CHAPTER - 1

INTRODUCTION
Introduction to Biochemistry

Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry of, and relating to, biological organisms.
It forms a bridge between biology and chemistry by studying how complex chemical reactions and
chemical structures give rise to life and life's processes.

Definition
Bio-chemistry is the study of chemical substances and vital processes occurring in living
organisms. it includes the study of chemistry behind biological processes and the synthesis of biologically
active molecules.

 Biochemistry is defined as the chemistry of biology.

 The science of biochemistry has also been called physiological chemistry and biological
chemistry.
 Biochemistry can also define as the study of the molecular basis of cellular function.

Meaning and Concept of Biochemistry

 Biochemistry is used to learn about the biological processes which take place in cells and
organisms.
 Biochemistry may be used to study the properties of biological molecules, for a variety of
purposes. For example, a biochemist may study the characteristics of the keratin in hair so that a
shampoo may be developed that enhances curliness or softness.
 Biochemists find uses for biomolecules. For example, a biochemist may use a certain lipid as a
food additive.
 Alternatively, a biochemist might find a substitute for a usual biomolecule. For example,
biochemists help to develop artificial sweeteners.
 Biochemists can help cells to produce new products. Gene therapy is within the realm of
biochemistry. The development of biological machinery falls within the realm of biochemistry

Need of Studying Biochemistry

Biochemical approaches to the simplification and understanding of biological systems require two
types of background.
First biochemists must be thoroughly skilled in the basic principles and techniques of chemistry,
such as stoichiometry, photometry, organic chemistry, oxidation and reduction chromatography, and
kinetics.
Second, biochemists must be familiar with the theories and principles of a wide variety of
biological and physical disciplines often used in biochemical studies, such as genetics, radioisotope
tracing, bacteriology, and electronics.
Today, the findings of biochemistry are used in many areas, from genetics to molecular biology
and from agriculture to medicine. The first application of biochemistry was probably the making of bread
using yeast, about 5000 years ago.
SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPORTANCE OF BIO- CHEMISTRY IN NURSING

There are various aspects of biochemistry which have their significance in nursing. There can be
summarized as follows.

1. Clinical Biochemistry:- Clinical Biochemistry plays an important role in diagnosis of different

diseases in humans. Various biochemical tests reflect the levels of metabolites, enzyme activities
and minerals in blood and urine. The magnitude of anomalies helps the physician to exactly assess
the nature of the diseases for treating the patient.

2. Nutritional Biochemistry:- Nutritional Biochemistry helps to understand the nutrition and

dietetics (study of food and nutrition). There are 6 major components of diet.
Carbohydrate, fat and protein yield energy, provide for growth and maintain tissue subject
to wear and tear. Vitamins, Minerals & Water are essential parts of chemical mechanisms for the
utilization of energy and for the synthesis of various necessary metabolites like hormones and
enzymes.

Applications of the basic principles of biochemistry are essential to the nursing

profession. The correct diagnosis, nursing care plans, treatment, prevention and control of infectious
diseases depend on a sound knowledge of medical biochemistry.

Biochemistry is perhaps the most rapidly developing branch of medicine. No wonder the major
share of Nobel prizes in medicine possible, has gone to research workers engaged in biochemistry

Biochemistry is of great use within the field of nursing, with many practical applications that can
assist you in becoming a better nurse.
Biochemistry is the study of how chemical reactions occur within living things and refers generally
to medicine and nutrition, where practical applications are concerned.

 A review of the application of biochemistry in nursing needs to mention of many therapeutic

agents whose existence was first demonstrated on lab experiments.
e.g hormone insulin, all the vitamins and many other products of therapeutic significant.
 If an infant is always vomiting after giving milk, she or he probably has galactose intolerance.
 If an infant is born with jaundice, her or his liver is not fully functional.
 When colour of infant’s urine turns dark, probably he/she suffers from an amino acid metabolic
disorder.
 Anemic children, older, elder, or geriatric persons can be explained on the basis of biochemistry.
e.g intake of Fe, hemolytic disorder (G6PD deficiency or pyruate kinase deficiency) or a chronic
renal disease.
 Many such condition thus, can be explained on the basis of bio-chemistry.
Cell Structure, Composition and Functions

 Cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organism. bacteria are unicellular (consist of
single cell), human beings are multicellular (may have upto 10 cells).
 Each cell take nutrients and converts energy. a cell also carried out specialized functions and
reproduces and stores its own set of instructions for carrying out these activities.
 There are two types of cells called prokaryote and eukaryote cells. prokaryote cells are usually
independent while eukaryote cells are found in multicellular organisms.

