Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

MODULE – 4
ALTENATIVE BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES
EFFICIENT FOUNDATIONS
The Use of stones (size stone or random rubble) is quite common in south India for
foundation of walls. The modern practices of using cement mortar makes the foundation rather
expensive traditionally, two storeyed buildings have been built on stone-in mud mortar
foundation. The stress level in the foundation is generally so low that even mud mortars should
suffice. Use of soil - cement as mortar or soil-lime-cement as mortars should prove to be a cost-
effective alternative. Use of arched foundations is also a cost-effective alternative.

ALTERNATIVES FOR WALL CONSTRUCTION

TYPES OF WALLS
Construction of walls can be carried out in a number of ways. Different types of walls may also
be recognized. In one of the simplest sub-divisions one can consider walls to be
1) Load bearing
2) Non-load bearing
 Walls built of masonry or in-situ casted walls can be either load bearing or non-load
bearing.
 In load bearing construction, the weight of floors and walls of upper storeys are carried by
the walls and transferred eventually to the foundation.
 In the case of non-load bearing walls, the weights of floors and upper storey walls are
carried by columns and transferred to the soil through footings.
 Masonry walls make use of a variety of bricks or blocks (which may be called as the
masonry unit) which are usually held together with the help of a mortar.
 Bricks and stones have been known since ancient times. In recent years, new materials like
hollow or solid concrete blocks, hollow clay blocks and light weight blocks have emerged
as the other alternatives.
 A new concept of interlocking masonry units has also been discussed in recent times. It is
often claimed that such units can be used without mortar to build load bearing walls.
However, such claims have to be examined through carefully planned tests before being
use for load bearing walls. Penetration of water through gaps between blocks, inadequate
elastic modulus while resisting vertical loads are some of the problems which need to be
sorted out.
 Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

 It is also possible to use reinforced masonry for wall construction. The reinforcement will
vastly enhance the lateral load carrying capacity of the wall. Use of reinforcement bands
along the horizontal joints is a convenient way of reinforcing masonry.
Two types of in-situ walls may be mentioned:
1) Cast-in-situ RC walls.
2) Rammed Earth Walls.
The Rammed Earth could use either plain earth or stabilized earth

CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES:
Masonry Bonding
 A large variety of bonding techniques may be considered in masonry construction.
 In conventional brick masonry, English bond and Flemish bond are well known. English
bond is the most common mode of construction in India. When blocks are not proportioned
in the way in which burnt brick is, these bonds are no longer feasible.
 For instance, when hollow-concrete blocks of size 40 cms x 20 cms x 20 cms are used, the
blocks have to be kept in ‘Stretcher bond’ leading to a wall thickness of 20 cms and a course
height of 20 cms as shown in Figure below

 Laterite blocks are also used in the same way.

 When stabilized mud blocks of size 23 x 19 x 10 cms are used, either a header bond with
wall thickness of 23 cms or a stretcher bond of 19 cms wall thickness can be used.
 The below Figure shows a typical bond. The manner of corner bonding using a smaller
block must be noted.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

 The concept of rat-trap bond was popularized by Laurie Baker in Kerala in the seventies.
This involves keeping bricks on edge creating a gap in the thickness of the wall.
 About 25% of the bricks can be saved by this process.
 Many practitioners hold the view that rat trap bonding does not lead to a loss of strength
and one can build such walls of 22.5 cm thickness up to four storeys!
 At present, when 3.5MPa bricks are used, such walls can certainly be used for single storey
construction.
 Figure 7.3 shows a typical view.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

Composite Masonry:
 It is sometimes useful to build walls of two different materials.
 The materials selected may be stone-cum-brick, stone-cum-SMB, burnt brick-cum-un
burnt brick and so on.
 This can lead to using a very durable material on the external face and a material of
moderate durability in the interior.
 Very often such methods are useful in cost reduction and reduction in wall thickness.
 Fig. 7.4 shows a typical way of combining stone and brick in building a composite wall of
29cms thickness.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

 It is also important to note that the two layers of different materials need to be bonded by
periodic use of ‘through stones’.
 The strength of such walls may be assessed on the basis of the strength of the stronger
material (also thicker layer) ignoring the strength of the weaker material.

Cavity Walls:
 Such walls are common in Western countries to improve the thermal insulation of the walls.
 In countries like India, such concepts may be used in very hot regions to prevent penetration
of solar heat through walls.
 However, it must be observed that the overall wall thickness may have to go up to more
than 40cms if these techniques are to be effective.
 Fig. 7.5 shows a typical brick wall with a 7cms cavity.

 It is important to use bond blocks to bond the two layers. These bond blocks could be made
of concrete with strength of at least 5.0 MPa to obviate separation of the veneer through
shearing of bond blocks.
 The cavity can also be filled with brick bats or coal cinder to improve the insulation. It may
be pointed out that walls of such higher thickness are necessary only for external walls
facing East and West and all the other walls may be of 23 cms thickness
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

Rammed Earth
 This is a technique of in-situ wall construction wherein either plain earth or stabilized earth
is compacted in layers between two plates.
 Fig. 7.6 shows typical sketch of a simple rammed earth mould.

 A dry density of about 1.85 gm/cc has to be achieved for good performance of rammed
earth walls.
 Figure 7.7 shows a typical wall construction in progress using the rammed earth
technique.
 Typical rammers used for this purpose are shown in Figure 7.8.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

 It is desirable to use rammers of weight in the range of 6.0 to 9.0 kg.

