. It is n’t a lwa ys easy, but try to re la te the ma te ria l in
your courses to things tha t ma tte r to you. Idooks tha t are funny, outla ndis h,
dra ma tic, or even ra cy are easier to re me mbe r tha n thos e tha t hold no intere s t.

KEY #6: ENG AG E AS M ANY SENSES AS PO SSIBLE

The more senses you use whe n me morizing informa tion, the more like ly you are
to re me mbe r it. For me morizing informa tion you use thre e prima ry senses, each
of which has its own me mory.
• vis ua l (seeing)
• a uditory (he a ring)
• kine sthetic (mus cula r or body awareness)
The firs t two senses are commonly used, but don’t ove rlook your kine s the tic
me mory. If you turn ba ck to the quote by Eins te in on page 108, the “mus cula r”
e le me nts he was re fe rring to we re his kine s the tic inte llige nce ! I know tha t s ounds
fa nta s tic, but if you’ve ever forgotte n a phone numbe r only to be s urpris e d tha t
your finge rs “kne w” which phone buttons to pus h, your kine s the tic me mory
ca me to your rescue.
 Eve ryone has his or he r own unique le a rning s tyle , which include s how you WHAT’S MY HOOK FOR
prefe r us ing your senses. Le arn to ma nipula te informa tion to ta ke a dva nta ge of REMEMBERING THIS
your “be s t” sense, which ma y de pe nd on wha t you are trying to me morize . INFORMATION?
Ce rta in type s of informa tion you will re me mbe r vis ually, while othe rs you will
re me mbe r with your a uditory me mory. Oddly e nough, I re me mbe re d ma th
formula s on tests by “he a ring” the m a nd ve rba l informa tion by “s e e ing” it.
No ma tte r which of your senses is domina nt, it’s be s t to use a ll thre e
s imulta ne ous ly. Re pe a ting a fa ct out loud as you write it engages your vis ua l,
a uditory, a nd kine s the tic me morie s . P ra ctice e ve n whe n you a re n’t s tudying.
You’ll be s urpris e d wha t a good me mory you s uddenly have!

KEY #7: SMELL THE ROSES

Whe n you are me morizing informa tion, look up from time to time a nd ta ke
me nta l note s of your s urroundings : the wa llpa pe r, the tre e outs ide your window,
the coffe e s ta in on the rug. The me mory of your s urroundings a t the time will
get s tore d with the informa tion you a re le a rning. If you ca n’t re me mbe r
s omething, re ca lling the e nvironme nt in which you le a rne d it ca n he lp prod
your me mory. How ma ny time s has a s imple s me ll—coffe e bre wing, a sea
breeze—tra ns porte d you ba ck to an e pisode you thought you’d forgotte n?
While you are s tudying, from time to time close your eyes for brie f breaks
a nd “ta ke in” the wa y your body feels. This will he lp your bra in link your
kine s the tic se nsa tions (Ke y #6) with the informa tion you’re trying to me morize .
Lis te ning to s oft ba ckground music while you s tudy ma y a ls o he lp you
re me mbe r be tte r. Mus ic, like smells, can bring ba ck long-forgotte n me morie s . I
me a n soft ba ckground mus ic, not he a vy me ta l. S ince you ma y find a ny mus ic
dis tra cting—for tha t ma tte r a ny noise a t a ll—e xpe rime nt to see if mus ic works
for you, a nd if so, wha t type works best.

KEY #8: SLEEP ON IT

For s ome reason tha t is s till a mys te ry to ps ychologis ts a nd othe r s cie ntis ts who
s tudy how your mind works , your bra in a ppa re ntly proce s s e s a nd s tore s
informa tion while you sleep. If you re vie w informa tion you are trying to le a rn
jus t be fore you go to sleep, you will find tha t you re me mbe r quite a bit of it
whe n you wa ke up. Sta y in be d for a fe w minute s be fore ge tting up a nd see how
much you can re ca ll.

KEY #9: USE IT OR LOSE ST

Informa tion tha t you do not use is forgotte n a lot more quickly tha n
informa tion you do us e . Us ing the informa tion doe s not me a n pa s s ive ly
re pe a ting it ove r a nd over. It means accessing it, thinking a bout it, a nd a pplying
it in va rious wa ys. And this is jus t wha t the Cybe rLe a rning que s tions force
you to do.
 KEY #10: QUIZ YOURSELF PERIODICALLY
STUDENTs 'k n OW Quiz yours e lf e ve ry so ofte n by a ctively re ca lling the informa tion. Informa tion
tha t is re ca lle d fre que ntly be come s e a s ily re ca lle d whe n you re a lly ne e d it (on
te s ts ). Don’t ge t frus trate d if it doe s n’t pop up imme dia te ly; tha t’s wha t your
hooks are for.
Don’t confus e re cognizing informa tion with be ing a ble to re ca ll it. This is
a nothe r of the ma ny pitfa lls of the re a d-highlight-re re a d a pproa ch to s tudying.
Whe n re vie wing the ir note s , ma ny s tude nts fool the ms e lve s into thinking tha t
because the y re me mbe r ha ving seen the ma te ria l be fore , the y ca n re me mbe r the
ma te ria l. But the re’s a big, big differe nce be twe e n the two. Re cognizing s ome one
you’ve be e n introduce d to be fore , for ins ta nce , does not me a n you’ll be a ble to
re me mbe r tha t pe rs on’s na me . Be sure you can re ca ll the informa tion without
looking a t your note s for clues. And don’t move on until you ha ve cre a te d some
s ort of s e ns e -me mory hook for ca lling it ba ck up whe n you ne e d it.
Anothe r popula r e rror you s hould be a wa re of is the da nge r of quizzing
yours e lf imme dia te ly a fte r le a rning ne w informa tion. If you te s t yours e lf within
a minute or two of ha ving le a rne d s ome thing, you’re only che cking your s hort-
te rm me mory. The proble m, as you know, is tha t s hort-te rm me mory evaporates
quickly (Ke y #4). J us t because you ca n re me mbe r s ome thing a minute a fte r you
have le a rne d it does not me a n you’ll be a ble to re me mber it on a n e xa m ne xt
we e k.
Re me mbe r tha t mos t forge tting occurs s oon a fte r you’ve be e n e xpos e d to
ne w informa tion. Ins te a d of quizzing yours e lf imme dia te ly a fter a cquiring ne w
informa tion, use it imme dia te ly (Ke y #9) a nd the n quiz yours e lf in a da y or two.
Afte r tha t, you ca n space out re vie w sessions from once a we e k to once a month
to once e ve ry fe w months . The more you s pre a d the work out, the be tte r.
Don’t ma ke too big a de a l of quizzing yours e lf. S hort, fre que nt sessions are
be tte r tha n long, infre que nt one s . Quiz yours e lf in s pa re mome nts you’d
othe rwis e wa s te—doing your la undry, s ta nding in line a t the de li, wa iting for
s ome one to ge t off a public phone . This is a good use of “down time ” tha t you
s hould try to incorpora te into your da ily routine . You’ll le a rn a bout ge tting more
out of your da y in How S m art S tudents Manage The ir Tim e (page 247).

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER: THE FOUR STEPS TO MEMORIZING

We ca n s um up the te n ke ys in a four-s te p a pproa ch to me morizing
informa tion:
S te p 1: De cide whe the r the informa tion ma ke s s e ns e or ca n be
re cons tructe d from wha t you a lre a dy know.
S te p 2: P la y a round with the informa tion until s ome outs ta nding
fe a ture suggests a hook (picture , pa tte rn, rhyme , s tory) tha t
he lps you re me mbe r it.
 S te p 3l Active ly e nga ge as ma ny senses as pos s ible (vis ua l, a uditory, iisiiil
WHAT'S MY HOOK FOR
kine s the tic) to re inforce the link be twe e n your hook a nd the REMEMBERING THIS
ma te ria l you’re me morizing. INFORMATION?

S te p 4: Use the informa tion a nd pra ctice re ca lling it as the days a nd

weeks go by.

If you look ba ck ove r the pre vious te n Cybe rLe a rning ques tions , you’ll notice
tha t the y he lpe d you re ta in wha t you we re re a ding by forcing you to use a nd
re ca ll the informa tion.

ANSWERING QUESTION 11 ON THE ROCKS PASSAGE

De vis ing hooks for a ll the informa tion in the rocks passage would be a little
te dious for our purpose s, so ins te a d I’ll select s ome examples. Be fore continuing,
please comple te the following exercise.

EXERCISE # 11 J

Ins tructions : I s e le cte d the following fa cts a nd ideas from our

combine d note s on the s a mple passage. For e a ch s e le ction,
de cide whe the r you ca n re me mbe r it “logica lly,” a nd if not,
wha t kind of hook (picture , pa tte rn, rhyme , or s tory) you will
link it to.

1. Igne ous rock is forme d from molte n rock, s e dime nta ry rock is forme d from
broke n rocks tha t a ccumula te in la ye rs, a nd me ta morphic rock is forme d
from rock tha t has undergone change.
2. In orde r of importance , the following e le me nts ma ke up a lmos t a ll rock:
oxyge n, s ilicon, a luminum, iron, ca lcium, s odium, pota s s ium, ma gne s ium.
3. Ba s a lt lies be ne a th the oce a n floors .
4. Lime s tone is forme d from the shells a nd s ke le tons of ma rine organis ms , a nd
ca n in turn form ma rble.
5. Erosion is caused by gla cie rs, fa lling rocks , wind-borne pa rticle s , a nd wa te r
in motion.

WORKING THROUGH EXERCISE #11

Aga in, the re is no right or wrong wa y to me morize informa tion, only ge ne ra l
rule s . Your hooks for me morizing this ma te ria l will undoubte dly be diffe re nt
from mine . Wha te ve r does the job for you is fine , though following the te n keys
will e nsure tha t you do it as e fficie ntly as pos s ible .
 1. Igne ous re minds me of the word ignite (the y are in fa ct re la te d words ), so
WHAT SMART tha t’s my hook for re me mbe ring tha t it is forme d from molte n ma tte r.
STUDENTS KNOW
I a lre a dy kne w tha t s e dime nts we re pa rticle s , so s e dime nta ry rock is easy to
re me mbe r. Me ta morphic rock re minde d me of me ta morphos is , which
I re membe r from biology is the process of cha nging s tructure ; tha t’s my
hook for re me mbe ring the third type .
2. The s e e le ments are a ll fa milia r to me so a ll I ne e d is a hook to re me mbe r the
order. If I ta ke the firs t le tte r (or two, in the case of s ilicon a nd s odium),
I can ma ke up the following “mini-s tory”: “Ora nge s s ippe d a nd in ca nne d
s oda pleases ma ny.” It’s e a sier for me to picture a nd re me mbe r this s illy
“s tory” tha n thos e e ight unre la te d e le me nts , which I ca n e a s ily re cons truct
once I ha ve the firs t initia l to work with.
3. I ima gine d mys e lf pouring s a lt into a ba y—producing ba y s a lt (bas a lt).
4. For this one I ima gine d a s ma ll lime as the round s he ll of a ma rine orga nis m
tha t ca n be used as a ma rble if it ha rde ns.
5. I ima gine d mys e lf wa lking a long on a windy winte r da y whe n dus t gets in
my eyes, ca us ing me to s lip on a pie ce of ice a nd fa ll into a puddle . Anothe r
s illy s tory tha t a llows me to link four othe rwis e unre la te d a ctions (moving
gla cie rs, fa lling rocks , wind-borne pa rticle s , a nd wa ter in motion).

Your hooks will be diffe re nt from mine . It doesn’t ma tte r, as long as the y he lp
you re me mbe r the informa tion.

SUMMARY
P ractice, practice , pra ctice . In no time a t a ll de vis ing hooks will be a
s na p for you a nd forge tting informa tion will be a thing of the pa s t.
P e ople who compla in tha t the y ha ve “ba d” me morie s proba bly jus t
aren’t us ing the ir me morie s we ll. The wors t wa y to me morize s ome thing
is to re pe a t it ove r a nd ove r a nd ove r. This a pproa ch is pa s s ive , it’s
boring, a nd—guess wha t—it doe sn’t work too we ll. Your bra in s imply
doe sn’t like to a bs orb informa tion tha t way.
In this cha pte r, you’ve re a d a bout te n ke ys to e ffe ctive
me moriza tion—te chnique s to coa x your bra in into re ta ining
informa tion. If these te chnique s seem more like a ba g of tricks , we ll,
the y are. But whe n it come s to me morizing, you’ve got to go with wha t
works . The fa ct is, if you ca n link some bit of informa tion to a picture ,
cre a te a pa tte rn of it, say it in a rhyme , or te ll it in a s tory, you’ve
proba bly locke d it into your long-te rm me mory.
Ele ve n down; jus t one Cybe rLe a rning que s tion to go.
____
 Ans we ring Que s tion 12:
How Does This Informa tion Fit in
— with Wha t I Alrea dy Know? —

THE BIG, BIG PICTURE

Que s tion 3 asks you for the big picture of the ma teria l you are s tudying. This Question 1:
big picture provide s you with a pe rs pe ctive so tha t you ca n see how a ll the What's my purpose for
reading this?
diffe re nt pieces of informa tion fit toge the r. Now tha t you have a firm grip on
Question 2:
the ma te ria l (ha ving a ns were d the firs t eleven que s tions ), the la s t que s tion asks
What do I already know
you to ta ke a nothe r fe w steps ba ck. You ne e d to see how the ne w informa tion about this topic?
fits in with wha t you a lre a dy know a bout other subje cts as we ll as this s ubje ct. Question 3:
What's the big picture
DON’T SIMPLY ACCUMULATE YOUR NOTES here?
I’m s ure you know by now tha t a ccumula ting note s from class to class, jus t Question 4:
What’s the author going to
a dding toda ys onto ye s te rda y’s a nd the n re re a ding the note s a fe w days be fore a say next?
te s t, is not a n e ffe ctive wa y to le a rn. At the e nd of each we e k, if not e a ch Question 5:
a s s ignme nt, you ne e d to combine a nd cons olida te your note s. As I pointe d out What are the “expert
unde r Que s tion 7, a lot of informa tion tha t seemed importa nt e a rlie r in the questions”?
te rm ca n now be we e de d out. In fa ct, a t a ce rta in point in the te rm the tota l Question 6:
volume of note s you s tudy from s hould a ctua lly be gin to de cline ! Your What questions does this
Information raise for me?
a ccumula te d note s during a fifte e n-we e k course s hould look s ome thing like this .
Question 7:
What information is
150 important here?
Question 8:
125 How can I paraphrase
and summarize this
| 100 information?
Cj

O 75
Question 9:
cn
01 How can I organize this
CO
information?

I] ru
CO
cl 50
Question 10:
25 How can I picture this

0
Q. information?
Question 11:

■
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th
School Week What's my hook for
remembering this
information?
Is n’t this a be a utifully e ngine e red a nd s ymme tric system? You be gin a nd e nd the Question 12:
te rm with a s ingle page of note s. Yes, I know tha t s ounds incre dible , a nd ye t this How does this
information fit in with
cha pte r will s how you how to do jus t tha t. what I already know?
 Of cours e, you s houldn’t throw a wa y your origina l note s ; you ma y ne e d to
11 STUOENTSiCIlOW re ^e r to t^cm *or a s pe cific fa ct or de ta il. None the le s s , the note s you’ll be
working with a nd re vis ing from we e k to we e k s hould be gin to contra ct as your
unde rs ta nding grows .

THAT’S RIGHT, A SINGLE PAGE

This s umma ry she e t combines your note s from a ll your le ctures a nd re a ding
a s s ignme nts into one dige s tible ove rvie w of the e ntire course . Your a im is to find
a wa y to boil down a ll your cours e informa tion to a s ingle sheet of pa pe r! You’ll
ha ve to write s ma ll, a nd the s he e t of pa pe r ma y be s ome wha t la rge r tha n
s ta nda rd size, but you can do this . Its importa nt to ge t it down to one s he e t
because the proce ss force s you to s e le ct only the mos t importa nt informa tion
to include , a nd so tha t you ca n see a t a gla nce how a ll the ide a s in the cours e
are inte rre la te d.

CREATING YOUR INITIAL SUMMARY SHEET

Of course , the s umma ry sheet doe s n’t ha ppe n a t once . You be gin compiling your
s umma ry sheet the firs t we e k of a course. This is ba s ica lly a rough outline of the
s ubject’s ma jor topics—mos t courses have fe we r tha n a doze n. You ca n dis cove r
these topics in the introductory le cture , the cours e de s cription in the s chool
ca ta log, your te xtbook’s introduction or ta ble of contents , the cours e s ylla bus or
outline , or a ge ne ra l e ncyclopedia a rticle . Copy each of these ideas down on a
s ingle she e t of pa pe r, le a ving room be twe e n the va rious he a dings . This lis t is
your initia l s umma ry sheet.
 HOW DOES THIS
|. The Changing Cros-F INFORMATION FIT IN
WITH WHAT S
ALREADY KNOW?

t. 'Roe.kg :

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5^ &+reaw<. And "Kite#

6 ■ "The Oceans

7- Ice. ard fil&aiere

8- Ttj e Wi^-fory of 4Lie Ean+k

b-iX:i 0ii:7i:;=:-:>;=i:;:-:v.i-;-=;:= SV.....

Le t’s say tha t in the firs t we e k of class, from the te a che r’s s ylla bus you we re able
to pie ce toge the r the following initia l s ummary sheet (he re re duce d so it can fit
on the page).
Think of your s ummary sheet as the fra me of a ta ll building tha t you will fill
in, floor by floor, in the following weeks. Ea ch ne w topic gets boile d down to
the minimum pos sible fa cts a nd ideas, the n ins e rte d into the prope r place on
this sheet.
As you cove r each ne w topic, you ins e rt your condens e d note s into this
s ummary sheet. You’ll ha ve to write s ma ll s ince your e ve ntua l a im is to squeeze
a n e ntire cours e onto one s he e t of pa pe r! Notice , in looking ove r the ba re-
bone s s umma ry she e t, tha t wha t you ha ve le a rne d a bout rocks (Rocks ) will
cha nge wha t you le a rne d pre vious ly (The Cha nging Crus t). This me a ns you’ll
ha ve to re vise your s umma ry sheet note s on ma te ria l you’ve a lre a dy cove re d.
 If you look ove r the s umma ry sheet, you’ll also notice tha t we ’ve touche d on
WHAT SMART
several upcoming topics: The S oil Layer, Eros ion a nd We a the ring, Stre a ms a nd
STUDENTS KNOW , „ . , ... „ , . .
■ I Rlve rs> a nd The Oce a ns (a nd pos s ibly The His tory of the Ea rth). As you cove r
these topics , you’ll be conne cting the m to wha t you know a bout rocks .
Wha t you have le a rne d a bout rocks will cha nge your unde rs ta nding of wha t
you know a bout othe r topics in geology. In our case, s ince we ha ve n’t s tudie d
othe r topics in ge ology, we ca n only ima gine how we would conne ct wha t we
now know a bout rocks with wha t we know a bout othe r things . You do this by
upda ting your s umma ry sheet with each ne w topic you cover.
He re ’s how I re duce d a ll the informa tion contained in the a lmos t-fma l note s
on rocks so tha t it would squeeze into the s umma ry sheet. (Once a ga in, don’t
worry if you ca n’t re a d e ve ry word; the point is s imply to give you a nd ide a how
your s umma ry sheet s hould look.)

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Notice tha t my s umma ry she e t omits a lot of the informa tion conta ine d in my HOW DOES THIS
INFORMATION FIT li
conde ns e d note s. Once you fe e l confide nt tha t a pie ce of informa tion is s a fe ly WITH WHAT I
s tored in long-te rm me mory, the tinie s t re minde r on your s umma ry s he e t will ALREADY KNOW?
be e nough to re ca ll it e ntire ly. (Actua lly, this s umma ry sheet is n’t quite a ccura te
since it doe sn’t re fle ct the note s I “took” pre vious ly on “The Cha nging Crus t.”)

UPDATE YOUR UNDERSTANDING EVERY FEW DAYS

Re pe a t this process as s oon as pos s ible a fter e ve ry le cture or re a ding a s s ignme nt,
a dding each ne w topic to your s umma ry sheet. Ea ch class will give you more
informa tion you’ll ne e d to include , so a t some point your s ummary she e t ma y
e xpa nd be yond a s ingle page. As your unders ta nding de ve lops, howe ve r, you will
continua lly de vis e be tte r wa ys to re pre s e nt the informa tion a nd re duce your
s umma ry sheet to a s ingle page.
Aga in, I know this consta nt upda ting of your note s s ounds a mbitious , but
it’s be tte r tha n re re a ding your note s , a nd by the e nd of te rm you’ll be gla d you
ma de the e ffort.

SHIFT YOUR PERSPECTIVE FROi THE TO THE

Incorpora ting each ne w topic into your s ummary sheet forces you to ke e p the
big, big picture s ha rply in focus . As you revise your note s , go ba ck a nd forth
be twe e n e xa mining the de tails of tha t we e k’s topic a nd the ove ra ll s tructure of
the course. As we discussed in Que s tion 3, you ne e d to unde rs ta nd the ma te ria l
a t both levels. Re turning to the a na logy of cons tructing a building; once you Question 3:
comple te a floor, you step ba ck a nd ta ke a look a t the building as a whole be fore What’s the big picture
s ta rting work on the ne xt floor. here?

YOUR UNDERSTANDING OF OTHER SUBJECTS SHOULD CHANGE, TOO

Que s tion 12 is much broa de r tha n the topic or s ubje ct you ha ppe n to be
s tudying. It asks you to e xa mine how your unde rs ta nding of othe r things has
cha nge d, too. Your ne wfound knowle dge of rocks s hould dire ctly e nha nce your
unde rs ta nding of ge ogra phy, che mis try, a s tronomy, ecology, biology, a nd bota ny,
not to me ntion other subje cts.
For e xa mple , my unde rs ta nding of a ncie nt Gre e k a nd Roma n a rchite cture
(a bout as me a ge r as my knowle dge of ge ology) was e nha nce d by le a rning a bout
the s e dime nta ry rock, ma rble . Dis cove ring tha t ma rble is forme d from
lime s tone , which in turn is ma de from shells a nd s ke le tons of ma rine orga nis ms ,
e xpla ine d why these two culture s so close to the oce a n we re able to use s uch va s t
qua ntitie s of it.

'H#r
 WHAT SMART SUMMARY
STUDENTS KNOW
Yes, you ca n re duce a n e ntire semester’s note s in a s ubje ct to a s ingle
pa ge . Re me mbe r tha t de ns e , boring passage on rocks ? Que s tions 1
through 11 invite d you to e xplore this ma te ria l in ma ny diffe re nt ways.
Now Que s tion 12 invite s you to re duce a ll the informa tion you’ve
ge ne ra te d to a fra ction of a page.
Your a ccumula te d knowle dge a nd unde rs ta nding of the ma te ria l
ma ke s this pos s ible. Not only do you know wha t is a nd is n’t importa nt,
you ca n now re pre s e nt comple x ide a s with jus t a fe w we ll-s e le cte d
words . As you go through the semester, you’ll find tha t you ca n squeeze
each ne w topic onto your s ummary sheet, re vis ing it as ne w pa tte rns
a nd re lations hips emerge. Furthe r, you’ll be a ble to re la te wha t you le a rn
to knowle dge outs ide the cours e , building your unde rs ta nding of the
re a lly big picture—the world a t large.
You s hould ha ve an e xtre me ly s olid grasp of the rock ma te ria l. In
fa ct, you proba bly know more now a bout rocks tha n ne xt we e k’s his tory
exam! Don’t worry, the me thod will work in tha t class, too.
In the ne xt cha pte r we ll look ba ck ove r the comple te process a nd
re vie w the Twe lve Que s tions be fore s e e ing how we ca n modify our
a pproach to ha ndle a ny s ubje ct.

mi
 The Twe lve Que s tions :
__ ____ _ A Re ca p________

LOOKING BACK TO SEE HOW FAB YOU’VE COME

Ans we ring the Cybe rLea rning que stions has forced you to tra ns form your note s Question 1:
cons ide rably. You pa ra phra s e d a nd s umma rize d the importa nt informa tion you What’s my purpose for
reading this?
ha d s e le cted from the rocks passage, a nd the n you combine d thos e note s with
Question 2:
your cla s s room note s on the same ma te ria l (Que s tion 8). Ne xt you e xplore d the What do I already know
informa tion in your note s for ne w ways to orga nize it (Que s tion 9). You the n about this topic?
took your combine d note s a nd tra ns la te d as much as you could into gra phic Question 3:
form (Que s tion 10). Fina lly, you conde ns e d this a lmos t-fina l set of note s to What’s the big picture
squeeze it into your s umma ry sheet (Que s tion 12). Aga in, these steps are not as here?
dis tinct in a ctua l pra ctice as our dis cus s ion might suggest. Question 4:
What’s the author going to
We ’ve cove re d a lot of ground so it would be a good ide a to s umma rize the say next?
ma jor points of the Twe lve Que s tions . Firs t, the que s tions :

Before jou be gin re a ding, a ns wer the following que s tion: questions”?
Question 6:
1. Wha t’s my purpos e for re ading this?
What questions does this
Afte r you re a d the title , a ns we r the following que s tion: information raise for me?
Question 7: illlill
2. Wha t do I a lre a dy know a bout this topic?
What information is
S kim the ma te ria l a nd a nswe r the following que s tion: important here?
3. Wha t’s the big picture ? Question 8:
How can I paraphrase and
R e turn to the be ginning. This time read more closely, se nte nce by sentence, as if summarize this
you we re chopping your wa y through a dense jungle . As you do so, ask yours e lf information?
the following que s tions : Question 9:
How can I organize this
4. Wha t’s the a uthor going to say next? information?
5. Wha t are the “e xpe rt que s tions ?” Question 10:
How can i picture this
6. Wha t que s tions does this informa tion ra is e for me?
W hile you re a d to find the a ns we r to the pre vious thre e que s tions , you mus t Question 11:
de cide wha t informa tion is importa nt a nd how to ta ke note s on it. You do this What’s my hook for
by a ns we ring the following two que s tions : remembering this
information?
7. Wha t informa tion is importa nt here? Question 12:
8. How ca n I pa ra phra s e a nd s umma rize this informa tion? How does this information
fit in with what I already
know?
 ..... L ' Afte r you finis h re a ding, you ca n put aside your te xtbook a nd turn to your note s.
WHAT SMART
As you e xplore a nd revise your note s , a ns we r the following que s tions :
STUDENTS KNOW
9. How ca n I orga nize this informa tion?
10. How ca n I picture this informa tion?
11. Wha t’s my hook for re membe ring this informa tion?
Afte r you comple te your a na lys is of the curre nt topic, a ns we r the following
que s tion:
12. How does this informa tion fit in with wha t I know?

He re are the ma jor points a bout Cybe rLea rning to ke e p in mind:

• Not a ll the s e que s tions , or the othe r que s tions you ra is e , a re
e qua lly importa nt. De pe nding on the ma te ria l you are s tudying a nd
your purpos e for re a ding, s ome of these que s tions ca n be s kippe d
e ntire ly while othe rs will ne e d to be inve s tiga te d in gre a t de ta il.
Don’t worry—you’ll le a rn how to te ll the diffe re nce easily.
• You won’t a lways be a ble to a ns we r the que s tions you ra is e ; the
importa nt thing is tha t you m ake the e ffort.
• The que s tion orde r is a pproxima te only; s ome que s tions ove rla p
na tura lly a nd ca n be combine d. Whe n you ge t the ha ng of the
process you’ll e a s ily be a ble to pa ra phra s e informa tion (Que s tion 8),
orga nize it (Que s tion 9), picture it (Que s tion 10), a nd devise a hook
(Ques tion 11) s imulta ne ous ly.
• De pe nding on the pa rticula r s ubje ct you a re s tudying, you ma y
ha ve to modify the Twe lve Que s tions s lightly. We ’ll be cove ring this
topic s hortly.
• Although the Twe lve Que s tions form a comple te proce s s , you a s k
the m not once but continua lly. The re is no limit to how ma ny
time s you ca n a s k the s e que s tions of the s a me ma te ria l. As the
following dia gra m illus tra te s , Cybe rLe a rning is a dyna mic, ongoing
process.
 THE TWELVE
QUESTIONS: A RECAP

A s hort while ago, the Twe lve Ques tions ma y as we ll have been Gre e k to you. It
was new, unknown, a bs tra ct, a nd proba bly a little intimida ting. Now the Twe lve
Que s tion a pproach is yours . Ma ke the mos t of it, re ly on it, a nd it will ne ver le t
you down.
Don’t forge t to pra ctice this te chnique . Knowing the Cybe rLe a rning
Me thod won’t he lp you if you don’t use it.

WHAT’S COMING UP NEXT

The ne xt cha pte r is an inte rmis s ion on wha t it means to unde rs ta nd s ome thing.
Now tha t you have a firm grasp of the Cybe rLea rning me thod, you’ll be a ble to
a ppre cia te wha t the rigorous Twe lve Que s tions we re building toward. Afte r tha t
you’ll le a rn how to modify our basic a pproach to ha ndle jus t a bout a ny s ubject
you are s tudying. S kip ahead to Part IV: How S m art S tudents Get The ir Grades if
you’re a nxious to see how s ma rt s tude nts rehearse for exams. You’ve a lre a dy done
a lot of the pre pa ra tion, but you s till need to rehearse the te s t-taking process.

©
 Inte rmis s ion i
Wha t Doe s It Me a n to
Unde rs ta nd S omething?

W HY UNDERSTANDING SS SO IM PO RTANT
You ma y be wonde ring why we go to s uch le ngths to unde rs ta nd a s ubje ct if a ll
you’re us ua lly re quire d to do on tests is re pe a t wha t the te a che r or te xtbook said.
We ll, you have a point. Mos t tests do wot re quire a profound unders ta nding
of s ubje ct ma tte r. Ifyou are good a t me morizing or cra mming, you ca n proba bly !
ace exams cove ring informa tion you sca rce ly unde rs ta nd a nd won’t re me mbe r
be yond te s t day E
So why bothe r with a ns we ring the Twe lve Que s tions ? Why bothe r
de ve loping unde rs tanding? The re are four good re a sons why you go to the
trouble:
Firs t, a lthough you ca n ge t by in s chool s imply by cra mming
:
me a ningle ss fa cts , me morizing ma te ria l is difficult if you don’t
'
unders ta nd it—a little like phone tica lly me morizing a speech in a
fore ign la ngua ge . More ove r, as your e duca tion a dva nce s , a n
incre a s ing e mpha s is is pla ce d on unde rs ta nding.
S e cond, your s chool e xpe rie nce will be more s a tis fying a nd
re wa rding if you try to unders ta nd ra the r tha n me re ly me morize .
■|
■

The same Cybe rLea rning steps you ta ke to unders ta nd informa tion
will also pre ve nt boredom. Re me mber S ma rt S tude nt P rinciple #8:
S ubje cts do not a lways seem inte re s ting a nd re le va nt, but be ing
a ctive ly e nga ge d in le a rning the m is be tte r tha n be ing pa s s ive ly
bore d a nd not le a rning the m.
Til:
Third, you’ll fe el be tte r a bout yourse lf if you’re ta king a ctive steps to
unders ta nd a s ubje ct ra the r tha n re s is ting it a nd re ma ining ignora nt.
Re me mbe r S ma rt S tude nt P rinciple #9: Fe w things a re as
pote ntia lly difficult, frus tra ting, or frighte ning as ge nuine le a rning,
ye t nothing is so re wa rding a nd e mpowe ring.
Fourth, the a bility to unders ta nd informa tion is a crucia l life s kill.
You ca n ge t through s chool without unde rsta nding much, but you’ll
be in big trouble profe s s iona lly and pe rs ona lly once you gra dua te
a nd e nte r the re a l world.
HKg A COMMONLY MISUNDERSTOOD WORD
WHAT SMART
For mos t s tude nts , le a rning in class me a ns s itting ba ck a nd lis te ning while the
STUDENTS KNOW
te a che r “teaches.” The same word le a rning is also use d in comple te ly diffe re nt
conte xts . Le a rning the multiplica tion ta ble, for e xa mple , me a ns me morizing it.
But le a rning biology or trigonome try or Ame rica n his tory involve s a lot more
bra in work tha n me morizing fa cts , formula s , a nd dates.
For s ma rt s tude nts , le a rning is the proce s s by which you build
unde rs ta nding of a s ubje ct. Wha t does it me a n, the n, to unders ta nd s ome thing?

A SIMPLE TEST
An e ducation is not Cons ide r the following s ta teme nts :
how m uch you have • S unlight causes photosynthesis in plants .
m e m oriz e d, or even
• Pe ru exports copper.
how m uch you know.
• The painte r Claude Mone t was an Impressionist.
It’s be ing able to te ll
the diffe re nce between • The Am e rican Civil W ar was the outcome ofa cons titutional crisis.
what you do know Me re ly knowing these fa cts a nd be ing a ble to s pit the m ba ck on tests is not the
and what you don V. same thing as unders tanding the m.
An a t o l e F r a n c e If you don’t know the differe nce be twe e n unde rs ta nding s ome thing a nd not
unders ta nding it, it’s ve ry easy to fool yours e lf into thinking you do whe n you
don’t. If you’ve ever ta ke n a n essay te s t on ma te ria l you thought you unde rs tood
only to find out the ha rd wa y tha t you didn’t, you know wha t I’m ta lking a bout.
It’s importa nt to know wha t not unde rs ta nding s ome thing feels like , so you
ca n be gin to ta ke a ctive steps to corre ct the s itua tion. And as a s imple te s t, we
ca n say tha t you don’t unde rs ta nd a conce pt until, a t the ve ry lea s t, you can
• de fine it in your own words;
• give your own e xa mple s of it;
• e xpla in its re la tions hip to othe r conce pts .
As you know, the s e orie nta tion que s tions jus t ba re ly s cra tch the s urfa ce ;
de ve loping unde rs ta nding is a ne ve r-e nding process.

UNDERSTANDING DOESN’T JUST HAPPEN

W hat is the harde s t The world doe s not ma ke sense; you’re the one who give s it s tructure a nd
task in the world? me a ning. Knowle dge a nd informa tion do not e xis t for you a pa rt from wha t you
To think. do to s ha pe tha t informa tion a nd conne ct it to wha t you a lre a dy know.
R a l p h Wa l d o Informa tion is not s ome thing tha t you find but s ome thing you cre a te .
E me r s o n Unde rs ta nding is not s ome thing tha t ca n be give n to you, but s ome thing you
mus t build for yours e lf.
Unde rs ta nding doe s not come from s imply re a ding your te xtbook or
lis te ning to your te a che r. Le a rning is not a utoma tic. S imply be ing e xpose d to
comple x informa tion a nd ideas will not ma ke thos e ideas ma gica lly “s ink into
your bra in.”
 Le a rning is a n a ctive process, which involve s a s king a nd a ns we ring que s tions WHAT DOES IT MEAN
cons ta ntly. As you do this , you be gin to ma ke connections be twee n the ne w TO UNDERSTAND
informa tion you a re le a rning a nd wha t you a lre a dy know. To cre a te SOMETHING?
unde rs ta nding, you mus t also bring s ome thing to the informa tion by s ha ping it
a nd orga nizing it into s ome thing tha t is your cre a tion.
Le t’s cons ide r one of the pre ce ding s ta te me nts—Pe ru exports copper. You
be gin the le a rning process by s ys te matica lly a s king que s tions a bout each te rm
(Peru, e xporting, a nd copper):
• How m uch copper does Peru export?
On the other hand, I
9 W hat othe r nations e xport copper?
want to oppose the
• W hich nations im port copper? idea that the school
• W hat else does Peru export? has to teach directly
And so on. You the n answer these a nd othe r que s tions , orga nize the re s ulting that special know-
informa tion, a nd conne ct it to othe r things you know. Eve ry ne w ide a is built in Ledge and those
this wa y, a nd the y build on one a nothe r. As you ga in a n unde rs ta nding of a ne w accomplishments that
idea , your unde rs ta nding of other ideas will grow, too. one has to use directly
later in life. The
NOBODY’S GOING TO DO THIS FOR YOU development of
One reason mos t s tude nts find s chool difficult is tha t the y ne ver think in te rms general ability for
of the ir s pe cific re s pons ibilitie s . If I asked the m to de s cribe the ir job in s chool, independent thinking
the y would proba bly say s ome thing like this : lis te n to wha t the te a che r has to say and judgm e nt should
a nd do wha t the te a che r asks us to do. The s e s tude nts are ignoring S ma rt always be placed
S tude nt P rinciple #2: Me re ly lis te ning to your te ache rs a nd comple ting the ir foremost, not the
a s s ignme nts is ne ve r e nough. acquisition ofspecial
Te a che rs ca n’t pour fa cts into your he a d, a nd the y ce rta inly ca n’t cre a te knowledge. Ifa person
unde rs ta nding. Whe n you be come a s ma rt s tude nt, you’ll see your “job” masters the
diffe rently. Te a che rs don’t te a ch you—you te a ch yours e lf. fundamentals ofhis
There are proba bly time s whe n you s it ba ck a nd e xpe ct your te a cher to do subject and has
a ll the te a ching. The n it’s your te a cher’s proble m if you don’t le a rn, right? learned to think and
Wrong! work independently,
It’s your proble m. You’re the one who live s with the consequences of your he will surely find his
e ducation, not your teacher. If you wa nt to le a rn, you ha ve to do mos t of the way and besides will
work, not your teacher. better adapt hims e lf to
progress and changes
YOU’D BETTER GET USED TO IT: LEARNING IS THE PROCESS OF than the person whose
OVERCOMING CONFUSION training consists
While giving a le cture on qua ntum me cha nics , the fa mous phys icis t Nie ls Bohr principally in the
told a s cie ntis t in the a udie nce tha t if he wa s n’t confus e d a nd be wilde re d by the acquiring ofdetailed
pre s e nta tion, he ha dn’t been pa ying a tte ntion. 1 think he could have s a id the knowledge.
same thing a bout the initia l stages of le a rning a nything ne w. If your bra in is n’t a Al b e r t E in s t e in
little s ha ke n up by s ome thing new, you mis s e d the point.
 Confus ion is a na tura l pa rt of le a rning, but it’s a ls o a frus tra ting a nd
II StUDfNlfl^KNOW^p dis couraging pa rt—a nd frighte ning. Ye t if you a re n’t a little s ca red while you’re
le a rning s omething ne w, you a re n’t le a rning as much as you could.
I s a id “a little sca re d,” not pa nicke d. But tha t’s wha t ma ny s tude nts wind up
be coming. S hortly a fte r the y be gin re a ding, the y be come confus e d. Not re a lizing
tha t this is the firs t step in unde rs ta nding a nything, the y be come ups e t, which
gra dually blos s oms into a full-blown pa nic. In de s pe ration the y figure tha t if
the y don’t unde rs ta nd wha t the y’re re a ding, a t least the y ca n me morize it. But
trying to me morize s ome thing you don’t unde rs ta nd will inte rfe re with your
la te r unde rs ta nding.
So don’t pa nic if you don’t unde rs ta nd a ne w topic. In fa ct, if you think you
do unde rs ta nd a ne w topic a fte r re ading it once , you’re cutting s hort the le a rning
process. Re me mbe r tha t you ha ve twe lve Cybe rLe a rning que s tions to answer.
Be lie ve me , how quickly you le a rn a s ubje ct has ve ry little to do with how we ll
you e ve ntua lly come to unde rs ta nd it. S ma rt s tude nts fre que ntly le a rn more
s lowly tha n the ir classmates in the e a rly pa rt of a cours e , but the y ca tch up
quickly a nd pass the m in the fina l s tre tch.

THE LEARNING PROCESS TAKES TIME

S ome pe ople will Le a rning a s ubje ct is a multi-s ta ge process. The firs t stage is s imply to follow the
never le arn anything ma in ideas, de finitions , a nd dire ction of the le cture or te xtbook. You the n build
for this reason: your unde rs ta nding by a s king que s tions of the ma te ria l to dis cove r how its ne w
because they fa cts a nd ideas re la te to one a nothe r a nd to wha t you a lre a dy know. Gra dua lly,
understand everything you orga nize thos e concepts into a s tructure tha t has me a ning for you.
too soon. You ma y ha ve be e n told tha t you s hould “re a d for unde rs ta nding.” In a
Al e x a n d e r P o p e sense, this a dvice is impos s ible to follow. The re is s imply no wa y you are going
to unde rs ta nd a comple x te xtbook as you re a d it. As you ha ve seen, you mus t
ha ve s e ve ra l e ncounters of diffe re nt s orts with ma te ria l be fore you ca n e ve n
be gin to unde rs ta nd it.
The process of le a rning a ne w topic is like s torming a fort. You will have to
stage several a tta cks be fore you can knock down the wa ll s e para ting you from a
s ubje ct. It’s not a s mooth process. You ca n go for several weeks in a s ta te of utte r
confus ion a bout a topic a nd the n s udde nly, one day, e ure ka ! Eve rything comes
toge the r a nd you say, “Oh, now I unders ta nd it!” Unde rs ta nding one topic ma y
de pe nd on your unde rs ta nding several re la te d ones, a nd only whe n you grasp
the m do you fina lly come to grips with the topic you’ve be e n s truggling with.

THINK OF LEARNING SOMETHING AS SOLVING A COMPLICATED

JIGSAW PUZZLE
De ve loping unde rs ta nding is lot like putting toge the r a puzzle —it takes time ,
pa tie nce , a nd ha rd work. You don’t cons truct the puzzle a ll a t once . A lot of it is
hit a nd mis s . You s ift through a ll the pieces, the n s ta rt to work on the edges
firs t—a n outline of the big picture —s ince the s tra ight-edge d pie ce s are easy
to find.
0
 Eve ntua lly, as you continua lly re fe r to the box cove r to ke e p the big picture WHAT DOES IT MEAN
in mind, you find a fe w pieces tha t fit toge the r. So you conce ntra te on tha t pa rt TO UNDERSTAND
of the puzzle for a while . Be pa tie nt. S oone r or la te r you ge t s tuck because some SOMETHING?
(HHniMfll
pieces are mis sing. So you go to work on a nothe r pa rt of the puzzle while you
keep your eyes out for the mis s ing pie ce you need. Gra dua lly the puzzle takes
shape, a nd s e ctions conne ct. As this ha ppe ns , your progress accelerates. Fina lly
you put toge the r the e ntire puzzle . It’s yours .
Le a rning a s ubje ct is much like tha t.

BUT YOU NEVER COMPLETELY UNDERSTAND ANYTHING

Cons ide ring wha t “unde rs ta nding” s ome thing me a ns to mos t pe ople , you’d
think you e ithe r have it or you don’t. But unde rsta nding s ome thing is n’t bla ck
a nd white , like whe the r you own a dog. S ma rt s tude nts re a lize tha t building
unders ta nding is a continuing process tha t ca n de e pe n as fa r as the y ta ke it. By
probing, a s king more que s tions , a nd ma king more conne ctions , the re is no limit
to how profoundly you ca n unde rs ta nd a s ubje ct. It re a lly comes down to how
much time you ca n (a nd wa nt to) give it a nd wha t your othe r prioritie s are.

NINE THINGS YOU GAN DO WHEN YOU’RE CONFUSED WHILE READING

Not unders ta nding s ome thing is frus tra ting but try not to le t it ups e t you; as No student knows his
you now know, confus ion is a na tura l pa rt of the le a rning process. Re me mbe r subject: the most he
also tha t not e ve rything in e ve ry cours e is re leva nt to your purpos e s, a nd even if knows is where and
you wa nte d to unde rs ta nd e ve rything in e ve ry cours e , the re ’s s imply not how to find out the
e nough time. things he does not
Ha ving s a id tha t, the re are steps you ca n ta ke tha t will cle a r a wa y s ome know.
roa dblocks to your unde rs ta nding. S ince your confus ion ca n have a numbe r of Wo o d r o w Wil s o n
causes, you ma y have to try more tha n one of the following suggestions:
1. Look it up. The mos t obvious confus ion occurs whe n you don’t
unders ta nd wha t a word means or the te rminology is misle a ding. For
s imple conce pts , this ca n be corre cte d by finding the de finition in a
dictiona ry or e ncyclope dia . It will a ls o he lp you to note its
pronuncia tion so you ca n “pronounce ” it in your he a d as you read.
But for more a dva nce d conce pts , unde rsta nding involve s more tha n
knowing the de finition. It is unlike ly tha t you will unde rs ta nd wha t
“photos ynthe s is ” me a ns , for ins ta nce , s imply by looking up its
de finition. But s ome time s a de finition will have to do while you wa it
for othe r pieces of the puzzle to fa ll in place.
2. Re turn to your roa d ma p—the big picture . S ome time s the de ta ils of
a topic can ma ke you lose s ight of the ma in ideas.
3. J ump imme dia te ly to the e nd. If you don’t see whe re the a uthor’s
dis cus s ion is le a ding, you ma y ha ve los t the big picture , but
s ome time s s imply seeing the conclus ion or s umma ry is a ll you need.
 4. Find a nothe r s ource of informa tion. As I pointe d out in the
WHAT SMART
Inte rmis s ion be ginning on page 59, a te xtbook or a te a che r provide s
STUDENTS KNOW
■ you with only one point of vie w. S ome time s a ll you ne e d is a
diffe re nt pe rspe ctive . See pa ge 60 for guide line s on choos ing a
s upple me nta ry informa tion source.
5. Find a n e xa mple . If a topic be come s too a bs tra ct, e xa mple s are
a lmos t a lways more e nlighte ning tha n e xpla nations . If one e xa mple
doe sn’t he lp, find a nothe r.
6. Re tra ce your s te ps . Te a chers a nd a uthors s ome time s s kip steps in
the ir pre s e nta tions or omit “obvious ” points . If you don’t see the
conne ction be twe e n s ome thing tha t is s a id a nd wha t follows , go
ba ck to the la s t point you did unde rs ta nd a nd tra ce whe re you los t
the threa d.
Question 11: 7. Sle ep on it. As you know from our dis cus s ion of Que s tion 11, your
What's my hook for bra in processes informa tion whe n you’re asleep. Ta ke the proble m
remembering this ma te ria l to be d with you a nd re vie w it one la s t time be fore turning
information?
out the lights . You ha ve now “pla nte d” the proble m in your bra in.
Whe n you wa ke up the ne xt morning, don’t ge t out of be d
imme dia te ly; you wa nt to re ma in in tha t dre a mlike me nta l state as
long as pos s ible be fore fully wa king up. Without “trying too ha rd,”
ca s ua lly look ove r the ma te ria l a ga in. You’ll ofte n find tha t your
confus ion has mys te rious ly cle a red up ove rnight without your doing
a nything! Be sure you imme dia te ly write down your e a rly-morning
ins ight or it will va nis h as quickly a nd as s ure ly as your me mory of
la s t night’s dre a ms.
8. Te a ch s ome one . A grea t wa y to cla rify s ome thing tha t confus e s you
is by e xpla ining it to s ome one , pre fe ra bly s ome one who knows less
a bout the topic tha n you do. To be cle a r you’ll be forced to s tick to
the e s s e ntial points , a nd the que s tions your “s tude nt” asks will
s timula te your own thinking. You’ll fre que ntly find tha t midwa y
through your e xpla na tion you’ve cle a re d up your own confus ion.
(S a vvy pa re nts us e this me thod to he lp the ir childre n with
homework.)
9. As k for he lp. I put this la s t for a reason: you’ll le a rn more if you try
working things out on your own firs t. If you’re comple te ly s tymie d,
ask s ome one (a classmate or your te a che r) for a hint or a n e xa mple
ra the r tha n a comple te e xpla na tion. This will give you a cha nce to
work out the re st for yours e lf. (Be tte r ye t, e xpla in your difficulty to
the pe rs on, as in the pre vious s ugge s tion. Trying to a rticula te your
confus ion ofte n clears it up!)
If none of the s e tips doe s the trick, don’t s pe nd a ny more time —you don’t i WHAT DOES IT MEAN
ha ve a ll the pie ce s of the puzzle . S kip wha t you’re s tuck on a nd see if you ca n f1 TO UNDERSTAND
ma ke sense of the rest of the s e ction be fore re turning to wha t’s s tumping you. If SOMETHING?
tha t fa ils , s witch to a comple te ly diffe re nt s ubje ct a nd re turn to wha t’s confus ing
you in the ne xt da y or two. (Do put off till tomorrow wha t you can’t pos s ibly do
toda y.) Be pa tie nt. As you continua lly revise a nd upda te your s umma ry s tudy
note s , the “miss ing informa tion” will emerge.