Prokaryote Cell

 The simplest form and the first type of cells to evolve are prokaryote cells. Prokaryotes are
unicellular organisms that do not developed or differentiate into multicellular forms some bacteria
grow in filaments or masses of cells but each cell in the colony is identical and capable of
independent existence. They may adjacent to one another because they do not separate after cell
division though there is no continuity or communication between them.
 Besides lack of nuclear membrane, a prokaryote cell also lacks intracellular organelles.
Prokaryotic cells have three architectural region that includes appendages called flagella and vili,
cell envelope or cell wall consisting of a capsule and a cytoplasmic region.
 Enclosing a cell, there is cell envelope, which generally consists of a cell wall, covering a plasma
membrane. some bacteria have a further covering layer, called capsule.
 A cell wall consists of peptidoglycans in bacteria and act as a barrier against the external forces. it
prevent the cell from expanding and bursting insides the cell is cytoplasmic region that contains
cell genome (DNA), ribosomes and various other inclusion.
 Prokaryotes carry chromosomal DNA elements called plasmids, it function such as antibiotics
resistance.
 Eukaryote cells include fungi, animal cells, plant cells as well as some unicellular organisms. it 10
times larger than a prokaryotic cell and can be as much as 1000 times more in volume.

A comparison of the characteristics between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is listed below:

Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell

1.Cell size is 0.1 - 5.0 um. 1.Cell size is 5 – 100 um.
2.The cell possesses one envelope system and 2.The cell has two-envelope system and most
Organelles are naked. Of organelles are enveloped.
3.Cell wall, if present, contains peptidoglycan. 3. Cell wall. If present, contains cellulose or
Fungus cellulose.
4.Cell membrane or plasmalemma has 4.Plasmalemma does not form mesosome,
infolding Called mesosome which helps in Lacks respiratory enzymes and is not
attachment Of chromosome (DNA) and in Associated with chromosomes.
separation of Replicating chromosome
products.
5. A typical nucleus is absent. instead nucleoid 5.It contains atypical nucleus having nuclear
Or DNA is naked (without histones). Generally envelope. Nucleoplasm, chromatin, nuclear
Circular and lies freely in the cytoplasm. matrix and nucleoli. DNA is commonly linear
and is associated with histone proteins.
6.DNA content is low and extra nuclear. DNA 6.DNA content is high and is present inside
is Nucleus as well as mitochondria and plastids
Absent except plasmids in some bacterial Of cytoplasm.
cells.
7.Spindle apparatus is not formed during cell 7.Aspindle apparatus is formed during cell
division. Meiosis or reductional division is division. Meiosis or reductional division is
absent. essential for sexual reproduction.
8.Flagella are smaller (4-5um *12nm) and are 8.Flagella are longer (150-200um *200nm), 11
Single stranded, without any distinction Stranded (9+2) showing distinction of
Between axoneme and sheath. Axoneme and sheath.
9.Cell organelles are only ribosomes which 9.Ribosomes are of two types – 80 S in
are cytoplasm (free or attached to ER) and 70 S in
Of 70S size. Enveloped organelles are absent organelles (mitochondria and plastids), There
Except thylakoids in photosynthetic cells are several enveloped organelles like
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies,
lysosomes, microbodies, mitochondria,
plastids, etc.
10.Sap vacuoles are absent. Gas vacuoles may 10.Sap vacuoles are quite common but gas
occur. Vacuoles are absent.
11.Cells may have pili and fimbriae. 11.Pili and fimbriae are absent.
12.Transcription and translation occur in the 12.Transcription occurs inside the nucleus and
Cytoplasm. Translation inside the cytoplasm.
13.Cytoskeleton is usually absent. No cyclosis. 13.Cytoskeleton is present. Cyclosis is common.
14.Centrosome is absent. 14.Centrosome is present except in flowering
plants.
Composition and functions

 Human body contains different organs such as the heart, lung and kidneys each one of which
performs different functions. EC also have a set of intracellular components called sub cellular
organelles some of it surrounded by a protective membrane. Composition and functions of
organelles are described below:

Plasma membrane

The outer lining of a eukaryotic cell is called plasma membrane. This serves to separate and
protect cell from its surrounding environment. it is made up of a double layer of proteins and lipids.

Cytoskeleton

Cytoskeleton is a complex and dynamic component that acts to organize and maintain cell shape,
anchor organelles in their place, helps during endocytosis (uptake of material by the cell) and moves
intracellular organelles of the cell during the processes of growth and motility. There are a number of
proteins associated with cytoskeleton.

Cytoplasm

Inside the cell there is a large fluid –filled space called cytoplasm. It is like soup within which all
the cell organelles. cytoplasm is also a home for cytoskeleton. it contains several salts and is an excellent
conductor of electricity, creating environment for the mechanics of the cell.

Nucleus

Nucleus, also called cells information centre, is the most conspicuous organelle found in a
eukaryotic cell.

 It houses cells chromosomes and is a place where almost all the DNA replication and RNA
synthesis occur. Nucleus is spheroidal in shape and is separated from cytoplasm by a membrane
called nuclear envelope.
 Eukaryotic genetic material is more complex and is divided into discrete units called genes. human
genetic material is made up of two distinct components called nuclear genome and mitochondrial
genome.

Ribosome

Ribosome is a large complex composed of many molecules, including RNA and proteins. these are
responsible for the processing of genetic instruction carried by mRNA. the process of converting mRNA
codon into the sequence of amino acids that make up a protein is called translation. some of the ribosome
float free in the cytoplasm, called free ribosome while others are bound to endoplasmic reticulum.