 The area of ramming surface for flat rammers could be in the range of 64 to 100cm2.
 Alternative use of flat and rounded bottom rammers have been found to be effective.
 Some of the recent experiments in the laboratory and the field have shown that achieving a
dry density of 1.95 gm/cc not difficult.
 This means that use of rammed earth may offer better strengths for walls than the use of
stabilized mud blocks for the same stabilizer percentage.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

FERRO-CEMENT AND FERRO-CONCRETE

INTRODUCTION
 Ferro-cement is a special form of reinforced concrete. It is a composite material consisting
of cement-sand mortar (matrix) reinforced with layers of small diameter wire meshes.
 It differs from conventional reinforced concrete primarily by the manner in which the
reinforcement is arranged within the brittle matrix.
 Since its behaviour is quite different from that of conventional reinforced concrete in
performance, strength and potential applications, it is classed as a separate material. Usually
steel bars are also used in addition to wire mesh, to form a steel skeleton, which helps in
retaining the required shape of the Ferro- cement components until the cement mortar
hardens.
 The wire mesh reinforcement will be uniformly distributed across the thickness of the
element. This helps in achieving improved mechanical properties viz. fracture, tensile and
flexural strength, fatigue and impact resistance.
 In addition, it also eliminates the use of formwork particularly for complicated shapes.
Ferro-cement is used in thin-walled structural components where strength and rigidity are
developed through form and shape and hence they are lightweight.
 In view of this, Ferro - cement is ideally suited for prefabricated construction and in
particular for housing applications in developing countries.
 The success of Ferro - cement in various terrestrial applications can be attributed to
a) Ready availability of materials locally
b) Need of low level technology for its production
c) Better utilization of available human resources and
d) Architectural flexibility.
 The history of Ferro-cement dates back to 1848, when Joseph Louis Lambot started
experimenting on reinforcing mortar to make articles for which normally timber would
have been used.
 Lambot had made plant tubs, water tanks and rowing boats from this material, which he
called "Ferciment" and patented it in 1852.
 In early 1940’s, Italian engineer-architect, Dr. Pier Luigi Nervi resurrected the original idea
of Lambot and established the preliminary characteristics of Ferro- cement through a series
of tests. He also pioneered the use of Ferrocement in buildings by constructing a small
storehouse and covering a swimming pool with a 15 m vault.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

 Ferro-cement can be considered as a material with many paradoxes. This is because it

possesses a degree of toughness, ductility, strength, crack resistance and durability
considerably greater than other forms of reinforced concrete. It has been possible to achieve
these improved properties in structural components having a thickness of 25 mm, which
dimension is unthinkable in other forms of concrete construction.
 Normally improvements in properties of materials are associated with sophistication in
manufacturing processes with increased demand for quality control. But this is not so in
case of Ferro-cement, which is a forgiving material as these improved properties, can be
achieved with almost primitive techniques without any advanced technology.
 Furthermore, most of the advanced materials had their origin in developed countries and
later took birth in developing countries. But Ferro-cement as a new material had its roots
in developing countries of the world than the lands of east and west.

MATERIALS:
The materials used for Ferro-cement are
 Cement
 Sand
 Wire Mesh
 Steel Bars
In addition to the above, high tensile steel wires are also used for pre-stressed Ferro-cement.

Cement:
 Ordinary Portland cement that is commercially available in the market is satisfactory
for Ferro-cement construction. However, other types of Portland cement can be used
like sulphate resisting cement for Ferro-cement construction in marine environment.
 Portland pozzolana cement has also been recommended for Ferro-cement as it provides
good resistance to sulphate attack and also competitive in price compared with ordinary
Portland cement.
 Rice husk ash (up to 20% by weight) can be used as pozzolana and mixed with Portland
cement without any deleterious effects on the mortar.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

Sand
 Well-graded natural river sand with particle size less than 4.75 mm having fineness
modulus between 2.5-3.0 is suited for Ferro-cement construction.
 As cover to reinforcing mesh is small and does not exceed 2-3 mm, the cement mortar
covering the mesh wires has to be dense to prevent corrosion of reinforcement.
 Hence grading of sand for mortar mixes becomes very important to get workable
cement mortar with low water-cement ratio.
 The water used for preparing cement-sand mortar should be potable and relatively free
from organic compounds.
 The proportion of cement-sand mix generally varies from 1:1.5 to 1:3 and water-cement
ratio varies from 0.35 to 0.55.
Wire Mesh:
 One of the important constituents of Ferro-cement is wire mesh reinforcement.
 These generally consist of thin wires, (galvanized or un - galvanized) either woven or
welded at their intersections.
 The mechanical properties of Ferro-cement depend on the type, quantity, orientation
and strength properties of the mesh reinforcement.
 Different types of mesh reinforcement are available in the market, which are suitable
of Ferro cement construction. Some of them are listed below
Hexagonal wire mesh: also commonly known as chicken wire mesh is fabricated from cold
drawn wires of diameter varying from 22 - 26 gauge and woven into hexagonal patterns with
mesh opening varying from 10 mm to 25 mm. This is the cheapest, easiest to handle and most
commonly used in Ferro-cement construction.
Woven wire mesh: is fabricated by simply weaving the galvanized wires into desired grid
sizes without welding them at the intersections. The grids are generally square. The mesh wires
are not perfectly straight and some amount of waviness exists.
Welded wire mesh: is fabricated in rectangular or square pattern by perpendicular intersecting
wires (generally 2-3 mm diameter) made of low to medium tensile strength steel (which are
much stiffer than hexagonal or woven wire mesh) and welded together at the intersections.
Expanded metal mesh, which is sometimes used in Ferro- cement construction, is formed by
slitting thin gauge sheets and expanding them in a direction perpendicular to the slits to produce
diamond shape openings. This mesh has inherent advantages like good mechanical bond and
ease of placing.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