WHAT’S COMING UP
In the ne xt thre e cha pte rs , I’ll cove r the va rious type s of s ubje cts a nd how to
a pply the Cybe rLe a rning me thod in each.

m5J.
 Not All Subjects Are Alike :
Modifying the CyberLe arning Me thod

THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF SUBJECTS

Until now we have use d a ge ology passage to illus tra te how s ma rt s tude nts le a rn.
You’ve proba bly been wonde ring whe the r you can use the same Cybe rLe a rning
a pproach to le a rn Englis h, ps ychology, a nd a lge bra . Yes, a lthough you’ll have to
modify it s lightly. Once you’ve ma s te re d the Twe lve Que s tions , you’ll ha ve little
difficulty a da pting the m to your diffe re nt courses.
If you we re to look a mong cours e s in your s chool ca ta log, you would
probably find s ubje cts divide d into the following ba s ic areas:
• huma nities : a rt his tory, film criticis m, lite ra ture , mus ic the ory,
philos ophy
• s ocia l sciences: a nthropology, e conomics , ge ogra phy, his tory, law,
ps ychology
• na tura l sciences: biology, che mis try, e a rth science, phys ics
• ma the ma tics : a lge bra , ca lculus , compute r science, logic (a nd so on)
• business courses: ma na ge me nt, ins ura nce , a ccounting (a nd so on)
• foreign languages: Fre nch, Spa nish, Japanese (a nd so on)
9 pe rforming arts: mus ic, film, da nce , the ate r
The re ’s nothing wrong with grouping s imila r classes a ccording to s ubje ct ma tte r
like this . But s ma rt s tude nts are also ke e nly inte re s te d in the type of thinking
a nd s tudying a cours e de ma nds . So s ma rt s tude nts cla s s ify subje cts diffe rently.
The following exercise will he lp you unde rs ta nd how a nd why s ma rt s tude nts
do this.
 | EXERCISE #12
STUDE",S“W
Ins tructions : Be fore you continue , ple a s e s kim through the
following four lis ts of courses. Write a plus [+] ne xt to the ones
you are good in or re a lly e njoy (these are proba bly the same)
a nd write a minus [-] ne xt to the one s you ha te or find
e xtre me ly difficult (a ga in, proba bly the s a me ). J us t ma rk the
cours es you fe e l s trongly a bout one wa y or the othe r. The
courses are lis te d a lpha be tica lly. If you fe el s trongly a bout one
tha t you don’t find lis te d, find the column with the clos e s t
ma tch a nd write it in.

Type I Type II Type III Type IV

[ ] a nthropology [ ] a rt his tory [ ] a ccounting [ ] creative writing
[ ] a s tronomy [ ] dance the ory [ ] che mis try [ ] dance
[ ] biology [ ] English [ ] compute r (performing)
[ ] civiliza tion [ ] film criticis m science [ ] debate
[ ] e a rth science [ ] lite ra ture [ ] e conomics [ ] foreign
[ ] e duca tion [ ] philos ophy [ ] e ngine e ring languages
[ ] ge ogra phy [ ] the ology [ ] finance [ ] mus ic
[ ] logic (pe rforming)
[ ] gove rnme nt
[ ] ma the matics [ ] pa inting
[ ] his tory
[ ] physics [ ] the a te r
[ ] la w
[ ] ma na ge me nt
[ ] ma rke ting
[ ] politica l
science
[ ] ps ychology
[ ] s ociology
HERE’S WHAT YOU SHOULD NOTSCE ■HI
Unle s s you have a ta le nt for le a rning a ll s ubje cts , you’ll find tha t the courses you ; !
re a lly like (or dis like) will te nd to fa ll into one or two of the type s above because
each type re quire s diffe re nt le a rning obje ctive s .
• In Type I s ubje cts , your prima ry ta s k is to a cquire a nd unde rs ta nd
orga nize d bodie s of information.
• In Type II s ubjects , your prima ry ta s k is to a cquire a nd unde rs ta nd
inte rpre tation techniques. Ea ch of these s ubje cts deals with a diffe re nt
form of communica tion, which the inte rpre ta tion te chnique s e na ble
you to ide ntify a nd re s pond to critica lly.
• In Type III s ubje cts , you are also le a rning informa tion, but your
prima ry ta s k is to a cquire a nd unders tand va rious problem -s olving
techniques.
9 In Type IV s ubje cts , your prima ry ta s k is not so much to unde rs ta nd
as it is to cre ate , pe rform, or communica te .
The re is of course a gre at deal of ove rla p be twe e n this cla s s ifica tion scheme. For
e xa mple e conomics , a Type III s ubject, has some e le me nts of Type I subje cts.
And la w, a Type I s ubje ct, has much in common with the Type II subje cts.
De s pite the broa d cla s s ifica tions , you’ll find tha t you te nd to gra vita te
towa rd one or two type s a nd a void the othe rs . The point of these lis ts is s imply
tha t even though the s ubjects are diffe re nt, the kind of thinking a nd s tudying
involve d in each type is s imila r. Don’t worry a bout re me mbe ring these lis ts ; but
re fe r to the m whe n you’re cons ide ring wha t classes to ta ke (see How S m art
S tudents Choose The ir Courses and Teachers on page 255).

WHAT THAT MEANS FOR THE CYBERIEARNIMG METHOD

You ma y ha ve notice d tha t the ge ology passage I used to illus tra te the Twe lve
Que s tions is a Type I s ubject. In the ne xt two cha pte rs you will le a rn how to
modify our basic a pproa ch to ha ndle the Type II a nd Type III s ubje cts .
Type IV s ubje cts , in which you are cre a ting, pe rforming, or communica ting,
fa ll outs ide the scope of this book. Le a rning to write poe try or to pa int, for
e xa mple , re quire s a ve ry diffe re nt se t of s kills from thos e re quire d to le a rn
trigonome try.
 How S ma rt S tude nts
Le a rn Inte rpre ta tion Te chniques

THE TYPE I! SUBJECTS

You will re ca ll from our dis cus s ion in the la s t cha pte r tha t Type II subje cts are
thos e in which you are e xpe cte d to ide ntify, a nalyze , a nd re s pond critica lly to
diffe re nt forms of communica tion. You are also a cqua inting yours e lf with a rtis tic
tra ditions tha t spa n ce nturie s . Aga in, Type II s ubje cts include the following:
• a rt his tory
• dance
• Englis h
• film criticis m
• litera ture
• philos ophy
• the ology
Ea ch deals with a s pe cific a rt form with the e xce ption of the la s t two. P hilos ophy
a nd the ology ma y seem out of place in this group, but as with the othe r Type II
s ubje cts the y re quire you to analyze a nd re s pond to communica tion; s pe cifica lly,
arguments. You will find, for e xa mple , tha t lite ra ture a nd a rt de a l with ma ny of
the same the me s as do philos ophy a nd the ology.
Unlike Type I a nd Type III subje cts, he re you are conce rne d with not jus t
what is be ing said, but how tha t message is be ing said. Als o, with these s ubje cts
your pe rs ona l re s pons e to wha t is be ing s a id forms a n inte gra l pa rt of your
a ca de mic e xpe rie nce to a fa r gre a te r degree tha n with a ny of the other type s of
s ubje cts . One of the things you’re le a rning to do is a ppre ciate a nd re s pond to a n
a rt form.
This cha pte r is an introduction to a pplying the Cybe rLe a rning me thod to
Type II classes, us ing lite ra ture —s pe cifica lly Romeo and Julie t—as a n illus tra tive
e xa mple. We ’d ne e d volume s to cove r how to re a d lite ra ture critically. Aga in,
once you unders ta nd the basic Twe lve Que s tion a pproa ch, you’ll know how to
modify it to deal with the pa rticula r s ubje ct you’re ta king.

READING FO R SCHO O L VERSUS READER FO R FUN

One of the frustra tions of re a ding lite ra ture in s chool is tha t you can’t s imply
“e njoy” the s tory or pla y. Your teacher expects you to analyze a nd criticize it, a nd
s ome how tha t takes a lot of the fun out of it. Alwa ys ke e p in mind tha t a ll
lite ra ture is writte n in the firs t place to be e njoye d, not to be a na lyze d by Englis h
profe ss ors or high s chool s tude nts .
 Anothe r proble m is tha t some type s of lite ra ture are inte nde d not to be read
WHAT SMART
but to be experienced. P la ywrights write pla ys to be seen; poe ts write poe ms to
STUDENTS KNOW
be heard. It is fa r easier to wa tch Romeo and Julie t pe rforme d on stage tha n to
ill!
re a d it.
You s hould note two importa nt points :
• Your te a che r is less inte re s te d in the s tory line or plot tha n in the way
the s tory is told a nd wha t the plot me a ns. Your te a che r ma y a sk
s hort-a ns we r que s tions in class or on tests to ma ke s ure the class has
re a d the work, but you are old e nough now to move be yond the
“a nd the n...” le ve l of junior high book re ports a nd re a lly ge t into the
motiva tions a nd lessons of the story.
• You will have to re a d a work more tha n once be fore you be gin to
“ge t it.” I me a n this ! The firs t time , you re a d it is for the ge ne ra l
s tory line. This is the time to re la x a nd e njoy the work. The s e cond
time , you’ll be re a ding to pick up individua l scenes, cha ra cte rs , a nd
othe r de tails . It ma y ta ke a third re a ding be fore you pick up the
s ymbolis m a nd othe r nuances.

THE SAME TWELVE QUESTIONS—WITH A TWIST

You’ll find tha t for Type II courses our basic Cybe rLe a rning a pproa ch re quire s
only s light modifica tions . The only ma jor cha nge is tha t you’ll be re a ding the
origina l s ource ma te ria l s e ve ra l time s ins te a d of continua lly re vis ing your
note s . S ince how the a uthor is s a ying it is jus t as importa nt as what the a uthor is
s a ying, you’ll ne e d to re fe r to the origina l work more a nd your note s less.
So le t’s see how we would a pply the Twe lve Que s tions to lite rature , us ing
Shakespeare’s Romeo and Julie t as our e xa mple .

QUESTION 1: WHAT’S MY PURPOSE FOR READING THIS?

In lite ra ture classes the re is us ua lly a good deal of class dis cus s ion, so you ne e d to
be prepa re d to pa rticipa te . Your purpos e for re a ding includes not only a na lyzing
the work but also formula ting a re a s one d opinion a bout it. Lite ra ture classes also
re quire a lot of writing; tests are ge ne ra lly essay exams.

QUESTION 2: WHAT DO I ALREADY KNOW ABOUT THIS TOPIC?

This include s not only wha t you know a bout the work but also wha t you know
a bout the a uthor a nd the pe riod he or she was writing a bout. So for Romeo and
Jidie t you’d jot down wha t you know a bout the play, wha t you know a bout
S ha ke s pe a re a nd his othe r pla ys , a nd pe rha ps wha t you know a bout the
his torica l s e tting (s ixte e nth-ce ntury Ita ly).
 iSiii ..
QUESTION 3: WHAT’S THE BIG PICTURE HERE? HOW SMART STUDENTS
The big picture for a s tory or pla y consists of five basic e le ments: LEARN INTERPRETATION
TECHNIQUES
® W hat is the bas ic s tory line ? (W hat are the m ajor scenes or plot
elements?)
• Who are the m ajor characters and what are the ir relationships?
• W hat is the point ofview? (W ho’s te lling the story?)
• W hat is the setting?
• W hat is the prim ary theme or message? (What is the moral?)
It s houldn’t be too ha rd to dis cove r these things ; the y are ofte n re ve ale d in the
e ditor’s introduction. (The prima ry the me or message ma y not be easy to dis ce rn
a t firs t, but it’s not e sse ntia l a t this point.)

QUESTION 4: WHAT’S THE AUTHOR GOSISO TO SAY NEXT?

One of the re s pons ibilitie s of a fiction a uthor is to keep you wonde ring wha t
will ha ppe n ne xt in the s tory. S ometime s the a uthor will use lite ra ry devices to
fore s hadow future events. Anticipa ting wha t will ha ppe n ne xt is a na tura l pa rt of
re a ding a s tory, not of re a ding a ge ology passage or s ome thing e ve n more
a bs tra ct.

QUESTION 5: WHAT ARE THE “EXPERT QUESTIONS”?

Anothe r dis tinguis hing cha ra cteris tic of Type II s ubjects is the ir la rge numbe r of
e xpe rt ques tions . P hilos ophy, for e xa mple , is a lmos t e xclus ive ly a bout the a rt of
a s king ques tions . Lite ra ture has lite ra lly dozens of e xpe rt que s tions ; compare tha t
with geology, which ha d fe we r tha n one doze n.
The following a re s ome of the more importa nt e xpe rt que s tions for
lite ra ture . I’ve groupe d the m into ca te gorie s (a nd he re a nd the re provide d
a ns wers ).
Expe rt Que s tions About Cha ra cte r
• Who is the m ajor character? Who are the hero and heroine? Romeo a nd
Juliet.
• W ho are the othe r m ajor characte rs ? Nurs e , Me rcutio, a nd Fria r
La urence .
9 W hat role does each play? W hat is the re lations hip between characters?
J ulie t, for e xa mple , is Ca pule t’s da ughte r, he r nurs e s frie nd, Rome o’s
wife , a nd Paris ’s be trothe d.
9 W hat does each want? Rome o wa nts J ulie t. J ulie t wa nts Romeo. Fria r
La ure nce wa nts to he lp the young love rs , a nd the re by concilia te the
feuding fa milie s . Me rcutio wa nts to e njoy life a nd live it fully.
• W hat does each one truly need? Rome o, for one, needs to cool his je ts .
 • W hat is the characte r and pe rs onality of e ach like ? Is it thre e -
WHAT SMART dim e ns ional? By what traits can each be ide ntifie d? Does this pe rs onality
STUDENTS KNOW
contrast with that ofany othe r characters?
• W hat obstacles s tand in the way of each? Rome o is confronte d by
e xte rna l obstacles (the fa mily fe ud, the prince ’s la w a ga ins t fe uding, a
not-too-bright a dvis e r in the form of Fria r La ure nce ), as we ll as
inte rna l obs ta cles (his youth, his ine xpe rie nce , his recklessness, his
infa tua tion).
• How m uch choice does e ach characte r have ? W hat are each one’s
obligations to frie nds , fam ily, and society at large? Rome o feels bound
by frie nds hip to avenge Me rcutio’s de a th by killing Tyba lt. This duty
conflicts with his duty to socie ty, a nd Romeo is ba nis he d.
« W hat are the stakes? W hat risks are each characte r willing to take?
Rome o a nd J ulie t are cle a rly willing to die for e a ch othe r, while
me mbe rs of the fe uding fa milie s are a ppa re ntly willing to die for
honor.
• How does each characte r change throughout the play? W hat does each
le arn? Rome o, J ulie t, Paris, Tyba lt, a nd Me rcutio a ll die tragica lly.
The s urvivors le a rn by the ir tra gic deaths.
• How do we le arn about each characte r (the ir actions, the ir dialogue ,
the ir thoughts)?
• Who are the m inor characters? W hat are the ir roles? One of the minor
cha ra cte rs is Paris. His role is to a ct as Rome o’s riva l for J ulie t.
Expe rt Que s tions About P lot
• W hat is the initial event that sets the m ajor characte r in purs uit ofhis or
he r goal? Rome o, thinking hims e lf love s ick for Ros a line , nonethele s s
fa lls ma dly in love with J ulie t a t firs t s ight.
• W hat are the m ajor plot points ? How are these events tie d together?
(See my plot dia gra m on page 152.)
• Is the story told in chronological order? Ifnot, why not?]
• How do the obstacles facing the m ajor characters increase in inte ns ity?
® W hat are the subplots? How do they relate to the m ain plot?
• Are the m ajor events in the plot ine vitable ? W hat is the role playe d by
destiny? W hat is the role playe d by chance? It is only by cha nce tha t
Romeo does not receive ne ws of the ha re bra ined s che me ha tche d by
Fria r La ure nce to fe ign J ulie t’s de a th.
• W hat are the m ajor conflicts in the story? On the mos t basic le ve l, love
versus ha te ; the individua l versus his fa mily.
• Do any characters have a complete reversal offortune ?
Expe rt Que s tions About S e tting HOW SMART STUDENTS
• Where does the s tory take place? Is this s e tting im portant to the story? A LEARN INTERPRETATION
TECHNIQUES
fe ud be twe e n two fa milies re quire s the s e tting of a s ma ll town or
city. The conflict would la ck its dra ma tic inte ns ity if it took pla ce in
a la rge city like Rome .
• W he n does the story takes place? Is this tim e im portant?
Expe rt Que s tions About P oint of Vie w
• From whose point ofvie w is the story told? Why?
8 How does this point ofvie w affe ct what we know about the story and the
characters?
• W hat do we know that the characters don’t? We ll, for e xa mple , we
know a bout Fria r La ure nce’s scheme to fe ign J ulie t’s de a th. The fa ct
tha t Romeo doe s n’t know a bout the sche me leads to the pla y’s tra gic
e nding.
Expe rt Que s tions About The me
® W hat is the m ajor theme? W hat othe r themes does the author raise? The Eve rything’s got a
ma jor theme us ua lly involve s s ome thing like the na ture of ha ppine ss , m oral, ifonly you can
the re la tions hip of the individua l to othe rs , the importa nce of duty, find it.
the re la tions hip of the individua l to na ture a nd God, the e xis te nce of Le w is C a r r o l l
fre e will, a nd so on. Alice in
• What is the ove rall m oral or message of the story? Tha t love blinds , tha t W onde rland
ha te blinds , tha t youth is impe tuous , tha t the innoce nt s uffe r.
Expe rt Que s tions About S tyle
® W he n does the author conve y inform ation dire ctly (as through By Orde r of
de s cription and narration), and whe n indire ctly (as through symbols, the Author:
metaphors, irony, allegory, parable , subtext)? Persons atte m pting to
• What is the author’s choice ofwords? S entence structure? find a m otive in this
narrative will be
® W hat im ages or s ym bols re cur in the work? The pla y is full of
prose cute d; persons
references to light a nd darkness.
atte mpting to find a
8 W hat contras ts occur in the book? W hat paralle ls ? Me rcutio’s m oral in it will be
uns e ntime nta l a nd e xpa nsive cha ra cte r contra s ts s ha rply with banishe d; persons
Rome o’s brooding a nd loves ick one. atte m pting to find a
Expe rt Que s tions About the Work as a Whole plot in it will be shot.
8 Did you find the characters inte re s ting and believable? Did you “re late ” Ma r k Tw a in
to any? Huckle be rry
• W hat does this work te ll us about the tim e in which it was writte n? Finn
About the tim e it depicted? About our time ?

#
 rv : • Into which m ajor genre does this story fall (comedy, satire, tragedy, and
WHAT SMART
so on)? How re pre se ntative is it of this genre? This pla y is typica lly
STUDENTS KNOW
cla s s ified as a tra ge dy, but the re are also nume rous comic e le me nt.
Mi M
• What is the s ignificance of the title ? Perhaps it indica tes the is ola tion
of the two love rs from e ve ryone else.
• W hy did the author choose this m e dium for the story?

Expe rt Que s tions About the Author

• How does this work compare with or re late to others by the same author?
We could find s ome inte re s ting compa ris ons be twe e n the wa y
Othe llo’s love a nd Romeos love both le a d to de a th.
• How have other authors de alt with s im ilar themes?
• Does the author ide ntify with any ofthe characters?
• How m uch was the author influe nce d by his times?
0 W hat othe r authors or works ofart have influence d him ? W hich in turn
has he influe nce d? Shakespeare’s Romeo and Julie t be ca me the mode rn
cla s s ic West S ide S tory. (West S ide S tory would ma ke a n e xce lle nt
s upple me nta ry informa tion s ource for mode rn re a ders who ha ve
difficulty re lating to Shakespeare’s s tory set in the s ixte e nth-ce ntury.
It was a hit Broa dwa y mus ica l tha t la te r be ca me a n a wa rd-winning
movie ; it’s a va ila ble on vide o.)
• W hat dis tinguis hing characteristics of this write r’s work woidd enable
you to ide ntify other works by him or her?

QUESTION 6: WHAT QUESTIONS DOES THIS

INFORMATION RAISE FOR ME?
This que s tion is a ctua lly tie d up with the pre vious one s ince one of the functions
of the lite ra ture e xpe rt que s tions is to dra w out your pe rs ona l response.

QUESTION 7: WHAT INFORMATION IS IMPORTANT HERE?

Anything tha t will he lp you a ns we r the e xpe rt que s tions . The re is nothing
s pe cia l to me ntion a bout this que s tion.

QUESTION 8: HOW CAN I PARAPHRASE AND SUMMARIZE THIS

INFORMATION?
You’ll be re fe rring to the origina l work more ofte n tha n your note s , so it’s
e s pecia lly importa nt tha t you a dopt a me thod of ma rking up your book. Unlike
Type I a nd Type III s ubje cts , thos e in this group e mpha s ize how the a uthor is
s a ying wha t he ’s s a ying. S o you’ll wa nt e xact quote s of importa nt line s of
dia logue , not paraphrases. “Yo, J ulie t!” loses a lot of Shakespeare’s lyrica l “But
s oft! Wha t light through yonde r window bre a ks .”
QUESTION 9: HOW CAN I ORGANIZE THIS INFORMATION? HOW SMART STUDENTS
You ca n a rra nge s e ve ra l of the ma jor e le me nts of a pla y into groups : the LEARN INTERPRETATION
cha ra cte rs , the s ymbols , the scenes, the points of vie w. Orga nizing informa tion is TECHNIQUES
e s pe cia lly he lpful in he lping you answer the the me que s tions .
Le t’s cons ide r the cha ra cters . He re are a fe w groupings I ca me up with,
s ta rting with the mos t obvious :

Capolafe or Vv-Cayolete moHa^oe^ ar pro-lyiowta^oeg

© J ulie h Uoiaidc) Tomeo Suicide)
■ftie. Wercatio Ola iO
'h|ba l+ Ola uO '^en'loliO
(ap) (*+ Monfaqoe
Lddq LapolcT Lddvj Montd^OC Giles of grief)
’Va.'clt, (F'aiw)

NevFfd Tar-fi)$_ Ojh&r.

Friar Lawrence To^dime
Frince

VoofL- fxnirience.
© Fomeo 60 Florae
Julie+ (f) fria r Ljjuxe nce
-FjbalTbO Trita ce 6^63.1^5
"^erwolio MoHagce
Mercirho 60 Lcuiq A/W+aqce Gl)
"Fan 6 £/) FhapoleL
Lad^ Capoleh

Loiier^/Surfotg Offe rs
(D 'Ron'iecfe') Fv/eopne e ls e .
Julief'&I
60

Of course , the re are other pos s ible va ria tions .

If you look ove r my groupings , you’ll dis cove r s ome inte res ting things . For
e xa mple , the number of Ca pule ts a nd Monta gues tha t e xpire by the e nd of the
pla y is e qua lly ba la nce d. The se cond grouping reveals tha t a ll the deaths but one
occur a mong “youth” ra the r tha n “e xpe rie nce .” Fina lly, we see cle a rly tha t a ll
thre e love rs a nd s uitors die . Ea ch of these obs e rva tions is worth ma king on an
e xa m or in a paper.

©
 QUESTION 10: HOW CAN I PICTURE THIS INFORMATION?
1 c-mnFNTS^KNOW 8 ^e s, ^ *s Poss^^e to picture cha ra cte r re la tions hips a nd plots on pa pe r. He re ’s
how I dre w the “plot line ” of Romeo a nd J ulie t.

lk>vr\eo and dulle t

wed dnd liue
ha ^pilif e ue /"
^ *r ^ T ~ £ ioh |

Wa r C0tT<M.+S
, I’omeo is W' p'o-” preo&it
^ Thetf qo,in an banished j he wedding djnd
^ ' OM%ie Wi has hope; reunite TWo
Borneo is loi/esiek 'Romeo and J ulie t ^ "" Una Wed J ulietie rdtdw J oliet'
O'i&r'ZvsaJine.j -te +^e e each /
'j&ris irrtencis- o+her and -fillI \
Yv\(Uf-\ JoU'e+ ma-dKf iiq lo'id \

'Thdg resize 'fttweo k-iHs

4T\at -me -feudl Tviba-Hj shoold informs J olie t 'Romeo is not
be+voeein the ir informedj kills
-families. mate be ^enfenoed tha t She must JRwiS; ki \\i Self;
<luini'ow hiawlu to aeatfL m yf'j J fLri^
Uviiibs-I'i J oliet kills s d-f1
Sflh EnJiic^~j

I’ve use d a ris ing line to indica te a ctions moving towa rds Rome o’s a nd J ulie t’s
idea l goa l. The idea l move me nt (without conflicts or setbacks) is indica te d by
the dotte d line . This dia gra m also ca pture s the ma in plot points (turning points
of the s tory).

@
 He re ’s how I picture d the va rious cha racte rs a nd the ir re la tions hips . HOW SMART STUDENTS
LEARN INTERPRETATION
TECHNIQUES

V.iil-hiSV:

Notice how va rious the me s a nd pa tte rns are ma de a ppa rent by this dia gra m.
Combine this step with Que s tion 3: W hat’s the Big Picture ? The firs t time
you re ad the play, create a s he e t with the se two dia gra ms so you ca n re fe r to it
as you re a d the pla y a s e cond time . Ha ving the big picture in this dia gra m form
will he lp you follow the a ction.

QUESTION 11: WHAT’S MY HOOK FOR REMEMBERING THIS

INFORMATION?
Me morizing informa tion is less importa nt in lite ra ture classes for several reasons:
one , because lite ra ture is a ll a bout te lling storie s, which is a lre a dy a hook your
bra in has little trouble re me mbe ring; two, because the re’s less informa tion tha t
needs to be me morize d; a nd fina lly, because lite ra ture classes e mpha s ize papers
a nd/or essay tests, both of which re quire less me moriza tion tha n, say, a s hort-
response te s t in biology.
By the way, a ve ry common type of te st que s tion in Type II s ubje cts asks you
to ide ntify cha ra cte rs s ole ly on the basis of s ome line s of dia logue (W hich
characte r said, “Tempt not a desperate m an”?) or to ide ntify a pa rticula r scene on
the basis of a s hort de s criptive quote . This doe s n’t me a n you s hould try to
me morize e ve ry line in a pla y. Once you ge t to know the characters, it s houldn’t
 be ha rd to figure out which cha ra cte r would say wha t (For e xa mple, Which ma le
WHAT SMART
cha ra cte rs we re desperate?). And once you grasp how the plot points are a ll tie d
STUDENTS KNOW
toge the r, it s houldn’t be ha rd to ide ntify a pa rticula r scene.

QUESTION 12: HOW DOES THIS INFORMATION FIT IN WITH WHAT

I ALREADY KNOW?
How has your unde rs ta nding of Shakespeare cha nge d a fte r re a ding Romeo and
Julie tf How has your unde rs ta nding of the na ture of love changed? Wha t ha ve
you le a rne d a bout huma n na ture a nd s ocie ty tha t you ca n a pply in othe r areas?
Que s tion 12 is a ve ry importa nt que s tion in lite ra ture a nd othe r Type II
s ubje cts .
And tha t rounds out our s urve y of the Cybe rLe a rning me thod as it a pplie s
to lite ra ture a nd othe r Type II s ubje cts .

SUMMARY
Type II course s are less fa ct-orie nte d tha n s ome thing like ge ology, a
Type I cours e . Ins te a d of s tre s s ing fa cts , the s e cours e s focus on
inte rpre ta tion, a rgume nt, a nd pe rs ona l re s pons e . Eve n s o, s ma rt
s tude nts use the same Twe lve Que s tions to ta ckle Shakespeare tha t we
used to ge t through the rocks passage.
It does ta ke some minor modifica tions . Mos t importa nt, you’ll be
continua lly re fe rring ba ck to the te xt ra the r tha n re working your note s .
Re me mbe r tha t in Shakespeare the la ngua ge its e lf ma tte rs , not jus t the
ideas. The re are also a lot more e xpe rt que s tions in Type II s ubje cts .
On the whole , though, you’ll find tha t your ba sic a pproa ch is not
funda me nta lly diffe re nt. If you’ve ma s te re d the Twe lve Ques tions , us ing
the m to come to grips with a Type II s ubje ct s hould be a breeze. Notice
tha t it only took me ha lf a doze n pages a nd a fe w picture s to not only
ask a nd a ns we r the Twe lve Que s tions , but to e xpla in the m as we ll.

0
 How S ma rt S tude nts
Le a rn P roble m-S olving Te chnique s

THE TYPE HI SUBJECTS

In the cha pte r Not All S ubjects Are Alike (page 141), I introduce d you to a ne w
cla s s ifica tion of s ubje cts . This cha pte r introduce s how to a pply the
Cybe rLe a rning me thod to Type III s ubje cts in ge ne ra l, a nd ma the ma tics in
pa rticula r. You’ll le a rn the e ight prima ry causes of difficulty with this s ubje ct
a nd wha t you ca n do to corre ct the m. You’ll dis cove r tha t the re is a lot more to
le a rning ma the ma tics tha n me morizing formula s. Eve n if you’re a ma th ge nius ,
you’ll dis cove r ne w wa ys of le a rning the s ubje ct a nd improving your
proble m-s olving a bility. With the Cybe rLe a rning me thod you’ll be a ble to
pe rs ona lize a nd reshape an a lien s ubje ct into s ome thing tha t is truly your own.
You ma y ha ve notice d tha t the common de nomina tor of the se s ubje cts ,
which include
* a ccounting • fina nce
9 che mis try 9 logic
* compute r science 9 ma the ma tics
9 e conomics • phys ics
9 e ngine e ring
is a he a vy e mphas is on ma the matics , which is its e lf a Type III s ubje ct. In these
s ubje cts the prima ry e mpha sis is on le a rning te chnique s tha t e na ble you to solve
proble ms . In ge ne ra l, the re is fa r less informa tion to a cquire in these courses
tha n in Type I or Type II courses, a nd the la ngua ge is not so much one of words
as it is one of numbe rs a nd s ymbols .
Ma ny s tude nts are turne d off by the a bs tra ct, a lmos t a lien, na ture of these
s ubje cts . “Whe n a m I ever going to use the qua dra tic formula in re a l life ? ” is the
typica l compla int. Some s tude nts shake the ir heads wis tfully whe n the y receive
the ir la te s t te s t re s ults : “I’m good a t othe r s ubje cts , but I’m jus t no good a t
ma th.” The y a lmos t seem proud of the fa ct.

IMITATE FIRST, UNDERSTAND LATER

The e ntire thrus t of Cybe rLe a rning has be e n to s tre s s the importa nce of
unde rs ta nding informa tion. You also know, howe ve r, tha t unde rs ta nding is a
continuing process tha t ca n ta ke weeks or even months . With ma thema tics it
can ta ke years.
Aga in, e ve n if you’re a n outs ta nding ma th s tude nt, you will ofte n be
frus tra te d tha t you don’t unde rs ta nd a ce rta in formula or proble m-s olving
te chnique . Le t’s sa y you re a d a s e ction of your te xtbook on a pa rticula r
 te chnique. You follow the steps in the s olution process. You ca n e ve n duplica te
W„.TS„.BT thos e steps to solve s imila r proble ms yours e lf. But why the te chnique works is a
STUDENTS KNOW
comple te mys tery.
If you ca n a t le a s t unde rs ta nd what you’re doing, e ve ntua lly you’ll
unde rs ta nd why a te chnique or formula works , too. But while you’re ta king a
cours e, the importa nt thing is tha t you be a ble to use the te chnique to s olve
proble ms so you can ace your tests.
I me ntion a ll this because ma ny s tude nts comple te ly stress out whe n the y
don’t unde rs ta nd why a te chnique works . “I never would ha ve thought of doing
tha t,” the y say in de spair. And because the y pa nic, the y “s hut down” a nd don’t
e ve n try to follow the individua l steps. S imply re cognize tha t virtua lly a ll of the
initia l le a rning process for ma th involve s nothing more tha n clos e ly obs e rving
the pre cis e steps in a give n te chnique , a nd the n imita ting or duplica ting thos e
steps on s imila r s orts of proble ms .
If you’ve ta ke n ge ometry, for e xa mple, you le a rne d tha t the area of a circle of
ra dius r equals
Kr2
a nd tha t
2%r
gives you the circumfe re nce . I think you’ll a dmit tha t as formula s go these are
re la tive ly s imple ; you proba bly e ncountere d the m brie fly as e a rly as s e venth or
e ighth gra de . And ye t unless you’ve ta ke n ca lculus , you don’t unde rs ta nd why
these formula s work. You jus t ta ke the m on fa ith a nd use the m, a nd tha t’s fine .
The ne xt time your te a che r or te xtbook uses a formula you don’t quite
unde rs ta nd, don’t think the re’s s ome thing wrong with you. The re ’s a ve ry good
cha nce tha t nobody in your class unde rs tands it. The s ma rt s tude nts jus t realize
tha t the importa nt thing is to follow the steps a nd tha t unde rs ta nding will
de ve lop.
Oka y then, le t’s ta ke a look a t why ma the ma tics is so difficult.

SEVEN REASONS THAT MAKE MATH SEEM MORE DIFFICULT

THAN IT REALLY IS
Thus, m athe m atics If you’re ha ving a ny difficulty with ma the matics , it’s for a ny one of the following
m ay be de fine d as the reasons. S tudy this lis t ca re fully a nd de te rmine which ite ms mos t a pply to a ny
s ubje ct in which we trouble you ma y be ha ving in ma th.
ne ve r know what we 1. You’re not a wa re of how to build unde rs ta nding of ma the ma tica l
are talking about, nor conce pts . Unde rs ta nding takes time a nd won’t be a chie ve d jus t by
whe the r what we are re a ding your book. From time to time you mus t put your book aside
s aying is true. a nd see if you ca n re cons truct the s olution to problems . Your be ing
Be r t r a n d R u s s e l l a ble to “follow” a s olution does not me a n you’ll be a ble to s olve
s imila r proble ms on your own, a ny more tha n wa tching a da nce
means you’ll be able to pe rform it yours e lf.
2. You’re not a wa re of how much gue s s ing, a pproxima ting, tria l a nd HOW SMART
e rror, a nd out-a nd-out “pla ying a round” goes on in ma the ma tics . STUDENTS LEARN
PROBLEM-SOLVING
Te xtbooks pre s e nt ma the ma tics as so logica l a nd s cie ntific tha t TECHNIQUES
s ome time s you can fe e l a little foolis h not unde rs ta nding concepts
tha t s e e m to be s o s tra ightforwa rd. And ye t much of the
ma the ma tics you’re s tudying took s ome of the gre a te st minds this
pla ne t has ever seen e ntire life time s to de ve lop a nd work out. Eve n
the n it took ma ybe a ge ne ra tion or two be fore othe r le a ding
ma the ma ticia ns “saw the light.” So don’t worry if it takes you a te rm
or two to ge t the ha ng of trig or proba bility or ca lculus . Ma the ma tics
is a logica l s ubje ct but the process of unde rs ta nding it is not!
3. You don’t like the a bs tra ct na ture of ma the ma tics . Ma the ma tics W hat is algebra,
be gins with concre te s pe cifics a nd ends in a bs tra ctions . One of the exactly ? Is it those
points Be rtra nd Russe ll, the grea t philos ophe r a nd ma thema ticia n, three-cornered things ?
ma ke s in the la te r quote is not tha t ma the ma ticia ns don’t know wha t J. M. Ba r r ie
the y’re ta lking a bout. He ’s s a ying tha t ma the ma tica l s ta te me nts ca n
re fe r to a nything. For e xa mple , the s ta te me nt
x + x = 2x
is true whe the r x s ta nds for umbre lla s , bottle ca ps, or pa rrots .
Like wise , the formula for the volume of a sphe re is
47tr2
whe the r you’re ta lking a bout a ma rble or a bowling ba ll. Ma ke the
s ubje ct concre te. Ins tea d of picking points on a numbe r line, think
of dropping pe nnie s on a rule r; ins te a d of the slope of a line , think
of a s ki slope; ins te a d of a cube , think of a te levis ion set. Use your
own e xa mple s; do wha te ve r it takes to ma ke the s ubje ct more re a l
a nd ta ngible. This s ugge s tion is nothing more tha n Que s tion 10:
How can Ipicture this information?
4. You’re uncomforta ble or unfa milia r with the la ngua ge of
ma the ma tics . The la nguage of numbe rs a nd s ymbols ta ke s s ome
ge tting used to. For e xa mple , if you’re s tudying a lge bra it is assumed
tha t you unde rs ta nd tha t the le tte rs
a, b, a nd c
typica lly s ta nd for cons ta nts while the le tte rs
x, y, a nd z
indica te va ria bles . More ove r, the le tte rs
i a nd e
us ua lly s ta nd for two special numbe rs . The re ’s no reason for us ing
the s e pa rticula r le tte rs othe r tha n tha t the y are the nota tions or

#
 j! “conve ntions ” tha t ma the ma ticia ns ha ve a gre e d upon ove r the
WHAT SMART ce nturie s . It is a conve ntion, for e xa mple , tha t
STUDENTS KNOW
ab
means
a time s b
ra the r tha n s ome thing else. S ome time s the s e conve ntions ca n be
quite s ubtle . For ins ta nce , the trigonome tric expressions
cos2 x
a nd
cos x2
do not me a n the same thing; nor do
2 cos x
a nd
cos 2x.
If you’re not pa ying close a tte ntion you ca n ove rlook these nua nce s.
Ma ke s ure you fa milia rize yours e lf with the notations a nd
conve ntions your te ache r and te xtbook are us ing. Although mos t
are ge ne ra lly a cce pted, you will see s light va ria tions from te xtbook to
te xtbook a nd te ache r to teacher.
5. You’re re lying on fa ulty or e rrone ous “rule s .” I once worke d with a
young s tude nt, for e xa mple , who ha d be e n told tha t the “rule ” for
a dding a pos itive a nd ne ga tive numbe r wa s to s ubtra ct one numbe r
from the othe r, with the re s ult ta king the s ign of the “bigge r”
numbe r. I’m not s ure whe re he got this rule , but I’ll be t he didn’t
work it out on his own. It doe s work whe n you’re s ubtra cting
numbe rs , but be ing the bright s tude nt he was, he thought he could
ge ne ra lize the rule (a n e xce lle nt ma thema tica l ha bit, as you will see).
So his proble m the n came whe n he move d on to m ultiplying pos itive
a nd ne ga tive numbe rs be ca us e he thought the s a me rule
a pplie d—the product takes the s ign of the bigger numbe r. Us ing
fa ulty “rule s” is one of the principa l causes of ma th e rrors . If you
e ve r find yours e lf s a ying, “Is n’t the re a rule tha t s a ys ...,” you’re
falling into this trap. The s e mis unde rs tandings ofte n be gin by a
careless use of la ngua ge , s ome times on the pa rt of a te ache r. For
e xa mple , ma ny s tude nts ha ve be e n ta ught tha t you ca nce l fa ctors
common to nume ra tors a nd de nomina tors . The re is, howe ve r, no
s uch ope ra tion as “ca nce ling.” Be ca use s tude nts ha ve he a rd this
rule , howe ve r, the y be gin to confus e it with cros s—multiplying,
a nothe r rule .
 6. You’re mis s ing s ome of the building blocks . Ma th is wha t teachers HOW SMART
STUDENTS LEARN
ca ll a “s e que ntia l” s ubje ct, me a ning tha t each topic builds on the PROBLEM-SOLVING
pre vious one . You ne e d to unders tand a rithme tic be fore you ca n TECHNIQUES
ta ckle ba s ic a lge bra , ba sic a lgebra be fore ge ometry, ge ome try a nd
a dva nce d a lge bra be fore trigonome try, a nd trigonome try be fore
ca lculus . It’s quite pos s ible , for ins tance , tha t the trouble you’re
ha ving in trig is ca us e d by gaps in your unde rs ta nding of ba s ic
a rithme tic. The s e gaps can go undete cte d for years, e s pecia lly if you
did we ll in courses tha t fa iled to cove r ce rtain ke y conce pts . If you’re
a little s ha ky on s ome funda me nta l conce pts , you don’t ne ce s s a rily
ha ve to drop the course you’re now ta king. It does me a n, howe ve r,
tha t you’ll ha ve to brus h up on those topics .
7. You ha ve n’t ta ke n phys ics . Ma the ma tics did not de ve lop as a n
a bs tra ct s ubje ct. It wa s de ve lope d to s olve pra ctica l proble ms .
Ge ome try, for e xa mple , lite ra lly means “me as uring the e a rth” a nd
was de ve lope d to he lp la nd s urve yors in a ncie nt Greece a nd Egypt.
Mos t of the advances in ma the ma tics have come from trying to solve
proble ms in othe r areas, mos t nota bly thos e pre s e nte d by a s tronomy
a nd physics . Once you ge t be yond basic a rithme tic, you’ll find tha t
ma ny ma th te xtbooks use illus tra tive examples dra wn from physics,
but if you ha ve n’t ta ke n phys ics , you’re not going to find the
e xa mple s a ll tha t illus tra tive . Eve n though phys ics is ra re ly
me ntione d as a re quire me nt for ma th classes, you’re a t a s e rious
dis a dva ntage if you ha ve n’t ta ke n it.

LEARNING TO EXPLO RE M ATHEM ATICAL CO NCEPTS:

THE EXPERT Q UESTIO NS
Although ma the matica l conce pts ta ke a while to “s ink in,” the re are steps you The study of
can ta ke tha t will he lp this process a long. While the more proble ms you s olve mathematics is apt
the be tte r for your unde rs ta nding, me re ly s olving proble ms ove r a nd ove r is not to commence in
by its e lf a n e fficie nt wa y to build unde rs ta nding of ma the ma tica l conce pts , a ny disappointment.
more tha n re re a ding is an e fficie nt wa y to unde rs ta nd writte n te xt. Al f r e d No r t h
I mus t point out tha t the following que s tions gove rn the wa y you le arn Wh it e h e a d
how to s olve proble ms , not the wa y you will a ctua lly go a bout s olving
proble ms on te s ts . You’ll be us ing a diffe re nt set of e xpe rt que s tions to s olve
proble m. We ’ll ge t to those s hortly.
He re a re the e xpe rt que s tions you s hould be a s king as you’re s olving a
proble m or le a rning a ne w ma the ma tica l conce pt:
® W hat would Iguess the answer or re s ult s hoidd be?
® W hat is each step ofthe s olution accomplishing?
• W hat’s the patte rn here?
s Ifthis changes, what else tuill change?

©
 9 W hat happens at “the extremes ”?
WHAT SMART
STUDENTS KNOW 9 Can Ige ne ralize this result?
IS!.i ■ 9 W hat are the “spe cial cases”?
9 How can this question be rephrased?
9 W hat are the essentialfe ature s ofthis proble m?
9 W hat other types ofproblems or techniques does this re m ind me of
• How m any diffe re nt ways can Isolve this problem ?
9 Can Ide rive the form ula?
• How can I make this concept more tangible ?
We ’ll be a pplying the s e que s tions to the following two s a mple te xtbook
passages, one from a lge bra and one from ge ome try. Please re a d the m as you
would normally approach a math te xtbook:

Work Problems
A common type of word proble m is the “work proble m.” Here are three
examples:

1
Example 1: If Bob can do - of a certain job in an hour, how many hours
does it take him to complete the entire job?
1
Solution: 1 + - = 4 hours
4
Example 2: If Brenda can do a certain job in 3 hours and Bill can do the
same job in 6 hours, how many hours will it take them to
complete the job if they work together?

Solution: Each hour Brenda does -1 of the job.

Each hour Bill does ^of the job.
Each hour Brenda and Bill do - + \ = - of the job.
3 6 2
Therefore it will take them 1+^=2 hours to complete.

Example 3: Assuming a ll men work at the same rate, if it takes a team of

3 men 12 days to complete a certain job, how many would it
take a team of 4 men to complete the same job?

Solution: If 3 men can do the job in 12 days, it would take 1 man three
times as long, or 36 days, to complete the job. If it takes 1 man
36 days to complete the job, it would take 4 men one fourth as
long, or 9 days, to complete the job.
 HOW SMART
STUDENTS LEARN
Pythagorean Theorem PROBLEM-SOLVING
TECHNIQUES

In a right-a ngle d tria ngle, the squa re

on the hypote nus e is e qua l to the s um
of the squares on the othe r two side s:
a2 + b2 = c2 (Fig. 1). a

We ca n use this re la tions hip to

b
ca lcula te the le ngth of a ny side (Fig. 1)
of a right tria ngle give n the
le ngths of the othe r two.