Mitochondria and chloroplasts

These are power generator and self-replicating organelles. they occur in various numbers, shapes
and sizes in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. Both the organelles are surrounded by a double
membrane with an intermembrane space. they have many folding, filling their inner space. they have two
functionally distinct membrane systems, inward folds are called cristae.
Chloroplast

These are similar to mitochondria but are found in plants where they convert light energy (from the
sun) into ATP through the process called photosynthesis.

Endoplasmic reticulum and golgi apparatus

ER is the transport network for molecules. It is present in two forms called rough endoplasmic
reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). Proteins that are to be exported out of the cell
are passes to the Golgi apparatus, also called golgi bodies or Golgi complex.

Lysosomes and peroxisomes

They are also referred as garbage disposal system of the cell. both are spherical, bound by a single
membrane and are rich in digestive enzymes for degrading proteins, nucleic acids and polysaccharides
that work as low pH. an important function of lysosome is to digest foreign bacteria that invade the cell.

They also help in recycling of receptor proteins and other membrane components, help in repair of
the damage to plasma membrane.

Peroxisomes function to get the body of toxic substances such as hydrogen peroxide or other
metabolites, and contain enzyme for enzyme utilization. higher number of peroxisomes can be found in
liver where toxic by-products are known to accumulate. it resemble lysosomes. peroxisomes are self-
replicating whereas lysosomes are formed in Golgi complex.

Centrosome

Centrosome called cytoskeleton organizer, produce microtubules of a cell, which is the key
component of cytoskeleton. cetrosomes are composed of two centrioles. a single centrosome is present in
animal cells. it found in some fungi and algae.

Vacuoles

Vacuoles store food and waste products. some vacuoles also store water and are described as liquid
–filled spaces. they are surrounded by a membrane.

Microscopy
15.  Cells because of their small size cannot been seen by a naked eye, but can be observed with the aid
of instrument called “Microscope”.

 It provides a magnified image of a tiny objects.

 Microscope gives a wide range of magnification, they are of 2 types.

1. Simple Microscope

2. Compound Microscope

16.  Cell membrane

 It refers to the outer covering of the cell and is found in all living cells. it is a highly viscous structure.
 Fluid-mosaic model of cell membrane.

 Biological membranes have such a structure where some proteins span a lipid bilayer while others are
partially immersed. this is called Fluid-mosaic model as a membrane consists of mosaic of proteins and
lipids.

17.  A simple microscope works like a biconvex lens.

 Compound microscope employs two separate lens system for greater magnification.

 There are two types of compound microscope referred as optical or light microscope and electron
microscope.

 Optical Microscope uses optical lens and light wave for magnification. It magnifies about 1000 to 1500
times.

18.  Electron Microscope – In electron microscope a magnification of 10000 to 50000 can be obtained
and objects as smallest 1 – 2 microns can be photographed.

19.  1.cell membrane may be associated with several enzymes e.g. Phospholipase are used as markers of
cell membrane.

 2. Membranes also contain specific receptors for external stimuli such as hormones. after a hormone
binds to its receptor, it generates signals and regulates intracellular activities.

 3.carbohydrates components of glycoproteins in a membrane act as recognition sites for several

substance such as antibodies.

 4. A membrane also acts as a barrier thereby loss of useful substances while permitting entry of
nutrients, thus it is important in transport of substances.

20.  Tight junctions are specialized sites of contact that block solutes from diffusing between the cells in
an epithelium.

 A simple epithelium like the lining of the intestine or the lungs is composed of a layer of cells that
adhere tightly to one another to form a thin cellular sheet.

 Solutes cannot diffuse freely through this layer because of the specialized contacts referred to as called
tight junctions.
 Tight junction strands are composed of proteins called occluding and claudins.

21.  Tight junction serves as a barrier to the free diffusion of water and solutes from the extra-cellular
compartment to the other side.

 some tight junctions are permeable to specific ions or solutes, to which other tight junctions are
impermeale.

 TJ are also present between the endothelial cells that line walls of the capillaries. it form blood brain
barrier, which prevent substance from passing from the bloodstream into the brain. small ions and water
may not penetrate BBB.

22.  Cytoskeleton is a system of protein fibbers that pervades cytoplasm. It is composed of three distinct
types of fibrous structures called microtubules, intermediate filaments and microfilaments.

 Functions:

 1.it provides structural support that determines shape of the cell .

 2.it functions as an internal frame work which is responsible for the positioning of various organelles
within the cell.

 3.it functions as a force –generating apparatus that moves cells from one place to another e.g
.locomotion of sperm, white blood cells.

23.  MICROTUBULES :

 Microtubules are stiff, hollow and tubular structures that are assembled from protein tubulin. These are
arranged in longitudinal rows and are called proto- filaments.

 They help in determining shape of the cell and maintaining the position of the membranous organelles
such as Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Complex.

24. Intermediate Filaments They are strong rope like fibbers, Depending on the cell type they are
composed of a variety of different globular proteins sub units. Examples: Keratin filaments, Neuro
filaments. Microfilaments They are composed of a double helical polymer of the protein actin, which is
one of the major proteins of the muscle cells. They play a key role in all type of contractility and motility
with in cells.