Skeletal Steel
 As the name implies this is generally used for making framework of the structural
component upon which layers of wire mesh reinforcement are laid and also serve as spacer
to wire mesh.
 The steel rods are provided in both longitudinal and transverse directions.
 When they are provided for non-structural purpose, they are spaced as widely as possible
and when provided for carrying external loads, their spacing is governed by design
considerations.
 In general, mild steel rods or galvanized iron wires of diameters varying from 2 mm to 6
mm are used.
 Sometimes for structural purpose high yield strength deformed bars are also employed.
Admixtures
 Admixtures are additives, which are introduced in the cement sand mortar mix to modify
some of the properties of the mortar in its fresh and hardened states.
 These materials may be chemical admixtures in which case they are added in quantities no
larger than 5% by weight of cement or other materials in which case they are added in
excess of 5% by weight of cement and referred as additives.
 Different types of admixtures are used to improve/modify various properties and some
important ones used in Ferro-cement are briefly discussed here.
Retarders
 A delay in the setting time of cement paste is achieved by the addition of a retarding
admixture and thereby helping in reducing the generation of heat.
 Retarding action is exhibited by sugar, carbohydrate derivatives and some other salts.
Water reducers:
 These admixtures also called as plasticizers help to improve the plasticity of the mix in its
fresh state and are mainly used to achieve higher strengths by reducing water-cement ratio
or for improving workability to facilitate proper compaction of cement-mortar.
 In addition to the above admixtures, Ferro-cement may require chemical additives to reduce
the reaction between matrix (alkaline environment in cement-mortar) and galvanized
reinforcement, which produce hydrogen gas. As the gas is formed on the wires, they
deleteriously affect the bond strength.
 Chromium trioxide added to the mixing water has been reported to be useful in reducing
this problem.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

 Foamed blast furnace slag has been used as a lightweight aggregate for partial or full
replacement of sand, which results in reduction of density and thermal conductivity of
Ferro-cement.
 Both these properties are desirable, when Ferro-cement elements are used for roofing and
wall panels.
 Use of fly ash as partial replacement of cement can help in improving durability of Ferro-
cement and at the same time reduce the cost.

CONSTRUCTION METHODS:
 Ferro-cement construction does not require skilled labour nor heavy capital investment on
equipment to produce them.
 There are four major steps in Ferro-cement construction
1. Placing of reinforcement
2. Mixing of mortar
3. Placing mortar
4. Curing
 As the reinforcement content in Ferro-cement is very high (up to 8% by volume) and is
uniformly distributed throughout the thickness of the element, the essential requirement is
that the continuous mesh reinforcement has to be completely impregnated and covered with
cement mortar.
 Basically to achieve this goal one may either force the cement mortar into the pre-existing
skeletal steel framework or alternatively force layers of mesh reinforcement into a bed of
mortar.
 A number of techniques are being used for placing the mortar into the framework of mesh.
Among these are hand plastering of mortar from one side against a mould or from both
sides.
 During this process care must be taken to ensure full penetration of mortar and elimination
of voids within the thickness of the panel.
 Hand vibrators may be adopted when available, while casting-using mould.
 Moulds of metal, wood or masonry are made to suit the shape of the Ferro-cement
component.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

One-stage technique
Consists of single application of mortar from outside to inside of mesh and subsequently
finishing it off to a smooth surface before initial set takes place.

Two-stage technique
 In this process mortar is plastered from one side without fully penetrating through all the
mesh layers and the outer surface is finished smooth and cured. Later the remaining portion
is plastered with mortar.
 To assist in bond between the old and new mortar, cement grout is applied before second
stage plastering is carried out on the old mortar. This technique is adopted when more than
five layers of mesh is used.

Sectional plastering
 While undertaking plastering of large Ferro-cement structures, it may be preferable to
plaster in sections using one-stage technique, necessitating the need for construction joints.
 The disadvantage of this method is the difficulty in obtaining a smooth construction joint
due to differential shrinkage of mortar layers of different ages.

Apart from the above mentioned manual methods for manufacture of Ferro-cement, some
mechanized methods have also been developed viz.
1. Shotcreting or gunite plastering, where in mortar is applied pneumatically by spraying on
to the skeletal steel frame work by means of compressed air
2. Centrifuging for casting cylindrical units
3. Vibro-pressing for compaction. All these mechanized methods; are useful for large-scale
production of quality Ferro-cement components,' but require skilled technicians and
considerable capital investment for machinery/equipment.
DURABILITY
 The performance of Ferro-cement structures depends to a great extent on its durability
against the environment that it is exposed.
 Even though measures needed to ensure durability of conventional reinforced concrete
are also applicable to Ferro cement, there are three other factors affecting its durability,
which are unique to Ferro cement.
 There are three other factors affecting its durability which are unique to Ferro-cement.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