Example 1: Example 2:
In the figure a bove, if a = 3 and In the figure a bove , if a - 2 a nd
b = 4, the n c = ? b = 1, the n c = ?

Solution: Solution:
a2 + b2 = c2
a2 + b2 = c2
32 + 42 = c2
22 + l2 = c2
9 + 16 = c2
4+1 = c2
25 = c2
5 = c2
c=5
c = V~5
The numbe rs (3, 4, 5) form wha t is known as a Pythagore an Triple
be ca us e e a ch s ide of the tria ngle is a n inte ge r le ngth. Two othe r
common Triple s are (5, 12, 13) a nd (7, 24, 25).

Two othe r s pe cia l cases of the P ytha gore a n the ore m worth noting are
the “30-60-90” a nd “45-45-90” (is os ce le s right) tria ngle s (Fig. 2).
The side s of the se tria ngle s a lwa ys form the following re la tions hips :

30°
x 2x
x yj~3

60°
X x
(Fig. 2)
 Oka y, le t’s see how to use the e xpe rt que s tions on the s a mple passages.
WHAT SMART
STUDENTS KNOW
WHAT WOULD I GUESS THE ANSWER OR RESULT SHOULD BE?
Whe n trying to solve a ma th proble m, mos t s tudents try to a pproa ch the re s ult
logica lly. But be fore you s olve a ny proble m, you s hould a lways be gin by
gue s s ing the re s ult. Wha t does common sense suggest the a ns we r s hould be?
Wha t is your best estimate?
The shrewd guess, This s te p is a na logous to trying to a ns we r your que s tions while re a ding
the fe rtile hypothesis, be fore the a uthor te lls you. It’s too ba d gue s s ing has s uch a ba d re puta tion in
the courageous leap s chool. Gues s ing is a highly s ophis tica te d a rt. And ye t pe ople think gue s s ing
to a tentative me a ns trying to a void thought. In fa ct, the oppos ite is the case. I’ll la y down the
conclusion—these are following propos ition for you to mull ove r. All thinking is the proce s s of
the most valuable coin ma king s ucce s s ive ly be tte r guesses. I don’t jus t me a n thinking a bout ma th, I
ofthe thinke r at me a n thinking a bout a nything. All le a rning is based on this conce pt, too.
work. But in most Anywa y, le t’s ta ke a look a t the s e cond a lge bra e xa mple a nd see if we can
schools guessing is guess the re s ult. If Bre nda can do the job in 3 hours working a lone , our firs t
heavily penalized and guess is tha t working with Bill the tota l time mus t be less tha n 3 hours . Now,
is associated somehow le t’s ta ke two Bre nda s . Two Brendas would work twice as fa s t as one , a nd ta ke
with laziness. ha lf as long to complete the job: 1.5 hours . S ince Bill is s lowe r tha n Bre nda , the
J e r o me S e y mo u r a ns we r mus t be more tha n 1.5 hours . Conve rs e ly, if two Bills we re working, the y
Br u n e r would ta ke 3 hours , so the a ns we r mus t be less tha n tha t (a lthough by
coincide nce we a lre a dy kne w tha t).
Gue s s ing a llows you to see if your s olution ma ke s sense. S ome s tude nts
“s olve” this proble m by re lying on a “rule ” tha t suggests ta king the average of the
two time s , or 4.5 hours . If the y ha d guessed the re s ult be fore the y pla ce d blind
fa ith in the ir me thod the y would have known the y we re wa y off base.

WHAT fS EACH SOLUTION STEP ACCOMPLISHING?

It’s importa nt tha t you follow each s olution ste p, even if you don’t know why a
pa rticula r step is necessary. Looking a ga in a t the s e cond a lge bra e xa mple , you
would note the following s olution steps:
1. ca lcula te the re ciproca l of each pe rs on’s individua l time ;
2. ca lcula te the s um of these two re ciproca ls ;
3. ca lcula te the re ciproca l of tha t s um.
It he lps to s a y e a ch s te p out loud as you’re writing it down—a gre a t
me mory hook!
If you ca n sta te wha t each step is doing, tha t’s e nough for now. Of course, if
you ha ve the time you s hould a ls o try to unde rs ta nd why e a ch s te p wa s
necessary, but don’t dwe ll on it too long.

WHAT’S THE PATTERN HERE?

This is a ba ckground que s tion you s hould be a s king a ll the time as you ask the
othe r que s tions . P a tterns , you’ll re call, are one of the me mory hooks . Wha t’s
more importa nt, the s e a rch for pa tte rns is one of the gre a t goa ls of HOW SMART
ma the ma tics . P a tterns suggest connections a nd ofte n give clues to formula s . STUDENTS LEARN
PROBLEM-SOLVING
TECHNIQUES
IF THIS CHANGES, 'WHAT ELSE Will CHANGE?
Our old frie nd: the W hat /^'../’que s tion. Le t’s look a t the P ytha gore a n the ore m.
It te lls us tha t for a ny right-a ngle d tria ngle , the square on the hypotenus e e qua ls
the s um of the squares of the othe r two sides. We ll, le t’s cha nge the rule s. Wha t
would the re la tions hip of the re s pe ctive squa res be if we decreased the right
angle? Ifwe increased it? (Guess the re s ult!)

b b
x < 90 x>90
c2 < a2 + b2 c2> a2 + b2

WHAT HAPPENS AT “THE EXTREMES”?

Try ma king one of the va ria ble s as la rge or as s ma ll as pos s ible a nd see wha t
ha ppens . I did this e a rlie r whe n I ima gine d two Bre nda s a nd two Bills. The time
it would ta ke two Bre nda s is the fa s t e xtreme ; two Bills , the s low e xtre me .
Extre me s set bounda ries to pos s ible a nswers a nd he lp you e s tima te s olutions
quickly.

CAN 1 GENERALIZE THIS RESULT?

Ge ne ra lizing a conce pt or a te chnique means seeing if it is true in more ge ne ra l
cases. The P ytha gore a n the ore m, for e xa mple , a llows us to de termine the le ngth
of the dia gonal of a re cta ngle :

**. d
a d2-a2 + b2

b
A re cta ngle has two dime ns ions . Doe s the P ytha gore a n the ore m a pply in thre e
dimens ions ? You be t! We can use it to de te rmine the dia gona l of a box:

D2 — a2 + b2 + c2
-..C...
a
c
b

©
 WHAT ARE THE “SPECIAL CASES”?
WHAT SMART
You will ofte n come across s pe cia l cases whe n le a rning a conce pt or a te chnique .
STUDENTS KNOW
A s quare , for e xa mple , is a s pe cia l re cta ngle. An isosceles tria ngle is a s pe cial
tria ngle . The te xtbook passage on the P ytha gore a n the ore m pointe d out several
s uch s pe cia l cases. S pe cia l ca se s a re a lmos t a lwa ys worth me morizing
s e pa ra te ly.

HOW CAN THIS QUESTION BE REPHRASED?

Don’t jus t solve the proble ms as give n in your te xtbook. De vis e othe r wa ys of
a s king the m; your te a che r ce rta inly will on e xa ms !
In our s e cond a lge bra e xa mple , the proble m could ha ve be e n phras e d
like this :

Example: If Brenda can do a certain job in 3 hours working alone, and in

2 hours working with Bill, in how ma ny hours could Bill
complete the job working alone?
Solution: Eve ry 6 hours Brenda can do 2 jobs working alone, or 3 jobs
working with Bill. So every 6 hours Bill completes 1 job.

If you don’t pra ctice re phra s ing que s tions while s tudying, you might not
re cognize this e xa mple as ide ntica l to the one in the te xtbook.
He re ’s a more difficult va ria tion:

Example: Brenda can do a certain job in 3 hours while Bill can do it in 6.

If Brenda works for 1 hour alone and is then joine d by Bill,
how many hours will it take them to complete the re m aining
pa rt of the job?

Solution: In the firs t hour, Brenda completes one -third of the job, which
leaves two-thirds remaining. Since we know it takes Brenda
and Bill 2 hours to complete an entire job, this re maining part
will take them two-thirds as long, or 1 i hours.
3

WHAT ARE THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF THIS PROBLEM?

You mus t be a ble to re cognize a proble m in diffe re nt guises. The work problems ,
for ins ta nce , involve a job be ing done in a fixe d a mount of time . It is not a n
e ssentia l fe a ture of the proble m tha t the job be a ccomplis he d by pe ople . He re ’s
a n e quiva le nt (what ma the ma ticia ns ca ll isomorphic) proble m:

Example: A s ink has two drains, a large one that can empty it alone in 10
minutes and a small one that can empty it alone in 15 minutes.
How many minutes will it take the sink to empty comple te ly if
both drains are open?
 1
Solution: Eve ry minute, the large dra in empties yx of the s ink while HOW SMART
1 1U STUDENTS LEARN
the small tank empties — of the sink. Together, they empty PROBLEM-SOLVING
111 1!> TECHNIQUES
~\q + g °f the tank every minute. At this rate, it will 0:' >;.vli-!.v•; IV::11) MI':

take 6 minutes to empty the tank.

WHAT OTHER TYPES OF PROBLEMS OR TECHNIQUES DOES THIS

REMIND ME OF?
Anothe r old frie nd: the W hat does this re m ind me of? que s tion. The P ytha gore a n
the orem might re mind you of othe r theorems involving the sides of a tria ngle ,
s uch as the one tha t states tha t the s um of a ny two sides of a tria ngle is a lwa ys
gre a te r tha n the third side.

HOW MANY DIFFERENT WAYS CAN I SOLVE THIS PROBLEM?

Once you solve a proble m, don’t s kip imme dia tely to the ne xt one . See if you
ca n a pproa ch it from othe r angles. He re ’s a nothe r s olution to the s e cond a lge bra
e xa mple :

Solution: If Brenda can do the job in 3 hours, she can do 2 jobs in

6 hours. So working together, Brenda and Bill could complete
3 jobs in 6 hours, or 1 job in 2 hours.

The more wa ys you know how to solve a proble m, the be tte r you unde rs ta nd the
conce pt (a nd the less like ly you’ll find yours e lf s tuck on a te s t que s tion).

CAN I DERIVE THE FORMULA?

Not a ll te a che rs re quire the ir s tude nts to be a ble to de rive formula s , but
knowing how improve s your unde rs ta nding imme ns e ly. He re ’s a s imple
ge ome tric proof of the P ytha gore a n the ore m by pla cing one s qua re ins ide a
la rge r one.

=a +b

(ia + bf = + 4(-~ ab)

(the area of the la rge s t s qua re
ah + lab + b2 = c2 + 2 ab equals the sum of the areas of the
ah + b2 = c2 small square and the 4 triangles)

I think you’ll a gre e tha t this dia gra m a nd proof he lp you unde rs ta nd the
P ytha gore a n the ore m.
r i HOW CAN I MAKE THIS CONCEPT MORE TANGIBLE?
WHAT SMART
Ke e p in mind tha t while ma the ma tica l conce pts are ofte n pre s e nte d to you as
STUDENTS KNOW
a bs tra ctions , the y origina lly ha tche d in a ma the ma ticia n’s bra in in a ve ry
iM ta ngible form.
Looking a t the P ytha gore a n the ore m, ins te ad of a hypote nus e a nd two sides
of a tria ngle , picture yours e lf cutting dia gona lly across a fie ld. Tha t’s one wa y to
ma ke it ta ngible. Come up with your own ways.

THE OTHER ELEVEN CYBERLEARNING QUESTIONS

By this point you s hould be fa milia r e nough with Cybe rLe a rning’s Twe lve
Que s tion a pproa ch tha t I ne e d not work through the m a nothe r time . Othe r
tha n the e xpe rt que s tions , the re are only a fe w s ignifica nt diffe re nce s in the
a pplica tion of the Twe lve Que s tions to Type III s ubje cts .
• Ins te a d of re vis ing your note s continua lly, s pe nd mos t of your time
s olving diffe re nt type s of proble ms . S olving the same proble ms ove r
a nd ove r is not a n e fficie nt wa y to de ve lop unde rs ta nding.
• Ge tting the big picture is more difficult. Ge tting the big picture is
more importa nt in Type I s ubje cts , whe re you ha ve masses of
informa tion to diges t.
• You won’t ne e d to pa ra phra s e or s umma rize the a uthor’s words tha t
ofte n. In fa ct, as a ge nera l rule you s hould copy down each step of a
s olution e xa ctly as it appears. As I note d e a rlie r, le a rning proble m-
s olving te chnique s in the e a rly s ta ges involve s a gre a t de a l of
imita tion.
• The re is cons ide ra bly less informa tion to orga nize . Ma the ma tics
a nd othe r Type III s ubje cts , you’ll re ca ll, re quire you to le a rn
proble m-s olving te chnique s ra the r tha n informa tion. Of course , to
the e xte nt tha t you ca n orga nize te chnique s or formula s , your
unde rs ta nding will improve .
Othe r tha n the points note d a bove , e ve rything you ha ve le a rne d a bout the
Twe lve Que s tions in pre vious cha pte rs a pplie s e qua lly we ll to le a rning
ma the matics .

■ ■ . : ■ ' ■ . ■ ■ ...

HOW tO READ A MATH tEXTBOOK: NUTS AND BOLTS

He re are some othe r tips to he lp you ge t the mos t out of your te xtbook.
• Be fore you be gin s olving a ny proble ms , ma ke s ure you’re fa milia r :
with the nota tion s ys te m a nd the de finition of a ll the te rms
.
be ins “e d- ________________________

©
 HOW SMART
HOW TO READ A MATH TEXTBOOK: NUTS AND BOLTS (CONTINUED) STUDENTS LEARN
PROBLEM-SOLVING
• S olve lots a nd lots of proble ms , a nd do one type a t a time . TECHNIQUES
P ra cticing this wa y helps you see s ome of the unde rlying features a nd
pa tte rns of a concept or te chnique , a nd he lps you de ve lop a feel for it.
• Re me mbe r tha t in the be ginning, a ll you’re doing is following the
steps in your te xtbook a nd trying to imita te the m.
• Do e a ch s te p on pa pe r, not in your he a d. Eve n whe n you
thoroughly unde rs ta nd a te chnique , you s hould force yours e lf to
write down e ve ry step on pa pe r. A conce rt pia nis t s till pra ctice s the
scales. This ha bit he lps you focus a nd gets your mind in a proble m-
s olving groove.
• Ge t in the ha bit of re a ding ve ry ca re fully; mos t “careless” e rrors are
ca us e d by mis re a ding the proble m ra the r tha n computa tiona l
mis ta kes . If this me a ns putting your finge r down on the page to
ma ke sure you’re ta king in each word, do it!
• If you don’t follow the s olution to a proble m, it’s like ly tha t the
a uthor ha s omitte d s ome steps. Prepare a lis t of proble ms you can’t
work out to discuss with your teacher.
• A s upple me nta ry s ource of informa tion is a mus t. In ma the matics
you’re le a rning not jus t proble m-s olving te chnique s but a ls o to
re cognize on wha t sorts of proble ms a nd in wha t type s of s itua tions
the y a pply. The gre a te r va rie ty of proble ms you solve us ing a give n
te chnique , the be tte r you will unders tand tha t te chnique . A book
writte n by a diffe re nt a uthor will provide you with que s tions from a
diffe re nt pe rs pe ctive . Find a n informa tion s ource tha t has lots of
e xa mple s with s te p-by-s te p s olutions , a nd pre fe ra bly includes proofs
or de riva tions for formula s . Be a wa re tha t a diffe re nt a uthor will
s ome time s use a diffe re nt nota tion syste m, so be sure you fa milia rize
yourse lf with it. (For more , see the dis cus s ion be ginning on page 60.)

Now tha t you know how you s hould le a rn proble m-s olving te chnique s , le t’s see
how you a ctua lly solve problems on tests.

SOLWING HATH PROBLEMS

The re ’s re a lly no gre a t s e cre t to s olving ma th proble ms . We ’re a ll na tura l
proble m solvers; our bra ins are wired tha t wa y-—we can’t he lp ourselves. Ma th is
pre s e nte d as a n a bs tra ct s ubje ct, but the ba s ic principle s of s olving a ma th
proble m are no diffe re nt from s olving a ny other proble m you’re fa ce d with.
The firs t step is to size up the proble m. W hat does this proble m re m ind me of?
is an e xpe rt que s tion tha t s hould ge t you pointe d in the right dire ction. The n

m
 a s k yours e lf. W hat do I alre ady know? Write down a ll the informa tion (the
STUDENTS^KNOW “givens ” a nd the unknown) a nd a ny e qua tions tha t suggest the ms e lve s . How can
I picture this? te lls you to dra w a picture of the informa tion.
ISlffiSIlt®
If you’re ta king a te s t, don’t wa s te too much time trying to s olve the
proble m “the right wa y.” S ome s tude nts jus t stare a t a ma th proble m as if the y
e xpe ct the s olution to pop out a t the m. The s olution does s ome time s pop out,
but you’ve got to ma ke some a tte mpt.
Imagine yours e lf trying to ope n a lock with several keys. You don’t jus t stare
a t the lock. You ma ke your best guess a bout which ke y will fit a nd the n you try
it. If it doe s n’t work, you try a nothe r key. And you ke e p re pe a ting this process as
long as it takes be fore you a rrive a t a s olution. Re me mbe r: a ll thinking is the
process of ma king successive ly be tte r guesses.

GLASSES AND LECTURES IN TYPE IS! SUBJECTS

' The re la tions hip of class le ctures to the te xtbook is quite high in ma th a nd othe r
Type III s ubje cts . Be sure you read your te xtbook a nd come pre pa re d with a lis t
of proble ms you’ve be e n una ble to solve. If you’ve done your home work a nd
don’t unders ta nd your te a che r’s pre s e ntation, it is quite like ly tha t your te a che r is
ina dve rte ntly omitting ste ps from the s olution. S imply a s k your te a che r to
e xplain what each s te p is more e xplicitly.

SUMMARY
Mos t s tude nts ha te ma th more tha n a ny othe r s ubje ct. The re are ma ny
compla ints : can’t follow, don’t think in a lge bra ic s ymbols , won’t ever use
a ny of it in re a l life . If you think you’re “not good” a t ma th, you’re jus t
a pproa ching it in the wrong wa y. By us ing Cybe rLe a rning, you ca n
conque r ma th as you would a ny othe r s ubje ct. Re me mbe r S ma rt
S tude nt P rinciple # 10: How we ll you do in s chool re fle cts your a ttitude
a nd your me thod, not your a bility.
The firs t step towa rd s uccee ding in ma th classes is to ove rcome the
blocks tha t ma ke ma th seem toughe r tha n it re a lly is. I’ve e xpla ine d
e ight s uch blocks in this cha pte r, s ome of which you’re sure to re la te to.
Although formida ble , a ll of the m ca n be be a te n.
From he re , the ke y is s imply a s king the right e xpe rt que s tions:
Wha t’s the pa tte rn he re ? Wha t ha ppe ns a t the e xtreme s ? Ca n I
ge ne ra lize the result? Ca n I de rive the formula ? And so on. Re me mbe r
tha t, as with othe r Type III s ubje cts , you’re not so much trying to ga the r
a nd organize informa tion as to ma s te r te chniques . The e xpe rt que s tions ,
a long with ple nty of pra ctice , will e na ble you to do jus t tha t.
It’s be e n a while s ince we la s t che cke d up on your a ttitude . Is your
pe n ready?

m
 Inte rmis s ion:
Attitude Che ck #2

TAKE 1'HiS QUSZS

Time for a nothe r a ttitude check.

ATTITUDE CHECK

Ins tructions : For each s ta te me nt be low, in the space provide d

indica te whe the r you agree (1) or disagree (0) with it. Aga in,
choose the response tha t best re fle cts wha t you truly be lie ve .

[ ] 1. Afte r a ns we ring a que s tion or proble m whe n you’re s tudying, you

fre que ntly s pe nd time trying to see how ma ny othe r a ns we rs or
s olutions you ca n come up with.
[ ] 2. Mos t que s tions a nd proble ms have “right” answers a nd a “right” wa y to
solve the m.
[ ] 3. Whe n you’ve be e n s truggling to a ns wer a difficult que s tion, you would
pre fe r to find the s olution on your own ra the r tha n look it up or have
s ome one te ll you.
[ ] 4. Whe n s tudying you fre que ntly ge t ne rvous whe n you don’t know the
a ns wer to a que s tion.
[ 15- On essay tests, you are us ua lly one of the la s t persons in the room to
be gin writing your answer.
[ ] 6. You are ofte n a fra id of ma king mis ta ke s on tests.
[ 1 7. On multiple -choice tests like the SAT, if you s pe nd time on a que s tion
a nd are s till uns ure of the answer, you’d ra the r “pla y it safe” a nd leave
the que s tion bla nk tha n guess a nd ris k ge tting it wrong.
[ ] 8. If your a ns we r to a ques tion or proble m is incorre ct, you don’t fe e l
good a bout yours elf.

The “answers” to this quiz follow a brie f dis cus s ion.

HOW SMART STUDENTS THINK ABOUT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

It is much more importa nt to know wha t que s tions to a s k whe n you
s tudying a s ubje ct tha n to be able to a nswe r the m. In fa ct, it’s also more difficult
 because de vis ing inte llige nt que s tions re quire s more thinking tha n a ns we ring
WHAT SMART
the m. Once you know wha t que s tions to ask (the ha rd pa rt), finding the answers
STUDENTS KNOW
is us ua lly a ma tte r of s imple research (the easy pa rt). More tha n unde rs ta nding
the m, the proce s s of form ulating que s tions is wha t ge ne ra te s unde rs ta nding.
Mos t if not a ll the ma jor advances in knowle dge ove r the ce nturie s ha ve ta ke n
pla ce because s ome one asked a ques tion nobody ha d ever thought of.
One of s chool’s ma ny unfortuna te lessons is re ve rs ing the importa nce of
que s tions a nd a nswe rs. Te a che rs convince s tude nts tha t the a ns we r, not the
que s tion, is the importa nt thing. The re s ult is tha t s chool produce s masses of
answer-focused s tude nts , with profoundly ne ga tive conse que nce s for the m.
Ans we r-focus e d s tude nts see una ns we re d que s tions or proble ms as thre a ts ,
to be dis pos e d of as quickly as pos s ible by finding a n a ns we r—a ny answer. All
the y wa nt to know is the “right answers” to que s tions or the “right wa ys” to solve
problems , a nd the n to me morize thos e s olutions as quickly as pos s ible . Because
the y are so desperate for answers, the y lunge a t the firs t one tha t occurs to the m.
The y like things bla ck a nd white , a nd it’s uncomforta ble for the m to cons ider
tha t a que s tion might have more tha n one answer.
S mart s tude nts , on the othe r ha nd, are question-focused. It’s not tha t the y
don’t care a bout answers; the y do, but the y know tha t unde rs ta nding involve s a
lot more tha n finding a pa t a ns we r. Que s tions a nd proble ms a re seen as
cha lle nge s , not threa ts . S ma rt s tude nts ge t re a lly bugge d whe n the y don’t
unde rs ta nd s ome thing, but the y don’t lose the ir pa tie nce—the y s talk answers by
e xploring the que s tion or proble m from ma ny angles. The y probe , the y ponde r,
the y re fle ct. It’s too ba d you don’t ge t more time to do this in class or on tests.
S ma rt s tude nts dis trus t obvious answers, e s pe cia lly the firs t ones tha t occur
to the m. If the y have found one wa y to s olve a proble m, the y will look for ye t
a nothe r wa y to solve it. The y’re not thre a te ne d by cons ide ring diffe re nt points of
vie w. Because the ir self-esteem does not de pe nd on “be ing right,” s ma rt s tude nts
te nd to be ope n-minde d a nd truly willing to le a rn. One of the funda me nta l
diffe re nce s be twe e n s ma rt s tude nts a nd the ir cla s s ma te s is tha t s ma rt s tudents
are willing to que s tion the ir own opinions a nd conclus ions .

HOW SMART STUDENTS THINK ABOUT THEIR MISTAKES

Le a rning a lmos t a nything involve s continua lly ma king a nd corre cting mis ta kes .
Ima gine you’re le a rning how to s ink baskets from the fre e -throw line . You ma ke
a n a tte mpt. It fa lls s hort. Your mis ta ke te lls you to pus h the ba ll a little ha rde r
the ne xt time . Your ne xt s hot hits the rim, but too fa r to the le ft. Anothe r e rror,
a nothe r cha nce to improve . You’ve got to a djus t your a im a little to the right.
And so on. Mis ta ke s provide importa nt fe e dba ck; the y’re a necessary pa rt of
the le a rning process. If you wa nt to ge t be tte r a t doing or le a rning s ome thing,
you ha ve to be willing to ris k tha t you might be wrong, tha t you might ma ke a
mis ta ke , tha t you might ha ve to cha nge your thinking. Afte r a ll, nobody calls it
the “tria l a nd success” me thod.
 The re are ba s ica lly two a ttitude s towa rd ris ks a nd mis ta ke s : pla ying to win,
or pla ying not to lose. The s e seem to re fle ct the same a ttitude , but the y are in ATTITUDE CHECK #2
fa ct quite diffe re nt. Mos t s tude nts , including ma ny who have done fa irly we ll a t
s chool, are unwilling to ta ke chances. The y fe e l the y’re doing fine with the ir
curre nt me thods a nd are not a bout to je opa rdize the ir success by trying a ne w
a pproach. The y pla y to a void loss, to a void be ing wrong or ma king a mista ke .
Because the y think how we ll the y do re fle cts on the ir a bility, the y ta ke mis ta ke s
as a re fle ction of the ir pe rs onal worth. S uch s tude nts don’t like to think a bout
the ir mis take s , so the y ra re ly le a rn from the m.
S ma rt s tude nts pla y to win, even if tha t me a ns “los ing” occas iona lly. The y
ta ke ris ks because the y see the risks diffe re ntly. Unlike the ir classmates, s ma rt
s tudents don’t like to ma ke mis take s , but the y are willing to ma ke the m. A
mis ta ke s imply means tha t the ir me thod or a pproach is la cking, not the ir a bility.
S mart s tude nts le a rn from the ir mis ta ke s because the ir ego is not thre ate ned by
the m. The y are cons ta ntly s ha rpening the ir s kills , cons ta ntly on the lookout for
be tte r me thods , be tte r ideas, be tte r pe rspe ctive s.
Ge t ove r your fe a r of mis ta kes .

“ANSWERS” TO ATTSTUDE CHECK #2

S ma rt s tude nt responses are in bra cke ts . You s hould be gin to see s ome cha nge in
your a ttitude by now. If not, keep working a t it! The re are more Attitude Checks
la te r in the book to see how you’re coming a long.

1. Afte r a ns we ring a que s tion or proble m whe n you’re s tudying, you fre que ntly
s pe nd time trying to see how ma ny othe r answers or s olutions you ca n come
up with.
[ 1 ] Exploring a que s tion does not ne ce s s a rily e nd a fte r you have
a ns we re d or it. Coming up with a lte rna tive answers to a proble m
tha t is a lre a dy “s olve d” ma y se e m like a wa s te of time to ma ny
s tude nts but this is how s ma rt s tude nts build the ir unde rs ta nding.
Re me mbe r S ma rt S tude nt P rinciple #6: The point of a que stion is
to ge t you to think—wot s imply to a ns we r it.
2. Mos t que s tions a nd proble ms ha ve “right” answers a nd a “right” wa y to
solve the m.
[ 0 ] For mos t importa nt que s tions , the re is no s uch thing as a right
a nswe r or a right wa y to solve it. The a ns we r to a que s tion fre que ntly
de pends on your point of vie w. One of the myths tha t s chool
pe rpe tuate s is tha t mos t que stions ha ve s imple answers or s olutions .
But mos t importa nt que s tions in life do not ha ve s imple answers;
a nd as you now know, mos t of the importa nt que s tions in s chool
don’t, e ithe r.
- 3. Whe n you’ve be e n s truggling to a ns we r a difficult que s tion, you would
WHAT SMART
pre fe r to find the s olution on your own ra the r tha n look it up or ha ve
STUDENTS KNOW
s ome one te ll you.
[ 1 ] S ma rt s tude nts are inde pe nde nt, confide nt in the ir thoughts
a nd be lie fs . The y are s ke ptica l of a cce pting othe r opinions , e ve n
thos e expressed by the ir teachers or the ir te xtbooks . S ma rt s tudents
e njoy working things out a nd s olving proble ms on the ir own a nd ge t
frustra ted whe n the y’re not a llowe d to do tha t. The y don’t like be ing
told wha t to think or wha t to do. Re me mbe r S ma rt S tude nt
P rinciple #7: You’re in s chool to le a rn to think for yours e lf, not to
re pea t wha t your te xtbooks a nd tea che rs te ll you.
4. Whe n s tudying you fre que ntly ge t ne rvous whe n you don’t know the a ns we r
to a que s tion.
[ 0 ] Of cours e it’s unple a s a nt not knowing the a ns we r to a que s tion,
but tha t’s not a re a s on to ge t ne rvous . You’re ra re ly in a s itua tion
whe n you ne e d to a ns we r a que s tion imme dia te ly. Eve n on a te s t
the re are ove r a doze n things you ca n do whe n you don’t know the
a ns wer to a que s tion (see pa ge 190). Re me mbe r S ma rt S tude nt
P rinciple #6.
5. On essay tests, you are us ua lly one of the la s t pe rs ons in the room to be gin
writing your answer.
[ 1 ] S mart s tudents ta ke the ir time to cons ide r que s tions thoroughly
a nd pla n the ir a ns we rs . (You’ll le a rn a ll a bout writing essays a nd
ta king tests in la te r cha pters .)
6. You are ofte n a fra id of ma king mis ta ke s on tests.
[ 0 ] The re ’s a s ubtle diffe re nce be twe e n not wa nting to ma ke a
mis ta ke a nd be ing a fra id to ma ke one . S ma rt s tude nts try to a void
mis ta ke s but re a lize tha t if the y’re going to le a rn a nything or
improve , mis ta ke s a re ine vita ble . Re me mbe r S ma rt S tude nt
P rinciple #5: Ma king mis ta ke s (a nd occa s iona lly a ppe a ring foolis h)
is the price you pa y for le a rning a nd improving.
7. On multiple -choice tests like the SAT, if you s pe nd time on a que s tion a nd
are s till uns ure of the a ns wer, you’d ra the r “pla y it s a fe” a nd le a ve the
que s tion bla nk tha n guess a nd ris k ge tting it wrong.
[ 0 ] Le a ving a bla nk is not “pla ying it safe.” S ma rt s tude nts s trive to
a chie ve high scores, which is a ve ry diffe re nt goa l from trying to
a void low ones. If you truly don’t wa nt to ma ke a ny mis ta ke s , don’t
a ns we r a ny que s tions ! How we ll do you think you’d do the n? One
more time : Re me mbe r S mart S tude nt P rinciple #5.

0
8. If your a ns we r to a que s tion or proble m is incorre ct, you don’t fe e l good
a bout yours e lf. ATTITUDE CHECK #2
[ 0 ] Ge tting a ques tion wrong doesn’t me a n you’re not inte llige nt or
:
tha t a nything is wrong with you. Wha t it doe s me a n is tha t
s ome thing is wrong with your me thod or a ttitude a nd tha t you’ll
ha ve to re e va lua te your thinking. Re me mbe r S ma rt S tude nt
P rinciple #10: How we ll you do in s chool re fle cts your a ttitude a nd
your me thod, not your a bility.

Oka y, inte rmis s ion’s over. Ba ck to work. You know how s ma rt s tude nts a chie ve
optimum le a rning. In the ne xt fe w cha pte rs I’ll s how you how the y a chie ve
ma ximum grades.
 How S ma rt S tudents
Rehearse for Tests

THIS CHAPTER SS JUST FIHE-TUilNG

The Cybe rLe a rning que s tions not only he lp you unde rs ta nd your s ubje cts , the y
also he lp you pre pare for exams. In this cha pte r we ’ll tie toge ther e ve rything
you’ve le a rned. Now it’s time to ma ke sure you know the ma te ria l a nd ca n use it
on a te st.

YO U ARE REHEARSING FOR. A PERFO RM ANCE!

Ta king an e xa m is a comple x, cha lle nging pe rforma nce . Your te a cher asks you a
s e ries of que s tions . Your job is to unde rs ta nd the m, re trie ve the re le va nt
informa tion from your me mory, a nd orga nize responses tha t convince your
te a che r you deserve an A. And you have to do a ll this unde r time pressure.
The trouble with passive words like re vie w or study or pre pare for a te s t is
tha t the y don’t e mpha s ize wha t e xa ctly you ne e d to do. Mos t of the time
s tude nts s pe nd s tudying for e xa ms in the tra ditiona l wa y is wa s te d be ca use
the y a re n’t pra cticing wha t the y’ll ha ve to do on the te s t. Re re a ding the
te xtbook highlightings a nd cla s s room note s are not s kills te ste d on exams a nd
will not improve your a bility to a nswe r que s tions .
To rehearse for a pe rforma nce , you mus t pra ctice . Re he ars ing for a te s t
me a ns pra cticing wha t you’ll be doing on a te s t—re ca lling informa tion,
orga nizing it, a nd a pplying it to a ns we rs . The principle of the re he a rs a l
a pproa ch is to duplica te as ma ny of the conditions a nd tasks you will be fa cing
in the e xa m room as pos s ible .

THE REHEARSAL PROCESS

Ge t re a dy to s tudy less, but le a rn a nd re me mbe r more ! You’ll be s pe nding less
time re a ding a nd more time thinking a bout the ma te ria l, re citing it, a nd
a pplying wha t you know to a ns we r que s tions . Bra ce yours e lf. While a ctive
re hea rs a l-s tyle s tudying is highly e fficie nt a nd saves time , it’s also more inte ns e
a nd de ma nding tha n wha t you’re used to. But the pa yoff is fa r greater.
You’ll ne e d your note s , your s umma ry s he e t, your previous e xa ms , a nd
ple nty of s cra tch pa pe r. Although you s houldn’t ne e d to re fe r to your officia l or
s upple me nta ry te xtbook, ha ve them ha ndy anyway.
He re are the seven re he a rsa l steps.
 Step 1: Size up the e xa m.
WHAT SMART
STUDENTS KNOW 0® Step 2: Ge t a n ove rvie w of the course.
Step 3: Re vie w your pre vious exams.
Step 4: Re vie w your origina l note s.
Step 5: Ma ke sure you ca n a ns wer the e xpe rt a nd orie nta tion que s tions .
Step 6: Conde ns e your s umma ry sheet one fina l time .
Step 7: Re cons truct your s umma ry sheet from me mory.
You ca n spre a d these steps ove r a numbe r of s tudy sessions. De pe nding on the
type of e xa m you are ta king, s ome steps ma y be more importa nt tha n othe rs .

STEP 1: SIZE UP THE EXAM

Knowing wha t you’re up a ga ins t lets you focus your s tudy e fforts . S izing up the
e xa m means more tha n finding out wha t ma te ria l will be cove re d. You also have
to know wha t kind of que s tions will be asked a nd wha t kind of answers your
te a che r expects. The s e fa ctors a ffe ct wha t a nd how you will rehearse.
By the e nd of the firs t fe w weeks of the te rm, you s hould have a pre tty good
ide a a bout the kind of exams you will ta ke . As you sa w in cha pte rs 3 a nd 4, the
kinds of que s tions you will be asked influe nce wha t informa tion you ne e d to
select from le ctures or your te xtbook.
Regardless of the course , he re’s wha t you s hould know be fore you ta ke an
exam:
• Are the que s tions prima rily from the le cture s , te xtbook, or outs ide
re a dings ? Is the te a che r fond of s pringing “trick” que s tions ta ke n
from ne w sources?
• Is it cumula tive ? Note tha t cumulative exams stress the more re ce nt
ma te ria l ove r wha t has a lre a dy be e n cove re d on pre vious tests. A
cumula tive fina l, for e xa mple , will us ua lly be more he a vily we ighte d
towa rd the la s t third of the course.
• Do the que s tions focus on ma in the mes , de ta ils , or both? Fina ls
te nd to be less de ta il-orie nte d a nd cove r the ma in the me s of the
course.
• Do the que s tions re quire fa ctua l or a na lytic a nswers? Doe s your
te acher e xpe ct a re gurgita tion of the fa cts a nd ide a s from the
te xtbook a nd le cture s , or origina l analysis?
• Will it give you a choice of que stions ? If so, you s hould conce ntrate
your re vie w on fe we r topics .
• Wha t informa tion will it provide ? In a science course , for ins ta nce ,
will your te a che r provide formula s ?
• Wha t le ve l of e xpe rtis e does it re quire ? For e xa mple , in a ma th
cours e , will you be e xpe cte d to de rive proofs? HOW SMART STUDENTS
REHEARSE FOR TESTS
• Wha t type s of que s tions will it include : essay, s hort-a ns we r, llltlli
multiple choice ?
• Will it be a “s pe cia l” type of e xa m like a ta ke -home or open-book?
Incide nta lly, jus t because an e xa m is ope n book doe s n't me a n you
s hould s tudy a ny less for it.
• Will s ome one othe r tha n your te a che r be writing or gra ding it? In
colle ge , for e xa mple , you ma y be fa cing a te s t writte n by the cha ir of
the de pa rtme nt a nd gra de d by your profe s s or’s te a ching assistant. If
so, your profe s s or ma y be a less re lia ble s ource of informa tion
conce rning te s t conte nt.
• Doe s your te a che r (or the pe rs on gra ding the e xa m) ha ve a ny
s trongly he ld va lue s , vie wpoints , or opinions ? If so, you’ll need to
ke e p these in mind whe n you express your own. You s houldn’t be
a fra id to e xpres s a conflicting opinion, but don’t unwittingly
a ntagonize the pe rs on de ciding your grade.
He re’s how you ca n ge t tha t informa tion.
• “As k” your te a che r. This is going to re quire a lot of ta ct a nd
dis cre tion on your pa rt. The wa y not to ask your te a cher is to blurt
out dire ct que s tions like , “Wha t’s going to be on the exam?” Ins te a d,
try s ome thing like “Wha t are the mos t importa nt conce pts I ne e d to
re vie w.”
® Re vie w your pre vious exams.
® Re vie w copies of the te a cher’s old exams. Che ck with s tude nts who
have a lre a dy ta ke n the class, or see whe the r old exams are on file .
Ma ny colle ge libra rie s , de pa rtme nts , a nd fra te rnitie s a nd s ororitie s
ke e p file s of old exams tha t you ca n have access to. If you can’t find
copie s of exams for tha t class, see if you can find your te a che r’s old
exams from a diffe re nt class. The s e will s till give you some ide a wha t
to e xpe ct.
• As k s ome one who lias a lre a dy ta ke n the cours e wha t the exams are
like . Be tter ye t, see if he or she s till has copies of the exams. But
don’t e xpe ct the que s tions to be ide ntica l—teachers a re n’t fools . And
if the y are the same you’d be che a ting, s ome thing s ma rt s tude nts
ne ver do a nd ne ve r ne e d to do. You’re looking for the ge ne ral te st
pa ra me te rs (which is pe rfe ctly fa ir ga me ), not the e xa ct que s tions
(which is de finite ly unfa ir).
• Look ove r your le cture note s ca re fully for clue s . Mos t teachers fe e l
guilty if the y te s t you on s ome thing the y didn’t me ntion in class.
 ........ • Cons ide r a tte nding a re vie w s e s sion. S ome te a che rs give optiona l
WHAT SMART pre -te s t re vie w s e s s ions to a ns we r a ny la s t minute que s tions . I
STUDENTS KNOW
s trongly re comme nd tha t you a ttend the m, even if the y seem like a
Mil wa s te of time . It’s a good ide a to come pre pa re d with a lis t of a ny
la s t-minute que s tions tha t you’d like a ns we re d.
• S kim a nything your te a che r has writte n. If you’re in colle ge , your
te a cher has proba bly writte n a rticle s or books . If these ha ve n’t been
assigned in class, you’ll find it worth your time to look up one or
two. Anything writte n by your te a che r ca n be a n inva lua ble s ource of
pote ntia l te s t que s tions as we ll as your te a che r’s vie wpoints a nd
opinions . Of cours e , if you’ve be e n pa ying a tte ntion in class, you
s hould ha ve a s olid ha ndle on this informa tion anyway.
P re dicting e xa m que s tions is a ctua lly a lot of fun—tre a t it like a ga me . I’m not
s a ying tha t you s hould know only wha t’s on the e xa m, but you’d be tte r be s ure
you know at le as t tha t.

STEP 2: GET AN OVERVIEW OF THE COURSE

This is a re turn to the big, big picture . Wha t we re the ma in te rms , fa cts,
conce pts , theme s , proble ms , que s tions , or issues stressed in class? Be fore you
imme rs e yours e lf re vie wing the de ta ils of the cours e , ge t a n ove rvie w of the
cours e s tructure .
Re me mber the 80-20 rule as it a pplie s to s tudying: 20 pe rce nt of the fa cts
a nd ide as cove re d in your cours e will a ccount for 80 pe rce nt of the te s t
ques tions . Don’t worry a bout the de tails a t this point.

STEP 3: REVIEW YOUR PREVIOUS EXAMS

Ans we r some of the que s tions brie fly to see how much you’ve le a rne d s ince the
la s t te s t. S ome of your answers s hould be diffe re nt now tha t your unde rs ta nding
has e volve d. Re vie w your te a che r’s comme nts , too. You’ll find a lis t of othe r
things to look for on pa ge 185 in the ne xt cha pte r, How S m art S tudents
Take Tests.

STEP 4: REVIEW YOUR ORIGINAL NOTES

Although mos t of your s tudying will be done from your s umma ry sheet, you
s hould s kim through your origina l note s . Ofte n s ome thing tha t did not a ppe a r
importa nt e nough to include in your s umma ry s he e t will be come importa nt
la te r in the course. Your te a che r ma y ha ve stressed s ome thing whos e s ignifica nce
you did not a ppre cia te a t firs t.

STEP 5: MAKE SURE YOU CAN ANSWER THE EXPERT AND ORIENTATION
QUESTIONS
Whe n you’re le a rning, the importa nt thing is a s king as ma ny que s tions as
pos s ible, whe the r or not you ca n a ns we r the m a ll. Whe n you’re re he a rs ing for a
te s t, the time has come to ask and a nswe r que s tions , with a s pe cific focus on the
type s of que s tions your te a che r is like ly to ask: the e xpe rt a nd orie nta tion HOW SMART STUDENTS
REHEARSE FOR TESTS
que s tions .
This s te p s hould be as much like a ga me as pos s ible . Ans we r que s tions (or
solve proble ms ) topic by topic. Ma ke sure you ma s te r one conce pt or te chnique
be fore moving on to a nothe r.
S ta rt with a ny copie s of old exams you’ve been lucky e nough to find. Don’t
s imply look ove r these tests—a nswe r the que s tions ! You ne e dn’t write the m out
comple tely; outline answers are fine .
Outs ide te xtbooks (s uch as your s upple me nta ry informa tion s ource ) are
a nothe r e xce lle nt s ource of que s tions . As I me ntione d in the Inte rm is s ion on
page 59, each te xtbook a uthor has a diffe re nt point of vie w. You re a lly know
your s tuff whe n you ca n a nswe r ques tions writte n from a nothe r point of vie w.
S imply look up the re le va nt s e ctions a nd quiz yours elf on que s tions a t the e nd of
the cha pte r.
The inde x of your te xtbook is a nothe r pla ce to look. The la rge r the lis ting,
the more importa nt the ca te gory. Be sure you che ck out the glos s a ry for the
importa nt te rms a nd conce pts you ne e d to know. You s hould be able to de fine
each one in your own words a nd provide your own e xa mple s. Don’t forge t to
ve rify the s pe lling of the te rms , too.
By the wa y, it he lps to a cquire a de ta ile d e xpe rtis e in one or two s pe cific
areas of the cours e. Try to go into a little more de pth in these areas by doing
e xtra research. You can ofte n work this e xpe rtis e into your answers even whe n it
is n’t s trictly re le va nt to the que s tion be ing asked. The impre s s ion you’re hoping
to create in your te a che r’s mind is tha t you’re a n e xpe rt in e ve rything.

STEP 6: CONDENSE YOUR SUMMARY SHEET ONE FINAL TIME

The la s t time you upda te d your s umma ry she e t s hould have been no more tha n
a fe w days be fore . Eve n if you ha ve n’t le a rne d a nything ne w, ta ke a ne w sheet of
pa pe r a nd conde ns e your s umma ry sheet one la s t time —writing it down he lps
you e ngra ve your bra in ce lls with the informa tion. Ke e p working ove r the
informa tion until you find a wa y to squeeze it a ll onto one sheet.
As you know, it’s importa nt to ke e p your fina l s umma ry sheet down to no
more tha n one page so you ca n see e ve rything a t a gla nce . (If you a bs olutely ca n’t
squeeze your notes onto one s umma ry sheet, use two. The n ta pe the m toge the r
a nd re duce the m to one on a copie r. I re a lize I seem to be ma king a big de a l of
this s ingle -s he e t conce pt but yes, it’s tha t crucia l.)

STEP 7: RECONSTRUCT YOUR SUMMARY SHEET FROM MEMORY

You’ve condens e d your s umma ry sheet. Now, turn it over, cle a r off your desk,
ta ke a sheet of s cratch paper, a nd re cons truct your s ummary sheet from me mory!
Do your be s t—but unless you have a photogra phic me mory, you won’t be a ble
to do it on the firs t try. As s oon as you ge t s tuck, re vie w your s umma ry s he e t,
 picture it in your mind, a nd s ta rt re cons tructing it a ga in—from s cra tch.
STUDENTs 'k NOW : RePe a t this step as ma ny time s as it takes; your a im is 100 pe rce nt accuracy.
Once you ca n re produce your s umma ry s he e t e ntire ly, s top. Your rehearsal
is over.

WHEN YOU HAVE FINISHED REHEARSING

Do not wa tch TV, do not ta lk on the phone , do not read the ne ws pa pe r. Go to
s le e p imme dia te ly! Your bra in proce sse s a nd s tore s the la s t informa tion it
receives tha t day, so you don’t wa nt to dis turb a ll the work you’ve done . (Of
cours e , if the te s t you’ll be ta king is no big de a l a nd you are confide nt of your
ma s tery of the ma te ria l, re lax.)

W HERE SHO ULD YO U REHEARSE?

While quizzing yours e lf during spare mome nts in odd pla ce s is an e xce lle nt
wa rm-up, the fina l re he a rs a l proce s s s hould duplica te as ma ny of the te s t
conditions as pos s ible.
Tha t me a ns you’ll ne e d a pla ce of quie t, e ve n if you pre fe r doing your
e ve ryda y s tudying while lis te ning to ba ckground mus ic. You won’t, a fte r a ll, be
ta king the te s t with ba ckground mus ic. Your prior s tudying wa s to build
unde rs ta nding; a t this point you wa nt to be sure you use tha t unde rs ta nding in a
te s t s itua tion.
And unle s s you pla n on ta king your e xa m s itting on a s ofa , do your
re hea rs ing a t a de s k or ta ble . It s hould be la rge e nough to spread out your work.
Cle a r a wa y a nything you don’t need.
Your cha ir s hould be ha rd—one tha t a llows you to s tudy in the s a me
a ggre ss ive body pos ture you’ll be in while ta king the te s t. The s light mus cula r
te ns ion the cha ir he lps you ma inta in will ke e p you a le rt.

SHOULD YOU REHEARSE ALONE?

It de pe nds on your le a rning s tyle . S tudy groups or s tudy pa rtne rs do have the ir
a dva nta ge s in the firs t five rehearsal steps, e s pe cia lly in s izing up the e xa m a nd in
a s king a nd a ns we ring que s tions . The la s t two steps, howe ve r—conde ns ing a nd
re cons tructing your s umma ry sheet—s hould be done a lone .

HANDLING PRETEST JITTERS

De pe nd upon it, S ir, It is na tura l—even be neficia l—to be ne rvous be fore a te s t. P rovide d you are not
when a m an knows comple te ly pa nicke d, a little ne rvous ne s s improve s me nta l cla rity a nd your
he is to be hange d a bility to conce ntra te . In fa ct, a state of tota l re laxa tion is e xa ctly wha t you don’t
in a fortnight, it wa nt a t this time . Ke e p in mind tha t you’ll be ta king the te s t while ne rvous a nd
concentrates his m ind unde r pressure. S ince your rehearsal s hould s imula te as ma ny of the conditions
wonde rfully. as pos s ible , a tense a nd a le rt e motiona l state is not a ba d thing.
S a mu e l J o h n s o n
YOUR REHEARSAL TIMETABLE: COUNTING DOWN
HOW SMART STUDENTS
Whe n s hould you s ta rt re he a rs ing for a n upcoming exam? Aga in, you have be e n REHEARSE FOR TESTS
pre pa ring a ll a long. De pe nding on how much ma te ria l you have to cover, the
high-inte ns ity rehearsal for mos t courses ca n s ta rt a nywhe re from one to five
days be fore the exam. Whe n you s ta rt also de pe nds on your le a rning s tyle a nd
unde r how much pressure you pre fe r to s tudy.
You wa nt to conce ntrate a ctive re hea rs ing as close to the e xa m as pos s ible ,
without wa iting until the la s t minute . If you ha ve only one da y to re he a rse , do
it the da y be fore the e xa m, not se ve n days be fore . S ta rting rehearsal too fa r in
a dva nce gives you more time to forge t the ma te ria l a nd be come unfocus e d.
Athle te s know the crucia l importa nce of timing the ir “ta pe r” for the
cha mpions hip game. Re he a rs ing is like ta pe ring: be ginning too e a rly is a lmos t as
ba d as be ginning too la te .
The da y be fore , che ck out the e xa m site if it’s a room you’re unfa milia r with.
For an importa nt e xa m you might even try to do some of your re he a rs ing in the
te s t room.
The night be fore a ma jor e xa m is ve ry importa nt. It is not a good ide a to see
a movie or go pa rtying no ma tte r how confide nt you feel. Do some re he a rs ing,
e s pe cia lly jus t be fore you go to sleep.
Ge t your us ua l a mount of sleep. S le e ping is s tudy time (unless you do it
during class), s ince your bra in does a lot of informa tion proce s s ing a t night.
Your s umma ry sheet s hould be the la s t thing you look a t be fore you turn out the
lights .
Don’t ne gle ct ta king the prope r steps the morning of the exam. Re vie w your
s umma ry s he e t ca s ua lly. P ractice vis ua lizing it in your he a d but don’t try to
re cons truct it on pa pe r. In fa ct, don’t try a ny s e rious la s t-minute quizzing or
you’ll ris k be coming flus te re d or confuse d.
But if the re a re a ny la s t-minute fa cts or formula s tha t you ha ve n’t
me morize d, ja m the s e into s hort-te rm me mory an hour or two be fore the
e xa m. Of cours e , the firs t thing you do whe n the te s t be gins is write tha t
informa tion down be fore your s hort-te rm me mory e va pora te s ! And re me mbe r
tha t your s hort-te rm me mory is a limite d s tora ge -bin—a bout seven pieces of
informa tion pe r loa d—so try to s tore as much as you ca n into the la rge r a nd
more s us ta ina ble long-te rm me mory ba nk.

A FEW WORDS ABOUT THE FINE ARTS OF CRAMMING AND PULLING

ALL-NIGHTERS
Le t’s get real he re—ma ny s ma rt s tudents ha ve ma de a career of cra mming.
Don’t get me wrong. The y go through the Twe lve Que s tions rigorous ly, so
it’s not like the y’ve ne ve r seen the ma te ria l until the night be fore the e xa m.
Ra ther the y’ve found tha t cra mming he lps the m focus on the essential issues;
de ta ils are a luxury the y s imply don’t have time for. The y also find tha t the y
 rehearse for and take tests better in that heightened state of awareness that
WHAT SMART
STUDE NTS KNO W
adrenaline produces. In short, they like the rush.
If cramming works for you, stick with it. You can ’t argue with success.
Which brings me to all-nighters. You ’ d better know your limits —pulling
one takes enormous endurance and concentration. Still, smart students pumped
up on adrenaline have been known to stay up for days on end during final exam
periods. It can be done in a pinch, and if it works for you there ’s no reason you
shouldn’t. But as a way of life it can be exhausting.

A FINAL ME SSA G E: E XP E C T TH E UN E XP E C TE D!
Be ready to improvise o n your exams if necessary. I f you’ ve followed the Twelve
Q uestions to the best of your ability, you ’ll be as prepared as you’re capable of
being; that’s all you or anyone can expect of you. P art of mentally preparing for
tests is re alizing that you can never be completely prepared.

SUMMARY
The key word here is “rehe arse. ” It me ans that your test preparation
should mimic as closely as possible what you ’ ll be doing when you
actually sit down in the exam room.
The seven-step rehe arsal process emphasiz es this rigorous
approach to preparation. The first step is to anticipate what the
exam will be like: what the format will be, what material will be
covered, what type of answers your te acher will expect, and so on.
In a later rehearsal step, you ’ ll find and answer as many expert
questions as you can. Doing this, unlike simply rere ading your
notes, forces you to synthesiz e information, which is what you ’ ll be
doing in the test its elf. You complete your rehe arsal by
reconstructing your summary she et entirely from memory. If you ’re
able to do this, you ’ ll be re ady to recall the information when you
ne ed it.
Be sure to take another look at this chapter the next time you
have an exam coming up. F ollow all seven steps and you ’ ll soon find
yourself getting higher marks with less studying time.

©
 How Smart Students
----- Take T ests------

TH E P E R F O RMAN C E
The last chapter told you what to get re ady for an exam. By following the It is not enough to
seven-step rehe arsal system, you should be better prepared than ever before. be a good chess player,
This chapter will tell you what to do once you ’re actually sitting in that you must also play
room. You ’ ve rehe arsed well. Now it’s time to perform. well.
Sa vie l l y
IT ’ S N O T E N O U G H TO BE A G O O D STUDE NT G r i g o r ie vi t c h
You must also test well. Ta r t ako w e r
You often he ar teachers or parents or even fellow classmates say of someone,
“ H e ’s re ally bright and he works re ally hard; he just doesn ’t test well.” Sorry, but
testing is the name of the game. In many respects, school does mirror life; I can ’t
think of a single job—from fry cook to chemical engine er—that doesn ’t at one
time or another demand performance under pressure. Even papers are nothing
more than untimed take-home exams. It doesn ’t matter how much you ’ ve
learned or how well you ’ ve prepared if you can ’ t perform where it counts—in the
exam room.
But the notion that there are students who “just don ’ t test well” is a false
stereotype — with practice, anyone can become a good tester. This chapter
provides all the skills. I’ ll show you how to put all your preparation together to
maximiz e your performance on tests.

WHAT T E STS R E ALLY ME ASUR E

Most classroom examinations, especially at lower grade levels, consist of short The defect in the
answer or multiple-choice questions. Such tests measure little more than your intelligence test is
ability to recognize correct factual information. You can ace these with very little that high marks are
understanding of the course material if you can parrot what your te acher or gained by those who
textbook says. subsequently prove
But in higher grade levels, essay tests become the standard. These require to be practically
more than simply memorizing and regurgitating. Essay tests require you to illiterate. So much
respond to ideas, interpret them critically, and apply them to new situations. In time has been spent
short, they require you to think. in studying the art
All tests, however, me asure not just what you know but how well you of being tested that
prepare for and take them. Smart students know how to prepare for a test, and the candidate has
perform their best while coping with the pressure everyone feels. E verybody gets rarely had time for
nervous before and during exams, but smart students, like professional athletes anything else.
and other performers, know how to perform despite their nerves. The pressures C. N o r t h c o t e
Pa r kin s o n
 are pa rt of the package. The trick is le a rning to work in s pite of the m- :ven to
WHAT SMART
be s timula te d by the m.
STUDENTS KNOW

HANDLING YOUR NERVES

Te xt a nxie ty ca n re a ch te rrifying proportions . I be lie ve tha t Fre ud wrote a bout
how common e xa mina tion nightma re s we re even decades a fte r a n individua l ha d
le ft s chool! Aga in, the trick is to pe rform a t your pe a k de s pite your fears.
Now, I’m sure you’ve he a rd the following we ll-inte ntione d but e rrone ous
a dvice ma ny time s be fore a n e xa m: “Re la x. Ca lm down. Worrying a bout things
won’t he lp.” This a dvice ca n fue l your ne rvousne ss like pouring ga s oline on a
fire . You now ha ve s ome thing ne w to be worrie d a bout on top of the
exam-—you’re worrie d a bout be ing worried!
Your pos ture during a n e xa m a ffe cts your mood. It’s easier to control your
body pos ture tha n your e motions , so s it up with your ba ck s tra ight a nd le a n
ove r your te s t aggressively, e ve n if you are te rrifie d. S louching only ma ke s you
fe e l worse .
Eve n the s ma rte s t of s ma rt s tude nts s ome time s le t the ir nerves ge t the be tte r
of the m. If you find yours e lf comple te ly pa ra lyzed by pa nic during a n e xa m,
a dopt the following pa ra doxica l a ttitude : re s ign yours e lf to fa ilure ! Tha t takes
the pressure off. Now look for the easiest que s tion on the te s t, a ques tion you
can do. Say to yours e lf, “We ll, I know I’m going to fa il, but a t le a st I ca n do this
que s tion.” Once you’ve a ns we re d tha t que s tion, look for a nothe r easy one you
can do. Focus ing on a ns we ring the que s tions takes your mind off fa ilure, a nd
a ns we r by a ns we r you will gra dua lly ge t your confide nce ba ck.
Incide nta lly, ove rconfide nce is as da nge rous as pa nic. Whe n you’re too
re laxe d you’re not as a le rt, a nd careless e rrors ca n creep in. In a s tudy I did of
high s chool s tudents pre pa ring for the SAT, I asked the following que s tion:

Compa re d with your pe rforma nce on cla s s room tests, how do

you do on s ta nda rdize d tests like the SAT?
(A) You do be tte r on s ta nda rdized tests because you try
ha rde r.
(B) You do a bout the same.
(C) You te nd to frea k out.

Now, which s tude nts do you think pe rforme d the be s t on the a ctua l S AT?
S urpris ingly, it was thos e who a ns we re d (C)-the ne rvous s tude nts ! Who did the
wors t? The ove rconfide nt ones who a ns we re d (A)!

THE MORNING OF THE EXAM

I touche d on wha t to do the morning of a n e xa m in the pre vious cha pte r. Wa ke
up a t your re gula r time a nd eat a norma l bre a kfa s t. Don’t ove re a t, a nd don’t go
wild on tea, coffe e , or cola . Ca ffe ine is a tricky s timula nt, a nd you don’t wa nt to
wa s te time la te r s huttling be twee n the exam room a nd the ba throom.
Re view your s umma ry s he e t ca s ua lly, but do not quiz yours e lf on it. If you |g| t a ke TESTS^fh
ma ke a ny mis ta ke s you’ll jus t work yours e lf into knots. If you ne e d to commit
a ny la s t-minute fa cts or formula s to me mory, do so as close to the e xa m as
pos s ible . Re me mbe r: s hort-te rm me mory does not la s t ve ry long.
De ve lop a re gula r routine for wha t you do on the morning of a n e xa m. If
you ha ve a fa vorite pa ir of socks, we a r the m. Pa ck your lucky pe n. S uch routine s
a nd ritua ls he lp ge t you into te s t mode .
Be fore you leave your room for the e xa m, ma ke sure you’ve got a wa tch (a
digita l is more re ada ble ), a couple of pens, a swe a ter if it’s cold, a nd a nything else
you might ne e d to be comforta ble a nd pre pa re d. Set these aside the night be fore
so you don’t ha ve to think a bout such de ta ils the da y of the e xa m.

WHAT TO DO WHEN YOU ARRIVE AT THE EXAMINATION ROOM

The be s t time to s how up for a n e xa m is a fe w minute s be fore it starts. If you ge t The brain is a
the re e a rlie r, a void ta lking with other s tude nts , e s pe cially thos e who are doing wonderful organ. It
some la s t-minute quizzing of each othe r or cra mming. You don’t need s ome one starts working the
else’s ne rvous e ne rgy ups e tting your conce ntra tion. Bring your s umma ry sheet moment you wake up
with you if you ha ve s ome time to kill be fore the a ctua l exams are ha nde d out. and doesn’t stop until
I’ll say it a ga in: a ny la s t-minute re vie w s hould be casual; don’t quiz yours e lf. you ge t to the office.
If seats are not assigned, choose one tha t a llows you to conce ntra te . Whe re Ro b e r t Fr o s t
you s it is e ntire ly a pe rs ona l ma tte r. I always trie d to find a seat in the la s t row,
pre fe ra bly in the corne r. If I sat a nywhe re othe r tha n the la s t row I would
wonde r wha t was going on be hind me . Ha ving a wa ll or window ne xt to me
ins te a d of a nothe r s tude nt a llowe d me to turn a wa y from the te s t pe riodica lly to
re group my thoughts without giving the proctor the impres s ion I was che a ting.
But, obvious ly, s it whe re you are mos t comforta ble .
Be fore the te s t be gins , your te a cher ma y give ve rba l ins tructions . Lis te n to
these ca refully. The y ma y a lter the writte n dire ctions in the te s t or provide clues
a bout wha t s ort of answers the te a che r expects.

THE FIVE STEPS OF TAKING EXAMINATIONS

The re are ma ny type s of exams, but your ge ne ra l a pproa ch s hould be the same.
He re are the five steps of ta king exams.
StGp 1: Ca tch your bre a th.
S te p 2: Read the dire ctions —ca re fully.
S te p 3: S kim through the test.
S tep 4: Budget your time .
S te p 5: Atta ck the que s tions .
We ’ll ta ke a look a t each of these steps be fore ge tting down to the spe cifics of
ta king the va rious type s of te st ques tions .

#
 STEP 1: CATCH YOUR BREATH
STUDEHTSXNOW ^ necessary, be gin by ta king a couple of minute s to write down a nything you are
a fra id of forge tting. Do this before you ope n your te s t bookle t or the s ight of the
que s tions ma y ra ttle your s hort-te rm me mory.
The mome nt you firs t ope n a te s t bookle t is a lwa ys a bit of a s hock. The
e xa m ne ve r looks or reads quite the wa y you e xpe cte d. Ease yours e lf ge ntly into
the te s t, a nd re s is t the te mpta tion to s ta rt a ns we ring the firs t que s tion
imme dia te ly. Don’t worry a bout your pa nicke d cla s s ma te s who a re a lre ady
fe ve ris hly s cribbling away. You’ll be picking up speed s hortly.

STEP 2: READ THE DIRECTIONS—CAREFULLY

You’ve he a rd this a hundre d time s , but ma ke s ure you re a d the ins tructions
ca re fully. Look for the numbe r of que s tions , whe the r you ha ve a ny choice a bout
which que s tions you ca n do, a nd the time limit. This will he lp you budge t your
time . The dire ctions ma y also offe r clues, s ome time s quite e xplicit, a bout wha t
the te a che r expects your answers to be like .

STEP 3: SKIM THROUGH THE TEST

Le a f through the te s t to ge t an ove ra ll sense of the que s tions a nd the ir difficulty.
Make sure tha t your bookle t is comple te . It’s a good ide a to che ck the last page:
it’s not uncommon for s tude nts to find the ms e lve s finis hing the “la s t” que s tion
comforta bly with a fe w minute s to spare, only to dis cove r tha t the y ha dn’t seen
several que s tions on the la s t page!
Ne xt, re a d each que s tion tha t re quire s more tha n a s hort answer. Unde rline
a ny ke y words a nd quickly jot down note s in the ma rgin of your te s t bookle t:
points you wa nt to ma ke , formula s you’ll ne e d to use, fa cts you’re a fra id you’ll
forge t, a nd so forth. The se initia l note s don’t ha ve to be comple te or orga nize d.
You jus t wa nt to ge t your mind working on the que s tions . You’ll be a dding to
these note s a nd a rra nging the m whe n you re turn to a ns we r the que s tion. In
re ading the que s tions through like this, you ma y find tha t one will trigge r your
thoughts a bout a nothe r que s tion, or even provide s ubtle clue s a bout pos s ible
answers.
Ha ving s kimme d through the te s t, you s hould re turn to the be ginning for
the ne xt step.

STEP 4: BUDGET YOUR TIME

Unle s s you’re doing a ta ke -home e xa m, you’ll ha ve to de te rmine quickly how
much time you can de vote to each que s tion. This will de pe nd on a numbe r of
fa ctors :
 • how much time you have for the e ntire e xa m
HOW SMART STUDEHTS
• the tota l numbe r of que s tions TAKE TESTS
® the type a nd difficulty of each que s tion
® the point va lue of each que s tion
• how much you know
If the te s t gives you a choice of que s tions , de cide which ones you inte nd to
answer. The n de cide on your que s tion orde r. Atta ck firs t the que stions you ca n
a ns we r the fa ste st or the mos t knowle dge a bly. This gives you more time to think
a bout the difficult que s tions a nd boos ts your confide nce . Don’t ma ke the
mis ta ke of biting into the difficult que s tions firs t or you ma y find yours e lf
without e nough time to a ns we r the ones you know best. Wa rm up with wha t
you know.
A ve ry common te s t-ta king mis ta ke is s pe nding the mos t time trying to
a ns we r que s tions a bout which you know the le a s t. Don’t fa ll into this tra p.
S pe nd more time on the que s tions you know you ca n a ns wer we ll. If, for
e xa mple, a two-hour essay te st consists of two que s tions , s pe nd more tha n one
hour on the que s tion you know be tte r a nd a ns we r it firs t. The fa vora ble
impre s s ion this a ns we r will ma ke in your te a cher’s mind will e a rn you the
be ne fit of the doubt on the other que s tion.
As you’re ta king the test, you ma y find yours e lf fa lling be hind the s che dule
you set for yourse lf, so s ta y fle xible . While ta king a te s t, be twe e n que s tions a s k
yours e lf: W hat’s the best use of m y re m aining tim e ?

STEP 5: ATTACK THE QUESTIONS

Re a d your firs t que s tion ca re fully, a ga in looking for a ny ke y words . Now think
a bout the que s tion a nd analyze it be fore you ge t into your answer. Ge t a sense of
how long a nd de taile d a n a ns we r your te a che r expects. Teachers us ua lly word
the ir que s tions ve ry ca re fully. A we ll-phra s e d essay que s tion ca n te ll you a lot
a bout the a ns we r’s organiza tion, conte nt, a nd point of vie w.
Ana lyzing a que s tion me a ns fa cing it he a d-on with our trie d-a nd-true
method of a s king ques tions . Tha t’s right, you ask que s tions a bout the que s tion.
J ot down your thoughts in the ma rgin of your te s t bookle t. We ’ll dis cus s
a na lyzing que s tions in gre a te r de pth whe n we cons ide r e a ch of the diffe re nt
types s hortly.

PUTTING UP A FIGHT: FIFTEEN STRATEGIES TO GET YOU OUT

OF ANY JAM
As we note d in the pre vious cha pte r, no ma tte r how we ll you’ve pre pa re d for a Intelligence is
te st you will ine vita bly come up a ga ins t que s tions tha t s tump you. S ome time s knowing what to do
you don’t unde rs ta nd the que s tion or can’t re me mbe r the answer, or ma ybe you when you don’t know
ne ve r kne w the answer! S ome time s you jus t run out of time . what to do.
J o h n Ho l t
is S ma rt s tude nts don’t a lwa ys know the a ns we r, but the y a re a lwa ys
WHAT SMART jjl re s ource ful! Be ing re s ource ful on tests me a ns knowing wha t to do whe n you
STUDENTS KNOW
ca n’t a ns we r a que s tion because you don’t ha ve e nough time or informa tion.
S ome time s you jus t ha ve to wing it a nd ta ke your best s hot.
He re are more tha n a doze n tips on how to ge t yours e lf out of a ja m.
1. As k your te acher for he lp. This re quire s some ta ct on your pa rt. You
ca n’t ask for the answer, of course, but you ca n ask your te a che r to
cla rify the que s tion or to te ll you a bout the kind of a ns we r e xpe cted.
Don’t criticize the que s tion; ins te a d, ask your te ache r to re phra se it.
S ome time s a s imple re phra s ing of the que s tion is e nough to ma ke
you unde rs ta nd it or to ma ke you re me mbe r informa tion you ha d
forgotte n. Your te a che r ma y also provide othe r clues if you pa y close
a tte ntion. If you ha ve to wa it for your te a che r to come ove r a fte r you
raise your ha nd, move on to a nothe r que s tion.
2. Try re phra s ing the que s tion yours e lf. Expre s s ing the que s tion in
your own words s ome time s jogs your me mory.
3. P os tpone the que s tion. Your s ubcons cious will continue to work on
it while you move on to othe r que s tions .
4. If you ca n’t re me mbe r s ome fa ct, try vis ua lizing whe re in the book
or your s umma ry s he e t it wa s loca te d. Try to re call the time a nd
pla ce you la s t re viewe d the fa ct. Wha t we re you we a ring? Wha t did
your de s k look like ? Try to re cons truct the informa tion us ing wha t
you do know.
I wrote my nam e at 5. S ta rt writing s ome thing—anything! If it’s a n essay que s tion a nd you
the top ofthe page. ca n’t re me mbe r much, s ta rt writing down in your te s t bookle t
I wrote down the a nything you know re la ted to the que s tion topic. Outlining your
num be r ofthe a ns we r be fore you be gin writing is ide a l, but s ome time s you jus t
que s tion '1. ’Afte r have to jump into the que s tion. Once you s ta rt writing, othe r ideas
m uch re fle ction, will s pring to mind.
Iput a bracke t round 6. Think a bout a re la te d que s tion. Pe rha ps you ca n a ns we r a more
it thus ‘(1).’ But ge ne ra l form of the que s tion, or a pa rt of it. Tha t, in turn, ma y give
the re afte r I could not you clues a bout the a ns we r you need.
think ofanything
7. Examine the pre cis e wording of the que s tion for pote ntia l clues .
with it that was e ithe r
Che ck out the ins tructions or e ve n the wording of othe r
re le vant or true .
que s tions , too.
Win s t o n
C h u r c h il l 8. If you don’t know the e xa ct a ns we r, write down your be s t
approxim ation. If you’ve forgotte n, say, the formula for the volume
of a s phe re , e s tima te the a ns we r. Be s ure you e xpla in your
re a s oning. Mos t teachers will be impres s e d by your re s ourcefulne s s
a nd give you s ubs ta ntia l pa rtia l cre dit.
 9. If you don’t know s ome importa nt informa tion ne e de d to a ns we r
HOW SMART STUDENTS
the que s tion, de s cribe how you’d a ns we r the que stion if you did.
TAKE TESTS
10. Think! Use your common sense a nd ge nera l knowle dge to a nswe r
the que s tion as you would ha d you not ta ke n the cours e a t a ll. You’d
be s urpris e d how fa r this can ge t you.
11. Re pla ce the que s tion with a re la te d one tha t you can a ns we r. Your
a ns we r m us t le t your te a cher know tha t you are a wa re you a re n’t
a ns we ring the que s tion asked, othe rwis e it will jus t look like you
didn’t unde rs ta nd the que s tion.
12. If you don’t know wha t s ome thing is , pe rha ps you ca n put down
wha t it is n’t. If on a his tory te s t you can’t re me mbe r which P re s ide nt
was in office during the Gre at De pre s s ion but you know it wa s n’t
Te ddy Roos e ve lt, say so. Aga in, you’re trying to s how your te a che r
tha t you’ve a t least le a rne d s ome thing in the course
13. If you know a bs olute ly nothing a bout a n essay que s tion—I me a n
a bs olute ly nothing—a dmit so, a nd use the time to a ns we r your
own que s tion! This takes ne rve s but it ofte n works , a nd it’s a lot
be tte r tha n le a ving a comple te bla nk. S how your te a che r tha t you
have le a rne d s ome thing in the course, even if you ca n’t a nswe r this
pa rticula r que s tion. The que s tion you replace it with s hould be an
importa nt one . (Don’t try this more tha n once with a teacher.)
14. If you’re s hort of time on a n essay que s tion, s cra wl a dra ma tic
S hort of tim e ! a nd finis h your a ns wer in outline form. Don’t ge t in
the ha bit of doing this on tests, but mos t teachers will a wa rd ne a rly
full cre dit if your outline is comple te .
15. If it’s not a n essay te s t a nd you’re running out of time , cons ide r
le a ving s ome que s tions bla nk. If you ha ve te n minute s le ft for
twe nty que s tions , it is be tte r to try fifte e n of the m a nd ge t mos t of
the m right, tha n to try a ll twe nty a nd ge t mos t of the m wrong. This
is e s pe cia lly true on s ta nda rdize d multiple -choice tests like the SAT,
GRE, GMAT, a nd LSAT.
As you ca n see, the re’s a lmos t always s ome thing you can do whe n you’re s tuck
on a que s tion. If you ha ve the time , ne ve r le a ve a que s tion bla nk without
putting up a fight! Te a che rs are Intere s te d not only in wha t fa cts you ha ve
le a rne d in the ir class but also whe the r you ha ve le a rne d to think inte llige ntly
a bout the ir s ubje ct.

TRY MOT TO FINISH EARLY

Ha nding in your e xa m e a rly ma y impre s s your cla ssma te s, but tha t kind of
gra nds ta nding doe s n’t win you e xtra points with your teacher. So ma ke s ure you
use e ve ry s e cond of the a llotte d time !

€>
 aawgii Use the time to re vie w your answers, e s pe cia lly to the e a rlie r que s tions . By
STUDFNTS^KNnw the e n^ of a n e xa m ne w ideas will ofte n pop into your he a d a bout que s tions
you’ve a lre a dy complete d. Don’t ca s ua lly re vie w your answers or you’ll ove rlook
your mis ta kes .
Look a t the que s tions from a diffe re nt a ngle . If you’re s olving problems , use
a diffe re nt a pproa ch; if you che ck your a ns we r by re pe a ting your steps, you’ll
probably re pe a t a ny mis ta ke s you ma de , too.
You ma y s ome time s wonde r if you s hould cha nge a n a ns wer tha t you’re not
s ure a bout. The old s a ying “Whe n in doubt, go with your firs t hunch” is
pos itive ly awful a dvice on s ta nda rdize d te s ts , but on othe r te sts it de pe nds .
While it’s true tha t you ca n ove rthink a que s tion a nd be come confus e d, a we ll-
de s igne d te st will have ve ry fe w que s tions tha t can be dis pa tche d with the firs t
thought tha t pops into your head.
The be s t guide is your own e xpe rie nce . Ke e p a running tota l of the
que s tions on which you s e rious ly cons ide red cha nging your answer. Ove r time
you’ll ge t a sense of whe n you s hould trus t your firs t hunches a nd whe n you
s houldn’t.

THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF TESTS

The mos t common te s ts in high s chool a nd colle ge are ma de up of essay,
multiple -choice , s hort-a ns wer, or true -fa ls e que s tions . Ea ch type has s pe cia l
re quire me nts . A te s t, of course, ca n ha ve more tha n one type of que s tion. We ’ll
now s urve y the diffe re nt type s of exams a nd discuss the unique re quire me nts
of each.

ESSAY TESTS
Teachers give essay exams because the y wa nt to see if you ca n do more tha n
s imply re ca ll informa tion. Be s ide s me a s uring wha t you know, essay e xa ms
me a s ure your a bility to a na lyze a que s tion, orga nize a n a ns we r, a nd
communica te we ll—-and do it a ll quickly.
The ne xt cha pte r covers in de ta il how to write essays. (You might wa nt to
re a d tha t cha pte r be fore continuing.) Writing an essay unde r time pressure is
e s s e ntia lly the same process, though you obvious ly ha ve to cut a fe w corne rs .
You ra re ly ge t to choose your topic, a nd your firs t dra ft is your fina l dra ft. On
the othe r ha nd, your teachers re a lize tha t you are working unde r pre ssure a nd do
not have ne a rly as high s ta nda rds .
In a ddition to the points ma de e a rlie r a bout exams in ge ne ra l, ke e p in mind
the following points a bout essay exams:
• Don’t worry a bout how you’ll be a ble to write on a topic for one ,
two, or e ve n thre e hours . It’s your te a che r’s job to give you a
que s tion you ca n s ink your te e th into.

©
Exa mine the que s tion clos e ly a nd a tta ck it with our trus ty me thod
HOW SMART STUDENTS
of dia loguing. Pay close a tte ntion to a ny ke y words in the que s tion, TAKE TESTS
e s pe cia lly thos e tha t te ll you wha t to do s uch as describe, discuss,
e xplain, analyze , outline , a nd s um m ariz e . Be ca re ful because these
words ma y be used a mbiguous ly. Discuss, for ins ta nce , ca n me a n a ny
numbe r of things . If you aren’t sure wha t a que s tion means, ask your
te a che r to be more s pe cific a bout wha t he or she is looking for.
S pe nd at le as t a fourth of your time ge ne ra ting ide a s a nd
orga nizing your a nswe rs. Be gin by writing down a ll the points you’d
like to ma ke . Group the m unde r he a dings if pos s ible , a nd the n
a rra nge the m in a logica l order. Re me mbe r to cons ide r diffe re nt
points of vie w to s how your grasp of the s ubje ct.
The ope ning pa ra gra ph is the mos t importa nt in your e ntire essay.
Use a se nte nce or two to introduce the topic, but ge t to the point
quickly a nd state your thesis. Whe re a s in pa pe rs you ca n a fford a
le is ure ly introduction to your the s is , in a n essay e xa m you s hould
ge t right down to business. Don’t be gin your essay with a sentence
like , “To a ns we r this que s tion, we mus t firs t e xa mine wha t we me a n
by bla h bla h bla h.” Your te a che r will assume you don’t know the
a ns we r a nd are s ta lling. Ans we r the que s tion firs t a nd the n, if
necess ary, use the s e cond pa ra gra ph to de fine a ny te rms or e xa mine
a ny s e conda ry issues.
Your fina l pa ra gra ph is the s e cond mos t importa nt. An e xce lle nt
wa y to conclude your essay is to me ntion brie fly s ome topics you
chose not to discuss because the y we re outs ide the scope of your
essay. Apa rt from s howing you know more tha n wha t was asked for,
your te a che r will conclude from your thoroughne s s tha t a ny points
you ne gle cted to me ntion we re le ft out de libe ra te ly, a nd not because
you s imply forgot to include the m.
The more dis tinct pa ra gra phs you write , the be tte r. Ea ch ne w
point s hould ge t its own pa ra gra ph. Cle a r orga niza tion will he lp you
ma ke your points in a time -e fficie nt ma nne r. It will also ma ke your
te st easier to read—a good wa y to impre s s your teacher!
If you don’t ha ve the time to organize your essay, s ta rt s ome whe re .
Once you ge t your ideas down, use the conclusion to orga nize the
ma in points you’ve made.
The more you write , the be tte r. But don’t ove rwrite ; s top whe n you
have a ns we re d the que s tion.
If a thought occurs to you a bout a nothe r que s tion while writing,
jot it down on s cra tch pa per be fore you forge t it.
 111!! • Write on the right pages of your te s t bookle t only. Leave the le ft
WHAT SMART
pages bla nk for a ny la te r thoughts you might wa nt to ma ke . It’s also
STUDENTS KNOW
space your te a che r ca n use for comme nts.
• If you ne e d to cha nge your a ns we r or corre ct miss pe llings , do so as
ne a tly as pos s ible .

MULTIPLE-CHOICE AND TRUE-FALSE TESTS

Multiple -choice a nd true -fa ls e tests are easier tha n s hort-re s pons e or fill-in-the -
bla nk te s ts be ca us e a ll the y te s t is your a bility to re cogniz e the corre ct
a ns we r—you know one of the choice s has to be corre ct. The s e tests do not
re quire as much pre limina ry s crutiny as essay tests, but you s hould quickly le a f
through the e xa m so you ca n ge t a sense of your ove ra ll time budge t.
He re are s ome s ugge s tion for ha ndling these tests:
• Re a d e ve ry word of the que stion a nd choice s ca re fully. Misre a ding
a s ingle word ca n cause you to pick the wrong choice , e s pe cia lly
words like not, always, never, all, every, only, some, a nd most. Ta ke
s uch words lite ra lly, do not “inte rpre t” the m. The corre ct (or true)
option ofte n include s qua lifie rs like most, some, a nd us ually. An
incorre ct (or false) option ofte n includes a bs olute s like all, every, any,
a nd each.
• Ta ke que s tions a t fa ce va lue . Mos t te ache rs a s k s tra ightforwa rd
que s tions . S e a rching for hidde n me a nings by “re a ding be twe en the
line s” will ge ne ra lly ge t you in trouble .
• Afte r re a ding the que s tion, a nticipa te the a ns we r a nd look for it
a mong the choice s . If you don’t find your a ns wer, it might be
dis guis e d as a pa ra phra se , so cons ide r a lte rna tive wa ys your a nswe r
could be worded.
® Ifyou s till ca n’t find the a ns we r, “ba ck into” it by us ing the proce ss
of e limina tion. Ins te ad of trying to pick the answer, conce ntra te on
e limina ting the incorre ct choices. The a ns we r is the choice you can’t
e limina te . The principle be hind the proce ss of e limina tion is tha t it
is us ua lly e a s ie r to say why a n incorre ct choice is wrong tha n why
the a ns we r is right.
• Re a d e a ch choice . Don’t be too e a ge r to pick the firs t one tha t
looks good.
• If you ca n’t de cide a mong the re ma ining choice s a fte r us ing the
proce s s of e limina tion, circle the que stion numbe r a nd move on
im m e diate ly. You can’t a fford to wa s te time . Othe r que s tions ma y
give you clues a bout the answer. Re turn to the ques tion la te r, whe n
you’ve ha d s ome time to think a bout it.
 • Always guess if you ca n e limina te a t le a s t one choice . This is true i
HOW SMART STUDENTS
even if a fra ction of your incorre ct responses is de ducte d from the
TAKE TESTS
tota l correct.
• If a que s tion seems s us piciously s imple , a s k yours e lf why a nyone
would a s k it. Be ca re ful a bout s e le cting a choice tha t seems so
obvious you can’t unde rs ta nd why the te a cher asked the que s tion—
you ma y be fa lling for a tra p.
• Choos e the a ns we r tha t the te s t write r (us ua lly your te a che r)
thinks is right. Don’t ove rthink que s tions a nd don’t be too clever.

STANDARDIZED TESTS
S ta nda rdize d tests like the S AT a nd GRE are inva ria bly used for pla ce me nt or
a dmis s ions purpos e s. How we ll you do on one ca n have a ma jor impa ct on your
e ducationa l choices. He re are some things you s hould know:
• Ne ve r ta ke a s ta nda rdize d te s t “jus t to see how you will do.” The s e
te s t scores be come a pe rma ne nt pa rt of your re cord. Yet each year
tens of thous a nds of s tude nts s ign up for tests without a ny s ort of
pre pa ra tion. You s hould a lwa ys pre pa re for a ny importa nt
s ta nda rdize d test, a llowing a t least a month or two.
• The be s t wa y to pre pa re on your own is to pra ctice on ma te ria ls
pre pa re d by the same pe ople who publis h the a ctua l te s t. You can
purcha s e books conta ining the actual exams give n in pre vious years
for the P S AT, S AT, ACT, GRE, GMAT, LS AT, a nd the MCAT.
Beware: the que s tions in mos t how-to books a nd ma ny pre p courses
have little in common with thos e on the a ctua l te st you’ll be ta king.
I’m pre judice d he re , of cours e , but by fa r a nd a wa y the be s t te s t
pre pa ra tion books a re the one s I’ve writte n. Look a mong the
P rince ton Re vie w’s Cra cking the S ys te m series.
• Don’t rus h to finis h. Mos t s ta nda rdize d tests are de s igne d to pre ve nt
a ll but the ve ry be s t te s t-ta ke rs from finis hing. Be willing to leave
some que s tions bla nk if you don’t have e nough time to finis h. And
unles s you’re a iming for a ne a r-pe rfe ct score , you s houldn’t ha ve
e nough time to finis h.
® If you ha ve the time , gue s s ing ra re ly hurts . Contra ry to popula r
opinion, no s ta nda rdize d tests pe nalize guessing, including those tha t
de duct a fra ction of your e rrors . If e rrors are not pe na lize d, always
guess; if the y are, guess ifyou ca n e limina te a t least one choice .
® Mos t s ta nda rdized tests pres e nt que s tions In orde r of difficulty. If a
s e ction has more tha n one type of que s tion, the que s tions of each
type will be a rra nge d by difficulty. Don’t rus h on the easy que s tions
in the be ginning or you’ll ma ke ma ny a voida ble “careless” e rrors .
And don’t s pe nd too much time on the mos t difficult que s tions a t
ill * Hi the e nd—que s tions tha t you are proba bly going to ge t wrong no
WHAT SMART ma tte r how much time you have. S pend mos t of your time on the
STUDENTS KNOW
que s tions whe re it will ma ke a diffe re nce —me dium ones in the
middle .
• Trus t your hunche s on easy que s tions but not on ha rd ones. The
a ns we r to a ha rd que s tion on a s ta nda rdize d te s t is ne ve r—1 re pe a t
ne ve r—obvious . And re me mbe r: que s tions go from easy to ha rd.

A FEW WORDS ABOUT OPEN-BOOK TESTS

An ope n-book e xa m is one in which you are a llowe d to re fe r to your te xtbook
a nd/or your note s . S ome ope n-book exams a llow you to re fe r to a nything you
ca n squeeze onto one sheet of pa pe r. Teachers give ope n-book tests because the y
don’t wa nt you to ove re mpha s ize rote me moriza tion.

A FEW WORDS ABOUT TAKE-HOME EXAiS

Tre a t ta ke -home exams like papers. You will be he ld to much higher s tandards
tha n on in-cla s s exams. Pre pa re your answers ca re fully on s cra tch pa per a nd the n
copy the m ove r ne a tly in the te s t bookle t. If a ppropria te , type your answers.

A FEW WORDS ABOUT MAKE-UP EXAIS

Teachers don’t like giving ma ke -up exams. It’s a hassle a nd the y re se nt the e xtra
work. Do e ve rything you can to a void ha ving to ta ke a ma ke -up. Ma ke -ups are
routine ly more difficult tha n re gula r e xa ms , a nd the gra ding is us ua lly
more s trict.

TAKING TESTS: NUTS AND BOLTS

The following points cove ring ge ne ra l te s t me cha nics are worth noting:
......
P rint. It’s fa s te r tha n s cript a nd easier to re a d. I’ve s a id this be fore
but it’s worth re pe a ting. If you don’t be lie ve me che ck it out by
clocking yours e lf. Compa re how long it takes you to write a s a mple
pa ra gra ph—le gibly—us ing s cript ve rs us printing. With pra ctice
your printing will be come much more e fficie nt tha n your s cript.
©
Don’t squeeze your a ns we rs onto the pa ge . Ma ke your e xa m easy
to read.
t

• Us e a blue or bla ck pe n. Avoid pe ncils or founta in pens.

• S how a ll your work in your te s t bookle t. If you ma ke a mis ta ke
your te a che r ca n see whe re you we nt off tra ck a nd s till a wa rd s ome
pa rtia l cre dit. Doing things “in your he a d” is ris ky; it’s ha rd to che ck
your work, a nd your te a che r can’t follow your thinking.
• Write your na me in a ll your te s t bookle ts .
• Whe n pos s ible , ke e p the que s tions a fte r the te s t for future re vie w.
A TRUE STORY
HOW SMART STUDENTS
A group of Ne w York City high s chool s tude nts took a fie ld trip to the Mus e um TAKE TESTS
of Na tura l His tory to vie w the dinos aurs on dis play. The ir te a che r ha d pre pa re d
a room-by-room wa lking guide of the e xhibits , with a fa ct sheet on each of the
dinos a urs a nd que s tions for the s tude nts to inve s tiga te .
Susan, one of the s tude nts , ha d wa nde re d a wa y from the group to vie w the
pte roda ctyl. She looke d a t he r te a che r’s fa ct sheet. It lis te d the wings pan of this
pre his toric flying re ptile as fourte e n feet. The officia l informa tion pla que ne xt to
the e xhibit, howe ve r, lis te d the wings pa n as twe nty feet. Susan looke d a t the life -
sized re plica , a nd to he r the wings pan did indee d seem like twe nty feet.
P uzzle d, S us an brought the dis cre pa ncy to he r te a cher’s a tte ntion. The
te a cher a nd the class wa lked ove r to the e xhibit. The te a che r re a d the pla que a nd
the n looke d up a t the pte roda ctyl. He he ld out his a rms to e s tima te the
cre a ture ’s wings pa n: “Le t me see, if I’m s ix-foot one ...” He he s ita te d for a
mome nt. “Class, for the purpos e s of ne xt we e k’s e xa m the pte roda ctyl’s wings pa n
is fourte en fe e t.”

POP QUIZ

Que s tion #1: Who do you think wa s corre ct a bout the

wings pa n, the mus e um cura tors or the high
s chool teacher? (Fa ct: As fa r as s cie ntis ts know,
the wings pa n of pte roda ctyls va rie d from one to
twe nty fe e t.)
Que s tion #2: Which is more importa nt, the te a che r’s opinion
or the truth?
Que s tion #3: Is it like ly tha t ne xt we e k’s te s t will include a
que s tion re ga rding the pte roda ctyl’s wings pa n?
Que s tion #4: Which re s pons e will re ce ive cre dit on the
te a che r’s test, fourte e n or twe nty feet?
Que s tion #5: If Susan re s ponds twe nty fe e t on he r te s t a nd
the n e xpla ins why she did so, will he r te a che r be
impre s s e d by he r inte lle ctua l inde pe nde nce or
de duct points from he r score?

REVIEWING YOUR PERFORMANCE AFTER THE TEST

You’ve proba bly he a rd pe ople say tha t ta king a te s t is a le a rning e xpe rie nce.
Tha t’s true if you tre a t it as one . Re vie w your test thoroughly whe n it is ha nde d
ba ck. Re vie w the que s tions , your a nswe rs, your mis ta ke s , a nd your te a che r’s
comme nts . You’ll not only ga in a de e pe r unde rsta nding of the cours e ma terial,
 ggtgg!
you’ll also dis cove r how you ca n improve your pe rforma nce on the ne xt test.
WHAT SMART He re ’s wha t you s hould be looking for:
STUDENTS KNOW
fflHM • Wha t wa s your bigge st proble m ove ra ll? Wa s it your unde rs ta nding
of the ma te ria l, your pre pa ra tion, your te s t s tra tegy, or e ve n your
e motions ?
• Did you re ce ive prope r cre dit for your work? Te a chers ca n ma ke
mis ta ke s corre cting s ta cks of e xa ms . Be ve ry ca re ful be fore you
cha lle nge your te a cher, though—you’d be tte r be abs olute ly s ure
unless you don’t mind looking like a comple te fool!
• Wha t type s of comme nts did your te a che r ma ke ? Whe re did you
los e points ? Did the te a che r e xpe ct more fa cts ? More a na lys is ?
Re vie w a ll your te a cher’s comme nts , e ve n thos e on que s tions you
got right.
• Wha t ca us e d your mis ta ke s ? Ana lyzing your mis ta ke s is a n
importa nt pa rt of the le a rning process. Don’t be too quick to dis mis s
your mis ta ke s as “jus t careless.” Assess the m ca refully. Wha t kind did
you ma ke , a nd wha t s hould you do to a void the m on future tests?
We re you rus hing? Did you mis rea d the que s tion? Did you pa nic?
If you e xa mine your mis ta ke s , you will a lmos t ce rta inly dis cove r a
pattern tha t sheds light on wha t kinds of que s tions you ge t wrong
a nd wha t mis ta ke s you ma ke . Occa s ioira lly you’ll s imply ma rk the
wrong answer, but this a nd othe r kinds of truly una voida ble ra ndom
e rrors are quite rare.
• Whe re did your te a che r dra w the te s t que s tions from: the
te xtbook, the le cture s , or s ome whe re else? We re the re a ny que s tions
you did not a nticipa te ? Wha t does this te s t te ll you a bout wha t to
e xpe ct on the ne xt one?
• Did you find yours e lf less pre pa re d tha n you thought you were? If
so, wha t steps will you ta ke to pre pa re be tte r for the ne xt test?