1) The cover to reinforcement in Ferrocement is very low and hence it is relatively easy
for corrosive liquids to reach it.
2) The surface area of reinforcement is high and so the area of contact over which reaction
takes place and the resulting rate of corrosion are quite high.
 Due to the use of galvanized reinforcement, the zinc coating can react with the alkalis
(calcium hydroxide) present in the fresh cement mortar leading to formation of calcium
zincate and hydrogen gas.
 The release of hydrogen gas on the surface of reinforcement can deleteriously affect the
bond between the cement mortar and reinforcement.
 It has been reported that addition of about 100 ppm of chromium trioxide to mixing
water inhibits the formation of hydrogen.
 A more serious difficulty is the galvanic corrosion, which can take place when
galvanized steel (mesh) and ordinary steel (skeletal steel) are in contact via the
electrolytic solutions present in the mortar.
 The reinforcement is protected from corrosion by the mortar cover, which may get
damaged by external or internal causes.
 The external causes may be physical, chemical or mechanical like weathering, abrasion
and attack by natural and industrial liquids and gases.
 The extent of damage caused by these agents depends on the quality of the mortar, even
though under extreme conditions any unprotected mortar is bound to deteriorate.
 The internal causes are alkali-aggregate reaction and permeability of mortar.
Permeability of Ferrocement is of significance particularly with regards to water
tightness of liquid retaining structures.
 Further permeability of mortar in precast units for housing like roof, floor and wall
elements can cause penetration of humidity resulting in corrosion of reinforcement.
 In Ferrocement marine structures due to thin cover of mortar the danger of corrosion of
reinforcement is quite high.
 To protect the reinforcement from corrosion, coatings of vinyl or epoxy types can be
provided.
 The coatings should have the following characteristics:
1) Good adhesion to mortar,
2) Tolerant to alkalinity in ferrocement,
3) Good abrasion and chemical resistance,
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

4) Impermeable to water and chemicals and

5) Should be non-toxic and suitable for use by unskilled labour.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES:
 Ferro-cement derives its unique properties due to the subdivision and distribution of the
reinforcement which can be described with the two parameters namely volume fraction of
reinforcement defined as volume of reinforcement per unit volume of Ferrocement and
specific surface of reinforcement defined as surface area of reinforcement per unit volume
of Ferrocement.
 Within the elastic range Ferrocement can be considered as a homogeneous material and its
elastic properties can be obtained from the elastic properties and volume fractions of its
constituents.
Behaviour in Tension.
Within the elastic range the total load (Pt) carried by the Ferro cement element is shared
between the reinforcement carrying a

Behaviour in Flexure:
 Ferro cement elements being thin walled, they derive their strength and stiffness due to the
shape and form of the element.
 The analysis of Ferro-cement elements in bending can be performed using the conventional
reinforced concrete theory.
 It is assumed that the cross-sections of the element, which are plane and normal to neutral
axis before bending, will remain plane and normal to the deformed neutral axis.
 If the skeletal steel is provided very close or at the centroid of the cross-section, practically
it will have no contribution in bending and hence can be neglected within the elastic range.
 The cracking behaviour like number of cracks and their widths depends of the specific
surface of the mesh reinforcement in the longitudinal direction.
 If skeletal steel is provided for structural purpose, they will be located close to the tension
face of the element and their contribution to the flexural strength needs to be accounted.
 Typical design calculations for a Ferro cement roof element having an open cylindrical
cross-section
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

APPLICATIONS:
Ferro-cement applications can be broadly classified into two types
1. Marine applications
2. Terrestrial applications
 The early applications of Ferro-cement have been more to the building of boats and yachts.
 In recent years Ferro-cement has received attention as a material for terrestrial uses in
housing, agriculture, water and grain storage structures, irrigation, water supply, biogas
digesters and as permanent forms for reinforced concrete construction.
 Ferro-cement is well suited for prefabricated housing components like wall elements,
floor/roofing units, trusses, tiles, lintel and chejja.
 Roof/ floor elements of various cross-sectional shapes like trapezoidal, V-shaped,
cylindrical, corrugated, channel catenary and cored slab have been developed.
 In order to use them over longer spans, they could be pre-stressed (Pre-tensioning/Post-
tensioning) so that deflection can be controlled to within permissible limits,
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

ALTERNATIVE ROOFING SYSTEMS

CONCEPTS IN ROOFING ALTERNATIVES
Alternative roof must be based on a satisfaction of several objectives. The primary functions of a
roof may be listed as follows:
1) Withstand imposed dead and live loads.
2) Prevent leakage of water during rain.
3) Provide a secure enclosure.
4) Keep costs low.
5) Provide a durable roof covering.
6) Promote thermal comfort in the interior.
Some of the currently used technologies like thatch, tiles, asbestos sheet and reinforced
concrete may be examined with reference to the above functions.
 If one examines the issue of cost reduction, it is clear that reinforced concrete is not a
desirable technology.
 Other options are very often not acceptable due to disadvantages like thermal discomfort,
lack of security, lack of status value and so on.
 It is hence desirable to have more alternatives, which may provide a better performance on
the average at moderate costs.
 It is also useful to explore alternatives, which meet the functional requirements besides
promoting overall development of the community.
 we need technologies, which promote local self-reliance and reduction in energy
consumption.
Types of Roofs
There are several ways in which a roof can be constructed. Accordingly, different types
of classifications can be thought of. Very often a roofing system can be subdivided into roof
structure and roof covering. There are also roofs, which combine the structure and the covering
in a single element. Such roofs may be designated as integral roofs.
Roofing system
Structure + covering Integral roof
1. Thatch RC
2. Tiles Ferro-cement channels
3. A c sheet Brick vault
4. Jack arch Composite T beam
 Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

Light roofs Prefab roofs

Roofs Intermediate roofs Roofs Partial prefab roofs
Heavy roofs Cast in-situ roofs

 The choice of a roofing system will thus also mean a choice of specific type of roof and the
class of technologies available under the type. There are more ways of classifying roofs
based on other parameters.
 For instance, following classifications are also relevant to the design and construction
environment available at a site.
The Approach to Cost Optimization
 Generally designers would like to minimize the cost for a specific performance
requirement.
 It is necessary to look at the roof as a system while attempting to carry out a cost
optimization.
Roof as a Static Structural System
The cost of a roof structure depends on three factors,
1) Loads acting on the roof,
2) Efficiency of the structural system
3) Material used for the structure.
 The cost and the performance may be optimized by reducing roof loads and spans.
 Improving the efficiency of the roof structure and by selecting cost-effective materials.
 All these steps can be taken simultaneously leading to significant cost reduction.
 As a typical illustration of the optimization of a roof element, Table 11.2 shows the cost of
a rafter for a tiled roof building of span 3 meters.
Roof Structure + Covering
In this class of roofs, the cost reduction may be achieved by three techniques:
1) Reduce weight of covering
2) Use more efficient structure
3) Increase size of covering unit.
 A combination of all the three techniques may be used.
 For instance, one can replace the Mangalore tile by a locally produced micro-concrete tile,
which could be larger in size.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