DISCUSSING YOUR TEST WITH YOUR TEACHER

S ome time s you bomb. It ha ppe ns . Mos t te a che rs a re more tha n willing to
discuss tests with the ir s tude nts . Don’t offe r excuses (tea che rs ha ve he a rd the m
a ll be fore ) or ple a d for s ympa thy (it’s uns e e mly). On the othe r ha nd, if you
kne w the ma te ria l, ask for a nothe r cha nce to prove it.
Ke e p in mind tha t you are not e ntitle d to a nothe r s hot (which will, a fte r a ll,
me a n e xtra work for your te a che r). So if this re que s t is de cline d, a cce pt the
de cis ion gra ce fully. Eve n so, mos t teachers ca nnot he lp but be impres s e d by your
pos itive a ttitude a nd will be more on your side for the ne xt test.
Ma ybe you didn’t bomb. Perhaps you fe e l tha t your corre ct responses did
not receive prope r cre dit or your incorre ct ones we re unfa irly pe na lize d. You’d
like a re vie w. Be aware tha t a s king teachers to re vie w the ir gra ding is not without
its ris ks . Gra des , like s ome doors , can s wing both ways. For a ll you know your HOW SMART STUDENTS
TAKE TESTS
te a che r was giving you a bre a k whe n ma rking your te s t; a s king for a re vie w
could wind up lowe ring your score! So be fore you a pproa ch your te a che r,
de s cribe your case to a frie nd or s ome one else who can be fa ir a nd obje ctive. If
this pe rs on agrees tha t you deserved more cre dit, s che dule a me e ting with your
te a che r; your grade is not s ome thing e ithe r of you will wa nt to discuss in front
of othe r s tudents .
Tea chers gre a tly re s e nt pre ssure for highe r gra de s. You will find the m more
re ce ptive if your a ttitude is one of wa nting to le a rn more a bout the ma teria l a nd
improving your pe rforma nce ra the r tha n me re ly trying to boos t your gra de .
S ta te your case ca lmly a nd be pre pa re d to ba ck up it up with ha rd e vide nce .
Eve n though you disagree with your te a che rs assessment, use ta ct a nd ma inta in
a re s pe ctful tone . Don’t blurt out confronta tiona l s ta te me nts like “I don’t agree
with this gra de !” or “I don’t see why I los t points he re !” unle ss you wa nt to
a lie na te your te a che r e ntire ly. Even if you’re right, it’s not going to he lp you on
this te s t or othe rs to a nta gonize the pe rs on who de te rmine s your fina l gra de .
Ins tea d, ask “How could I have improve d my answers?”
If your te a che r de cline s to cha nge your gra de but othe rwis e s e e ms
re a s ona ble , you ma y wa nt to suggest ge tting a s e cond opinion. If the re is a n
hones t dis a gre e me nt, your te a che r s hould not obje ct to ha ving a nothe r te a che r
re vie w your test. If, howe ver, your te a che r has been unre a s ona ble a nd refuses to
a dmit it, you are in a bind.
Ask a nothe r s tude nt or even a fa culty me mbe r how you s hould go a bout
cha lle nging a n unfa ir gra de . The re ma y be forma l a ppe a l proce dure s . Don’t
re ve a l your te a che r’s na me be fore you see wha t your options are. (By the wa y, if a
te a ching a ssista nt or s ome pe rs on othe r tha n your te a che r gra ded your e xa m,
your te a che r is the firs t pe rs on you s hould a ppe a l to.) If your te a che r is re a lly
be ing unre a s ona ble , you can go ove r his or he r he a d by a ppe a ling to the head of
the de pa rtme nt. If your te a che r is the he a d of the de pa rtme nt, the court of la s t
re s ort in high s chool is the principa l; in colle ge it’s the ombuds ma n. (Mos t
colleges ha ve s ome one who acts as a s tude nt’s a dvoca te . Ne xt to the pre s ide nt of
a unive rs ity, the ombuds ma n typica lly has more clout a nd a uthority tha n a nyone
else—a nd this pe rs on is your a lly!)
Wha te ve r you de cide to do, cons ide r the long-te rm conse quence s ca re fully.
Appe a ls ca n ba ckfire . In a ddition, you’ll proba bly be s tuck with the same te a cher
for the re st of the te rm. Don’t lose the wa r trying to win one ba ttle .
 i WHAT'S COMING UP
WHAT SMART How S m art S tudents W rite Papers is a long cha pte r a nd you’ve e a rne d a little time
STUDENTS KNOW
out, so le t’s ta ke a nothe r a ttitude che ck.
I' : . ■. ■...........................................................................................■................................................................................... :

* fsi |S';i m * ■ I I HP IPPPIPPPi

SUMMARY
Re me mbe r: te s t-ta king is a s kill. Of course you ne e d to know your s tuff.
IBS You also ne e d to be good a t ta king tests.
This cha pter pre sents a five -s te p me thod for s ucce s s ful te s t-ta king.
You’ll notice tha t you don’t a ctua lly be gin a ns we ring que s tions until the
fifth step. Firs t you ca tch your bre ath, re a d the ins tructions , s kim the
te s t, a nd budge t your time . The s e firs t four steps ins ure tha t whe n you
do a tta ck the que s tions (the fifth s te p), you’ll be working e fficie ntly,
inte llige ntly, a nd with your e motions in che ck (or a t le a st unde r as much
control as you ca n mus te r).
Diffe re nt type s of tests re quire diffe re nt te chnique s a nd a pproa che s,
so this cha pte r de ta ils s pe cial me thods for essay a nd multiple -choice

a bout me morizing this s tuff now, but de finite ly re vie w this cha pte r
be fore your ne xt importa nt e xa m.
 Inte rmis s ion:
Attitude Che ck #3

TAKE THIS QUIZ!

Time for a nothe r a ttitude che ck.

ATTITUDE CHECK

Ins tructions : For each s ta te me nt be low, in the space provide d

indica te whe the r you agree (1) or disa gre e (0) with it. Aga in,
choose the response tha t best re fle cts wha t you truly believe, not
wha t you think is the “right” answer.

[ ] 1. In the right circums ta nce s , mos t le a rning would be easy.

[ ] 2. Le a rning is ofte n te dious a nd boring.
[ ] 3. How much you le a rn in s chool de pends a lmos t e ntirely on the kind of
teachers you have.
[ ] 4. You find it ve ry difficult to s tudy s ubje cts tha t don’t seem re le va nt to
your intere sts.
[ ] 5. S ince you find some subje cts less e nga ging tha n othe rs , ifs the te a che r’s
re sponsibility to ma ke the m more inte res ting.
[ ] 6. S chool ma y not be pe rfe ct, but mos t of wha t goes on there promote s
le a rning.
[ ] 7. How much (or how little ) you le a rn in s chool is de te rmine d more by
your na tura l ta le nts tha n by a ny othe r s ingle fa ctor.
[ ] 8. Le a rning is inhe re ntly re wa rding.

The “a ns we rs " to this quiz follow a brie f dis cus s ion.

HOW SMART STUDENTS THINK ABOUT LEARNING

Not s urpris ingly, much of your a ttitude a bout le a rning has been shaped by your
e xpe rie nces in s chool. And ye t, much of wha t goes on in s chool has nothing to 1 ‘
do with le a rning, a nd e ve rything to do with a dminis tra tive conve nie nce a nd the
proble ms of teachers ma na ging ove rcrowde d classrooms.
In a typica l class you a nd your classmates are thrus t into a passive role—the
te a che r ta lks , a nd you have no choice but to lis te n. If you wa nt to le a rn, you’ve
 ill got to a cce pt re s pons ibility for te a ching yours e lf. And s ince no one le a rns quite
STUDENTiTk NDW 'n t^ie same wa y as you, tha t me a ns cons ta ntly e xpe rime nting with diffe re nt
me thods to see wha t works be s t for you. Eve ry s ma rt s tude nt answers the twe lve
.....f L Jllillll
Cybe rLe a rning que s tions , but how the y a re a ns we re d diffe rs from pe rs on
to pe rs on.
It is n’t easy to be a n a ctive le a rne r. We ’ve le t our mind mus cle s ge t fla bby.
Ninte ndo, TV, Hollywood, a nd even ma ny of our cla s s room e xpe rie nce s have
conditione d us to e xpe ct e nte rta inme nt. We ’re so bore d we hope tha t if our
te ache rs a nd te xtbooks don’t e nte rta in us, our classmates will.
Le t’s ge t s ome thing s tra ight. Le a rning is not a lwa ys easy. It ofte n involve s
long, frus tra ting s truggle s . The s ubje cts you’re e xpe cte d to le a rn won’t a lways
seem re le va nt to your life a nd inte re s ts . But look a t it this wa y. You ha ve two
a lte rna tive s while you’re in s chool: don’t le a rn a nd be bore d, or le a rn a nd be
inte re s te d a nd cha llenge d.
“Le a rning is its own re wa rd.’’ You’re proba bly s ick of he a ring this cliche , a nd
more tha n a little doubtful. Tha t’s because the wa y s chool is run has convince d
you of pre cis e ly the oppos ite —tha t le a rning is a nything but re wa rding; tha t it’s
boring a nd s ome time s e xcrucia tingly mind—numbing. And tha t’s a re a l tra ge dy.
S chool turns off s tude nts from wha t s hould na tura lly be one of the mos t
re warding e xpe rie nce s in life .
Le a rning ofte n takes a lot of ha rd work but it is a lwa ys s a tis fying. Ha rd work
is n’t a dra g. Wha t’s a dra g is ha rd work without se e ing ta ngible re sults. Nothing
is so profoundly s a tis fying as be ing comple te ly a bs orbe d in productive ha rd
work. Le a rning is not boring; not le a rning is!
If you’re bore d in cla s s , it’s a s ure s ign tha t you’re not le a rning. It’s
impos s ible to be bore d while you’re le a rning be ca use you’re too bus y doing
things a nd e xpa nding your mind! Don’t wa it for your te a che r or your
classmates to ge t you inte res te d. Tha t’s your job. S ta rt dia loguing!

“ANSWERS” TO ATTITUDE CHECK #3

S ma rt s tude nt responses are in bra cke ts.

1. In the right circums ta nce s , mos t le a rning would be easy.

[ 0 ] Le a rning ofte n re quire s ha rd work on your pa rt. But tha t’s okay.
Ha rd work can be incre dibly s a tis fying. Re me mbe r S ma rt S tude nt
P rinciple #9: Fe w things are as pote ntia lly difficult, frus tra ting, or
frighte ning as ge nuine le a rning, ye t nothing is so re wa rding a nd
e mpowe ring.
2. Lea rning is ofte n te dious a nd boring.
[ 0 ] Ma ny s tude nts ge t this impre s s ion from s chool. But le a rning is
ra re ly if ever boring a nd te dious —not le a rning is!
3. How much you le a rn de pe nds a lmos t e ntire ly on the kind of teachers you
have. ATTITUDE CHECK #3
[ 0 ] Of course the re are good teachers a nd ba d teachers, but as a
s ma rt s tude nt you a cce pt re s pons ibility for te a ching yours e lf.
Re me mbe r S ma rt S tudent P rinciple #1: Nobody ca n te a ch you as
we ll as you ca n te a ch yours e lf.
4. You find it ve ry difficult to s tudy s ubje cts tha t don’t seem re leva nt to your
inte re s ts .
[ 0 ] Of course it’s easier to s tudy ma te ria l tha t seems re le va nt, but
how do you know wha t your inte re s ts will be in the future ? Besides,
as a s ma rt s tude nt you know how to find a wa y to ma ke a ny s ubje ct
re le va nt to your intere sts. Re me mber S ma rt S tude nt P rinciple #8:
S ubje cts do not a lwa ys seem inte re s ting a nd re le va nt, but be ing
a ctive ly e nga ge d in le a rning the m is be tte r tha n be ing pa s s ive ly
bore d a nd not le a rning the m.
5. S ince you find s ome s ubje cts less e nga ging tha n othe rs , it’s the te a che r’s
re s pons ibility to ma ke the m more inte re s ting.
[ 0 ] The re is no que s tion tha t a dyna mic te a che r ca n ma ke the
dulle s t s ubje ct e xciting, but cons ide r yours e lf lucky if you ha ve a
te a che r like tha t. It’s your re s pons ibility to ta ke a n inte re s t in a
s ubje ct, not a nyone else’s. The Cybe rLe a rning que s tions are de signe d
to ge t you a ctively engaged in a ny s ubject.
6. S chool ma y not be pe rfe ct, but mos t of wha t goes on the re promote s
le a rning.
[ 0 ] A lot of wha t goes on in s chool has more to do with the
a dminis tra tive a nd bure a ucra tic proble ms of ma na ging ove rcrowde d
cla s s rooms tha n it does with le a rning. Re me mbe r S ma rt S tude nt
P rinciple #12: S chool is a ga me , but its a ve ry importa nt ga me .
7. How much (or how little ) you le a rn in s chool is de te rmine d more by your
na tura l ta le nts tha n by a ny other s ingle fa ctor.
[ 0 ] Of cours e your ta le nts pla y a role in how much you le a rn, but it
is fa r s ma lle r tha n mos t s tude nts realize. Re me mber S ma rt S tudent
P rinciple #10: .How we ll you do in s chool re fle cts your a ttitude a nd
your me thod, not your a bility.
8. Le a rning is inhe re ntly re wa rding.
[ 1 ] Ifyou’ve gotte n this fa r in the book, I hope you agreed with this
s tate me nt!

Ne xt up: How to write papers tha t knock your teachers’ socks off!
 How S ma rt S tude nts
___Write P a pe rs ___

YOU’D BETTER BE ABLE TO WRITE

Writing we ll is one of the mos t importa nt s kills you ne e d in s chool—not to
me ntion an essential life s kill—a nd tha t be come s more critica l as your e ducation
advances. Whe n you’re in gra mma r s chool your grades are de termine d prima rily
by fill-in-the -bla nk'type tests. But in high s chool a nd colle ge your grades are
de te rmine d not jus t by wha t you know, but by how we ll you e xpre ss tha t
knowle dge in your papers a nd on your essay exams. If you don’t know how to
write we ll, a B is the be s t you can e xpe ct in mos t courses, even if you have a
good grasp of the ma te ria l. If you do know how to write we ll, a B is the least you
ca n e xpe ct, e ve n if your unde rs ta nding is a little s ha ky. Writing we ll is so
importa nt to allyour classes tha t you s hould ta ke a n e xpos itory writing cours e
(not “cre a tive ” writing) as s oon as pos s ible if your pa pe rs are not cons is te ntly
re ce iving As .
This cha pte r covers how to write pa pers . (We've got a lot to cove r; don’t
a tte mpt to re a d through it in one s itting.) You a nd I are going to write a n essay
toge the r us ing the same seven-step a pproa ch use d by s ma rt s tude nts . As you’ll
see, writing a ca de mic pa pe rs makes he a vy use of two s kills you ha ve a lre a dy
a cquire d: a s king que s tions a nd orga nizing informa tion.

THE QUIRKS OF ACADEMIC WRITING

ca de mic writing is diffe re nt from the kind of writing you do na tura lly a nd
nforma lly, like writing le tte rs to frie nds or e ntrie s in your journa l. The mos t
uts ta nding fe a ture of a ca de mic writing is its unique voca bulary a nd s tyle .
ca de mic pros e ofte n viola te s ordina ry s ta nda rds of “good” writing, s uch as
la in la nguage a nd a conve rs a tiona l tone . At best this s tyle ca n be de s cribe d as
orma l; a t wors t it is ja rgon-fille d, a bs tract, s tilte d, a nd pompous .
Aca de mic prose s tyle was mocke d in a pa rody by Ge orge Orwe ll, the a uthor
f Anim al Farm a nd Ninete e n Eighty-Four. On the le ft is a fa mous passage,
rgua bly one of the mos t moving a nd e loque nt speeches ever writte n. On the
ight is the same speech as it would ha ve been writte n us ing the diction (word
hoice ) of your typica l a ca de micia n. Which ve rs ion would ge t the A a nd which
he C?
I re turned, a nd saw under the s un, that the Obje ctive cons ide ration of conte mporary phenome na
race is not to the s wift, nor the ba ttle to compels the conclus ion that success or fa ilure in
the s trong, neithe r ye t brea d to the wise, competitive a ctivitie s e xhibits no te nde ncy to be
nor ye t riches to me n of unders ta nding, commens urate with inna te ca pa city, but tha t a
nor ye t fa vor to me n of s kill; but time a nd cons ide rable e leme nt of the unpredicta ble mus t
chance happe ne th to them a ll. invaria bly be ta ke n into a ccount.
Ecclesiastes 9:11 George Orwell’s academic version
 Wha t’s s pooky a bout the pa rody is tha t it doe sn’t seem like one . It’s the kind of
WHAT SMART writing—with e nough infla te d s ylla ble s to ma ke you gag—tha t mos t s tude nts
STUDENTS KNOW
(a nd wa y too ma ny a ca de mics) mis ta ke for profound thought. The cha lle nge of
a ca de mic writing too ofte n seems to be how to pa ck the s ma lle s t numbe r of
ideas into the gre a te s t numbe r of words , a nd the n to dis guis e the fa ct by he a ving
in as much ja rgon a nd as ma ny big words a nd vague a bs tra ctions as pos s ible .
In a ddition to its unique s tyle , a ca de mic writing is a ls o more tightly
s tructure d tha n othe r type s of prose . While teachers ca n give you ma ny diffe re nt
type s of writing a s s ignme nts , the y a lwa ys e xpe ct your pa pe r to be writte n in one
way. The form virtua lly a ll a ca de mic writing takes, whe the r you are writing a
500-word response to a te s t que s tion or a 5,000-word te rm pa pe r, is the essay.

WHAT IS Alii ESSAY?

He re ’s the dictiona ry de finition:
An analytic, s pe culative , or inte rpre tative lite rary
com pos ition on a specific subject or theme, ge ne rally from a
particularpoint ofview.

Essays a na lyze or inte rpre t a s pe cific topic from a s pe cific point of vie w. Your
ge ne ral a im in mos t a ca de mic pa pe rs will be to pe rs ua de your re a de r (your
te a che r) tha t s ome thing is true by pre s e nting convincing re a s ons or othe r
e vidence . While you ma y occa s ionally be a s s igned to write a de s criptive or
informa tive pie ce , you’ll us ua lly be re quire d to e xe rcis e your inte llige nce ,
formula te a n opinion, a nd ba ck up tha t opinion with a re a s one d a rgume nt.

THE THREE PARTS

“Be gin at the All a ca de mic essays, from the s imple s t to the mos t comple x, ha ve the same basic
be ginning, ”the King thre e -pa rt s tructure .
said, grave ly, “and go
on tillyou come to the
A be ginning You introduce your topic a nd the n te ll the re a de r wha t you think
e nd; then stop. ”
a bout it. You introduce your topic by providing background;
Le w is C a r r o l l
wha t you think a bout it is your opinion. This pa rt is also known
Alice in
as the introduction.
W onde rland
A middle You e xpla in why you hold tha t opinion. You do this by
pre s e nting your reasons or evidence. This pa rt is also known as the
body or argum e nt.
An end You s umma rize your opinion a nd re a s ons . The n you brie fly
discuss some of the la rge r issues your essay has ra is e d. This pa rt is
also known as the s um m ary or conclusion.
OTHER TERMS YOU SHOULD KNOW *
HOW SMART STUDENTS
In a ddition to the te rms we have a lre ady discussed, he re are s ome othe rs we ’ll be WRITE PAPERS
us ing. Ta ke a fe w minute s to a cqua int yours e lf with the m: Y ;

topic The topic is the precise s ubje ct or the me your essay covers.
ba ckground Ba ckground is the la rge r ove ra ll s ubje ct tha t include s your topic.
Ge ne ra lly, you s hould be gin your essay by providing ba ckground
be fore na rrowing in on your topic.
opinion Your opinion {stand, pos ition, point of vie w) is wha t you think
a bout the topic.
qualify To qua lify a n opinion is to re s trict it or na rrow it down. Whe n
you ma ke a n e xce ption to a ge ne ral rule , for e xa mple, you are
qua lifying tha t rule .
pros The pros are the reasons or e vidence s upporting your opinion;
the y are the advantages of your pos ition.
cons The cons are the reasons or e vidence a ga ins t your opinion; the y
are dis a dva nta ge s ofyour pos ition.
thesis The the s is include s both the opinion a nd a n outline of the
reasons for tha t opinion.
evidence Evide nce include s the pa rticula r fa cts , s tudie s , de ta ils , a nd
e xa mple s tha t a n essay provide s e ithe r to s upport or dis pute a
give n pos ition.
assertion An a s s e rtion is cla im or opinion ma de without s upporting
e vide nce .
a s s umption An a s s umption is a fa ct or reason tha t s upports a n a uthor’s cla im
but is us ua lly le ft uns ta te d.
Conventional The conve ntiona l wis dom on a topic is the commonly he ld or
wisdom popula r opinion; it is wha t mos t pe ople think a bout a pa rticula r
topic.
opposition The oppos ition is the othe r side; it is a ll the opinions tha t diffe r
from or oppos e yours .
concession To conce de s ome thing {to make a concession) is to a dmit tha t
yours is not the only opinion on the topic. You ca n ma ke a
conce s s ion by a cknowle dging the oppos ition or by pointing out
the weaknesses of your pos ition.
argument An a rgume nt can be a n individua l re a s on for or a ga ins t your
pos ition; more ge ne ra lly it ca n re fer to a ll the reasons for a nd
a ga ins t your pos ition.
 Don’t worry if you’re not fa milia r with a ll these te rms . The y’ll be come cle a r as
WHAT SMART
we use the m throughout this cha pte r.
STUDENTS KNOW

THE SEVEN-STEP FORMULA FOR WRITING ESSAYS

All right. Now tha t we know wha t essays are, we ca n discuss how to write the m.
Although the crea tive process of writing a n essay is a fluid, dyna mic one , the re
are a numbe r of s pe cific steps you mus t comple te :
S te p 1: Choos e your topic.
S te p 2; Explore the topic to ge ne ra te ideas.
S te p 3: Orga nize a nd e va lua te your ideas.
S te p 4: Ta ke a pos ition.
S te p 5: Ba ck it up with s pe cifics .
S te p 6: Write your firs t dra ft.
S te p 7: Revise, e dit, a nd polis h your fina l dra ft.
We will discuss why each step is importa nt. Although these steps ofte n ove rla p
a nd the ir orde r ma y va ry, I re comme nd tha t you try to s tick as close to this orde r
as possible .
As always, there is no ne e d to me morize these steps; with a little pra ctice
the y’ll come na tura lly. As you’ll see, s e ve ra l of the s te ps involve the s a me
proce ss of a s king que s tions , ma king conne ctions , a nd orga nizing informa tion
tha t we use in Cybe rLe a rning.
Oka y! Le t’s work through the comple te process of writing a n a ctua l essay
step by step.

STEP 1: CHOOSE YOUR TOPIC

Since no one is giving us an a s s ignme nt, le t’s say we ha ve a we e k to write an
essay a t least 500 words long. Now a ll we have to do is de cide on a topic.
How ma ny time s ha ve you a s ke d yours e lf, Wha t s hould I write a bout?
S ome time s your a s s ignme nt is quite s pe cific a bout both le ngth a nd topic.

AS S IGNMENT: Write a five -pa ge pa pe r compa ring the

the me of revenge in Shakespeare’s Ham le t to tha t in Romeo
and Julie t.

If so, your te a che r has done the choos ing for you, a nd you go imme dia tely to
Step 2. S uch a s s ignme nts , howe ve r, are ra re . Us ua lly te ache rs leave you some
choice , as in the following ge ne ra l a s s ignme nt.

AS S IGNMENT: Write a pa pe r dis cus s ing s ome a s pe ct of

Shakespeare’s King Lear.
And s ome time s the a s s ignme nt is le ft comple te ly up to you:
HOW SMART STUDENTS
WRITE PAPERS
AS S IGNMENT: Write a pa pe r dis cuss ing a ny topic from
our course on Shakespeare.

WHERE DO YOU LOOK FOR TOPIC IDEAS?

S ta rt by re a ding through your s umma ry sheet a nd re vise d note s . You’ve s pe nt
we e ks or months a s king que s tions of the s ubje ct ma tte r; s ure ly you’ve found
nume rous que s tions a nd topics worth inve s tiga ting.
If the course has jus t s ta rte d, howe ver, you ma y not be fa milia r e nough with
the s ubje ct to pick a s uita ble topic. If so, he re are some suggestions.
• Your te xtbook is a n obvious pla ce . S kim the inde x for a s ubje ct or
ca te gory tha t catches your eye. Re vie w the bibliography. The a uthor
will ofte n include a lis t of suggested re adings or re la te d topics a t the
e nd of e ve ry cha pte r.
• Re a d through your le cture note s . Did the te ache r ask que s tions or
raise issues tha t seem promising?
• Look ove r the lis t of outs ide or s ugge s te d re a dings . Teachers often
provide s uch lis ts , which us ua lly include re la te d topics or ones jus t
outs ide the scope of the course. This is a fe rtile area for pa pe r topics .
• Che ck out the libra ry, s ta rting with the e ncyclope dia a nd va rious
inde xe s . Look up the ma jor s ubje ct area. At the e nd of the e ntry
you’ll find a lis t of re la te d a rticle s tha t might give you some ideas.
Che ck out the Readers’ Guide to Pe riodical Lite rature for ma gazine
a rticle s tha t seem inte re sting. Mos t loca l a nd colle ge libra rie s now
have a ma zing compute r da ta bases tha t will save you a lot of time
s e a rching for informa tion. As k the re fe re nce libra ria ns for he lp. It’s
the ir job, a nd you’ll get loads of good tips from the m.
• Exa mine a diffe re nt s ubje ct you a lre a dy know a lot a bout a nd look
for areas of ove rla p. Le t’s say you’re in a n Englis h class a nd have to
write a pa pe r on a ny twe ntie th-ce ntury Ame rica n a uthor. If you
ha ppe n to know a lot a bout politica l science, choose s ome one who
wrote a bout politica l issues; if you know a lot a bout a rt, choose a
write r influe nce d by pa inters .
• If you re a lly ca n’t de cide on a topic, a s k your te a cher. Ca re ful.
Unless you wa nt to lower your gra de by a notch, the wa y not to ask
for he lp is to blurt out, “1 jus t don’t know wha t to write a bout.” You
don’t wa nt to ma ke it seem as if you’re tos s ing the a s s ignme nt into
the te a cher’s la p. Ins te a d, de s cribe the topics you are cons ide ring a nd
discuss why you are ha ving difficulty choos ing from a mong the m.
Your te ache r will proba bly he lp you by a s king que s tions tha t will
he lp cla rify your thinking.
 WHAT MAKES A GOOD TOPIC?
WHAT SMART Whe n choos ing a topic, he re are some points to ke e p in mind.
STUDENTS KNOW
Pliw; • If the topic bore s you, it will bore your te a che r. If you’ve got some
choice in the ma tte r, why not select a topic you’d like to know more
a bout? Us ing dia loguing, you s hould a lwa ys be a ble to find que s tions
tha t inte re s t you a bout any topic.
• Don’t be too a dve nturous . P urs uing a topic you know a bs olute ly
nothing a bout is ris ky a nd re quire s more work. S e le ct a topic you
ca n ge t a ha ndle on.
• Be origina l but not too origina l. If you’re doing a pa per on ocean
pollution a nd you de cide to do it from the vie wpoint of a fis h, be
s ure you ca n pull it off or your te a che r will think you’re be ing a
s ma rt a le ck (a nd gra de you a ccordingly).
• Ke e p it ma na ge a ble ! Don’t choose a topic tha t is e ithe r so broa d tha t
whole books are de vote d to it or so comple x tha t it ove rwhe lms you.
The more s pe cific your topic, the be tte r. You will not impre s s your
te a che r by s e le cting a n ove rly a mbitious topic if the re s ult is a n essay
tha t fa lls s hort. It’s be s t to ke e p it ma na ge a ble a nd do a te rrific job.
• Choos e a topic tha t will a pply to more tha n one class. If you’re
ha ving trouble comple ting pa pers for more tha n one class, try to ge t
more mile a ge out of your research. One s ma rt s tude nt, for e xa mple ,
re a d a book on fe minis m tha t we nt towa rds a pa pe r in a rt his tory
(The De piction of W om e n in Mode rn Art) a nd one in politica l
philos ophy (A Fe m inis t Utopia).
• A little controve rs y is good. Fe w inte re s ting topics are bla ck a nd
white . Wha t makes a topic inte re s ting is tha t pe ople disagree ove r its
issues. Your topic s hould not be s trictly fa ctua l, but ra the r s ome thing
a bout which pe ople disagree. If the topic is s imply a re cita tion of
fa cts tha t can be found in a n e ncyclope dia, your te a che r will not find
it inte re sting. Wha t’s more importa nt, ne ithe r will you!
• A lot of controve rs y is ba d. Avoid highly controve rs ia l topics or ones
tha t your te a che r feels ve ry s trongly a bout. Ra is ing s e ns itive issues
with the pe rs on who de te rmine s your gra de is a big ga mble , so why
run the risk? The re are ple nty of othe r topics a nd you ha ve more
tha n e nough work to occupy your energies without s e e king conflict
as a n outle t.
In s um, you’re looking for a n inte re s ting, fa milia r, ma na ge able , a nd s lightly
controve rs ia l topic. The s e a re n’t re a lly separate re quire me nts . Be yond the form
a nd fa cts , writing a bout s ome thing of inte re st gua ra nte e s your e nhancing the
essay with your pe rs ona lity a nd passion.
CHOOSING A TOPIC FOR OUR SAMPLE ESSAY m
S ince you a nd I are going to be working through the process of writing an a ctua l HOWWRITE SMART STUDENTS
PAPERS
essay toge the r, I’m going to ha ve to do the choos ing. Since the topic mus t be j
life
s ome thing tha t a broa d ra nge of readers can re la te to, a fte r ca s ting a bout I fina lly
de cide d on the incre a s ing tre nd of a llowing s tudents the use of ca lcula tors in
ma the ma tics cla ssrooms, e s pe cia lly during e xa mina tions .

TURN YOUR TOPIC INTO A QUESTION

The tre nd of a llowing the use of ca lcula tors during ma the ma tics e xa mina tions is
not the fina l form of our topic. To give you dire ction, a topic s hould be in the
form of a que s tion. You’ll see why s hortly.
Le t’s e xa mine several que s tion va ria tions of our topic:
• Is the use of calculators during m athe m atics e xam inations increasing.?
This is too s imple a que s tion to form the basis of a n inte re s ting
essay. It’s not a n issue reasonable pe ople are going to disagree over.
Note , howe ver, tha t this ma y be a n importa nt ba ckground issue.
• In what s ituations are students be ing allowe d to use calculators during
m athe m atics e xam inations ' Aga i n, this is a ba ckground que s tion.
• S hould s tude nts be allowe d to use calculators during m athe m atics
e xam inations ? Now we ’re ge tting s omewhe re . To a nswe r this que s tion
a de qua te ly will ta ke more tha n a s imple yes or no.
So le t’s say for now the que s tion for our pa pe r is S hould students be allowe d to use
calculators during m athe m atics e xaminations? Our goa l is to write a n essay tha t
will convincingly a ns we r this que s tion one wa y or a nothe r.

YO U CAN ALW AYS CHANG E YO UR M IND

Our topic que s tion ma y not be the one we wind up e xploring in our fina l essay.
The purpos e of the que s tion now is s imply to give us a s ta rting point for our
inve s tigations . We ca n modify or e ve n drop it e ntire ly if we de cide la te r tha t
we ’d ra the r inve s tiga te a nothe r que s tion. S ta rting is the importa nt thing.

BEFORE YOU START WRITING, CHECK WITH YOUR TEACHER

Once you ha ve s e lecte d a topic, run it by your te a che r. Don’t s pe nd we e ks
re s e a rching a topic only to dis cover tha t your te a che r finds it una ccepta ble for
some reason.

DON’T JUMP TO CONCLUSIONS!

Pe ople te nd to form the ir opinions quickly a nd will offe r the ir vie ws on a ny
s ubje ct without a mome nt’s thought. But a s ound opinion is we ll re a s one d;
nobody is inte re ste d in your imme dia te e motiona l response to a s ubje ct. You
ma y be e ntitle d to your opinion, but your te ache r wa nts to know wha t you
think, not s imply wha t you feel.

9
 ,v. ,,' , Don’t confus e firs t impres s ions with an informe d opinion. The trouble with firs t
cT»HcIiTc^»MniM impre s s ions is tha t the y can pre ve nt you from se e ing othe r points of vie w. While
; v x, v yOU ma y ha ve no proble m putting your re e lings aside a nd e xa mining opinions
tha t diffe r from your own, it is n’t easy to e xa mine a ll sides of a n issue. Suspe nd
your initia l judgme nt so you ca n e xplore the topic obje ctive ly in the be ginning.
This a pproach will also serve you we ll in othe r areas of life .

EXTRA CREDIT
If you’d like to try your ha nd a t writing an essay on your own be fore se e ing how
s ma rt s tude nts ta ckle the proje ct, ta ke a s ta b a t a ns wering our topic que s tion
be fore continuing. It doe sn’t ha ve to be pe rfe ct; a n outline essay is a ccepta ble .

STEP 2: EXPLORE THE TOPIC TO GENERATE IDEAS

Oka y, we ha ve our topic que s tion. Now we ha ve to figure out wha t we ’re going
to say. We do this by our trie d-a nd-true me thod of dia loguing (a s king que s tions )
a nd by conducting re s e a rch. It’s a good ide a to dia logue be fore you do a ny
research so tha t you’ll have a clearer, more thorough ide a of the va rious issues
s urrounding your topic. Like re a ding a passage, re s e a rching a nd writing one of
your own s hould be gin with this step to focus your thoughts .

DIALOGUING FOR IDEAS

Dia loguing in this pre writing stage is jus t like dia loguing whe n you’re re a ding.
While a ny que s tions you come up with are fine , the following que s tions are
pa rticula rly thought-provoking for writing essays:
• W hat does this re m ind me of In what ways is it s im ilar? In what ways is
it diffe re nt?
• Was this always the case? If not, why not?
8 W hat will happen in the s hort te rm ? In the long te rm?
• Is the re an alte rnative or s ubs titute ? W hat are its advantage s and
disadvantages?
• Is this good or bad? For whom ? Why?
• What are the exceptions?
8 W hat broader issues does this raise?
Don’t try to be logica l: your firs t que s tion or a ns we r will re mind you of a nothe r
que s tion, a nd so on. Don’t worry a bout whe the r these are good que s tions , or
whe the r you ca n a ns we r the m correctly. The importa nt thing is to ke e p a s king
a nd a ns we ring—to ke e p probing.
It’s time to s ta rt ge tting this down on paper.
 EXERCISE #13 HOW SMART STUDENTS
WRITE PAPERS
Ins tructions : Ta ke out a s he e t of pa pe r. P rint our e s s a y WlM:

que s tion—S hould s tude nts be allowe d to use calculators during

m athe m atics examinations?—in the ce nte r a nd dra w a box a round
it. Write s ma ll a nd a bbre via te , since you’re going to be a s king
many othe r que s tions a nd you’ll wa nt to squeeze a ll your work
on one sheet of paper. We ’ll ca ll this our “dia loguing s he e t.”
Now, s ta rt a s king a nd a ns we ring e ve ry que s tion you ca n
think of. (The pre vious que stions are a good s ta rting point a nd
you might wa nt to jot the m down off to the side as a re minde r.)
Write the s e que s tions down a round your ma in one . S pre a d
the m out, be ca use you’ll ne e d room to lis t pos s ible a ns we rs
be ne a th each one . If you run out of space on this sheet, tape
a nothe r pie ce of pa per to it a nd continue the process.

An e xce lle nt wa y to s ta rt is to a nswe r your initia l que s tion both wa ys—yes a nd

no a nd see whe re each roa d takes you. He re are a fe w s ta rte r que s tions a nd
answers to give you a n ide a how the y would a ppe a r on your sheet:

Should students be aJlowed ho use Calculators during exa/m'nations?

Yes. Mo
who think-s so? Who thinks so?
Students £</&rywhere,many "ITiose utio beliei/e that
teaekers and some major- easier Is not always better
-test publishers

bJhy? Wkj7
62.ICola-tors are cheapj they .Students' basic math abilities
free Students from laborious howe beem decliVmcj tor
Computations man 4 years

In what Situations should Calculators I in what Situations should

net be allowed? calculators be adored ?
On basic, arithmetic tests, On advanced math- test5,
when Students are Ieanntug after Students have acquired
to calculate a facility tor Calculations

And so on.
 ii
Anothe r e xce lle nt point of a tta ck is to cons ide r individua lly each te rm or phra s e
WHAT SMART in your initia l que s tion. If you bre a k down our topic que s tion, you ge t the
STUDENTS KNOW
following te rms (s ome of which are phrases):
“s hould”
“s tude nts”
“be a llowe d to use”
“ca lcula tors ”
“during ma th exams”
Now ta ke each te rm, one by one , a nd s ta rt a s king que s tions . He re are a fe w
e xa mple s I ca me up with:
“s hould:” How wide spre ad is the curre nt use ofcalculators?
“s tude nts :” At what grade level?
“be a llowe d to use:” S hould calculators be required?
“ca lcula tors :” Any type? Hand-he ld computers?
“during ma th e xa ms:” All m ath tests? Any exceptions?

Of cours e , you could bra ins torm que s tions in a less s tructure d wa y if you
pre fe rre d, but a tta cking individua l te rms is s ys te ma tic.
He re ’s wha t our dia loguing s he e t looks like once we ’ve tra ns fe rre d the se
que s tions a nd some answers. Aga in, I’ve ha d to re duce it to fit on this page.

- M” wha+ grade leiiel?

_sUu\d co-lcu letters

be required 7

rbvJ widespread is rhe.*

Current use of anlee. ? \
in '°A Mil rLtloa)

^-Should students be allowed

+o use Ca-lcola+o« during
-Arty -Kjpe7
Who ? Who4hink4
-£+udents. everywhere -1hO£e who belief
- mAmj -feocher^ and easier not always
5ome major be.++er
"AH math
- My except ion$ ?
Wh*£°
-calculators arecnea&j -.Stodento1 baiiC wa4h :
4hey-free 4-fudent£ -from abili-fitfs hade been
declinina -fvr many
laborious calcula+ion^ in year^ J !
:!.i
“real life" people, o&e
flalculatons . In Mh/yf'---------
<(-fdfl.4iong
In what <fd'iiiT'Vino4 Should Should Calculators
' ’ ■ not- be
cauiulatorj; Be. allowed ?
a\ lowed? -On advanced
-On beteie dn+hmefi'e. math
-fesis, when students. offer 4-fvdents
Are IdhjWej -fo have. acquired
calculate a-toeili+y -for
<^\Ct)loHon$

0
BROADEN YOUR PERSPECTIVE
HOW SMART STUDENTS
Don’t limit your initia l search to your s pe cific topic. Re la te d topics a nd la rge r
WRITE PAPERS
issues are also importa nt. The y s timula te your thinking a nd give you a broa de r
pe rs pe ctive . Exa mining the se topics will give you clue s a bout the importa nt
issues in your s pe cific topic que s tion. You’ll also ne e d to a t le a s t me ntion the m
in the ba ckground s e ction of your introduction or in your conclus ion.
An e ffe ctive wa y to dis cove r such topics is to modify or re move ce rtain te rms
from your initia l que s tion. For e xa mple , re moving the te rm m athem atics from
our que s tion gives us the la rge r topic, S hould students be allowe d to use calculators
during tests? S omeone who might oppos e the use of ca lcula tors in ma th exams
might have no obje ctions to the ir use in, say, che mis try exams.
Afte r including re la te d topics , he re’s wha t our dia loguing sheet looks like.

K&iaJ-eA l&ues
- M" whdA tyaAc \e*ie\?
e u6 6+uderrte? X'0ld -tedhnol&W
{slide rule)
-Teof icorez S ec-lining
Aiicm aJ-i
— sUo\(i da-lcu la+crs -Re duce penoJ+ies. -for
be. re tire d 7 CompuTd-Tidn rrors
- Improve Afi&fe ^ cornpu+a-fi'oh
(6 Ie<6> impoH-arrl- -Bwi inziyht
l-fovo widespread k , -ihe. \
Curre nt oie of ca\c.$- ? \
"^AT'5 m ,f?d will allouJ

^S hoold s tude nts be- aUonJed

—Anv| 4v|pe7 +o us e Ca-leolisAoci during le s
“fe ridMd Compotes 7 MaS hmfcti£4 e ram 'm odiions i yJho_-tiom^ who 60?
-'dVkit' ofheralds should / -stode/rte cohe re -Tfio^e who
- ma/N Teacher And easier i5 not a lwaji
i>e a llowe d? SluJlerote? some major te ^t better
At?
"AH wcL+h+e&te? u^r ^ w^?
- except\of\6 7 -Mjffltore are dneap-
-OtaxS axS ized Aesds -Hies -free Rodents fhm Hies Hafe been
classroom tes ts laborious calcda+fens, in 'fe r ^
“real life" people oae lcar4
Calcu Ia1r>rs Ip \ 10 hot gt-fda-Ttorii
-Whaf o+hertypes In whaA ^|tiindipn4 ^harkl ptoiiy Calculators
ca lcula te not" be b& aRowedj;
Zvajme, 7 <2her«(Stry.7 -(3h advanced
ne^s Sources ? -Oh bogie AFi+hmett'e ma tt tas-hs,
te s ts , when s+udends offe r £-tvdeh+S
are Ica/hiVg to hove acquired
Calculate d -fac.il iA/ -tor
<3a\(WlaHon5

RESEARCHING FOR IDEAS

Now we ’re re a dy to be gin some pre limina ry research. We ha ve n’t ye t formula te d
our pos ition, or de cide d which of the ideas we ’ve ge ne ra te d will a ppe a r in our
fina l essay. Once we ’ve done tha t, we ’ll conduct more de ta ile d re s e a rch for
s pe cific de ta ils , examples, a nd evidence.
S ta rt with the mos t ge ne ra l books a nd a rticle s on the s ubject. Che ck out the
inde xe s , introductions , conclus ions , a nd bibliogra phie s . You’re looking for
re le va nt que s tions a nd issues you ha ve n’t thought of. You’re also looking for
more answers to the que s tions you’ve include d on your dia loguing sheet. As you
be gin to find a ns we rs to the que s tions you’ve ra is e d, a dd the m to your
dia loguing sheet unde rne a th.
iliSIHliff
I don’t e xpe ct you to rus h out to the libra ry to re sea rch this topic, a nd we re

I >rs «
• Lfiust say 7
tha t be ginning in the 1993-94 a ca de mic year, the SAT, ta ke n by more tha n one re search realcd
million high s chool s tudents each year, will a llow the use of ca lculators .

DIG DEEPER
Don’t s top with the firs t fe w ideas tha t occur to you. Continue a pplying this
dia loguing a nd research process. More research will suggest more que s tions tha t
will s timulate your dia loguing, which in turn will suggest othe r issues you might
wa nt to research. For our a s s ignment this e ntire process s hould la s t a couple of
hours or so; for a ma jor research pa per it might ta ke a couple of months !
Your goa l is to ge ne ra te as ma ny ideas as pos s ible , not s topping until you
ha ve fille d the page with que s tions . Don’t worry if you ca n’t a ns we r a ll these
que s tions , if you seem to have too ma ny, or if s ome seem irre le va nt. The ne xt
step will ta ke care of tha t. P a tie nce a nd s ticking with the cre a tive process are
importa nt. Whe n you ha ve a de a dline looming you ma y be te mpte d to ta ke
s hortcuts —a void the te mpta tion.
He re ’s wha t our dia loguing she e t looks like up to this point:

'Re late d l&ue z

- M" idhpt grade \e \ie \? -Tccknolcqy^ f-luT &£
- Cxj 41 edt students ? 'N'0(d te chnology
(e\iAero le ) '
- Will a nd s tude nts rece ive txy\ -Te s t 6cc>fe<. de fining
urvfa.iV advantage or be unfa irly
pe mli’z-e d? Ajtgma ti
-s U>ld ca lculators - Re duce pe na lties -f-or
be re quire d ? C o inpu+od-io m £ cro VS
- Improve +£6ts coinpufa i/on
14 Ie s s I'mpor+a rrt Tha n Ins ight
ffoto wide s pre ad is The v ■■

Curre nt o&e of ca laa ? \

-^AT‘4 in '<H will dLlloiO

^S hoold s tude nts be a llowe d

■bo o^e ca lcula tors during
-Arty type? Mo
-tandhcJd Computers;? e xa mincthon^ ? Who thinks So_? Who Thinks So?
-S tud e rfte. e ve rywhere -1ho5e who bslieue
_ wtoa t other caVdd S ha dy - many te ache rs a nd e a s ie r 15 not a lways
be a llowed? 7 S liderUie? iorne major te s -t be ttor
Aba cus ? Why?
~ WM'o.bodfprovidiw?
"All ma th te s ts ? i&tT
Abrmola s too? J
Cla s s room te s ts laborious calco a tions , in qe ar4^ ‘ will include

"What other Types

<+ Ctajmz? CMem&ry?
sBlf*
Business Coerces ?
te s ts , when Rode nt, a fte r s fde nts 16 an importa nt

a bility
-Ttoierempa s ize S the
Importance of exact answers
-H-empha s i^es a nswe rs
ra the r Than the problem -
s olving proce s s

We ma y think of other things la te r but we have more tha n e nough to work with.
Le t’s move on a nd be gin giving s ome shape a nd orga niza tion to our ideas.
STEP 3: ORGANIZE AND EVALUATE YOUR IDEAS :
HOW SMART STUDENTS
Oka y. Once you’ve fille d up your dia loguing she e t, it’s time to organize tha t WRITE PAPERS
maze of ideas so you ca n write an essay your te a che r ca n follow a nd unde rs ta nd.
This s te p is s imila r to the ninth Cybe rLe a rning que s tion: How is this
information organiz e d? He re orga nizing your ideas means grouping s imila r ideas
unde r the same he a ding. You the n a rra nge the groups a nd the ideas within each
group, in s ome kind of orde r.
Afte r you’ve orga nize d your ideas in this way, you ca n evaluate which ones
seem a ppropria te for your essay. Le t’s ta ke a clos e r look a t how you s hould be
orga nizing your ideas.