 This will increase reaper spacing and reduce the number of joints.
Integral Roofing
 All the proposed alternatives need to be discussed in relation to reinforced concrete with
reference to cost and performance comparisons. The reinforced concrete slab has two basic
inefficiencies. Firstly, a typical 12.5 cms slab weighs 300 kgs per sq. metre. This has to be
designed for a live load of 200 kg. per sq. metre. This means, for a design load of 500
kg/m2, self-weight is 60%. In other words the structural efficiency of the R.C. slab is only
40%.
 Secondly, the concrete in the tension zone hardly takes any stress although it is quite
expensive. Thus, an alternative to the normal R.C. slab is a beam and slab roofing which
has a reduced slab thickness. In general, this saves steel and concrete by using the materials
more efficiently.
 The typical stress distribution in the R.C. slab and the beam and slab system.

 The increased efficiency of this beam and slab system, however, poses a new problem.
 The heat transfer through a thinner roof slab can increase the thermal discomfort in the
space below.
 Additional features to alleviate this are needed.
 A hollow element in the slab portion with good gross thickness of more than 15cms leads
to better thermal comfort.
 Sometimes it is possible to use the beam and slab concept in composite constructions using
different materials for the beam and the panel.
 Such systems where the beam and the panels are structurally integrated may be known as
the composite T-beam roof.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

 In this case the beam may be of built-up steel or R.C. or timber while the panel may be of
concrete, brick work or stone.
 A large variety of local variations of such systems can be thought of. Fig. 11.2 shows a
typical example.

 The filler slab is another concept, which has been in use in this country for more than 50
years.
 Here, part of the concrete in the tension zone of a R.C. slab roof is replaced by a cheaper,
possibly lighter alternative.
 In a recent construction example, about 23% of the concrete could be replaced by mud
blocks (the cost of mud block being one third of the cost of concrete for the same volume).
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

SMB filler blocks with reinforcement

Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

SMB Filler slab roof ceiling (prior to finish)

Ceiling – Mangalore tile filler slab

 Brick masonry vaulting is another concept of an integral roof. Such roofs require very little
steel and can provide good performance over a long period of time.
 Brick vaulted roofs spanning up to 10 metres have performed well for several centuries in
South India.
 It is also possible to use alternative building blocks like concrete blocks or stabilized mud
blocks for such masonry. Spherical domes using brick masonry are again equally feasible
where the plan area to be covered is circular or square.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

Views of masonry hipped

vault from inside and
outside

 The hyperbolic paraboloid shell roof using thin reinforced concrete is another option for an
integral roof.
 This is suited only for single storeyed buildings.
 The shape of the roof leads to a great economy in the use of cement and steel.
 This can be constructed using fairly simple formwork consisting of casuarina poles and
mud cantering.
 Fig. shows a typical rectangular room with a twin “hypar” shell roof. Such thin roofs may
indeed show problems of thermal comfort in the interior.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

Cost Reduction through Construction Process Efficiency

Local Transport
 There is a tendency in the Indian construction industry to use inefficient local transport
systems.
 For instance, transport of sand or bricks through head load can be very inefficient.
 Use of a wheel barrow is far more cost effective than head load transport.
 Again, using head load for moving materials from the ground to the first floor or second
floor makes wasteful use of human energy.
 Use of a pulley at the upper floor for manual hauling of materials is much faster and less
strenuous to the labourer.
Prefabrication
 There is a need to explore prefabrication in building components like lintels, sunshades,
stairs, window frames and roofing elements.
 The time and expense involved in formwork is thus avoided.
 However, it is necessary to emphasize that the type of prefabrication.
 Complex machinery involving uses of diesel or electric power are to be avoided.
 The composite T-beam roof is ideally suited for partial prefabrication.

Use of moving formwork

 In special constructions like brick masonry vaults, use of moving, light formwork can be
taken advantage of to avoid the problem of setting up a large support system.
 Such moving formwork is especially handy in brick masonry, since joining previous day’s
brickwork to the current brickwork presents no problems.

FILLER SLAB ROOFS:

 Filler slab roofs are basically solid reinforced concrete slabs with partial replacement of the
concrete in the tension zone by a filler material. The filler material could be cheaper or
cheaper and lighter. A number of filler materials can be thought of:
a) Brick or brick panel,
b) Mangalore tile,
c) Stabilized mud block,
d) Hollow concrete block,
e) Hollow clay tile block, etc.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

 Size and shape of the filler material are governed by the factors like slab thickness, code
guidelines on spacing of reinforcement bars, desired ceiling finish, etc and has to be
carefully selected.
 Typical sizes of the filler materials are given in below Table

 Quantity of concrete in the tension zone of the slab that can be replaced by a filler material
depends upon the shape of the filler material available and the thickness of the solid slab.
 For example, in a solid concrete slab of 125mm thickness, a filler block of 60- 70mm
thickness can be easily accommodated.
 In a typical situation by using a stabilized mud block, 25% of the concrete can be replaced
by a material, which costs l/'3rd of the cost of concrete.
 This means that 15%—20% of the cost of concrete can be saved by this operation.
 In general, the SMB used as filler will have a higher percentage of cement (-8%) to ensure
a high level of performance under wet conditions as well.