GROUP SIMILAR IDEAS UNDER MAJOR HEADINGS

You ma y ha ve notice d tha t in filling out your dia loguing she e t, you be gan
grouping s imila r ideas or que s tions . You’ll now continue tha t process. The firs t
thing is to divide a ll of the points on your dia loguing sheet into one of the
following ma jor categories:
• ba ckground/re la te d topic/la rge r issue
• pro
• con
• e xa mple /deta il/e vide nce /mis ce lla ne ous
This is jus t a pre limina ry grouping; you’ll be ge tting more s pe cific s hortly. If you
don’t know whe re to cla s s ify a n idea, toss it in the la s t ca tegory for now. You can
think a bout it later.
S ome of the points on your dia loguing sheet ma y seem irre le va nt. If you
aren’t sure whe the r you’ll ne e d the m for your essay, include the m for now. Once
you’ve orga nize d a ll your ideas, it will be easier to de cide which points do a nd
don’t be long.
By the wa y, keep in mind tha t not a ll a ca de mic papers are opinion essays.
S ome time s you’ll be re quire d to write a s trictly fa ctua l or informa tive pa pe r. If
so, your ca te gorie s will be diffe re nt from pros a nd cons , but the me thod of
orga nizing your pa pe r is e xa ctly the same.
For e xa mple , le t’s say we we re doing a pa pe r on the causes of the Ame rica n
Civil Wa r. The ma ny causes could be groupe d unde r the he a dings e conomic,
s ocia l, a nd politica l. So ins te a d of the body cons is ting of pros a nd cons, it would
cons is t of these three types of causes.

$
 WHAT SMART
EXERCISE #14
STUDENTS KNOW
Ins tructions : Ta ke a nothe r sheet of pa pe r a nd divide it into five
s e ctions , one for each of the he a dings lis te d a bove (ba ckground,
pros , cons, e xa mple s, mis ce lla neous ). One by one , tra ns fe r each
point from your dia loguing s he e t to one of these ca te gorie s .
S ince you ma y not have de cide d on your pos ition ye t, trea t the
pros as a n a ffirma tive a ns we r to your topic que stion a nd the
cons as a ne gative . Che ck off e a ch point on your dia loguing
s he e t as you tra ns fe r it to ma ke s ure you ha ve n’t le ft out
a nything. Write s ma ll a nd a bbre via te so you ha ve e nough room.

He re ’s wha t your works he e t with its pre limina ry he a dings s hould look like :

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Don’t throw out your dia loguing sheet; you might wa nt to re fe r to it la te r.

SEARCH FOR MORE SPECIFIC CATEGORIES

Now tha t you’ve orga nize d your points into the five initia l ca te gorie s , you’re
re a dy to organize the points s till furthe r. Choos e a ny one of the ma jor ca te gorie s
a nd see whe the r a ny ideas within tha t group ca n be combine d a nd connecte d.
Question 9: As you ma y re me mbe r from our dis cus s ion of Que s tion 9, you do this by
How can I organize this a s king whe the r a ny ideas have a nything in common. Ideas tha t share s ome thing
information? in common ca n form a s ubgroup. Wha t these s imila r ideas ha ve in common
becomes the he ading of the ir group.
Once you have complete d grouping a ma jor ca te gory, move on to the ne xt
a nd re pe a t the proce dure . Continue doing this until you ha ve comple te d
grouping a ll the ideas within each category. You ma y fe e l as though you’re doing
a lot of pre limina ry work, but it’s a ll a necessary pa rt of writing. Conce ntra te
your a tte ntion on the pros a nd cons. It is e s pe cially importa nt to see whe the r
you ca n create a ny s ubgroups for these ca te gories. As you’ll see whe n we ge t to
S te p 6, the he a dings of e a ch group of pros a nd cons will a ppe a r in your H°W^RITE PAPERSNTS
comple te the s is s ta teme nt.

ARRANGE THE GROUPS AND THE IDEAS WITHIN EACH GROUP

Once you’ve collecte d your ideas into groups , it’s time to a rra nge the groups a nd
the ideas within each group in some type of logica l orde r. It’s not always pos s ible
to do this ; but the more orde r your essay has, the more unde rs ta nda ble it
is—both for you to write a nd your te a che r to read.
As you know from Cybe rLe a rning, ideas ca n be a rra nge d in countle s s ways.
You ca n a rra nge your points
• from the e a rlies t to the latest;
• from the least e xpe ns ive to the mos t e xpe nsive ;
• be ginning with causes a nd e nding with effects;
• be ginning with a proble m a nd e nding with s olutions ;
• in orde r of importa nce , e nding with the mos t importa nt;
a nd so on. How you a rrange your ideas is up to you. The importa nt thing is tha t
the re a de r (whoe ver will be gra ding your pa per) is able to follow wha t you’re
s a ying.
You ma y ha ve he a rd tha t you s hould a rra nge the points in your pa pe rs from
the we a ke s t to the s tronge s t, be ginning with the we a ke st. This is good a dvice .
Re a de rs are mos t like ly to re me mbe r the la s t thing the y re a d, so you wa nt to
finis h with your s tronge s t, mos t convincing point.
This a rra nge me nt will not necessarily be the fina l one in your essay. You ca n
a lwa ys cha nge your mind. It’s s imply a roa d ma p to ge t you s ta rte d. As you
be gin the a ctua l writing, you ma y dis cover tha t a nothe r orde r is be tte r. Inde e d,
whe n you s ta rt writing your firs t dra ft, e ntire ly ne w ideas ma y occur to you.

EVALUATE YOUR IDEAS

Until now your ma in conce rn has been to ge ne ra te as ma ny ideas as pos s ible
without be ing critica l. Now it’s time to get tough. Eva lua ting your ideas means
de ciding which ones you’ll ke e p for your essay a nd which ones you’ll toss. Not
e ve ry ide a you have come up with will be include d in your fina l essay. S ome of
the m ma y be unre a s ona ble , ina ppropria te , or irre le va nt. Othe rs ma y be
ina de qua tely s upporte d by e vide nce . S till othe rs ma y be so broa d or complica te d
tha t the y re quire more a na lysis tha n you have space or time for
One point I de cide d to dis card from my fina l essay wa s the be lie f tha t
ca lcula tors , e s pe cia lly progra mma ble ones, might e ncoura ge some s tude nts to
cheat. Since I ha d no e vide nce for this be lief, I droppe d it from my essay.
Eva lua ting your ideas is not us ua lly a separate step but a continuing process
as your essay takes shape. Whe n you s ta rt writing you ma y s till be cha nging your
mind a bout ce rta in ideas a nd s till ge tting ne w ones.
 Oka y the n. Now tha t we ’ve cons ide re d the va rious pros a nd cons a nd
WHAT SMART
orga nize d the m into groups , we re fina lly a ble to formula te a re a s one d opinion.
STUDENTS KNOW
i®
STEP 4: TAKE A POSITION
I know it ha s n’t been easy for you to e xplore your topic without forming an
opinion. But it’s importa nt to look a t a topic from as ma ny points of vie w as
pos s ible be fore committing yours e lf to a pa rticula r pos ition.
The re ’s nothing wrong with ta king a pos ition from the outs e t if you are
fle xible a nd willing to cha nge your mind. An initia l pos ition give s you a
pla tform for que s tioning your topic in the same wa y tha t a hypothe s is gives a
s cie ntis t s ome thing to inve s tigate . Good s cientists , howe ve r, will a ba ndon a
hypothe s is if ne w e vide nce s hould prove it wrong. The y ha ve n’t got the ir ego
wra ppe d up in a ny pa rticula r the ory. The y’re conce rne d with finding “the
truth,” not “be ing right.”
The proble m is tha t mos t s tude nts don’t like to cha nge the ir minds because
the y fe e l it me a ns the y we re “wrong” in the firs t pla ce , or tha t the y’ve wa s te d
time . S ma rt s tude nts are always willing to cha nge the ir mind.

FORMING YOUR OPINION

Think before you We ll, you’ve e xplore d your topic. Looking ove r your lis t of pros a nd cons, wha t
speak. Read before you do you think: s hould s tude nts be a llowe d to use ca lcula tors during ma the ma tics
think. This will give e xa mina tions ? If you ca n’t ma ke up your mind a t this s ta ge , you ha ve n’t
you something to ge ne ra te d e nough ide a s . Go ba ck to your works he e t a nd lis t s ome more
think about that you me a ningful pros a nd cons.
didn’t make up As I note d e a rlier, not a ll opinions ma ke e qua lly good pos itions for a ca de mic
yourself—a wise move pa pe rs . The thre e mos t importa nt re quire me nts a re tha t your opinion be
at any age, but most inte re s ting, pre cise , a nd s upportable .
especially at seventeen,
when you are in the YOUR OPINION SHOULD BE INTERESTING
greatest danger of Your opinion, like your topic, s hould be origina l. One sure wa y to gra b your
coming to annoying te a che r’s a tte ntion is to cha llenge the conve ntiona l wis dom. If, for ins ta nce , you
conclusions. know tha t mos t s tude nts whole he a rte dly agree tha t the y s hould be a llowe d to
F r a n Le b o w it z use ca lcula tors during ma th exams, your essay will s ta nd out if your essay argues
the opposing vie wpoint.
The issue of origina lity brings us to the big que s tion: if you know your
te a che r’s opinion on a topic—a nd as a s ma rt s tude nt you do—s hould you
a lwa ys agree with it? Le t’s say tha t your te a che r thinks tha t Picasso is the gre a te st
pa inte r of the twe ntie th ce ntury while you think he has be e n wildly ove rra te d. Is
it wis e to e xpre ss your opinion in a n essay? Cha lle nging the conve ntiona l
wis dom is one thing; cha lle nging your te a che r’s opinion is a nothe r.
This is a toughie . S hould you pla y it safe by s iding with your te a che r a nd
ge tting a B, or s hould you go for the gold by be ing origina l? Be ing origina l
me a ns offe ring a unique opinion. The proble m with tha t, of cours e , is tha t the
reason your opinion is unique is tha t it ca n be prove d wrong by the facts.
 You know the answer: s ma rt s tude nts pla y to win! Don’t be a fra id of ta king a
HOW SMART STUDENTS
controve rsia l s ta nd. Your te a che rs a re n’t going to give you highe r ma rks jus t
WRITE PAPERS
because you agree with the m anyway, so don’t be a wimp. Of course, if you are
going to disagree with your teacher, do so re s pe ctfully. Be sure you a cknowle dge
your te a che r’s vie wpoint a nd rigorous ly ba ck up your own.
A we ll-re a s one d pa per will ge t you a B, ma ybe e ve n a B+. But a we ll-
re a sone d pa per ba cke d by fa cts a nd good writing will get you the A. To ge t the
A+, you mus t be origina l.

YOUR OPINION SHOULD BE PRECISE

Fe w issue s are bla ck a nd white . Eve n s ome thing as e xtre me as killing has
e xce ptions . Murde ring s ome one is a ga ins t the la w, but murde ring in se lf-de fe nse
is not. The re are always e xce ptions .
Le t’s say your pos ition is tha t s tude nts s hould be a llowe d to use ca lcula tors
during ma thema tics e xa mina tions . Do you me a n ^//s tude nts on <2//ma th exams?
S ure ly third-gra de rs be ing te s te d on whe the r the y ca n a dd a column of numbe rs
s hould not be a llowe d to use ca lcula tors .
You ma ke your opinion precise by a s king que s tions tha t re s trict or qua lify it;
W hat are the exceptions ? is a good s ta rt. As k que s tions tha t include words like all,
always, each, everyone, a nd everything. Since you will ine vita bly find e xce ptions to
que s tions with the s e words , use the s e e xce ptions to limit your opinion to
pre cis e ly wha t you me a n to say.
Compa re the s ubtle diffe re nce in the following two s ta te me nts :

S tude nts s hould not be a llowe d to use ca lcula tors during

ma thema tics e xa mina tions .

In ge ne ra l, s tude nts s hould not be a llowe d to use ca lcula tors

during ma the ma tics e xa mina tions .

Notice tha t the firs t s ta te me nt is a bs olute ; the s e cond a cknowle dge s tha t there
might be s itua tions in which s tude nts s hould be a llowe d to use ca lcula tors .

YOUR OPINION SHOULD BE DEFENSIBLE

One re a son your opinion s hould be precise is tha t va gue or a bs olute opinions are
difficult to s upport. Do you have e vide nce a nd va lid reasons s upporting your
point of vie w? If not, choose a diffe re nt topic or a rrive a t a diffe re nt opinion.
More ove r, to s upport your opinion your essay mus t e xa mine diffe ring opinions
a nd s how why these are less s upporta ble tha n yours .

YOUR OPINION IS YOUR THESIS

Once you have pre cis e ly formula te d your opinion, you have e s ta blis he d your
thesis. The thesis is wha t you will try to prove in the body. As you write your
 essay, you ma y dis cove r ne w ideas tha t force you to cha nge your the sis. Tha t’s
STUDENTSMKNOW pe rfe ctly oka y. Nobody is holding you to your firs t opinion!

STEP 5: BACK IT UP WITH SPECIFICS

Now tha t you know pre cis e ly wha t your the s is is, ba ck up your points with
s pe cific de ta ils , e xa mple s, a nd othe r e vide nce . Your ideas form the ba sic s ke le ton
of your essay; your s pe cifics provide the me a t. The y e nrich a nd cla rify your essay
a nd buttre s s your cre dibility—the y te ll your te ache r you know wha t you are
ta lking a bout. Ins te a d of “te s t” say “S AT.” Ins tea d of “dis pla y” say “liquid crys ta l
dis pla y.”
Whe n he a ring a n essay a s s ignme nt, e ve ry s tude nt’s initia l re a ction is How
am I ever going to write x pages on such and such? The de ta ils , e xa mple s , a nd
e vide nce you include in your essay are wha t la rge ly de termine s its le ngth. If you
ne e d to pa d your pa pe rs with ge ne ra liza tions a nd ra mbling digre ss ions , you
aren’t a rme d with e nough s upporting facts. Find the m—the y’re out the re .

BACK TO THE LIBRARY

Ea rlie r, in your initia l research, you we re looking for ge ne ra l topic ideas. In a
sense: you didn’t know wha t you we re looking for. Now you do. Ea ch point you
ra is e ne e ds to be ba cke d up with de ta ils , e xa mple s , a nd s upporting e vide nce .
And don’t forge t to provide e vide nce for the oppos ing vie wpoints your essay
will include .

ACKNOWLEDGE YOUR ASSERTIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS

If a point you are ma king is ge ne ra lly a cce pte d or is common knowle dge , you
can assert it without providing e vide nce . Be sure you know the diffe re nce . Whe n
in doubt, ba ck up your points .
If a point has no e vide nce or you wa nt your re a de r to a cce pt it for the sake
of a rgume nt, the re is nothing wrong with a dmitting so. As s e rtions a nd
a s s umptions are pe rfe ctly a cce pta ble provide d you a cknowledge the m as s uch.
Aga in, compare the s ubtle diffe re nce in the following two s ta te me nts .

This knowle dge ca nnot be ga ine d by pus hing buttons a nd

wa tching answers ma gica lly a ppe a r on liquid crysta l dis plays .

It is ha rd to see how this knowle dge ca n be ga ined by pus hing

buttons a nd wa tching answers ma gica lly a ppea r on liquid crys ta l
dis pla ys.

The firs t s ta te me nt is a n a s s e rtion tha t re quire s s upport. As s uch it is ope n to

a tta ck. By including a s imple phra s e in the s e cond s ta te me nt, the write r
a nticipa te s a pos s ible obje ction. If you’re not s ure tha t s ome thing you wa nt to
say is a fa ct, do not use a bs olute words like all or always or is. Ins te a d, use
HOW SMART STUDENTS
modifying words like us ually, typically, m any, pre s um ably, a nd appears. WRITE PAPERS

CITE YOUR SOURCES

Don’t forge t to copy down the title of a ny books or a rticle s you cons ult, as we ll
as the a uthor’s na me a nd a ny othe r re le va nt informa tion. Your essay s hould give
prope r cre dit for a ny importa nt ideas tha t are not your own, a ny dire ct or
indire ct quote s , a nd a ny fa cts tha t are not re a dily a va ila ble . If a fa ct or a n ide a is
in e ve ry te xtbook or a rticle on the s ubject, you proba bly don’t need to cite a ny
one source.
The cita tion s hould s how the re a de r e xa ctly whe re you got your
informa tion. Citing your sources is fa ir a nd thorough, a nd it he lps s upport the
cre dibility of your thesis.

STEP 8: WRITE YOUR FIRST DRAFT

We have our outline from Step 3, our thesis from Step 4, a nd our de tails a nd
s upporting e vide nce from Ste p 5. Now we re re a dy to write our firs t draft. Don’t
worry a bout s tyle or the fine points of gra mma r now; a ll we ’re trying to do is ge t
the basics down on paper. Once we ’ve s a id e ve rything we wa nt to say, we ca n
conce rn ourselves with how we wa nt to say it.
Re me mbe r tha t your essay will cons is t of a n introduction, a body, a nd a
conclus ion. The introduction will conta in ba ckground informa tion a nd your
the sis. The body will conta in the pros a nd cons of your a rgume nt. And the
conclusion will conta in a re s ta te me nt of your thesis, a nd a brie f e xpa ns ion of it
to re la te d or la rge r issues.

WRITING THE BACKGROUND

Don’t be gin an essay by s ta ting your opinion in the firs t sentence. Your re a de r
needs to be wa rme d up a nd be told why your topic is importa nt (even if the
re a de r—your te a che r—a s s igne d the topic a nd “knows a ll this s tuff”).
Ba ckground informa tion introduce s your ge ne ra l s ubje ct a nd places your s pe cific
topic in a la rge r conte xt, pre pa ring the re a de r for your opinion. Gra dua lly you
narrow tha t s ubje ct to the s pe cific area your essay will inve s tiga te . If necessary
the ba ckground s hould de fine the issues unde r dis cus s ion a nd a ny te rms tha t
need cla rifica tion.
Wha t ba ckground you provide is your ca ll. We could ope n our s a mple essay
in a ny numbe r of wa ys; it’s re a lly a ma tte r of pe rs onal pre fe re nce . Ke e p in mind,
though, tha t your teachers ge t the ir firs t impre s s ions of your papers from the
ba ckground. Whe n you ope n with inte res ting ba ckground informa tion, you are
we ll on your wa y to a good gra de . If your essay’s ba ckground is we a k, your
te a cher’s initia l re action will be ne gative . S ince it is not a lwa ys easy to de cide
wha t ba ckground to include , you ma y find it e a sier to write the ba ckground to
your essay la s t—afte r you ha ve writte n the re s t of it.
 ; WRITING THE C01PLETE THESIS STATEMENT
STUDENTS KNOW ® The introduction to your essay will e nd with your thesis s ta te me nt. The thesis
s ta te me nt “S tude nts s hould not be a llowe d to us e ca lcula tors during
ma the ma tics e xa mina tions ,” howe ve r, is incomple te . It expresses a n opinion, but
it does not provide reasons for tha t opinion or a cknowle dge opposing points of
vie w. Your comple te the s is s ta te me nt s hould do more tha n te ll the re a de r your
opinion. It s hould also provide a ba sic outline of your reasons a nd a cknowle dge
diffe ring opinions . Your comple te the s is s ta te me nt is a highly conde ns e d
ve rs ion of your e ntire essay.
You ma y ne e d more tha n one se nte nce to comple te your thesis s ta te me nt.
A comple te thesis s ta te me nt for our essay topic might re a d as follows :

In ge ne ra l, s tude nts s hould not be a llowe d to use ca lcula tors

during ma the ma tics e xa mina tions . While ca lcula tors do inde ed
save time on le ngthy or comple x ca lcula tions , a llowing
wide s pre a d use will corrupt these ve ry tests, le a d to a fa ulty
a ppre cia tion of e xa ct answers, a nd contribute to the continuing
a trophy of importa nt ma the ma tica l s kills .

This is a comple te the s is s ta te me nt. It e xpre sse s a n opinion (“In ge ne ra l,

s tude nts s hould not be a llowe d to use ca lcula tors during ma the ma tics
e xa mina tions ”); it a cknowle dge s a nothe r vie wpoint (“While ca lcula tors do
inde ed save time on le ngthy or comple x ca lcula tions ”); a nd it provide s a basic
outline of the write r’s reasons (“a llowing wide s prea d use will corrupt these ve ry
te s ts , le a d to a fa ulty a ppre cia tion of e xa ct a ns we rs , a nd contribute to the
continuing a trophy of importa nt ma thema tica l s kills ”).
Notice tha t the thesis s ta te me nt s till re quire s cla rifica tion a nd tha t ce rta in
te rms mus t be de fined. For e xa mple , whe n s hould s tude nts be a llowe d to use
ca lcula tors ”? Wha t does the write r me a n by “a fa ulty a ppre cia tion of e xa ct
a ns we rs”? Wha t importa nt ma the ma tica l s kills ha ve a trophie d? The s e are
que s tions the re st of your essay will go on to answer. One of the functions of a
successful thesis s ta te me nt is to raise que s tions in the re a de r’s mind—to ma ke
him or he r curious .

WRITING THE BODY

The body e xa mine s the a rgume nts both for a nd a ga ins t your opinion. To
convince your te a che r tha t your opinion is re a sona ble , ma ke sure you e xa mine
the fla ws or disa dva nta ge s in your pos ition, a nd a cknowle dge tha t othe r points of
vie w e xis t. If your essay s upports the use of ca lcula tors , you s hould conce de tha t
this has s ome dra wba cks . Doing this will not we a ke n your pos ition, but not
doing it will gre a tly we a ke n your essay a nd cre dibility. If your essay advocates
limiting the use of ca lculators , it s hould re cognize tha t ca lcula tors do offe r some
advantages.
 Ge ne ra lly, the be s t wa y to de ve lop the body is to be gin by pre s e nting the ^^ STUDEN S
cons ra the r tha n the pros . You imme dia te ly dis a rm a ny pote ntia l oppos ition if WRITE PAPERS
you ope n with a ll the reasons a ga inst your vie wpoint. As s trongly as you can, lis t
a ll the s hortcomings of your thesis, be ginning with the mos t se rious. The more
force fully you pre s ent the othe r side’s case, the more fa ir a nd convincing your
pos ition will ultima te ly be.
Afte r you ha ve pre s ente d the case for the oppos ition, point out a ll of its
limita tions . The n, ha ving dis pos e d of the cons , pre s e nt the pros . As we
me ntione d in S te p 3, s ta rt with your we a ke s t a rgume nt a nd e nd with your
s tronge s t. De vote a t least twice as much space to the pros as the cons.
It is not a bs olute ly necessary to lis t a ll the cons be fore s ta ting the pros . A
common va ria tion is to a lte rna te be twe e n the pros a nd cons. If you choose this
me thod, follow each con with a pro.

WRITING THE CONCLUSION

The conclus ion be gins by s umming up your ba sic cla im or thesis, but it also
serves two othe r purpos e s . Firs t, it wra ps up a ny loos e ends. If the re are a ny
furthe r qua lifica tions to your thesis or a ny fina l conce ssions you wa nt to ma ke ,
now is the time to do so. Acknowle dge your a s s umptions if you didn’t e a rlie r.
And if the re are s till una ns we re d que s tions re leva nt to your topic but be yond the
scope of your paper, me ntion the m in passing. For e xa mple , s hould ca lcula tors
be a llowe d in e xa mina tions othe r tha n thos e in ma the ma tics ? Wha t a bout
a llowing othe r aids in the e xa m room like la ptop compute rs for essay exams?
You don’t ne e d to a ns we r these que s tions ; jus t s ta te the y are be yond the
scope of your essay. Bringing up una ns we re d que s tions has the a dde d be ne fit of
s ugge s ting to your te a che r tha t if you fa ile d to address a ke y issue, you pla nne d it
ra the r tha n forgot it.
S e cond, your conclus ion s hould a nswe r the que s tion tha t’s proba bly on your
re a de r’s mind: “So wha t?” Tha t is, your conclusion s hould s how the importa nce
or s ignifica nce of your thesis. One wa y to do this is to e xpa nd your thesis a nd
s how how it a ffe cts re la te d or la rge r issues. In the introduction you na rrow a
ge ne ra l s ubje ct area to a s pe cific the me or topic; in the conclus ion you reverse
the process, e xpa nding the scope of your pa pe r a nd pla cing your thesis in the
context of the big picture .
Though your conclus ion might be only a pa ra gra ph long, it is as
importa nt as your introduction. Re membe r: firs t a nd la s t impres s ions ha ve the
bigge s t impa ct on your teacher.

STICK TO THE BLUEPRINT

All your essays s hould follow the same forma t-introduction (ba ckground, the sis
s ta te me nt), body (pros a nd cons), conclusion (the sis s umma ry, s ignifica nce to
othe r issues). You ma y find this forma t too rigid a nd “uncre a tive .” The ba sic
s tructure ca n be modifie d, of course. You ma y de cide in a pa rticula r pa pe r to
 ope n imme dia te ly with your thesis a nd follow it with ba ckground informa tion.
WHAT SMART
In a nothe r you might de cide to pos tpone your the sis until the conclus ion. Be
STUDENTS KNOW
s ure the re is jus tifica tion, howe ve r; de pa rting from the formula s hould
llllll
s tre ngthen, not de tra ct from, your points .
Va ry the s tructure a t your own ris k. Ke e p in mind tha t writing a n essay is a
comple x ta sk. You mus t e xplore a topic, ge ne ra te ideas, de ve lop your a rgume nt,
cons ider othe r points of vie w, a rra nge the sequence of ideas, a nd write we ll while
ke e ping your re a de r’s inte res t. Following the essay blue print e na ble s you to
express your opinion cre a tive ly while a ccomplis hing a ll of these things .
Here’s the blue print you s hould follow:

INTRODUCTION
• Background Information (Establishing the Context and
Importance of the Topic)
• The Specific Topic
• Complete Thesis Statement: • Opinion
• Reasons (For and Against)
• (If Necessary): » Additional Background Information
• Clarification of Basic Issues
8 Definitions

BODY

• Cons (From Strongest to Weakest)

» Pros (From Weakest to Strongest)

CONCLUSION
• Restatement of Your Thesis

• (Possibly): » Your Assumptions

• Any Unanswered Questions
• Further Qualification of Your Thesis or Concessions

• Relevance of Your Thesis to Related or Larger Issues

This dia gra m indica te s roughly the re la tive size of the thre e s e ctions . The
HOW SMART STUDENTS
introduction a nd the conclusion s hould be a pproxima te ly e qua l in le ngth, while
WRITE PAPERS
the body s hould ta ke up a bout thre e-fourths of your essay.

CONGRATULATIONS!
You ha ve comple te d your firs t dra ft. If you’ve us e d a word proces s or—as
I s trongly re comme nd—double space the line s a nd print out a copy. Set it aside
for a couple of da ys so you’ll be a ble to e dit it with a fre s h pe rs pe ctive . (Of
course , if you’re writing your te rm pa per the night be fore it’s due , you won’t have
much time to ge t a fre s h pe rs pe ctive !)

STEP 7: REVISE, EDIT, AMD POLISH YOUR FINAL DRAFT

Your prima ry conce rn in writing the firs t dra ft wa s to ma ke s ure you s a id
e ve rything you wa nte d to say. Now your conce rn is ma king sure you s a id it we ll.
Don’t s kip this s te p! Editing a nd proofre a ding are cle a rly more importa nt for
ma jor a s s ignme nts like te rm papers, but a ll your pa pe rs deserve some e ditoria l
re vie w.

GET FEEDBACK
Your teachers give you the ir comme nts whe n the y re turn your papers, but by
the n it’s too la te —the y’ve a lre a dy gra de d the m. The time to ge t fe e dba ck is
be fore you ha nd in your work.
S how your essay to s ome one whos e opinion you va lue . If you’re a s king a
frie nd, ma ke it cle a r tha t you are more inte re ste d in cons tructive criticis m tha n
praise. People who know nothing a bout the s ubje ct can ma ke e xce lle nt readers
because the y ofte n ask que s tions you wouldn’t think of a s king. Thos e who are
more knowle dge a ble , of course, can be quite he lpful, too.
He re are s ome us e ful que stions to ask a reader:
® W hat is the m ain point of m y essay? (If your re a de r can’t s umma rize
your a rgume nt, che ck your introduction a nd conclus ion.)
• Where is m y essay uncle ar? (Clea ring it up ma y re quire e diting as we ll
as e la bora tion.)
• Does my essay flow logically? (If not, try re a rra nging your points .)
• Where do you lose interestl (Perhaps your topic is too “safe.”)
® W hat do you disagree with1 (You ma y need a dditiona l e vidence .)
• Does m y essay om it any im portant points ? (If so, continue dia loguing.)
• Do Ipre s e nt opposing views convincingly? (Be fa ir to the othe r side.)
Criticis m is not a lwa ys easy to ta ke , but re a lly try to lis te n to wha t your readers
te ll you. Not e ve ry comme nt the y ma ke will be va lid; s ome time s the y will
s imply disagree with your thesis. If, howe ve r, more tha n one re a de r te lls you the
same thing—a nd you’re sure it’s not a pe rs ona l re a ction—lis te n up!

#>
 :
Le t your re a de rs ma rk up the pa per. The y s hould be looking for more tha n
WHAT SMART s pe lling a nd gra mma tica l e rrors . Re me mbe r tha t your te a che r is conce rne d with
STUDENTS KNOW
your ideas, your fa cts , your persuasiveness, a nd your s tyle. As k your readers to
put a que s tion ma rk ne xt to a ny point the y don’t unders ta nd or disagree with.

EDIT FROM THE BIG PICTURE DOWN TO THE DETAILS

Whe n you s ta rt re vis ing your essay, don’t a gonize ove r ma king sure each se nte nce
is pe rfe ct. Be gin with a n ove rvie w of the e ntire paper. Re a d it through quickly,
trying to ge t the ove ra ll s tructure , orga niza tion, a nd “fe e l.” Wha t are your
ge ne ra l impre s s ions ? Are the re a ny ma jor proble ms ? Doe s the e ntire thing ha ng
togethe r?
Once you’ve gotte n the big picture , work your wa y down from the ove ra ll
s tructure to each pa ra gra ph to each se nte nce to each word.
Le t’s ta ke a clos e r look a t this re vie w process.

CHECK YOUR ESSAY’S OVERALL STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION

On your firs t critica l re a ding look for ge ne ra l impre s s ions . Is your essay
unders ta nda ble? Ha ve you s upplie d e vide nce a nd de ta ils for a ll the points you
ma ke ? Is the ge ne ra l tone a ppropria te ? Is the orga niza tion logica l? Are the
tra ns itions be twe e n s e ctions clear? Do a ny furthe r thoughts occur to you tha t
you s hould incorpora te ?
Afte r you’re s a tis fie d with the ge ne ra l s tructure a nd orga niza tion of the
whole , ta ckle each s e ction—the introduction, the body, a nd the conclus ion. Are
the s e ctions dis tinct? Do the y flow logica lly? Is each s e ction comple te ?

CHECK YOUR PARAGRAPHS

A pa ra gra ph is a group of s e nte nce s orga nize d a round a ce ntra l point. Ea ch
pa ra gra ph s hould conta in one ma jor ide a . The topic s e nte nce of a pa ra gra ph
expresses tha t ma in ide a, while the othe r sentences e la bora te on it. Ta ckle each
pa ra gra ph one by one . Doe s e a ch one e xpre ss a comple te thought? Is e a ch
pa ra gra ph cohe re nt?
Inde nt your pa ra gra phs cle a rly. S tudie s ha ve s hown tha t the numbe r of
pa ra gra phs in your pa pe r s ignifica ntly a ffe cts your gra de . The more pa ra gra phs
your pa pe r conta ins , the more orga nize d it seems, a nd the easier it is to read, the
higher your grade.

CHECK YOUR LINKS BETWEEN PARAGRAPHS

Ea ch pa ra gra ph s hould follow the pre vious one in a s mooth a nd logica l way. If
necessary, introduce a pa ra gra ph with a s e ntence or two tha t link it to wha t was
jus t said. Linking us ua lly re quire s ide ntifying or re pe a ting a conce pt, if not the
a ctua l words , used in the pre vious pa ra gra ph. S ome time s you will find you ne e d
to go off the tra ck for a pa ra gra ph or two, in which case the curre nt pa ra gra ph
will be conne cte d to s ome thing s a id two or thre e pa ra gra phs e a rlie r.

0
CHECK YOOR TRANSITIONS
HOW SMART STUDENTS
To he lp your re ade r follow your essay, use tra ns ition words to ma ke cle a r the WRITE PAPERS
introduction of a ne w thought or ide a a nd the conne ction to the pre ce ding one. ... .
The following are s ome ways you use trans itions :
• Lis ting points : Use words or phra s e s like firs t, second, ne xt, a nd
finally.
® Introducing a diffe re nt point of vie w, ma king a conce s s ion, or
qua lifying a n idea : Use words or phra ses like of course, to be sure,
grante d, it m us t be adm itte d that, it could be argue d that, a nd
obviously.
• Re je cting a diffe re nt point of vie w or re turning to yours : Use words
or phrases like however, although, s till, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the
contrary, on the other hand, despite, ye t, a nd notwiths tanding.
• Empha sizing a point: Use words or phrases like moreover, in addition,
s im ilarly, furthe rmore , indeed, also, a nd as well.
• S umming up: Use words or phra ses like as a result, in sum, thus,
therefore, in conclusion, in the final analysis, a nd finally.

CHECK YOUR LINK BETWEEN SENTENCES

Sentences, like pa ra gra phs , s hould follow one a nothe r logica lly. Your thoughts
ma y ha ve tumble d a wkwa rdly onto pa per whe n you wrote the firs t dra ft, even if
you followe d a n outline . Now you ma y ha ve to re a rrange s e nte nce s within
pa ra gra phs or a dd a sentence or phrase so e ve rything flows gra ce fully.

CHECK YO UR SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Now look a t individua l sentences. Doe s each follow logica lly from the pre ce ding
sentence? Like mos t pe ople , you proba bly ha ve a fe w pe t sentence pa tte rns tha t
you use ove r a nd over. Your sentences s hould va ry in both s tructure a nd le ngth,
so be come aware of the sentence pa tte rns you fa vor.

CHECK YOUR DICTION AMO STYLE

I wis h I could re comme nd tha t your essays be writte n in a s imple a nd na tura l
s tyle . I know I’m going to ge t he a t for s a ying this , but here goes: mos t teachers
are not ne a rly so impre s s e d with s ta te me nts like this :

Ame rica ns te nd to be lie ve tha t a ll te chnologica l progre s s

is good.

as the y are with ones like this :

In Ame rica , the pre va iling ide ology is tha t a ll te chnologica l

progress is good.
 Bur don’t be a fra id to s ound like yours e lf. S how s ome s e lf-a s s ura nce . Eve n a
s pa ring use of s la ng is good, s howing your te a che r tha t you are so confide nt in
STUDENTS KNOW
■ wha t you are s a ying tha t you don’t ha ve to hide be hind long words or a ca de mic
ja rgon. Find the right ba la nce be twe e n norma l, e ve ryda y speech a nd forma l,
a ca de mic prose.
No ma tte r wha t your topic, ma ke sure your essay include s a t le as t a fe w
buzz words a nd ke y conce pts e mpha s ize d in the cours e . Te a chers like to see
tha t you ha ve le a rne d s ome thing from the m in the ir class a nd tha t you are
a pplying it in your papers.
And while the be s t word is the word tha t says pre cis e ly wha t you me a n,
the re is no de nying tha t big words impre s s te a che rs . I’m not s ugge s ting tha t
you always try to use the longe r, more difficult word whe n a s horter s ubs titute is
a va ila ble , or ma ke the mis ta ke of re pla cing as ma ny of your words as pos s ible
with s ophis tica ted-s ounding s ynonyms . I do, howe ve r, suggest tha t your essays
include e nough impres s ive -s ounding words tha t your opinion appears to have
s ome a uthorita tive we ight be hind it.

168 WORDS AND PHRASES THAT REALLY IMPRESS TEACHERS

I am. a Be ar of Very I’ve se le cte d the following words because you ca n work a ny one of the m into a ny
Little Brain and long essay on a ny s ubje ct you find yours e lf writing a bout. The y’re also gre at words to
words Bothe r Me . know in a ny e ve nt.
A. A. Mil n e Don’t be obvious whe n you use these words in your pa pers . You ha ve to be
W innie-the -Pooh ca s ua l a bout it, as if the s e we re the s ort of words you use e ve ry da y to
communica te your ma ny profound thoughts . So don’t ove ruse the m—lobbing
in one e ve ry page or so s hould do the trick. S ince your ope ning a nd clos ing
pa ra gra phs create the bigge s t impres s ion, ma ke sure you use one or two in each.
You’ll be a ma ze d a t wha t a diffe re nt re ce ption your ideas a nd pa pe rs will
receive from your teachers. The y figure tha t a nyone who uses words like these
mus t know wha t he or she is ta lking a bout. Of cours e , as a s ma rt s tude nt, you
do!
Wha te ve r words you us e , ma ke s ure you use the m corre ctly. Not a ll
dictiona ry de finitions give you a cle a r ide a of how a word ca n a nd ca nnot be
used. Be ware also of thesauruses. It is ra re to find s ynonyms tha t me a n pre cis e ly
the same thing. Fina lly, be sure you ca n pronounce these words correctly—the y
can be dropped in class discussions, too! (In the ne xt inte rmis s ion I’ll te ll you
how to choose a good dictiona ry a nd the s a urus .)
a be rra tion dis pa s s ionate intrins ic ra mifica tion HOW SMART STUDENTS
WRITE PAPERS
a dhe re nt dogma tic invoke ra tionale
advocate dubious ips o fa cto re but
a mbiva le nt e cle ctic irrevoca ble re capitula te
a ncilla ry e licit juxta pos e re ciproca l
a noma ly e mpirica l lucid re dunda nt
a ntipodal e nde mic ma nife s t re fute
a ntithe s is e phe me ra l ma rgina l re percus s ion
a pocrypha l e pis te mologica l non s e quitur re quis ite
a ppos ite e quivoca l nua nce rhe torica l
a rchetype e s ote ric obfus ca te s chis m
a s certa in e uphe mis m obje ctivity s crutinize
ascribe e voke obs cure s ine qua non
astute e xe mplify orthodox s ingular
a xiom e xha us tive os te ns ible spe cious
broach e xige ncy pa radigm s ta tus quo
ca te gorica l e xpe die nt pa ra dox s tra tify
circums cribe e xplica te pa ra lle l s ubje ctive
coge nt e xplicit pa rochia l s ubs idiary
cogniza nt e xpos ition pa rtis a n s ubs tantiate
compre he ns ive e xtra ne ous pa te nt s ubtle
conje cture e xtrins ic pe da ntic s ui ge ne ris
consensus fa ce t pe riphe ra l s upe rfluous
cons true fa lla cy pe rtine nt s uppos ition
conte ntion fla gra nt peruse s urmise
corolla ry fortuitous perva sive s urroga te
corre la te ge neric pivota l s ynthe s is
corrobora te ge rma ne pla titude ta cit
crux ge s ta lt pla us ible ta nge ntial
de finitive hype rbole pos tula te ta ngible
de line a te ide ology pra gma tic ta nta mount
de pict impa rtia l pre ce de nt te na ble
dia le ctica l implica tion pre clude te nuous
dichotomy implicit pre mis e tra ns itory
dictum incontrove rtible pre s uppos e truis m
dida ctic indige nous profound ubiquitous
digress ine lucta ble propone nt unde rlying
dis ce rn ine vita ble propound ve ris imilitude
dis cre pancy ine xora ble purporte d ve stige
dis crimina te infe r puta tive via ble
dis inte res te d inhere nt qua lify We lta ns cha uung
dis pa ra te inte gra l quinte s s e ntial Ze itge is t
 CHECK FOR GRAMMATICAL ERRORS
WHAT SMART Gra mma tica l e rrors are not easy to s pot, e s pecia lly in le ngthy or complica te d
STUDENTS KNOW
sentences. S ome mis ta ke s cause you to say s ome thing comple te ly diffe re nt from
wha t you think you’re s a ying! In a tight, logica lly s tructure d a rgume nt, this
could be dis a s trous . Like your s e ntence s , your gra mma tica l e rrors fa ll into
pre dicta ble pa tte rns . If you look ove r your pre vious pa pe rs , you will dis cove r
wha t type s of mis ta ke s you te nd to ma ke . Avoid the m in your future papers!

CHECK FOR SPELLING ERRORS

A s pe lling e rror is like a re d fla g to your teacher. If your essay conta ins more
tha n one or two, your te a che r will assume tha t you didn’t ta ke the a s s ignme nt
s e rious ly a nd will pe na lize you a ccordingly. (True s tory: I know of a colle ge
s tude nt who ha nde d in a n a rt his tory pa pe r with both Renaissance a nd the
profe s s or’s na me mis s pe lle d on the cove r pa ge . He ga ve it a n F without
ope ning it!)
S pe lling e rrors or typos a re tough to ca tch. P rofe s s iona l proofre a de rs
s ome time s re a d each se nte nce ba ckwa rd to s pot the m! Re a d through your pa pe r
at le as t once, looking only for s pe lling a nd typing e rrors .
If you do your writing on a compute r, mos t word processors toda y include
s pe ll checkers. S pe ll che cke rs ma tch e ve ry word in your pa per a ga ins t a n inte rna l
dictiona ry in a ma tte r of seconds. If the compute r can’t find a ma tch for a word,
it flags the word for you to ve rify. It doe sn’t me a n the word is s pe lle d incorre ctly,
because the s pe ll che cke r’s dictiona ry doesn’t contain e ve ry word in the Englis h
la ngua ge .
You s hould be aware tha t this s oftwa re will not ca tch all the e rrors in your
paper. For e xa mple, a s pe ll che cke r catches mis s pelled words but it can’t ca tch
misused words . If you type the ir ins te ad of there or they’re, or them ins tea d of then,
the s pe ll che cke r will not fla g these e rrors , because the words you’ve mis ta ke nly
used are the ms e lve s va lid words . A s pe ll che cke r will also ove rlook a ny time s
you’ve om itte d a word. In s hort, s pe ll checkers do not ca tch your gra mma tica l
mistakes. (By the way, gra mma r che cke rs are also a va ila ble , but mos t toda y are
re la tive ly uns ophis tica te d.)

FOLLOW AN ACCEPTED STYLE FORMAT

While the re is no one corre ct wa y to forma t a ca de mic pa pe rs , mos t te a che rs
ins is t tha t you follow the ir guideline s . The y ma y ma rk off if you de via te from
the m. Be fore you ha nd in your pa pe r, find out
® how your sources s hould be lis te d in the bibliogra phy;
® whe the r footnote s s hould be a t the bottom of e ve ry pa ge or a t
the e nd;
• wha t informa tion the cove r page s hould include ;
• wha t the corre ct ma rgin s e ttings s hould be.
And so on. Courie r twe lve -point is the s ta nda rd type font. If your te a che r does
not re quire a pa rticula r forma t, choose one tha t is commonly a cce pte d a t your
HOW SMART STUDENTS
s chool a nd use it cons is te ntly.
WRITE PAPERS
§S®#i
GIVE IT ONE FINAL REVIEW
Afte r you’ve looke d ove r your essay from the ove ra ll s tructure down to the
s pe lling of individua l words , give it one fina l re a ding from be ginning to e nd.
You might ha ve introduce d ne w e rrors in the e diting process. If you’ve ma de
more tha n a fe w minor changes, have a frie nd re a d it one la s t time as we ll.

WHAT YOUR TEACHER EXPECTS TO SEE

“How long does it have to be?” is us ua lly the firs t que s tion a te a cher hears whe n
a s s igning a pa pe r. Le ngth, howe ve r, is the le a s t of your concerns . S ome time s
your te a che r is quite s pe cific a bout le ngth (In not more than 500 words, discuss
the causes...), but ge ne ra lly the le ngth of your pa pe r will not a ffe ct your grade as
much as othe r fa ctors .
Your teachers assign essays to see if you ca n orga nize informa tion, formula te
a re a s one d opinion, a nd pre s e nt tha t informa tion a nd opinion cohe re ntly a nd
pe rsua sive ly. How you say it is jus t as importa nt as wha t you say. Your te a che r
will be gra ding not only your essay’s facts a nd ideas but also its orga niza tion a nd
writing s tyle . He re ’s wha t a ll teachers look for.
9 Your ide a s are the mos t importa nt pa rt of your pa pe r, e ve n more
importa nt tha n your fa cts . Are the y cohe re nt, logica l, a nd
convincing? Did you cons ide r oppos ing ideas or vie wpoints ?
• Your ide a s mus t be s upporte d with fa cts . Are your facts a ccura te ,
re leva nt, a nd re la tive ly comple te? If this is a research pa pe r, are your
fa cts docume nted with sources?
• Your essay’s orga niza tion a nd s tyle s hould conform to the ge nera lly
a cce pte d a ca demic mode l. As we ha ve dis cus s ed, te a che rs e xpe ct
your essays to have a ve ry s pe cific orga niza tion a nd tone . The be tte r
your essay ma tche s up to the blue print, the be tte r your grade. As for
tone , you don’t have to s ound as ridiculous as Orwe ll’s pa rody but
ne ithe r s hould you be too “fa milia r” with your reader. Idea lly, your
pa pe rs s hould s trike a ba la nce be twee n conve rs a tiona l informa lity
a nd a ca de mic forma lity.
Besides these cons ide rations , each te a cher also has pe rs ona l e xpe cta tions . The
pre cise wording of the a s s ignme nt will give you clues a bout these, as will your
te a che r’s comme nts on your pre vious papers. S tudy the m ca refully.

THE M O ST IM PO RTANT PARAG RAPHS O F YO UR ESSAY

Cons ide r tha t s ome te a che rs , e s pe cia lly in ove rcrowde d cla s s rooms or le cture
ha lls , might not have the time to read e ve ry pa per as ca re fully as the y would like .
No ma tte r how much time the y ha ve , howe ve r, the y will a lwa ys give your
introduction a nd your conclus ion the closest s crutiny. By the time the y finis h
 your essay’s introduction, the y have a lre a dy forme d a good ide a of the grade the y
STUDENTs 'k n OW think you de s e rve . The y ma y s kim the re s t a nd the n s low down a t the
conclus ion, but ba s ica lly the y are looking to confirm the ir initia l impre s s ion.
From your te a che r’s ofte n ha rrie d point of vie w, the be ginning a nd e nd are
the mos t importa nt pa rts of your essay.

THAT’S IT! YOU’VE FINISHED THE FINAL BRAFT!

He re ’s how our fina l essay sha ped up:

C alculators i
n the Exam R oom

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I!
thi
nki
ng w e need to do i
n dai
ly l
ife. W ith the w idespread
popul
ari
ty of di
gital w atches, for exam ple, w e do not have to
know how to t
ell tim e anym ore. C om puters, another thought-saving
device are becom ing ever m ore sophisticated w i
th the advent of
art
ifi
cial i
ntel
ligence softw are. R ecently, technology has been
creeping i
nto the classroom . Increasingly, teachers are all
ow ing
the use of calculators i
n m athem atics classes even during
exam inations. Even the Educational Testing Service, publ
isher of
the i
nfl
uent
ial SAT, i
s bow ing to the tim es: beginning i
n the
1993-94 academ ic year, students w i
llbe allow ed to use
cal
cul
ators on the SAT.
This trend has dangerous, long-term consequences. In general,
students should not be allow ed to use cal
cul
ators during
m athem atics exam inations. W hile cal
cul
ators do indeed save tim e
on lengthy or com plex cal
cul
ati
ons, all
ow i
ng w idespread use w i
ll
corrupt these very tests, lead to a faul
ty appreciation of exact
answ ers and contribute to the continuing atrophy of im portant
m athem atical ski
lls.
Adm ittedly, calculators are cheap; a decent one can be
purchased for less than the pri
ce of a m ovie ti
cket. Perm itti
ng
thei
r use w ould greatl
y reduce sim ple com putational errors and
allow test-takers to devote m ore tim e to im portant m athem atical
concepts rather than the "grunt w ork." Basic com putation i
s
rel
ati
vel
y m indless and needlessly tim e consum ing. Besides, i
n
everyday l
ife people use cal
cul
ators, w hy shouldn'
t students?

0
 Mi# @81 I
HOW SMART STUDENTS
: WRITE PAPERS
Students should refrai
n from overusing calcul
ators for a
num ber of reasons. Fi
rst, the excessive am ount of com putation
required on m any tests i
s not an argum ent for cal
cul
ators, i
t's
an argum ent for better tests. Allow ing the use of cal
cul
ators i
n
the exam ination room w i
llj
ust m ake i
teasier for m ath teachers
to f
allback on problem s that em phasize num ber crunching instead
of i
nsi
ght and hi
gher-l
evel thi
nki
ng. Furtherm ore, the poi
nt of
m any questions i
s to rew ard i
nsi
ght rather than brute force
com putations. A cal
cul
ator w ould allow a student w ithout i
nsi
ght
i
nto such problem s to solve them j
ust as fast as a student w ith
i
nsi
ght does.
Second, cal
cul
ators rei
nforce the notion that the answ er i
s
the cruci
al thi
ng; rather, i
t should be the problem -solving
process i
tsel
f that i
s em phasized. Instead of all
ow ing
cal
cul
ators, w hy not sim ply el
im inate penalties for com putational
errors?
Third, cal
cul
ators prom ote the fal
se im pression that precisi
on
and exactness are the param ount concerns of m athem atics. As
Bertrand R ussell, the fam ous philosopher and m athem atician, once
said, "Although thi
s m ay seem a paradox, al
l exact science i
s
dom inated by the idea of approxim ation." R eal l
ife i
s also
dom inated by approxim ations since our inform ati
on i
s rarel
y
com pletely accurate. W hat i
s the poi
nt of cal
cul
ati
ng an answ er
to ten decim al places w hen the inputs them selves m ay only have
been bal
lpark estim ates. The abi
lit
y to approxim ate answ ers i
s
yet another vi
tal
, neglected ski
ll that cal
cul
ators w i
ll further
push i
nto the background.
Last, and m ost im portant, students' com putational ski
lls have
been steadi
ly eroding for decades. SAT scores w hich m easure
basic m athem atical ski
lls, have recentl
y sunk to al
l-ti
m e low s.

2
 IPil

— - Being able to com pute i

s an im portant ski
ll. Know ing how num bers
behave i
s useful even i
n som e branches of advanced m athem atics.
Previous generations of students have gained a "feel
" for num bers
by w orking w i
th them m anually. I
tis hard to see how thi
s
know ledge can be gained by pushing buttons and w atching answ ers
Hi;
m agicall
y appear on l
iqui
d crystal displays. M oreover, how w i
ll
students know the answ ers they obtain by cal
cul
ators are correct
i
fthey cannot veri
fy these answ ers by hand? I
f the w rong num bers
are punched i
n or the ri
ght num bers are entered i
n the w rong
order, the cal
cul
ator w i
ll give an i
ncorrect answ er. "G arbage i
n,
garbage out," as they say i
n the com puter f
iel
d.
The dangers of cal
cul
ators i
n the exam room far outw eigh any
supposed benefi
ts. I see nothing w rong, how ever, w i
th thei
r use
i
n upper-level m ath courses such as trigonom etry or cal
cul
us,
w here com putational com petence can (one hopes) be assum ed. N or do
I see anything w rong w i
th thei
r use i
n nonm athem atics courses
that entai
l com plex cal
cul
ati
ons; chem istry i
s a prim e exam ple.
I am not against m achines' doing som e of our thi
nki
ng for us;
Ij
ust w ant to be sure w e don'
t forget how to thi
nk altogether.
O f course, not al
l technology does aw ay w i
th thi
nki
ng, and
therei
n l
ies a potenti
al com prom ise. Before cheap el
ectroni
c
cal
cul
ators becam e com m onplace, students used the sl
ide rul
e. And
before the sl
ide rul
e, there w as the abacus. To benefi
t from the
technology of the s e cal
cul
ators, how ever, students st
illhad to
thi
nk. To use an abacus, you had to keep i
n m ind the num ber
system ; to use a sl
ide rul
e, you had to estim ate and thi
nk i
n
term s of logarithm s and decim al places. For students w ho w ant to
avoid "m indless" com putation, I w holeheartedly recom m end all
ow i
ng
the use of ei
ther of these hum ble yet effecti
ve anachronism s.

3
 HOW SMART STUDENTS
NOTE CARDS, TYPING, AND WORD PROCESSORS: WRITE PAPERS pi
NUTS AND BOLTS lilil
Eve ryone has s pe cia l writing preferences. S ome s tude nts love note cards;
othe rs pre fe r le ga l pads. Some s tude nts fe e l tha t us ing a pe n a nd pa pe r
he lps the m think; others have no proble m with typing. (P e rs ona lly, I
a lte rna te be twe e n le ga l pads a nd my word proce s s or as I write ).
Find out wha t me thods work best for you. Ha ving s a id tha t, I offe r
the following obs e rva tions based on long e xperie nce:
• Us e a pe n ra the r tha n a pe ncil. It will be easier on your eyes a nd
won’t s mudge as much.
• If you ta ke note s on 3-by-5 cards, write the ge ne ral s ubje ct on top.
La te r you can s ort a nd group these title s a nd ge t a basic s tructure for
your essay.
• Do a ll your writing in the firs t dra ft stage on one s ide only of e a ch
s he e t of pa pe r. Tha t wa y you’ll be a ble to spre ad out your note cards
or pa pe r on a de s k a nd see e ve rything a t once . I like ta ping outline s
to the wa ll in front of my de s k so I ca n re fe r to the m as I write .
Some pe ople put sentence ideas on P os t-it note s , which the y the n
a rra nge a nd re a rra nge on a wa ll or bulle tin boa rd.
• If you don’t know how to type , le a rn. Type d papers are easier to
re a d a nd conve y a n a ir of profe s s iona lis m. I don’t know of a ny
conclus ive s tudie s of this , but I’d be willing to be t tha t ne a tly typing
a pa pe r is worth ha lf a grade or more .
• Word proce ss ors a nd compute rs are a gods e nd. As s ome one who
s wore by pe n a nd le ga l pa d, I dis mis s e d word processors for years.
But I fina lly ga ve in. Word proce s s ors a llow you to ge t your
thoughts down on pa pe r quickly a nd the n e dit the m la ter. And
you’ll ne ve r ha ve to re type a nything. Re a rra nging s e nte nce s ,
cha nging words , a nd corre cting typos are a snap. In fa ct, one of the
disa dva nta ge s of word processors is tha t it’s too easy to cha nge wha t
you’ve writte n! You ca n s pe nd te n minute s de ciding whe re to pla ce a
s ingle comma in a sentence. S uch pe rfe ctionis m ca n a dd hours of
time to the re writing process. Anothe r da nger is tha t in cutting a nd
pa s ting chunks of words , you will ina dve rte ntly leave gaps or forge t
to include ne e de d tra ns itions in tha t dra ft.
 ilSBlS
WHAT SMART
; . : '■ '

STUDENTS KNOW
NOTE CARDS, TYPING, AND WORD PROCESSORS:
NUTS AND BOLTS (CONTINUED) 'lAA:
. i . j ■

* Siiliil
9 If you use a word proce s s or, ge t a s urge prote ctor a nd save your
docume nt fre que ntly. Its not a ba d ide a to print out a ba rd copy
e ve ry once in a while , too. Once a frie nd a ccide nta lly trippe d ove r
the powe r cord to my compute r. Za p—te n hours of work los t
fore ve r! Now I s a ve my docume nts e ve ry fe w pa ra gra phs , or
whe ne ve r I ne e d to s top a nd think. At the e nd of each session, ba ck
up your docume nt on a nothe r floppy dis k. If your ha rd drive
crashes, even saved docume nts ca n be de s troye d. (If this ha ppe ns ,
don’t touch a thing! Imme dia te ly ca ll one of your te chie frie nds to
A look ove r the da ma ge . S ome time s it’s pos s ible to re trie ve informa tion
you’ve a ccidenta lly “erased.”)
__ l

GETTING IT DONE ON TIME

Don’t procra s tina te . While writing unde r pressure ca n he lp focus your ideas a nd
le nd a ce rta in force fulne s s to your prose , I don’t re comme nd wa iting until the
la s t minute for e ve ry a s s ignme nt. All-nighte rs ta ke the ir toll.
Te a chers us ua lly s pe cify the a pproxima te numbe r of words or pages the y
e xpe ct your pa pe rs to be. My pe rs onal rule of thumb is to a llow a t le ast two days
for e ve ry page (250 to 300 words ), but your ra te ma y be diffe re nt. Don’t be too
optimis tic, a nd leave some room for the ine vita ble s cre wups . Howe ve r long you
think it will ta ke you, double tha t e s tima te to be on the safe side.
It’s a good ide a to s ta rt inve s tiga ting the topic a t the e a rlie s t pos s ible
mome nt, e ve n if you think it won’t ta ke long. Ge tting a he a d s ta rt a llows you
to see wha t you’re up a ga ins t a nd gets your thinking proce s s s ta rte d.

WHEN YOU GET YOUR PAPER BACK

Re vie w your te a che r’s comme nts so you ca n improve your pe rforma nce on your
ne xt pa pe r, e ve n if you got a n A! Did your te a che r point out a ny issues or
que s tions tha t your pa pe r ove rlooke d? Wha t wa s your pa pe r’s chie f
weakness —the ideas, the facts, or the style?
If you disagree with the gra de your pa pe r re ce ive d, re ques t a me e ting with
the te a che r. You ca n do this e ve n if you think the grade is fa ir. For a more
comple te dis cus s ion of how to ha ndle this s itua tion, see page 198.

WHAT’S COMING UP
I think a bre a k is in orde r. The ne xt Inte rmis s ion covers some of the tools you’ll
need in your s ma rt s tude nt arsenal.
 .
HOW SMART STUDENTS
SUMMARY WRITE PAPERS
This has be e n a long, pos s ibly ove rwhe lming cha pter. You ma y be
wonde ring if you re a lly have to go through a ll tha t to write a pa pe r.
Re membe r, though, tha t a ca de mic writing de ma nds a ve ry s pe cific s tyle.
The seven-step writing process s ma rt s tude nts use will guide you the re .
You be gin by choos ing an intere s ting topic. It s hould be s ome thing
tha t ca n be asked as a que s tion—controve rs ia l but not too controve rs ia l.
Steps 2 a nd 3 ask you to bra ins torm as ma ny ideas a bout your topic
as you ca n, a nd the n to orga nize these ideas into a cohe re nt s tructure .
You ma y ha ve notice d tha t this proce s s has much in common with
several Cybe rLe a rning ques tions .
Step 4 asks you to find your opinion: s hould ca lcula tors be use d in
cla s s rooms or s houldn’t they?
Step 5 asks you to find s pe cific a rgume nts to ba ck up your opinion;
counter a rgume nts as we ll as s upporting a rgume nts are vita l to a ca de mic
writing.
Not until Ste p 6 do you write the firs t dra ft, but by now you’ve
done the ha rd work. You jus t ne e d to put your thoughts in pla ce
a ccording to our blue print.
Fina lly, in Step 7, you put on the polis h, e diting a nd proofre a ding
your fina l ve rs ion.
You’ll s oon find, by the wa y, tha t the s e ve n-s te p proce ss is n’t so
much work a fte r a ll. Like mos t te chnique s in this book, it will quickly
be come ha bitua l a nd ma ke your writing a s s ignments much easier. As
a lwa ys , s ma rt s tude nts don’t wa ste time .
Don’t forge t to s tick to our blue print for a ca de mic essays. Your
te a che rs e xpe ct a ce rta in formula . If your pa pe r ma tche s up to the
s ta nda rd a ca de mic mode l your teachers are looking for, the y will have
no choice but to give you high ma rks . It works . Use it. Once you’ve
ma s te re d the ba sic formula a nd a ll your papers are re ce iving A’s, you ca n
a tte mpt more s ophis tica te d va ria tions .
 Inte rmis s ion:
Othe r S kills a nd Resources
You’ll Ne e d as a S mart S tudent

TOOLS OF THE TRADE

As a s ma rt s tudent, you’ll need a fe w re fe re nce books a nd othe r resources. Some
of these are “mus t” ite ms ; othe rs are s trongly re comme nde d:
• A good, ha rdcove r dictiona ry. Look for a colle ge e dition tha t
include s e tymology as we ll as a dis cus s ion of s ynonyms for
importa nt words . Ide a lly it s hould also include illus tra tive sentences
a nd discuss prope r usage. Webster’s Tenth Ne w Collegiate Dictionary
(by Me rria m We bs te r), The R andom Hous e W e bs te r’s College
Dictionary, a nd The Am e rican He ritage Dictionary are e xce lle nt
choices. The Oxford Englis h Dictionary, or OED, is the mothe r of al I
dictiona rie s . Englis h a nd lite ra ture ma jors will need to re fe r to it, but
for mos t s tude nts the OED is unwie ldy a nd expensive. You might
a ls o wa nt to ge t a che a p pa pe rba ck ve rs ion to ca rry a round.
I re comme nd The Am e rican He ritage Dictionary (bas e d on the
s e cond colle ge e dition) a nd Funk & Wagnalls S tandard Dictionary
s ince the y include e tymology, but even pa pe rba cks tha t can fit in
your je a ns’ hip pocket are oka y in a pinch. (Note : Me rria m We bs te r
publis hes a n outs ta nding dictiona ry a nd the s aurus ; don’t confus e
the m with othe r “We bs te r’s” dictiona rie s—a nybody ca n publis h a
We bs te r’s dictiona ry since the na me is not copyrighta ble .)
• A good the s a urus . A good the s a urus lis ts more tha n a fe w s ynonyms
for each word a nd also include s a ntonyms, slang, a nd re la te d words .
Ge t one tha t lis ts words in a lpha be tica l orde r ra the r tha n the origina l
Roge t cla s s ifica tion s che me . We bste r’s Dictionary of S ynonyms (by
Me rria m We bs te r) is my pe rs ona l fa vorite s ince it dis tinguis he s
be twe e n s ynonyms a nd gives illus tra tive sentences.
9 A usage guide . The proble m with mos t dictiona ry de finitions is tha t
the y do not have e nough space to te ll you pre cis e ly how a word can
a nd ca nnot be used. The classic Fowle r’s Mode rn Englis h Usage, The
Dictionary of Conte m porary Usage by Willia m a nd Ma ry Morris , a nd
Webster’s Dictionary ofEnglis h Usage are highly re comme nde d.

iitl
 A ge ne ral one -volume e ncyclope dia. This is n’t a bs olute ly necessary,
WHAT SMART
but it come s in ha ndy a nd saves trips to the libra ry. Ma ny a re
s urpris ingly comple te cons ide ring the ir size. Che ck the m out a nd
choos e one tha t s uits your needs. The y a re n’t a de qua te for s e rious
research, but the y’re he lpful for looking up things quickly whe n you
don’t wa nt to lose your tra in of thought. You ca n also find pa pe rba ck
e ncyclope dia s for individua l s ubje cts from philos ophy to a rt his tory.
A s tyle guide . You’ll ne e d to re fe r to one whe n you type the fina l
dra ft of se rious pa pe rs. The Chicago Manual of S tyle is popula r; look
also for Webster’s S tandard Am e rican S tyle Manual. S ince each te a che r
has diffe re nt s tyle pre fe rence s a nd since you won’t ne e d to re fer to a
s tyle guide tha t ofte n, you ma y wa nt to save your mone y a nd use
one in the libra ry.
A gra mma r guide . Your gra mma r (as we ll as your voca bula ry) is a n
importa nt s kill. If you’re going to be a s ma rt s tude nt, you’d be tte r
spe a k a nd write like one ! Unfortuna te ly, mos t s tude nts are turne d off
by gra mma r s ome time in the fourth or fifth gra de by books tha t use
words a nd phra s e s like ante ce de nt, copulative ve rb, a nd pre dicate
nom inative . Finding a book tha t e xpla ins gra mma r without s uch
ja rgon is n’t easy, so use one tha t a t le a s t offe rs nume rous pa ire d
e xa mple s of corre ct a nd incorre ct usage. By s e e ing e nough s uch
e xa mple s you ca n figure out the rule s without ne e ding to wa de
through Gre e k te rminology.

IF YOU CAN AFFORD ONE, GET A COMPUTER

P rice s s e e m to drop a lmos t we e kly, a nd s tude nt dis counts a re fre que ntly
a va ila ble . You ca n ge t a comple te s ys te m—with printe r—for unde r $1,000. I
re a lize tha t’s not chump cha nge , but it’s a n inve s tme nt tha t will la s t ye a rs.
La ptops are s ome wha t more e xpe nsive, but the porta bility is s ome time s worth it
if you do a lot of work in the libra ry or a wa y from your desk.
With the pace of te chnologica l de ve lopme nts a cce le ra ting, it pays to ge t the
la te s t mode l. Do your re s e a rch a nd s hop a round for the be s t price . Apple
compute rs are curre ntly much easier to use tha n a ny DOS -ba s e d P C ma chine,
a lthough P C’s are ca tching up with Windows -ba s e d s oftwa re . As k a compute r
jock for a dvice . Expla in wha t you’ll be us ing the compute r for so you don’t buy
more tha n you need. High-e nd systems are ra re ly necessary unless you’re doing
gra dua te work in science or ta king a dvanta ge of a dva nce d gra phics s oftwa re .
As for s oftwa re , you’ll ne e d a word proce s s ing progra m a t the ve ry least. If
you’re in colle ge , a cqua int yours e lf with wha t s pre a ds hee t, da ta ba se , a nd
gra phics s oftwa re ca n do; you’ll be amazed.
 As I re comme nde d in the la s t cha pte r, le a rn to type . You’ll have a ha rd time
ge tting through high s chool, much less colle ge , de pending on othe rs to type ^RESOURCES^
your papers. By the way, he compute r uses the same ke yboa rd as a type write r.

WORK ON YOUR VOCABULARY DAILY

You s imply ca n’t know too ma ny words . No ma tte r wha t you’re s tudying now or
wha t profes s ion you e ve ntually e nte r, a la rge voca bula ry is a n inva lua ble asset.
Nume rous s tudie s ha ve s hown tha t a pe rs ons voca bula ry is one of the mos t
importa nt fa ctors in de te rmining his or he r success.
Ge t s ta rte d toda y! Don’t try to set aside s pe cia l time for this ; voca bula ry
building is a n e xce lle nt wa y to e xploit the spare mome nts in your day. Ma ke a
point of looking up e ve ry word you don’t know as s oon as pos s ible a fte r you
e ncounte r it. You don’t have to s top wha t you’re re a ding; jus t jot down the word
a nd look it up la te r.
I ma y as we ll plug my two be s t-s e lling voca bula ry books : W ord S m art I
a nd II. The words in these books we re ca re fully selected to include only thos e
tha t are fre que ntly found in e duca te d usage. Ea ch volume include s hundre ds of
the words you are mos t like ly to e ncounte r in high s chool a nd colle ge . I you
compa re othe r voca bulary books to mine , I think you’ll find mine are the mos t
pra ctica l for s tude nts . Ea ch book also includes a lis t of the words tha t a ppea r
mos t fre que ntly on s ta nda rdize d tests like the S AT a nd GRE.

WHAT’S COMING UP
The ha rd work is be hind you. By now you s hould ha ve a firm grip on a ll the
te chnique s s ma rt s tude nts use to ma ximize the ir grades a nd optimize how much
the y le a rn. Part V: How S m art S tudents Put It All Together shows you how to
minimize the time a ll this will take.
 How S ma rt S tude nts
Ma na ge The ir Time

GETTING YOUR WORK DONE (SO YOU’LL HAVE TIME LEFT OVER
FOR A LIFE)
If your success in s chool is a ll up to you—a nd it is—you’d be tte r pla n to ma ke it Work expands so as to
ha ppe n. You are assigned a lot of s choolwork, a nd the workloa d increases e ve ry fill the time available
year. Ge tting e ve rything done without be ing ove rwhe lme d re quire s a s ys te ma tic for its completion.
a pproa ch tha t include s ha rd work, dis cipline , pla nning, a nd prioritizing. General recognition of
It doe sn’t ta ke an iron will. Acquiring e ffe ctive , a nd ofte n easy, little ha bits this fact is shown in
a nd routine s ca n ma ke the ha rd work a lot e a s ie r. It ca n a ls o ma ke big the prove rbialphrase
diffe re nce s in your a ca de mic pe rforma nce . S ma rt s tude nts are willing to work “It is the busiest man
ha rd, but the y don’t wa nt to work a ny ha rde r tha n necess ary. The y are a lwa ys who has time to
looking for more e fficie nt ways to le a rn. Eve rything the y do in s chool is done spare. ”
with some purpos e or goa l in mind. C. NORTHCOTE
P la nning means ga the ring informa tion, looking ahead, a nd ta king in the big Pa r k in s o n
picture —the long vie w. You mus t be fle xible a nd willing to inve s t some time
a nd e ne rgy in the s hort te rm in orde r to save a lot of time a nd e ne rgy in the long
run. P la nning is e s pecia lly importa nt in colle ge . Firs t, you have more work tha n
in high s chool. Se cond, without the thre a t of da ily pop quizzes, the te mpta tion
to procra s tina te is a ll the greater. And since less of your time is s tructure d tha n
in high s chool, it’s easier to goof off.
S ma rt s tude nts know how to set a ca de mic prioritie s , a nd the y budge t the ir
time a ccordingly. Of cours e , the re a l re a s on you s hould ma na ge your time is so
tha t you’ll ha ve more of it to purs ue your own inte re s ts . Your outs ide inte re s ts ,
in turn, will provide some s tructure to your da ily a nd we e kly a ctivitie s tha t will
he lp ge t your s choolwork done . It’s true : as long as you’re not ove rloa de d with
a fte r-s chool a ctivitie s , the bus ie r you are, the more you ge t done ! If you’re a n
a thle te or if you ta ke pa rt in some othe r seasonal a ctivity, you’ve proba bly found
to your s urpris e tha t it’s ha rde r to ke e p up with your a s s ignme nts whe n the
season is over. S ome how a ll tha t e xtra time you ha ve on your ha nds jus t gets
wasted.
In this cha pte r I’ll s how you how to ha rne s s a ll the e le me nts of
Cybe rLea rning into a s ys te ma tic a pproa ch tha t will save you time a nd energy.
Re me mbe r: s ma rt s tude nts don’t work a ny ha rde r tha n necessary to get the job
done .

|§|
 HOW NOTJO PLAN YOUR TIME
STUDENTiM<NOW S ome s tude nts try to ma p out e a ch minute of the da y with s che dule s tha t look
s ome thing like this :

MOM Toe: ia JSD TUOR FR| SAT SUM

Shower < shower ' 6tiou>er t «howe<" i Shower &
7-00 cun breaWa/T breakfios+ breokfasf b/feokfa-rt bigqkfa.*-!- sleep s le e p
6+uds read 6-hdy , nsad Study sleep
800a m engliih rtewijpo^er erglian ofiuttpaper erqiish sleep
9:00 am EUhUiVr study fN6U5H study ENGLISH sleep sleep
biology biology
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review review; review dance
11-'00am algebra •hee+irrvs a!geb*u BiOLOSy algebra C10,66 sleep
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study prepare stuciy re vie w study pno+B-
I 00 pm history bio lab Ws+oJ-y biology histery graphy brunch
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6:00pm dinner dinner" dinner dinner dinner dinner Homework

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11 iodpoi sleep sleep sleep Sleep freadme frodime Sleep

The re ’s no wa y a nyone is going to s tick to s uch a s che dule for more tha n a we e k
without going a bs olute ly ins a ne . You s hould try to s tick to s ome kind of routine ,
but it doe s n’t ha ve to be ne a rly s o de ta ile d a nd infle xible . You don’t ha ve to ma p
out e a ch a nd e ve ry minute of e ve ry da y. Give yours e lf a bre a k.

HERE’S WHAT YOU’LL NEED

Whe n you’re s tudying a s ubje ct, you ha ve to ke e p your e ye on the de ta ils as we ll
as the big picture . It’s the s a me with ma na ging your time a nd pla nning your
a ctivitie s . To ke e p a pe rs pe ctive on e a ch da y, e a ch we e k, a nd the te rm as a whole ,
you’ll ne e d the following lis ts a nd s che dule s :
 1. A da ily “to-do” lis t. Divide this into se ctions: mus t ge t done toda y,
mus t ge t done s oon, if I ha ve the time . In othe r words , prioritiz e .
Re me mbe r S mart S tude nt P rinciple #3.
2. A “cle a n” we e kly class s che dule (nothing on It but your classes).
Us e a we e k-a t-a -gla nce ca le nda r. You ca n color-code cla s s e s ,
e s pe cia lly thos e tha t typica lly re quire spe cia l pre pa ra tion.
3. A ge ne ra l wa ll ca le nda r. Us e this for your a s s ignme nts as we ll as
your outs ide inte re s ts a nd pe rs ona l a ffa irs .
4. A “cle a n” ca le nda r re s erve d e xclus ive ly for a ll the ma jor te s ts a nd
pa pers tha t te rm. This s hould s how the e ntire te rm a t a gla nce , a nd
ha ve nothing on it but your s che dule d pa pe rs a nd e xa ms . S ome
s tudents color-code diffe re nt courses, papers, a nd exams de pe nding
on how fa r in a dva nce the y’ll ha ve to s ta rt pre pa ring. P os t this
ca le nda r on the wa ll whe re you’ll see it e ve ry da y; ove r your de s k is a
good s pot. Ifyou don’t pla n ahead, you’ll find yours e lf in the la s t fe w
weeks of the te rm trying to write two te rm papers while s tudying for
thre e fina l e xa ms (a common a nd unple a s a nt e nd-of-s e me s te r
pre dica me nt)!
You’ll find the s e ca le nda r ite ms a t a ny s tore tha t sells s ta tione ry or s chool
s upplie s , or you can ma ke up your own.

MEETING DEADLINES
Eve ryone—a nd I me a n everyone—unde re s tima te s how long a s s ignme nts ta ke to
complete . It is e s pe cially ha rd to gauge comple tion time a t the be ginning of a
cours e whe n you are not fa milia r with e ithe r the ma te ria l or your te a che r’s
workloa d. You’ll ge t a be tte r ide a as the te rm progresses a nd you le a rn wha t
you’re up a ga ins t. In the me a ntime , e s tima te how long it will ta ke to comple te a
pa pe r or le ngthy a s s ignme nt a nd the n triple tha t figure . (Re a lly.)
One of the reasons it’s ha rd ge tting s ta rte d on ma jor a s s ignme nts is tha t the y
seem so formida ble . He re ’s some good advice. If you bre a k down la rge tasks into
ma nage a ble units a nd chip a wa y a t the m in spare mome nts, you’ll be a ma zed a t
how much you can a ccomplis h in a s hort time .
Anothe r be ne fit is tha t you’ll be dis tributing the work ove r a longer pe riod
of time . For s ome re a s on your bra in takes a ce rta in a mount of days, we e ks,
months , or e ve n longe r to “ge t” ce rta in type s of informa tion. It’s ca lle d a
“le a rning curve ,” a nd e ve ryone’s is diffe re nt (a nothe r re a son why you are your
best te ache r). If you’re ta ckling a comple x a s s ignme nt tha t will ta ke , say, twe nty
hours to comple te , s pre a ding those hours out ove r several we e ks is more e fficie nt
tha n trying to cra m the m into a long we e ke nd.
 GETTING INTO A ROUTiNE
WHAT SMART
Ha bits a nd routines he lp s tructure your time a nd ge t you in the right fra me of
STUDENTS KNOW
mind. Figure out how a nd whe n you s tudy be s t. S ome pe ople work be tte r
during the day, others a t night. S ome pre fe r le ngthy s tudy sessions for each
s ubject, but others le a rn be s t in s hort burs ts . So e xpe rime nt with diffe re nt
schedules a nd s tudy conditions to find wha t works best for you.
Obvious ly one of the ma jor things you’ll ha ve to work a round is your class
s che dule . S ome s tude nts are highly dis cipline d a nd ca n ma ke use of the blocks
of time be twe e n classes. If you find you ne e d more time to “ge t in the groove”
a nd the time be twe e n classes is a loss, try to s che dule your classes with as little
time be twe e n the m as pos s ible . I’ll ha ve more to say a bout class sche dule s in the
ne xt cha pte r whe n we discuss how to choose your courses.
Adopt a re gula r pla ce of s tudy. P e rs ona lly I a lwa ys found the quie t in a
libra ry ma dde ning, whe re the loude s t s ound wa s the ove rhe a d buzzing of
fluore s ce nt lights . But to each his own. J us t find a pla ce whe re you ca n ge t your
work done . You’ll ne e d a fla t s urfa ce a nd a ha rd cha ir. You s hould be
comforta ble but not too comforta ble ; a little mus cula r te ns ion he lps ke e p you
a le rt. Avoid couches, beds, a nd s oft cha irs—s tudying is ha rd e nough without the
te mpta tion of fa lling asleep.
How long you s tudy in a give n s e s s ion will de pe nd on a ny numbe r of
fa ctors—the s ubje ct, your e ne rgy le ve l, whe the r you’re pre pa ring for an e xa m,
a nd so on. You’ll have to find out wha t works be s t for you. It takes me a while to
ge t in the groove ; I a m much more e fficie nt in the s e cond hour tha n the firs t.
Ge ne ra lly, howe ve r, a n hour or two is the ma ximum you s hould s pe nd s tudying
a ny s ubje ct be fore s witching to a nothe r.
Two importa nt e xce ptions to this rule are whe n you are s tudying for a ma jor
e xa m or whe n you are writing a pa pe r. In both cases you ha ve to juggle va s t
a mounts of informa tion a nd comple te a numbe r of steps a t a lmos t the same
time . In s uch s itua tions the more time you ca n s pe nd in one s itting the be tte r.
Whe n you s it down to s tudy, don’t wa it to be ins pire d. Cle a r a wa y a ny
pote ntia l dis tra ctions from your de s k a nd ge t down to bus ine s s . You won’t
a lwa ys be in the mood, but it’s your re s pons ibility to le a rn. Once you’ve been a t
it for ha lf an hour or so, you’ll find yours e lf a bs orbe d in your work. Ge tting
s ta rte d is the ha rde s t pa rt, but the re’s no ge tting through without it. As the folks
a t Nike say, “J us t do it!”
If you re a lly can’t conce ntra te , s witch to a diffe re nt s ubje ct or ta ke a bre a k.
Don’t ta ke bre a ks for more tha n five or te n minute s , or you’ll los e your
conce ntra tion le ve l. And don’t think tha t e ve ry bre a k me a ns ca lling a frie nd or
putting on your headset a nd lis te ning to s ome mus ic. This is the kind of bre a k
(in conce ntra tion) you don’t ne e d. You ca n lowe r the inte ns ity le ve l a nd
continue to re vie w the ma te ria l while munching on a s a ndwich or wha te ve r.
HOW YOU CAM PICK UP AN EXTRA DAY EACH WEEK!
HOW SMART STUDENTS
Routine s are importa nt, but so is fle xibility. Don’t wa it for the ide a l conditions MANAGE THEIR TIME
to work (be ca us e you’ll be wa iting fore ve r). If you’re like mos t pe ople, you
MmWi%
proba bly wa s te five or te n minute s a n hour. Tha t’s one or two hours e ve ry day.
As s uming tha t the workda y is e ight to twe lve hours long, the average pe rs on
wastes one da y a we e k!
You ma y not be aware of this time because it doe sn’t fizzle a wa y in one big
chunk. Ra ther, it’s the tota l of lots of s hort mome nts throughout the da y:
wa iting for the bus , wa iting for the te a che r to a rrive , tra ve ling to s chool,
s ta nding in a movie line .
Win ba ck these wa s te d mome nts by us ing the m to
• chip a wa y at le ngthy re a ding a s s ignments ;
• me morize informa tion;
® jot down thoughts for a writing a s s ignme nt;
9 upda te or re vie w your s ummary sheets;
• work on your voca bula ry.
Ma ke s ure you’re a lwa ys ca rrying a pe n a nd s ome thing you ca n work on
during s uch mome nts . Some s ma rt s tude nts even pre pa re the ir own fla s h cards.
You’ll be s urpris e d how va lua ble this re cla ime d time will prove to be.
I’m not s a ying tha t you s hould be obsessed with ge tting s ome thing done by
utilizing each a nd e ve ry spare mome nt in your day. S ome mome nts s hould be
wa s te d. Re la x. Da ydre a m. Wha te ve r. But do be come a wa re of how much time
you now fritte r a wa y uninte ntiona lly.

THE 80-20 RULE AGAIN

The 80-20 rule advises you to figure out the fe w importa nt things tha t mus t ge t My fathe r must have
done a nd ma ke sure you ge t the m done firs t. If you give e ve rything the same had some elementary
time a nd e ne rgy, you’ll be wa s ting time on unimporta nt ma tte rs a nd education for he could
s hortcha nging the importa nt ones. Le a rn to s e t cours e prioritie s or you’ll ne ve r read and write and
ge t e ve rything importa nt done on time . keep accounts
inaccurately.
HERE’S YOUR GA1V1E PLAN FOR EACH WEEK G e o r g e Be r n a r d
You ma y not be able to s tick to this s che dule , but he re’s the ide a l: Sh a w
9 Before each class you s hould re vie w your note s from the pre vious
class as we ll as the assigned re a ding.
* Afte r e a ch class, or as s oon as pos sible , you s hould combine your
class a nd re a ding note s (page 93).
® At least once a we e k you s hould cons olida te your note s a nd upda te
your s umma ry sheet (pages 122-125).
Ta ckling wha t you know you ha ve to do incre me nta lly is ma na ge a ble ;
confronting a la rge block of ne gle cte d work is ove rwhe lming.
 | HERE’S YOUR GAME PLAN FOR THE TERM
WHAT SMART The be ginning a nd e nd of each te rm are critica l; ma ke s ure you work during
STUDENTS KNOW
these time s . Mos t s tude nts floa t through the firs t fe w we e ks of s chool, figuring
tha t the ha rd s tuff will come la te r. True e nough, but it’s during the firs t fe w
we e ks tha t the groundwork is e s ta blis he d a nd your te ache rs ma ke up the ir minds
a bout wha t kind of s tude nt you are. You ca n ha ve this bias working for you or
a ga ins t you for the re s t of the te rm. Don’t blow off the firs t month of s chool!

Be fore the te rm be gins , you s hould ha ve

• s ta rte d che cking out wha t courses you inte nd to ta ke so you don’t
e nte r a cours e four le ctures in (pages 255-260).

In the firs t fe w we e ks of the te rm, you s hould ha ve

• worke d out the e xpe rt que s tions (pages 67-68);
• found a t least one s uppleme nta ry s ource of informa tion
(pages 60-61);
• cre a te d your initia l s umma ry sheet (page 122);
• dis cove re d whe the r copie s of your te ache r’s pre vious e xa ms are on
file s ome whe re (page 179);
• gotte n an ove rvie w of the e ntire cours e (pages 122-123);
• s igne d up for a n e xtra course or two (page 259);
• ma de up your mind a bout the courses you wa nt to ta ke or which
one s you might wa nt to cha nge during the drop-a dd pe riod
(page 259).

By the la s t fe w we e ks of te rm, you s hould ha ve

• re duce d your s umma ry sheet to one page (page 124);
• be gun prepa ra tions for your fina l e xa m (pages 177-184);
• de cide d wha t courses you wa nt to ta ke ne xt te rm a nd, if necessary,
conta cte d the a ppropria te teachers or de pa rtme nt heads (page 259).
 :
liiiiisii
IS HOW SMART STUDENTS
MANAGE THEIR TIME
S ma rt s tude nt, s trike a ba lance be twe e n routine a nd fle xibility. Da ily to-
\a Bilk
do lists a nd a ca le nda r of the semester are a bs olute ly necessary. You ne e d
to prioritize your re s pons ibilitie s so you ge t the importa nt s tuff
comple te d on time . You s hould also know whe n your ma jor a s s ignme nts
a nd tests are coming, a nd a llow ple nty of space to pre pa re .
On the othe r ha nd, you ca n go wa y too fa r with s che dule s .
Fle xibility a llows you to use une xpe cte d bits of time —a nd a llows you to
ke e p your s a nity. Once you ge t into the ha bit of e xploiting a ll the spare
mome nts tha t now go to waste, your workloa d will s e e mingly ta ke care
of its e lf. Re me mbe r: s ma rt s tude nts are able to ge t the ir work done with
ple nty of time le ft ove r to have a life .
The la s t point we lis te d above—de ciding wha t courses you wa nt to
ta ke—is our ne xt topic.

©
 How S ma rt S tudents
Choos e The ir Courses a nd Teachers

CHO O SING YO UR CO URSES IS AN ART

I don’t care how s ma rt you are—if you ta ke a cours e you’re not re a dy for or one A student should not
ta ught by the wrong ins tructor, you’re a s king for trouble . And ye t some s tude nts be taught more than
give less thought to the ir choice of courses tha n the y do to ma king a s e le ction he can think about.
from the me nu a t a fa s t-food re s ta ura nt. One of the reasons s ma rt s tude nts do so Al f r e d No r t h
we ll is the cons ide ra ble thought the y give to pla nning the ir curriculum. Wh it e h e a d
Don’t e xpe ct your a dvis e r or a nyone else to do this for you. Nobody has
quite your pe rs pe ctive or inte re s t in you. Wha t’s more , to pla n your curriculum
for this te rm me a ns looking ahead a t least for the ne xt ye a r or two!

THERE’S A LOT TO CONSIDER

At the be ginning or e nd of e ve ry semester, de pe nding whe n the s ign-up pe riod
is, you are fa ce d with the tra ditiona l que s tion, “Wha t courses s hould I ta ke ne xt
te rm?” Whe n you ask for a dvice , the typica l s ugge s tions ge ne ra lly run s ome thing
like this :
• “Ta ke courses you’re inte re s ted in; don’t worry a bout whe the r the y’re
pra ctica l.” versus “He y, you’ve got to be pra ctica l—ta ke courses tha t
fit in with your future career goa ls .”
• “Go for courses tha t cha lle nge you.” versus “Sta y a wa y from courses
tha t might lowe r your grade point average.”
• “The whole point of a libera l e duca tion is to ta ke a wide va rie ty of
courses; you ne ve r know wha t you’ll be come inte re s te d in.” versus
“The importa nt thing is to conce ntrate your course s in a s pe cific
area; be sure you’re an e xpe rt a t s ome thing.”
As ge ne ra l guide line s , the re’s some truth in a ll this conflicting a dvice . You s hould
ta ke courses tha t inte re st you; but you s hould also be pra ctica l. You s hould take
courses tha t cha lle nge you, but you s hould also ke e p an eye on your gra de point
average. You s hould ta ke a va rie ty of courses, but you s hould also specialize in
s ome thing so tha t you have a s trong point.
But the re’s a lot more to the de cis ion process tha n these cons ide ra tions . In
a ddition to the cours e’s s ubje ct ma tte r, you’ve got to cons ide r the following:
• the ins tructor’s te a ching s tyle
® your gra dua tion or othe r cours e re quire me nts
• the va rious gra ding options
 • whe n a nd how ofte n the class me e ts
WHAT SMART
STUDENTS KNOW • whe the r the cours e fits into your s che dule
• whe the r you s hould ta ke the cours e this te rm or la te r
• whe the r you ca n ha ndle the cours e workloa d on top of a ll your
othe r course s.
Knowing how to choose your courses a nd teachers is a vita l s kill. You ha ve ma ny
more options once you ge t to colle ge , but even in high s chool you have some
se rious choice s to ma ke . In this cha pte r I’ll s how you wha t que s tions you ne e d
to a ns we r a nd how to go a bout ma king a n informe d de cis ion. (The pre vious
cha pte r—How S m art S tudents Manage The ir Tim e—conta ins s ome informa tion
re le va nt to choos ing courses, so you ma y wa nt to re vie w it brie fly.)

DOES THIS COURSE HELP YOU MEET YOUR GRADUATION

REQUIREMENTS?
Whe the r you’re in high s chool or colle ge , you mus t s a tis fy ce rta in cours e
re quire me nts to gra dua te . You ma y be re quire d to ta ke a ce rta in numbe r of core
courses, as we ll as me e t dis tribution re quire me nts . In colle ge , your ma jor will
re quire s till othe r courses. Cours e s tha t s a tis fy re quire me nts ge t priority ove r
electives.

HAVE YOU TAKEN THE REQUIRED COURSES FOR THIS CLASS?

To ta ke ca lculus , for e xa mple , the ins tructor will e xpe ct you to have comple te d
a dva nce d a lgebra a nd trigonome try. The s e officia l re quire me nts are ge ne ra lly
publis he d in the cours e guide s , or you’ll find out in the introductory le cture .
S ome ins tructors will e xe mpt you from re quire me nts if you convince the m you
ca n ha ndle the work (ca n you? ), but che ck with the he a d of the de partme nt first.

ARE YOU READY 10 TAKE THIS COURSE?

J us t because you’ve ta ke n the re quire d courses for a class a nd done we ll in the m
does not me a n you’re re a dy to ta ke the class. Thos e ma nda tory re quire me nts
s hould be tre a ted as m inim um re quire me nts because it ofte n he lps to have ta ke n
s till othe r courses to increase your unde rs ta nding of the ma te ria l. Mos t ca lculus
cours e s , for e xa mple, do not re quire s tude nts to ha ve ta ke n phys ics . If you
ha ve n’t, howe ve r, you’re a t a dis tinct dis a dva nta ge since ma ny of the e xa mple s in
class are ta ke n from physics. You’ve also got to wa tch out for courses re ce nt for
ma jors of a ce rta in fie ld. If it’s not your fie ld, the pace a nd compe tition in s uch
classes ca n be bruta l.
The s e “qua s i” re quire ments are ra re ly me ntione d e ithe r by the ins tructor or
in the course ca ta log. You’ll get some ide a if you look a t the cours e te xtbook, but
your be s t be t is to ask s tude nts who’ve a lre a dy ta ke n the cours e . S ta rt with
courses you know s ome thing a bout a nd build from the re . If you’ve ne ve r ta ke n
a n arc cours e a nd you’re cons idering ta king Renaissance Art, it would he lp if | HOW SMART STUDENTS
you’ve ta ke n a his tory course tha t cove re d the Renaissance. COUr IIs AND
TEACHERS
WHAT ARE YOUR GRADING OPTIONS?
How are grades de te rmine d? Is there a curve? How s trict is it? S hould you a udit
this class? S hould you ta ke it pass/fail?

WHAT’S THE TEACHER LIKE?

Wha t is the ins tructor’s te a ching style ? Doe s he or she communica te we ll?
Brillia nt profe s s ors do not ne ce s s a rily ma ke e nga ging or e ve n unde rs ta nda ble
le cture rs (a nd ke e p in mind tha t in colle ge ma ny of your classes ma y be ta ught
by te a ching a s s is ta nts ). Is the ins tructor orga nize d? Be wa re the te a che r, for
e xa mple , who has a his tory of fa lling be hind the s ylla bus s che dule a nd ye t holds
the class re s pons ible on the fina l for topics tha t we re ne ve r covered.
How de ma nding is he or she? Is the ins tructor fa ir whe n it comes to grades?
How tough are the s ta ndards ? (See pages 258-259 for tips on us ing cours e
guide s a nd othe r clues to a te a che r’s re puta tion.)
Fina lly, do you like the teacher? S ome time s the re’s a pe rs ona lity cla s h or
s ome thing else tha t jus t rubs you the wrong way. I once ha d to drop a grea t
course in colle ge because the profe s s or s poke in-a n-a g-on-iz-ing-ly-s low-mon-o-
tone -tha t-wa s -driv-ing-me -cra -zy.

WHAT ARE THE CLASS DYNAMICS LIKE?

Do you care how ma ny s tude nts are in the class? Are the y e ncoura ge d to ask
que s tions a nd pa rticipa te in discussions? Is the ins tructor accessible a fte r class for
s tude nts who need e xtra help?

HOW DEMANDING IS THE COURSE?