COMPOSITE BEAM AND PANEL ROOFS

 The cost of a roof/flooring system is significant in the total cost of a building.
 Developing an alternative roofing system which is cost effective and energy efficient is
always a challenging task.
 Simple prefabrication techniques coupled with more efficient use of materials can lead to
structurally efficient roofing system.
 Composite beam and panel roof is one such system wherein the beams and panels can be
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

prefabricated, and assembled into a roofing system with minimal formwork without the use
of heavy equipment.
 It is expected that such roofs are lighter and structurally more efficient when compared to
solid reinforced concrete slab roofs/floors.

The Concept and Details of Composite Beam and Panel Roofs

 The roofing system consists of panels and beams cast separately and assembled such
that the system behaves like a T-beam.
 These types of roofing systems can be broadly grouped into two categories viz.:
 Flat panel roof and
 curved panel or jack-arch roof, based on the shape/geometry of the panel.
 Below Figs show typical cross- sections of these two types of roofing configurations.

Composite beam & panel roof

•Composite action between Beam & Slab

•Achieved by shear connectors
•Partially cast beam with shear connectors
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

Shear
connector Precast
panel

Precast
beam

Flat panel roof

Shear Curved
connectors panel

Precast
beam

Curved panel (jack-arch) roof

 Since the panels and beams are cast separately and then assembled, there should be proper
shear connection between them to achieve composite action for the system to behave as an
integral structural unit.
 The flexibility of composite beam and panel roofs arises out of the fact that the materials
for the beams and the panels could be of two different materials, and the composite action
between them could be achieved by proper shear connectors.
 In the absence of shear connection, the panels will simply sit on the beam and the roofing
system will be structurally inefficient.
 Table 11.4 gives the typical list of materials/technologies for the beams and panels.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

 Various combinations of beams and panels could lead to different types of composite beam
and panel roofing systems.
 Figs. show sketches of some possible geometric configurations for the beams and the
panels.

Shear
connector

Partially cast R.C. beam with shear connectors/stirrups

Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

Trussed beam (6mm rods), ferrocement flange

Shear
connector

Trussed beam with R.C. beam top chord

Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

Reinforced brickwork flat panel

Reinforced soil-cement block-work flat panel

Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

Ferroconcrete channel floor – C/S details

Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

Construction Details and Roof Assembly

 Composite beam and panel roof consists of partially cast beams \ over which the panels are
assembled and then shear connectors are \ grouted before spreading the screed concrete on
top.
 Thus the beam becomes complete after the completion of in-situ concreting/mortaring to
bring in the shear connectors into action.
 Typical construction sequence involves:
1) Casting of beams and panels and curing
2) Positioning the beams into required spacing and providing temporary props
3) Placing the panels on the beams and mortaring the joints between the panels
4) Grouting the shear connectors jetting out of beams as well as panels
5) Tying nominal shrinkage reinforcement bars and spreading screed concrete
6) Removal of temporary props after curing and finishing
7) Both the beams and the panels can be precast and then assembled into a roofing system.
8) In case of precast beams, the beams are partially cast and hence they require some props
while assembling the roofing system.

Props for partially cast beams while assembling the roof

Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

 In some situations especially for larger roof spans where the beam size is large, it may be
difficult to handle the beam manually while assembling the roofing system.
 In such situations one can resort to in-situ casting of the beams.
 Since the concept is aimed at optimising the sizes of beam and panel elements it is
preferable to keep the panel sizes small such that the weight of each panel is within 50kg.
 This will facilitate handling of the panels manually thus avoiding need for any heavy
hoisting equipment.

DETAILS OF CASTING PANELS AND BEAMS:

Panels
 Based on the geometrical shape, the panels could be of two types, curved cross-section or
flat panels.
 Different types of panels and the material used for the panels

Casting of Curved Shape (Jack-arch) Panels:

Casting of curved shaped panels requires a simple mould to get the proper curvature.
A typical mould is shown in Fig. 11.25. Casting involves keeping a wooden template (Fig.
11.25) on the mould, placing the nominal reinforcement cage, pouring the concrete and
finishing the panel.
Figs. 11.26 and 11.27 show the casting and finishing details of jack-arch R.C. panels.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

 Wooden template will ensure the thickness and size of the panel precisely.
 In case of brickwork or tile-work panels, the bricks/tiles are arranged as shown in Fig.
11.28, place the reinforcement in the joints and then pack the joints with mortar.

Casting of jack-arch tile-work or brickwork panel

The following mentioned precautions or measures have to be exercised while casting the
panels.
a) Spread a sheet of thin paper on top of the mould and then place the wooden template
over that. This will facilitate easy removal of the panel from the mould
b) In case of tile-work or brickwork panels smear the side faces of the bricks/tiles with a
fresh cement slurry (1 cement: 1 water) just before placing them into the wooden
template. This coating will enhance the bond between the brick/tile and the mortar
grout.
c) Do not hold the shear connectors while lifting and handling the panels. This will avoid
disturbing the shear connector which can impair the shear connection and the composite
action
d) The panels after casting should not be disturbed far at least 24 hours. The panels after
removing from the mould can be stacked on edge separately and continue curing in the
stack. Concrete panels have to be cured for 4 weeks while the brickwork or tile-work
panels should be cured for at least 7 days
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

Casting of Flat Shape Panels:

 Casting of flat panels requires only a wooden or metal template, which will control the size
of the panel.
 Prepare a levelled platform on which a number of panels can be cast.
 Casting involves positioning the template, placing the reinforcement and pouring the
concrete or grouting the mortar joints in case of brickwork or tile-work panels.
 The precautions/measures mentioned above for curved panel casting will apply for flat
panels also.