Ea ch s ubject pres e nts diffe re nt kinds of de mands on your time , e nergy, a nd
inte lle ctua l re s ource s . Che mis try classes re quire la b work; lite ra ture cours e s
re quire he a vy re a ding; a rt a nd a rchite cture courses re quire s tudio time ; la ngua ge
a nd mus ic classes re quire a lot of pra ctice . You’ll re ca ll from the exercise you did
on page 142 tha t the re are ce rtain type s of s ubje cts you have an a ffinity for a nd
thos e to which you have an a ve rsion. Eve n if you find it easy to le a rn proble m-
s olving te chnique s , for e xa mple , it’s proba bly not a good ide a to ta ke a lge bra ,
phys ics , a nd a compute r science course a ll in the same te rm.
In a ddition to a s ubject’s de mands , the re is the workloa d of the pa rticula r
course a nd ins tructor. How much re a ding or home work is assigned? How ma ny
pa pe rs a nd tests are re quire d, a nd wha t type?
By the way, introductory classes are typica lly the mos t de manding of a ll! The
s ubje ct is unfa milia r, the re ’s ne w te rminology to master, classes are us ua lly la rge r
a nd more impe rs ona l, a nd gra ding is us ua lly based on a s trict curve . S ome time s
te a che rs a nd de pa rtme nt heads are trying to see which s tude nts are s e rious

#■
 ill' ■ e nough to s tick it out a nd pos s ibly be come ma jors . Don’t give up on a s ubje ct
WHAT SMART
STUDENTS KNOW
on the basis of the firs t course you ta ke in it.
lilt ... II
HOW WILL SI AFFECT YOUR OVERALL COURSE LOAD?
Conside r how your tota l workloa d will s ta ck up with this cours e . You s hould try
to ba la nce , for e xa mple , the numbe r of courses tha t re quire fina l pa pe rs with
thos e tha t re quire fina l exams. If you don’t, you’ll find yours e lf ove rwhe lme d
trying to pre pa re for five fina ls during the la s t fe w weeks of the te rm. Papers can
be finis he d e a rlie r in the te rm or if you ha ve to you ca n pos s ibly ta ke a n
incomple te or work out a n e xte ns ion, le a ving you more time to conce ntra te on
pre pa ring for your exams during the crunch pe riod.

WHEN AND WHERE SHOULD YOU TAKE THE COURSE?

S hould you ta ke it during the re gula r s chool ye a r or in s ummer school? Be aware
tha t s umme r s chool cours e s ca n be pa rticula rly difficult. You’re cra mming
months of work into a fe w we e k, so wa tch out—class has ba re ly s ta rte d be fore
you’re ta king your fina l exam. Be pre pa re d to give up a lot of your va ca tion time
to s tudying. The flip side, of course , is tha t you’ll be a ble to conce ntra te on one
or two courses.
Als o, your s chool ma y a llow you to ta ke courses a t othe r s chools . If your
s chool does n’t offe r a class you ne e d a t a time whe n you ca n ta ke it, s hop
a round.

CAN YOU FSI IT INTO YOUR SCHEDULE?

Once you de cide on the cours e s you wa nt to ta ke , you’ve got to do s ome
juggling to see whe the r you ca n fit it into your s che dule . The re ’s bound to be
some s che duling conflict a mong a ll the classes you wa nt to ta ke . So it’s a good
ide a to na rrow your search to a fe w more courses tha n you inte nd to ta ke . This
wa y you ca n drop one or two tha t you can’t squeeze in. Cons ide r also the time of
da y the class meets. If you’re a la te rise r, you ma y jus t ha ve to pass on tha t e a rly-
morning cours e you we re re a lly looking forwa rd to ta king, The Comic Book as
Ame rica n Lite ra ture . Ma ybe ne xt semester it will be give n in the a fte rnoon.
Fina lly, ke e p in mind how your ove ra ll s che dule will look. S ome s ma rt
s tude nts pre fe r s pre ading the ir cours e s out so the y’ll ha ve time to s tudy in
be twe e n classes, while othe rs pre fe r ke e ping the ir class s che dule as compa ct as
pos s ible so the y ca n ge t into e ithe r class or s tudy mode .

DOING THE DETECTIVE WORK

Fa culty me mbe rs s uch as te ache rs , de pa rtme nt he a ds , or e ve n your college
a dvise r ca n provide s ome ge ne ra l guida nce , but you’ll ha ve to look elsewhere for
the informa tion you ne ed. De s criptions in course ca ta logs are a bout as he lpful as
a dve rtise me nts in the Ye llow Pages.

M
 See if your high s chool or colle ge ha s a cours e ha ndbook writte n by HOW SMART STUDENTS
s tude nts . The s e “ins ide guide s” can be ruthle s s ly accurate. If your s chool doe sn’t CHOOSE THEIR
COURSES AND
have one , ask s tude nts who have a lre a dy ta ke n the course you are cons idering. TEACHERS
S tude nts who ha ve ta ke n othe r courses by the same ins tructor ca n also provide
us e ful ins ights .
Re me mbe r tha t course s a nd ins tructors ca n cha nge from one ye a r to the
ne xt, so your informa tion ca n be come da te d. If a te a cher is too easy one year, he
or she ma y de cide to ge t tough the ne xt—pos s ibly in re action to a “gut” ra ting
in the s tude nt cours e guide !
Fina lly, che ck things out for yours e lf. S it in on the class the pre vious
s e me s ter if the cours e is a “de finite ma ybe .” Ge t a copy of the s ylla bus , the
re a ding lis t, a nd even pre vious exams.

START YO UR SEARCH EARLY

You’ll have to pla n ahead. By the firs t da y of classes, a nd ce rta inly by the e nd of
the firs t we e k, you s hould ha ve ma de up your mind.
The best courses a nd ins tructors can ha ve long wa iting lis ts . It s ome time s
he lps to conta ct the ins tructor a te rm or e ve n a ye a r be fore you cons ider ta king
the class. If the re’s a ny proble m ge tting in, you now have an ally.

SBGN UP FOR AN EXTRA CLASS OR TWO

Mos t s chools ha ve a drop-a dd pe riod during the firs t fe w weeks of a semester
during which you ca n s witch classes. S ince you ca n ne ve r be comple te ly sure
be fore ha nd, s ome s ma rt s tude nts ma ke a ha bit of s igning up for a n e xtra class so
that the y ca n drop the one the y like least. In this wa y the y’re sure the y won’t get
s hut out of a class tha t the y might wa nt to ta ke .
(True S tory: One s ma rt s tude nt a t a fa mous Ivy League s chool which be gins You teach your
with “FI” found he rs e lf trying out a n e xciting cours e in a s trophys ics . The daughters the
profe s s or wore cos tume s , told joke s cons ta ntly, a nd s howed film clips from S ta r diameters of the
Trek episodes. She de cide d to re ma in in the course. The day a fte r the drop-add planets, and wonder
pe riod, the profe s sor lowe re d the boom on e ve ryone. He put a wa y the film when you have done
proje ctor, pulle d down the bla ckboard, a nd began writing comple x e qua tions , that they don’t de light
The mora l of the s tory is tha t some teachers don’t always pla y fa ir—do your in your company.
de te ctive work!) S a mu e l J o h n s o n

IF YOU DON’T GET WHAT YOU WANT

S ome times you find yours e lf s tuck in a class a fte r the drop-a dd pe riod has
e nde d. You s till have options . If you don’t like your teacher, you ca n pos s ibly s it
in on a nothe r class or try tra ns fe rring to a diffe re nt s e ction. If the class is too
difficult, s pe a k to the te a che r. If ne ce s s a ry, ta ke up your case with the
de pa rtme nt he ad, the principa l, or the ombuds ma n. If you can’t drop the class,
cons ider the pa s s -fa il option if you have a re a lly ba d fe e ling a bout a class or
teacher.
s=fer WHAT'SC0”
One more Attitude Check a nd the n a fina l (brie f!) look ba ck ove r wha t we ’ve
cove red.

SUMMARY
llillll
If you re me mbe r one thing from this cha pte r, it s hould be this : don’t
blow off cours e s e le ction. The re ’s a lot to cons ide r: Wha t’s the profe s s or
like ? Ca n you ha ndle the workloa d during te rm? How will this cours e
a ffe ct your workloa d during the fina l fe w we e ks of s chool? And so on.
Be ing careless a nd ta king one wrong cours e ca n turn your e ntire
semester into one long nightma re , so s pe nd s ome time on this step. Ta lk
to your frie nds a nd olde r s iblings a bout teachers a nd classes. Of course ,
try to pick courses you’re intere s ted in. S ome courses are re quire d but
mos t s chools offe r a t least a fe w inte res ting a nd cool e le ctive s. One of
thes e e a ch s e me s te r could be e nough to cha nge your a ttitude
dramatica lly towa rds the re quire d courses.
 Inte rmis s ion:
Attitude Che ck #4

TAKE THIS QUIZ!

Time for our fina l a ttitude survey.

| ATTITUDE CHECK

Ins tructions : For each s ta te me nt be low, in the space provide d

indica te whether you agree (1) or disa gre e (0) with it. One more
time : choos e the re s pons e tha t be s t re fle cts wha t you truly
be lie ve , not wha t you think is the “right” answer.
lilt
[ ] 1. From a le a rning point of vie w, much of wha t goes on in s chool seems
like a comple te wa s te of time .
[ ] 2. Whe n a te a che r asks a que s tion in class, you are us ua lly one of the firs t
Iff
fe w s tude nts who raises his ha nd.
[ ] 3. Whe n your te a che r praises you, it increases your self-esteem.
[ ] 4. S chool is de s igne d to ma ximize the pote ntia l of s tudents .
[ ] 5. Working ha rd a t le a rning is not e s pe cia lly s a tis fying, but you do it
prima rily because you know it’s importa nt to your career pla ns .
[ ] 6. You know you could do be tte r in s chool but you refuse to pla y by its
rules.
[ ] 7. You are re a ding this book because your pa re nts e xpe ct you to.
[ ] 8. If grades did not go on your pe rma ne nt re cord, you would s till be
inte re s te d in le a rning as much as you could.

The “answers ” to this quiz follow a brie f dis cus sion.

SCHOOL IS AGA1E
To e mbra ce the notion tha t s chool is a ga me no doubt flie s in the fa ce of
e ve rything you’ve be e n told s ince kinde rga rte n. You’ve be e n conditione d to
be lie ve tha t s chool is de s igne d to promote le a rning, a nd tha t your grades are
obje ctive me a sure s of how much you’ve le a rne d. S ome whe re a long the line ,
howe ve r, you proba bly be ga n to suspect tha t ge nuine le a rning is not one of the
chie f goals of s chool. In fa ct, you’ve proba bly dis cove re d tha t it is quite pos s ible
■ to re ce ive high grades without le a rning or unde rs ta nding ve ry much. You wa nt
WHAT SMART to le a rn a nd you’re frus tra te d tha t so much of s chool seems to pre ve nt tha t.
STUDENTS KNOW
Ma ny s tude nts re se nt tha t s chool is not conne cte d in a ny me a ningful wa y to
the ir live s a nd inte re s ts . The y are a nge re d by the lie s a nd hypocris y the y pe rce ive
in the s chool s ys te m. The y re a lize tha t s chool is one colos s a l ga me , a nd the y
refuse to pla y by its rules.
This is not how s ma rt s tude nts re s pond. But how do you stay inte res te d in
s ome thing whe n you’re not inte re s te d? While s ma rt s tude nts re a lize tha t s chool
is a ga me , the y also re a lize tha t pla ying it we ll will ha ve a s ignifica nt impa ct on
the ir life . Eve n though s chool is not a s ituation of your choos ing, you now know
wa ys to ma ke it re le va nt to your inte re s ts a nd goa ls . It is n’t a lwa ys pos s ible ,
howe ve r, to re la te to e ve ry s ubje ct you are s tudying. S till, s chool is a ga me you
can’t a void pla ying. You can’t ta ke it too s e rious ly, but ne ve r forge t its serious
conse que nce s. I know this is n’t easy while you’re in s chool but try to ke e p it in
pe rs pe ctive.

WHY SMART STUDENTS PLAY THE GAME

The most im portant “Motiva tion” is a re a s on pe ople fre que ntly cite whe n dis cus s ing how we ll
motive for work in the s tudents do in s chool. S tude nts who do we ll are cons ide re d “highly motiva te d,”
school and in life is whereas thos e who don’t do as we ll are less motiva te d, a nd thos e who do poorly
the pleasure in the are dis mis s e d as “unmotivate d.”
work, pleasure in the But the motiva tion fa ctor e xpla na tion misses the point: a ll s tudents are
result, and the motiva te d; the que s tion is, wha t are the y motiva te d to do? If you obse rve infa nts
knowledge ofthe or young childre n, you notice tha t curios ity a nd a de s ire to le a rn are na tura l
value of the result to huma n tra its . Eve ry individua l is motiva te d to le a rn, to ma ke sense of his or he r
the community. In the world. The fa ct tha t ma ny s tude nts are not so motiva te d to be told wha t a nd
awakening and how to le a rn is a nothe r ma tte r.
strengthening of these Why do you wa nt to do we ll in s chool—to please your te a che r, to impre s s
psychologicalforces in your classmates, to s a tis fy your pa rents , to ge t into a good colle ge , to ge t a good
the young person, I see job? The s e re a sons are we ll a nd good, but the y s hould not be your prima ry
ti. >ost im portant goals. The bottom line is tha t doing we ll s hould ma ke you fe el good.
task >ven by the The be s t work is done for the love of it, not for e xte rna l re wa rds like praise
schot S uch a or grades. You s hould wa nt to le a rn to please yours e lf, not othe rs . Unfortuna te ly,
psychological too ma ny s tude nts are motiva te d by e xte rna l fa ctors . Ironica lly, thos e s tude nts
foundation alone leads who de pe nd on e xte rna l re wa rds s uch as grades or a cce pta nce are less like ly to
to a joyous desire for a chie ve the m tha n are s tude nts who see e xce lle nce as its own re ward. Working
the highest possessions for high ma rks or te a che rs’ pra is e puts your s e lf-ima ge a nd s e lf-e s te e m a t the
of men: knowledge me rcy of things outs ide your control.
and artis t-like Of cours e , it’s a kick ge tting s traight As or be coming the class va le dictoria n.
workmanship. But if you’re working ha rd for e xte rna l fa ctors like thos e , you ha ve n’t ye t le a rne d
Al b e r t E in s t e in a principa l messages of this book: the le a rning process its e lf s hould a bs orb you
to the point whe re you are no longer aware of e xte rna l cons ide ra tions . The re is
s imply no wa y you can be a s king the twe lve que s tions a ctive ly while you’re also :
wonde ring wha t your te a che r thinks or wha t kind of grades you’ll be ge tting. ATTITUDE CHECK #4
The irony is tha t s tude nts who worry a bout these things aren’t doing wha t
the y ne e d to do to a chie ve the m! Lose yours e lf in the le a rning process completely.
I promise tha t the grades a nd the a pprova l of the pe ople you care a bout will
follow a utomatica lly.

“ANSWERS” TO ATTITUDE CHECK #4

S ma rt s tudent responses are in bra cke ts.

1. From a le a rning point of vie w, much of wha t goes on in s chool seems like a
comple te wa ste of time .
[ 1 ] Not only se e ms, much of it is a comple te wa s te of time .
Re me mber S ma rt S tude nt P rinciple #12: S chool is a ga me , but it’s
a ve ry importa nt ga me .
2. Whe n a te a che r asks a que s tion in class, you are us ua lly one of the firs t fe w
s tude nts who raises his ha nd.
[ 0 ] How much thought ca n s tude nts who ra is e the ir ha nds
imme dia te ly have give n to the que s tion? More ofte n tha n not these
are the s tude nts who are mos t de spe ra te for the te a cher’s a pprova l.
Re me mbe r S ma rt S tudent P rinciple #11: If you’re doing it for the
gra de s or for the a pprova l of othe rs , you’re mis s ing the s a tis fa ctions
of the proce ss a nd putting your s e lf-e s te em a t the me rcy of things
outs ide your control.
3. Whe n your te a che r praises you, it increases your self-esteem.
[ 0 ] Praise is a double -e dge d s word. Teachers me a n we ll by it, of
course, but the re s ult is often ma king s tude nts de pe nde nt on it. Your
sense of s e lf-worth s hould come from ins ide , not outs ide . As a s ma rt
s tude nt, you work ha rd because you find the ha rd work of le a rning
profoundly re warding, not because you’ve gotten a gold s ta r or a pa t
on the head.
4. S chool is de s igne d to ma ximize the pote ntia l of s tude nts .
[ 0 ] I’ll be t you didn’t have to give this one a lot of thought.
 5. Working ha rd a t le a rning is not e s pecia lly s a tis fying, but you do it prima rily
_ because you know it’s importa nt to your career pla ns .
[ 0 ] Doing we ll in s chool is importa nt to your future career pla ns ,
but as a s ma rt s tude nt you know how to re de s ign your s chool
e xpe rie nce so you are e xtra cting s a tis fa ction today. You’re not going
to la s t too long if s chool is s ome thing you’re tole ra ting s ole ly for
the s a ke of s ome long-te rm goa l. Re me mbe r S ma rt S tude nt
P rinciple #8: S ubjects do not a lwa ys seem inte re s ting a nd re le va nt,
but be ing a ctive ly e ngage d in le a rning the m is be tte r tha n be ing
pa s s ive ly bore d a nd not le a rning the m.
6. You know you could do be tte r in s chool but you refuse to pla y by its rule s.
[ 0 ] As a s ma rt s tude nt, you now know how to do we ll in s chool
on its te rms as we ll as your own. Re me mbe r S ma rt S tude nt
P rinciple #12.
7. You are re a ding this book because your pa re nts e xpe ct you to.
[ 0 ] Perhaps you s ta rte d tha t way, but I s ince re ly hope tha t you’ve
finis he d it for yours e lf.
8. If grades did not go on your pe rma ne nt re cord, you would s till be inte res te d
in le a rning as much as you could.
[ 1 ] You might not be inte re ste d in le a rning the wa y s chool ins is ts ,
but you would be inte res te d in le a rning. Re me mbe r S ma rt S tude nt
P rinciple #11.
 A P a rting Look at
Wha t S ma rt S tude nts Know

YOU’VE COME A LONG WAY

In the be ginning, as a s ma rt s tude nt-in-tra ining, you ma y feel as if you’re putting
in more time a nd e ffort. You will be. You're s till le a rning the fine r points of a
whole ne w a pproa ch to s chool a nd putting it into a ction. You’re a ls o
e xpe rie ncing a ra dica l s hift in your pe rce ption of your teachers a nd yours elf.
Cha nge is ha rd a nd we resist it. But if you s tick with Cybe rLe a rning, in a
s hort while you’ll see a vas t improve me nt in how much you le a rn a nd the grades
you receive. If you’ve gotte n this far, you’ve got the drive it takes to be a s ma rt
s tudent. It ma y ta ke s ome time for you to be come comforta ble with a ll the
te chnique s , but the ha rd pa rt is over. As le a rning becomes easier a nd your grades
improve , you’ll move from one success to the ne xt.

ONCE MORE WITH FEELING: ATTITUDE + TECHNIQUE = SMART STUDENT

I’ve ce rta inly pre s e nte d you with a lot to dige s t. You ma y be wonde ring whe the r
you’ll re me mbe r a ll the tips , te chnique s, a nd strategies in the coming weeks a nd
months .
Don’t worry if you ca n’t re membe r a ll the te chnique s—-the importa nt thing
is tha t you see yours e lf as a s ma rt s tude nt. Attitude is much more importa nt
tha n te chnique . Once you see yours e lf as a s ma rt s tude nt, you’ll a ct a nd le a rn
like one.
Be fore we close, le t’s ta ke one fina l look a t the Twe lve P rinciple s .

Principle #1: Nobody Can Teach You as Well as You Can Teach Yourself
Because you know this , you control a ny le a rning s itua tion. While teachers te ll
you what you have to le a rn, how you le a rn tha t ma teria l is your business. You
a da pt s itua tions to your le a rning needs, not the othe r wa y a round. No teacher,
no ma tte r how gifte d or de dica te d, knows how you think a nd proce s s
informa tion be tte r tha n you do.

Principle #2: Merely Listening to Your Teachers and Completing Their

Assignments Is Never Enough
Be ca use you know this , you do wha te ve r it ta ke s to le a rn the ma te ria l in a
course. Think of your teachers a nd a s s ignme nts as the fra me work a round which
true pe rs ona lize d le a rning is built. You are cons ta ntly on the lookout for ne w
a nd be tte r sources of informa tion a nd ne w a nd be tte r ways to le a rn. Afte r a ll,
tha t’s why you worked your wa y through this book.
 Principle #3: Mot Everything You Are Assigned to Read or Asked to Do is
WHAT SMART
STUDENTS KNOW
Equally Important
Because you know this , you set prioritie s a nd pla n ahead. You budge t your time
a nd focus on the mos t importa nt tasks on your a ge nda. And you a pply this
principle to your s tudying as we ll. You know the va lue of conce ntra ting your
le a rning e fforts on the mos t importa nt aspects of a cours e ra the r tha n be coming
ove rwhe lme d by trying to a bs orb e ve rything.

Principle #4: Grades Are Just Subjective Opinions

Because you know this , you don’t ge t ove rly ups e t with ba d grades (or ove rly
e xcite d by good ones). Besides, you’re not in it for the grades (P rinciple #11).
S ince grades are importa nt, you also ma ke it a point to ge t to know the pe rs onal
like s , dis like s , a nd biases of the pe rs on who de cide s the m—your te a che r. But
doing the be s t you pos s ibly ca n—ma s te ring a s ubje ct to the be s t of your
a bility—is your true goal.

Principle #5: ilaking Mistakes (and Occasionally Appearing Foolish) Is

the Price You Pay for Learning and Improving
And it’s a price you’re more tha n willing to pay. In the le a rning process, mis ta ke s
are as importa nt as successes. Young childre n have a ne a rly unlimite d a ptitude
for le a rning owing to the ir willingne s s to ma ke mis ta ke s . Obs e rve the m some
time.

Principle #6: The Point of a Question Is to Get You to Think—Afo/ Simply

to Answer It
Be ca us e you know this , you a re a lways looking for diffe re nt pe rs pe ctive s ,
diffe re nt answers, a nd diffe re nt me thods to solve problems . You see que s tions as
cha lle nge s , not thre a ts , a nd you a pproa ch obvious answers with s ke pticis m.

Principle #7: You’re in School to Learn to Think for Yourself, Not to

Repeat What Your Textbooks and Teachers Tell You
I respect faith, but Because you know this , you ta ke nothing a t face va lue . You que s tion e ve rything,
doubt is what gives e s pe cia lly a uthority a nd mos t e s pe cially yours e lf. And I hope you’ve que s tione d
you an e ducation. the ideas I’ve pre s ente d in this book. Only through cons ta nt cha lle nging a nd
Wil s o n Miz n e r re a ching be yond limita tions does a nyone le a rn a nything of s ignifica nce .

Principle #8: Subjects Do Not Always Seem Interesting or Relevant, but

Being Actively Engaged in Learning Them Is Better Than Being
Passively Bored and Not Learning Them
Because you know this , you are willing, e ve n eager, to le a rn things tha t othe r
s tude nts might find boring. Fe w things are boring to you. You ma y not be
inte re s te d in the s ubje ct, but you are a lwa ys inte re ste d in your que s tions a bout

©
it. If you a re bore d or dis tra cte d in cla ss, you re a lize it me a ns you a re n’t A PARTING LOOK AT
le a rning—a nd you do s ome thing a bout it. You know tha t le a rning is a n ongoing WHAT SMART
dia logue a nd inve s tiga tion, a nd tha t you mus t uphold your e nd or dis cove ry STUDENTS KNOW
come s to a s cre e ching ha lt.

Principle #3: Few Things Are as Potentially Difficult, Frustrating, or

Frightening as Genuine Learning, Yet Nothing Is So Empowering
Aga in, it’s a price you’re more tha n willing to pay. Le a rning does not e nd whe n
the be ll rings or you gra b your diploma . It lite ra lly is the s tuff of life . The
a lte rna tive to que s tioning, gra s ping, a nd moving forwa rd e ve ry da y of your life is
much more re s tful but fa r less e xciting a nd gra tifying. It takes coura ge a nd ha rd
work to ta ckle the unknown, but each time you do it will be easier a nd less
frighte ning—a nd s oon you’ll be hooke d.

Principle #10: How Well You Do in School Reflects Your Attitude and
Your Method, Not Your Ability
Because you know this , you don’t ta ke a ca de mic mis ta kes or dis a ppointme nts
pe rs ona lly. The re ’s nothing wrong with you; it’s jus t your a ttitude or me thod
tha t needs a djus ting. The ma te ria l is the ma te ria l; the re will always be s ome thing
you don’t unde rs ta nd. You are wha t is cons ta ntly cha nging. Once you be gin to
see a ll classes a nd topics as within your control, you can work on fine -tuning
wha t you mus t do to ma s te r the m.

Principle #11: Sf You’re Doing St for the Grades or for the Approval of
Others, You’re Missing the Satisfaction of the Process and Putting Your
Self-Esteem at the Mercy of Things Outside Your Control
Because you know this , you work ha rd for yours e lf firs t. Of course it’s nice to get
good grades a nd to impre s s thos e who care a bout you. But tha t can’t be why you
work so ha rd. You work ha rd a nd you excel because it makes you fe e l good, a nd
be ca us e you re a lize tha t you a lone will live with the cons e quence s of your
e duca tion. Praise is gre a t but its flip side is dis a pproval, which can de ra il le a rning
a nd unde rmine your sense of yourse lf a nd your a bilitie s . As a s ma rt s tude nt you
know tha t true gra tifica tion—like true le a rning—is s ome thing tha t comes from
within.

Principle #12: School Is a Game, by! It’s a Very Important Game

Because you know this , you keep e ve rything in pe rs pe ctive. Even though you
know tha t a lot of wha t goes on a t s chool has nothing to do with le a rning, you
pla y the game anyway. And you pla y to win.
 WHY I REALLY WROTE THIS BOOK
WHAT SMART Our e ntire s chool system is based on the notion of passive s tude nts tha t mus t be
STUDENTS KNOW
“ta ught” if the y a re to le a rn. Unfortuna te ly, mos t s tude nts ha ve be come
indoctrina te d with this ins idious message. So the y s it pa tie ntly (or not so
pa tie ntly) in class, wa iting for the ir te ache r to give the m a n e duca tion. The y
lis te n to wha t the ir teachers say a nd the y do wha t the ir teachers te ll the m to do.
And the y wonde r why the y aren’t le a rning much a nd why the ir grades a re n’t as
high as the y’d like . The re s ult, on a na tiona l le ve l, is a s te a dy e ros ion of a ca de mic
s ta ndards for the pa s t fe w decades.
This is the firs t book tha t shows s tude nts wha t it me a ns to le a rn. I wrote it
to fre e s tude nts from the ir ove r-re lia nce on te a che rs by s howing you how to
te a ch yours e lf. This is also the firs t book tha t re cognize s tha t le a rning tools are
useless unless s tudents have the coura ge to a cce pt re s pons ibility for le a rning, a nd
are willing to put in the ha rd work tha t ge nuine le a rning e nta ils . Once you’ve
inte rna lize d the Twe lve P rinciples , you’ll be re a dy to ta ke cha rge of your own
e duca tion.
Look, the re a l re a s on I wrote this book is tha t I ha te wha t s chool doe s to
s tudents . Our country spends te ns of billions of dolla rs each ye a r not jus t giving
s tude nts a s e cond-ra te e duca tion, but a t the same time a ctively pre ve nting the m
from ge tting a n e duca tion on the ir own. And I’m a ngry a t how s chool produce s
s ubmis s ive s tude nts with ba tte red egos. Mos t s tude nts have no ide a of the true
joys of le a rning, a nd of how much the y ca n a ctua lly a chie ve on the ir own.
I wrote this book to give you s ome ide a of your true pote ntia l. I wrote this
book to s e t you fre e .

THE CENTRAL MESSAGE

Education is an If you le a rn only one a ttitude in this book, I hope you’ve le a rne d the following
admirable thing, but message. Your success in s chool—your gra des , how much you le a rn, a nd how
nothing that is worth you e xpe rie nce the proce ss—is e ntire ly up to you.
knowing can be Your succe ss is your re s pons ibility, not your te ache rs ’ a nd not your pa re nts ’.
taught. In the pa s t you might have bla med your la ck of inte re s t or success in a s ubje ct
O s c a r Wil d e on a lous y te xtbook or a boring te a che r, but tha t doe s n’t cha nge the fa ct tha t you
ha ve to finis h the course. From now on the re are no more excuses. No more
s lipping through s chool passively. You’re going to ta ke a n a ctive role , a nd you’re
going to do wha te ve r it takes to le a rn a nd succeed.

WHAT’S STOPPING YOU?

You now know e ve rything you ne e d to know to excel in s chool. Go for it!
 The Myth Be hind the
Educa tion Cris is
(a nd Wha ts Re a lly Wrong)

An Open Letter to Parents, Educators, Business Leaders, Politicians,

and Policymakers
By now we ’re us e d to re a ding gloomy he a dline s ta tis tics of the ongoing
e duca tion crisis:
S AT S cores S lum p to All-Tim e Lows !
One High S chool S tudent in Four Now Drops Out!
S tudy Finds Tens ofMillions ofAdults Are Functionally Illite rate !
Am e rican High S choolers R ank Ne ar the Bottom in Math and
S cience Ability Inte rnationally!
With he a dline s like tha t, you’d think tha t pa re nts would be worrie d a nd s tude nts
would be embarrassed. Curious ly, the oppos ite seems to be the case.
In inte rna tiona l a ca de mic ra nkings , Ame rica n s tudents routine ly pla ce
s ome whe re a t the bottom of the top te n na tions (oka y, oka y, s o I
e xa gge rate d—-we re not e ve n a mong the top te n). Ye t de s pite the ir dis ma l
s howing, our s tude nts are quite s a tis fie d with the ir a ca de mic a ccomplis hme nts,
tha nk you ve ry much. J us t ask the m. The Educa tiona l Te s ting Service did.
ETS re ce ntly conducte d a na tiona l s urvey in which e ighth-gra de rs we re
asked to fill out a que s tionna ire be fore ta king a ma th test. Ma ny of the s tude nts
who ha d de s cribe d the mse lve s as ma th “whizzes ” in fa ct a chieve d a bys ma lly low
scores on the a ccompa nying test! This gulf be twe e n a ctua l a bility (ve ry low) a nd
pe rceive d a bility (ve ry high) has been confirme d by othe r researchers. It’s got to
ma ke you wonde r.
Pa rents are re ma rka bly unpe rturbe d by this state of a ffa irs ; pe rha ps the y are
s imply una wa re of the truth. In one survey, Ame rica n pa re nts we re fa r more
like ly to re port tha t the y we re “ve ry s a tis fie d” with the ir child’s e duca tion tha n
we re , say, Japanese pa re nts (whos e childre n’s a ca de mic pe rforma nce , by the wa y,
ra nks ne a r the top inte rna tiona lly).
Corporate leaders, howe ve r, ca nnot a fford to be so s a nguine . The y see the
e ffe ct of the e duca tion cris is e ve ry da y firs tha nd—in the workpla ce —a nd the y
are te rrifie d of the mounting inte rna tiona l e conomic compe tition we face. With
an unde re duca te d work force , we ’re s imply not e quippe d to fight ba ck. S ome
ma jor corpora tions s pe nd millions of dolla rs a nnua lly jus t trying to te a ch the ir
worke rs to read a nd write .
 Did our s chools produce this crisis? And if the y did, whe re did the y go
WHAT SMART
wrong? One proble m is tha t ma ny fe a ture s of a s tude nt’s a ca de mic e xpe rie nce
STUDENTS KNOW
are dicta te d not by conve ntiona l e duca tiona l cons ide ra tions , but by politica l,
bure a ucra tic, cus todia l, a nd a dminis tra tive ones. With millions of s tude nts in
crowde d cla ssrooms, our ove rworke d teachers are ofte n re duce d to jus t ke e ping
the peace. Workbook exercises might not e nha nce le a rning, but the y do ke e p
s tude nts quie t a nd bus y. Multiple -choice te s ts might not re quire much
inte llige nce , but the y are ce rta inly easy to gra de . Te xtbooks a nd workbooks
might not be the ide a l e duca tiona l ve hicle s , but a t le a s t we know tha t e ve ryone is
“le a rning” the same thing.
All the bla me ca nnot be pla ce d on teachers—ma ny of whom, of cours e, are
s upe rb. Teachers are doing the ir best to cope with pressures from a s s orte d pa rtie s
a nd inte re st groups : pa re nts , a dminis tra tors , s chool boa rds , te xtbook publis he rs ,
a nd the te s ting indus try, not to me ntion loca l, state, a nd fe de ra l gove rnme nts .
And to be sure , s chools are s truggling in s ocia lly a nd e conomica lly trouble d
times .
It’s not as if a ll this ble ak ne ws has dis courage d the optimis ts . Indee d, the y
be lie ve tha t s chools s hould re a ch for e ve n loftie r goa ls . According to s ome ,
public e duca tion s hould s trive not me re ly to e nha nce s tude nts ’ inte lle ctua l
de ve lopme nt, but the ir pe rs ona l, s ocia l, civic, a nd voca tiona l de ve lopme nt as
we ll. Wonde rful—the same s chools tha t curre ntly ha ve trouble te a ching s tudents
to re a d, write , a nd re a s on compe te ntly s hould a lso be trying to te a ch e thics ,
inte rpe rsona l re la tions , a nd ca re e r s tra te gy. Give n our s chool s ys te m’s dis ma l
re s ults on the a ca de mic front, the s e a s pira tions a re e ithe r a s tonis hingly
fa rfe tched or una ba s he dly hypocritica l, de pe nding on your point of vie w.
Le t’s face re a lity—mos t s chools are doing a te rrible job. Nume rous s olutions
a nd e duca tion re forms ha ve be e n propos e d, including the following:
« de cre a s ing fe de ra l control ove r loca l s chools
• tying te a che r pa y to s tude nt pe rforma nce
8 providing more mone y
• manda ting a tougher curriculum of re quire d courses
• cre ating a series of na tiona l s ta nda rdize d exams
• relying more on compute rs a nd multime dia te chnology
• e s ta blis hing longer s chool years
• providing more mone y
• a llowing “s chool choice ”
• a llowing compe tition from for-profit s chools
8 re quiring minimum compe te ncy te s ting of s tude nts
• insis ting on toughe r s ta nda rds for e ve ryone
• providing more mone y
Ta ke your pick.
THE MYTH BEHIND THE
The s e propos a ls are a ll we ll-inte ntione d. Mos t, howe ve r, will do little to
EDUCATION CRISIS
raise the qua lity of e ducation. Inde e d, s ome are sure to lowe r it. The re is no
que s tion tha t ma ny s chools are in desperate ne e d of gre a te r funding, e s pe cially
thos e in inne r citie s . But mone y a lone is not the answer.
Ke e p in mind tha t a ny improve me nts to the s chool syste m will ta ke years to
imple me nt. Re me mbe r too tha t the goa l of our s chool syste m has less to do with
e duca tion tha n its ins titutiona l s urviva l. As a bure a ucra cy, the s chool s ys te m has
a n inte re s t in blocking a ny re form tha t would thre ate n its its monopolis tic
control ove r e duca tion. By its own ins titutiona l s ta nda rds , our e duca tion s ys te m
is a ma jor success: it gra dua te s a ma jority of s tude nts , a nd ke e ps its e lf in
business.
The a s s umption be hind mos t propos a ls for e duca tiona l re form is tha t
s chools are doing a n oka y job. According to conve ntiona l wis dom, a ll s chools
ne e d is a fe w a lte ra tions , toughe r s ta nda rds , more mone y, a nd some prodding
from ma rke tpla ce compe tition a nd the y’ll s oon be ba ck on tra ck towa rd
fulfilling the ir noble mis s ion. Ye t I a m convince d tha t even if we double d the
numbe r of teachers in the cla s s room tomorrow, the impa ct on e duca tion a nd
a ca de mic pe rforma nce for mos t s tude nts would be ne gligible.
The truth is this : our e duca tion s ys te m rests on e rrone ous a s s umptions
a bout how s tude nts think a nd le a rn. It doe s n’t ma tte r how much mone y is
poured into s chools , the va st ma jority of s tude nts will continue to le arn little
until s chools ove rha ul the ir funda me nta l be lie fs a bout the le a rning process. This
is unlike ly to ha ppe n a ny time soon.
The re a l myth lurking be hind the e ducation cris is is tha t a ca de mic s ta ndards
in this country will not improve until our s chool system improve s .
Nons e ns e ! Tens of thous a nds of s tude nts manage to le a rn a gre a t de a l a nd
excel, no ma tte r wha t’s going on in s chool. The s e are the s ma rt s tude nts . This
book shares wha t the y ha ve a lwa ys ta ke n for gra nte d—tha t knowle dge a nd
unde rs ta nding are not be s towe d by the teacher, but ge ne ra te d by the s tude nt.
S ma rt s tude nts a re n’t a ny “s ma rte r” tha n other s tudents . The y jus t realize tha t it’s
the ir re s pons ibility to le a rn. S ma rt s tude nts do not re ly on teachers because one
da y the y dis cove re d a funda me nta l truth: nobody ca n te a ch you as we ll as you
ca n te a ch yours e lf. And it wouldn’t ma tte r if a ll the ir teachers we re brillia nt a nd
cha ris ma tic—s ma rt s tude nts would s till be te a ching themselves.
Because of the wa y s chool is s tructure d, mos t s tude nts see the ms e lve s as
passive passengers in the le a rning process. The y think it’s the te a che r’s job to
te a ch a nd the ir job to lis te n a nd le a rn. So the y s it ba ck a nd wa it for le a rning to
ha ppe n. But le a rnitig doesn’t jus t ha ppe n—the s tude nt mus t ma ke it ha ppe n.
In the classic movie The W iz ard of Oz, Dorothy, Lion, Scarecrow, a nd Tin
Ma n journe y toge the r on a n odyssey to a dis ta nt la nd. De s pite the ir fears, the y
e ndure ha rds hips , ove rcome obstacles, a nd fe nd off gre at dangers. Why? Because

@
 the y ha ve he a rd tha t the re is a gre a t wiza rd in Oz. Once the re , howe ve r, the y
s t u d en t s Tn o w dis cove r tha t the ma n be hind the curta in ca nnot gra nt the ir wishes. Ins te a d he
' gives the m s ome thing fa r more va lua ble : the knowle dge tha t the y we re always
a ble to ge t wha t the y wa nte d on the ir own.
The message of this book is tha t te a che rs a re not wiza rds ; a nd tha t if
s tude nts wa nt to le a rn, the y mus t te a ch the ms e lve s . To do this the y mus t
be come a wa re of the proce s s of le a rning, a nd of the s a tis fa ctions a nd
e mpowe rme nt it brings . If a t time s I s ound pre a chy, my gos pe l is only tha t
forgotte n Ame rica n virtue : s e lf-re lia nce .
We face a se rious e duca tion crisis. All the s olutions propos e d to da te assume
tha t s tude nts a re inca pa ble of le a rning without “innova tive ” progra ms or
ins pire d teachers. Sure our cla s s rooms are ove rcrowde d—e s pe cia lly if we vie w
teachers as the e xclus ive give rs of knowle dge to row a fte r row of passive s tude nts .
S ma rt s tude nts le a rn wha t the y ne e d to know no ma tte r wha t’s going on in class.
I propos e tha t we s hift our focus by re fra ming the e duca tion proble m.
Ins tea d of vie wing s tude nts as passive receivers of knowle dge , we see the m as
knowledge cre a tors . S mart s tude nts have a lwa ys seen the ms e lves in this light; my
goa l is to ins pire a ll s tude nts to see the mse lve s in the same way. This a ttitude
s hift will not be easy to a chie ve s ince a lmos t e ve rything a bout the wa y s chool is
run cons pire s a ga ins t the s tude nt trying to le a rn on his or he r own.
Hundre ds of billions of dolla rs a nd millions of ma n-ye ars are be ing wa s ted
a nnua lly, a ll in the na me of e duca tion. As Albe rt Eins te in once sa id, howe ve r,
“The re is too much e duca tion a ltoge the r, e s pe cia lly in Ame rica n s chools .”
Improving our e duca tion s ta nda rds will re quire a n e normous coordina te d e ffort
from gove rnme nt a nd business as we ll as the e duca tion community.
And ye t the mos t importa nt initia tive s will come from the s tude nts
the mse lve s. While we work towa rd improving the s chool s ys te m for tomorrow,
this book shows s tude nts how to te a ch the mse lve s a nd ge t a n e duca tion today.
And whe n tha t ha ppe ns , we will produce a n e duca tiona l tra ns forma tion tha t
will a s tonis h the world. (Ssshhh, if you’re quie t you ca n he a r the rumblings of
the coming e duca tiona l e a rthquake .)

0
 Inde x

Wha t follows is a brie f, us e r-frie ndly inde x of the ma jor topics in this book. It’s s hort e nough
tha t I re comme nd your re a ding through it e ntire ly to look for areas tha t pique your curios ity. If
you don’t find s ome thing, look for it unde r s ynonyms (tests, for e xa mple , are lis te d he re as
exams).

Attitude Grades
(see also Wha t S ma rt Stude nts Think; Ta ble of how s ma rt students think a bout, 77-80
Conte nts for Ta ke This Quiz, Attitude Check how to discuss the m with your teacher,
Inte rmis s ions ) 198-199,238
cha nging your a ttitude, 12, 13, 15, 21-22
how s chool affects, 12, 20 LecSures
importa nce of, 11 advantages of, 42
s ma rt s tude nt’s cre do, 20-21 de ciding wha t’s importa nt in, 86-87
wha t a ttitude is, 12 disadvantages of, 41
nuts a nd bolts , 42-44
Choosing Courses ta king notes during, 42-44, 92-93
how to ge t the real scoop, 258-259
te n things you need to cons ide r whe n Literature
de ciding, 255-258 (see also Subjects, Type II)
e xpe rt que stions for, 147-150
Exams ge ne ra lly, 145-154
cramming a nd a ll-nighte rs , 183-184
fifte e n strategies whe n you forge t an Managing Your Time
answer, 190-191 calendars you’ll need, 248-249
figuring out wha t will be on the m, 177-180 importa nce of not pla nning e ve ry minute ,
five -s te p a pproa ch to ta king, 187-192 248,251
ge ne ra lly, 177-189 importa nce of planning, 248-249
ha ndling nerves before, 182 planning each te rm, 252
ha ndling nerves during, 186 planning each week, 251
nuts a nd bolts , 196 us ing spare mome nts , 251
re vie wing your pe rforma nce , 197-198
seven-step a pproa ch to rehearsing, 178, 178-182 Mathematics
ta king essay tests, 192-194 (see also Subjects, Type III)
ta king multiple -choice tests, 194-195 e xpe rt que stions for, 159-160, 162-166
ta king ope n-book tests, 196 ge nera lly, 155-168
ta king s ta nda rdize d tests, 195-196 nuts a nd bolts on how to re a d ma th
ta king ta ke -home tests, 196 te xtbooks , 166-167
ta king true -fa ls e tests, 194-195 seven reasons why it seems so difficult, 156-159
wha t tests re a lly measure, 185 s olving proble ms , 167-168
wha t to do the morning of, 186-187
wha t to do whe n you arrive, 187
whe n you s hould be gin rehearsing for, 183
whe re s hould you rehearse, 182, 183
Memorizing Smart Student’s Actual Notes
four-s te p a pproa ch to me morizing, 118-119 a fte r combining with cla s sroom note s, 97
hooks, 113, 115 a fte r pa ra phra s ing a nd s umma rizing, 90
how not to me morize, 112 a lmos t-fma l set of notes, 109
how your bra in works , 112 be fore re a ding, 51, 56
mne monics , 113 in lite ra ture , 151-153
re cons tructing “forgotte n” in te xtbook, 99
informa tion, 114-115 on diffe rent me thods of orga niza tion, 103-104
re la tions hip to unde rs ta nding, 111, 114, on pe rs ona l que s tions , 74
131-132 s umma ry sheet, 123-124
s hort-te rm versus long-te rm me mory, 115-116 to answer the e xpe rt a nd orie nta tion
te n keys to me morizing a nything, 113-114, que stions, 105-106
114-118 while writing a pa pe r, 214-216, 218

Notes Subjects
(see also S ma rt S tude nt’s Actua l Note s ) four types of subjects, 141-143
combining cla ssroom a nd te xtbook need for diffe re nt strategies, 143
notes, 93-98 Type II subjects (including lite ra ture ), 145-154
compa ring cla ssroom a nd te xtbook Type III subje cts (including
notes, 93-96 ma the ma tics ), 155-168
how not to take, 29-30
how to de cide what’s importa nt, 81-84 Textbooks
nuts a nd bolts , 91-92 choos ing a s upple me nta ry source of
Pareto’s principle , Zipfs la w, a nd informa tion, 60-62
the 80-20 rule , 81-83 how not to ma rk up, 31
s umma ry sheet, 123-124 how to ma rk up, 98
tota l volume during te rm, 121 nuts a nd bolts on ma th te xtbooks , 166-167
whe n you no longer need, 105
Questions why the y’re so ha rd to read, 59-60
(see also The Twe lve Que s tions )
dia loguing, 35 Tools Smart Students Use
e xpe rt que stions , 67-70, 75 compute rs , 242-243
e xpe rt que s tions in lite ra ture , 147-150 importa nce of voca bula ry, 243
e xpe rt que s tions in ma th, 159-160, 162-166 which reference books you’ll need, 241-242
how s ma rt s tude nts think a bout, 169-173
orie nta tion que stions , 68-70, 75 The Twelve Questions
pe rsona l (versus e xpe rt) que stions, 71-72 (see also Ta ble of Conte nts for the individua l
que stions)
Reading dia loguing, 35, 76, 212
(see also Que s tions 1-6 in the Ta ble of Conte nts ) general dis cus s ion, 36-38, 127-129
wha t speed re a ding is a ll a bout, 85-86 in lite ra ture classes, 146-154
why wa rming up be fore is importa nt, in ma th classes, 166
45, 49-50, 53, 55

Sample Textbook Passages

algebra, 160
ge ometry, 161
rocks, 27
Understanding Writing Papers
how you build it, 132-135 blue print for academic essays, 206, 225-226
nine things you can do whe n you don’t how to choose a topic, 208-211
unde rs ta nd s ome thing, 135-137 how to e dit, 227-230, 232-234
wha t it means to unde rs ta nd how to generate ideas, 208-216
s ome thing, 132 importa nce of voca bula ry, 230-231
why de ve loping it is frus tra ting, 132-134 importa nce of your writing s kills , 205
why it’s so importa nt, 114, 132 nuts a nd bolts , 237-238
quirks of academic style, 205-206
What Smart Students Think typing, 237-238
(see also Attitude ) wha t your teacher re a lly looks for, 233-234
a bout grades, 77-80
a bout le a rning, 201-203
a bout mistakes, 169-173
a bout que s tions a nd answers, 169-173
a bout s chool as a game, 261-264
the ir credo (the Twe lve P rinciple s ), 20-21,
265-268