Casting of Beams:
In a composite beam and panel roof system partially cast beams are used.
The beam will be complete after integration of the panels with the beam through shear
connectors.
Different types of possible beam configurations are shown in Figs. 11.16 to 11.18.

Shear
connector

Partially cast R.C. beam with shear connectors/stirrups

Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

Trussed beam (6mm rods), ferrocement flange

Shear
connector

Trussed beam with R.C. beam top chord

 The beams can be fabricated at site on a levelled platform.

 Easily dismountable formwork or mould is required.
 They could be prepared using either wood or metal sheets.
 The casting procedure involves the following steps.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

a) Position the dismountable formwork/mould on the levelled platform.

b) Place the reinforcement cage into the formwork/mould. Reinforcement cage will have
shear pins jetting out much above the top of the formwork/mould.
c) Pour the fresh concrete into the formwork/moulds and compact it properly such that it
is in level with the top of the formwork.
d) Generally the partial cast beam height will be in the range of 100 - 200mm depending
upon the roof span and the beam spacing. The formwork/mould can be dismantled after
2 hours of casting, leaving the partially cast beam on the platform.
e) The dismantled mould can be assembled again to cast another beam.

 Fig. 11.29 shows the mould and partially cast beams in a casting yard.
 Fig. 11.30 shows the assembling of composite beam and panel roofing system.
 Figs. 11.31 to 11.33 show some typical ceiling finishes and external appearance of different
types of composite beam and panel roofs.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

Composite panel with shear connectors

Trussed beam (plastered) tile-work panel

Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

MASONRY DOMES AND VAULTS

HISTORICAL NOTES
 The post and lintel construction is perhaps the most ancient method of covering an
opening or spanning a roof.
 However, the use of arched and vaulted constructions can be traced back to the Egyptian
and Mesopotamian civilizations.
 The pitched brick vault had the advantage that it could be built without centering.
 The unreinforced brick vault of 25.5 meters span built in 550 A.D. in Iraq.
 The construction of vaults and domes spread to the South at the same time due to the
emergence of the Vijayanagar empire and the Bahamani Kingdoms.
 The vault construction was no longer confined to mosques in this region.
 Even the temples in Tamil Nadu started using vault constructions probably in the 17th
and 18th centuries.
 A large number of these vaults are intact and there are examples of vaulted structures
of the 18th or early 19th century still in use as public buildings
 Figure 12.1 shows some typical vault shapes in Tamil Nadu.

Masonry vault forms in

Tamilnadu

 It looks as though the well-established technology of vaulted construction suffered a

quick death with the arrival of the British in India.
 This may perhaps be explained by the fact that until the establishment of British rule,
the construction industry was essentially in the hands of traditional artisans.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

 The Engineering practice in England in the nineteenth century was perhaps totally
unfamiliar with brick vaulting.
 The analysis of shell structures was practically unknown while the technological
practice in India was nearly 150 years ahead of the European Science of shell analysis.
 The practice of vault building must have died out to lack of patronage, alternatives
using wood and steel and lack of support by matching developments in Engineering
Science.
 The construction of domes has always paralleled closely the developments in vaults.
 The dome had the added advantage that it could often be built without formwork.
 The dome at Bijapur is perhaps one of the finest examples of Indian dome construction.
 One could perhaps argue that the dome never died in the Indian context.
 There have always been situations where domes were needed architecturally and have
been produced in British India as well as independent India.

RELEVANCE OF VAULTS AND DOMES AT PRESENT:

 Brick masonry is often cheaper than concrete, since it can be produced using lesser quantity
of cement per unit volume. If a structure has predominantly compressive stresses masonry
is indeed advantageous.
 A properly designed vault or dome will develop negligibly small tensile stresses. The vault
and dome are also advantageous in areas of high rainfall or intense summer and winter
conditions.
 Thus, the current functional and architectural interests seem to encourage a strong revival
of vault and dome construction in India. A large number of such structures have been built
in different parts of India over the past 10 to 15 years.
 The case for the vault and dome as a satisfactory roofing technology seems to be quite
strong. There have been examples of vaulted roofing even for two storeyed buildings. It is
not necessary to regard masonry to be in competition with reinforced concrete regarding
domes and vaults.
 The advantages of masonry construction for these lies in the fact that formwork can be
avoided for spherical domes and vaults can be constructed by using moving formwork (slip
forming).
 Again, there are possibilities of combining masonry and reinforced concrete. A thin layer
of nominally reinforced concrete over and above the unreinforced masonry can vastly
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

enhance the performance of masonry roofs.

 One of the principal disadvantages of unreinforced masonry is its inability to handle
stresses due to differential settlements.
 Reinforced masonry or a masonry-RC composite can mitigate this problem to a great
extent.
 Use of modern materials like glass fibre reinforced plastic as externally attached
reinforcement can also provide additional flexibility and strength.

CONSTRUCTION OF MASONRY DOMES

 A masonry spherical dome can be often constructed without using any formwork.
 We need a mechanism by which the position of each brick is to be precisely determined.
 This can be done if a rod or a wire can be used to fix the brick location.
 The rod/wire is to be connected to the centre of the dome through a spherical joint and fixed
to the ground
 Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

 The brick can be positioned precisely using this radial rod/wire. The brick may be secured
temporarily to the mortar below by suspending weights hooked onto the brick. The brick laying
can now proceed horizontally till one circle is completed. Repeating this dome can be
completed.

CONSTRUCTION OF MASONRY VAULTS

 Traditionally circular vaults have been constructed using a formwork for the entire
structure.
 On the other hand, the Nubian vault permits construction without any formwork.
 A mobile formwork to support the vault over a length of about 1.0m is first fabricated.
Of the gable-end walls is constructed such that the top of the wall coincides with the
formwork. The formwork is now placed adjacent to this wall.
 A portion of the vault is constructed to rest partly on the end wall and partly on the
formwork.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

 The formwork is lowered after 24 hours and moved laterally to extend the previous
day’s work.

Construction of
masonry vaults
(using moving steel mould)

Construction of
masonry vaults
(using steel templates)
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

 The vault construction proceeds in this manner till the other end is reached.
 A variation of the moving formwork was attempted by having two arch shaped templates
kept parallel to each other with a distance of about 17cms separating the two. The template
had the facility of the two ends having small hinged portions. By rotating the hinged
portion, the span could be reduced and the template can be brought down.
 In this system a portion of the vault is built using the two templates as support. The inner
template is then removed and placed in front of the outer template to continue the vault.
 In this construction mode the vault is always supported on a gable wall at one end on a
template at other
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

MIVAN TECHNOLOGY
Mivan is an aluminium formwork system developed by a European construction
company. In 1990, the Mivan Company Ltd. from Malaysia started manufacturing these
formwork systems. Today, more than 30,000sqm of formwork from Mivan Co. Ltd. is used
across the world. There are a number of buildings in Mumbai that are being constructed with
the help of the Mivan system, that has proven economical as well as satisfactory for the overall
Indian construction environment. One of the architectural examples is XRBIA which uses
MIVAN system to achieve its dream of “A House for Every Indian”
The technology has been used extensively in Europe, Gulf Countries, Asia and other parts of
the world. Mivan technology is suitable for constructing large number of houses in a short span
of time using room size forms to construct walls and slabs in one continuous pour on concrete.
In this system of formwork construction, cast–in–situ concrete wall and floor slabs cast
monolithic provides the structural system in one continuous pour. To facilitate fast
construction, early removal of forms can be achieved by hot air curing / curing compounds.
Large room sized forms for walls and floor slabs are erected at site. These strong and sturdy
forms are fabricated with accuracy and are easy to handle. The concrete is produced in RMC
batching plants under strict quality control and convey it to site with transit mixers.

The frames for windows, doors and ducts for services are placed in the form before concreting.
Staircase flights, façade panels, chajjas and jails etc. and other pre-fabricated items are also
integrated into the structure. This proves to be a major advantage as compared to other modern
construction techniques. High quality Mivan Formwork panels ensure consistency of
dimensions. On the removal of the formwork mould a high quality concrete finish is produced
to accurate tolerances and verticality. The high tolerance of the finish means that, no further
plastering is required.

Uses of Mivan Formwork:

 3S – System of Construction – Speed, Strength, Safety
 Column and beam construction are eliminated
 Walls and slabs are cast in one operation
 Specially designed, easy to handle light weight pre-engineered aluminium forms
 Fitting and erecting the portion of shuttering
 Carrying out concreting of the walls and slabs together
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

Advantages:
 Mivan formwork requires relatively less labour
 More seismic resistance
 Increased durability
 Lesser number of joints and reduced leakages
 Higher carpet area
 Smooth finishing of wall and slab
 Uniform quality of construction
 Negligible maintenance
 Faster completion

Limitations:
Even though there are so many advantages of Mivan formwork the limitations cannot be
ignored. However the limitations do not pose any serious problems. They are as follows: –
 Because of few small sizes finishing lines are seen on the concrete surfaces
 Services after completing become slightly difficult due to the small width of components
 It requires uniform planning as well as uniform elevations to be cost effective
 The formwork requires number of spacer, wall ties etc. which are placed @ 2ft c/c; these
produce problems such as seepage, leakages during monsoon
 Due to box-type construction, contraction cracks are likely to appear
 Heat of hydration is high due to shear walls
 It is rigid in design once placed, as any alteration becomes tough later

Remedial Measures:
It is possible to minimize contraction cracks by providing control strips in the structure which
could be concreted with a delay of about 3-7 days after major concreting. The problem of
cracking can be avoided by minimizing the heat of hydration by using flash.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

TOP DOWN CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURE

Introduction

Conventionally building having basements are usually built by bottom-up method. In simple
words, stage of construction is from bottom of sub-structure to top of superstructure. Gigantic
civil engineering projects usually have constraints of time and working space. So we have to
follow the reverse of this conventional procedure. We call it “Top Down construction method”
which means we go from top to bottom.

Reason for selecting Top Down Construction?

1. Distance between boundary wall of existing building and building to be constructed is too
close and possibility of soil collapse is too high.

2. This method is preferred for buildings having two or more basements.

3. If water table is too high in area where building has to be constructed.

4. This method is usually preferred for tall buildings with deep basements, underground car
parks, underpasses and metro railway projects.

Advantages

1. De-watering is not required

2. This method enables above ground construction work to be carried out simultaneously with
excavation of basement thus resulting in saving of time and resources.

3. It vastly improved the speed of project delivery to the client.

4. It offers dramatic Capital cost improvements while providing excellence of finish to the
build, enhancing and reducing resource usage, improving cost and reducing pollution.

5. It eliminates the need for sheet piling.

6. Dust levels are kept to minimum.

Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

Structural Requirements

Columns with sufficient capacity has to be pre-founded in bored piles to sustain the
construction load and to utilize as part of bracing system.- Pre-fabricated steel columns called
Stanchions are used as these columns.

Excavation for basement must be carried out with the support of permanent retaining wall so
that basement floor slabs can be utilized as lateral bracing-Diaphragm wall of 600mm to
1200mm in thickness with sufficient embedment in firm soil layers is commonly used as a
retaining wall. The wall is constructed panel by panel in full depth.Panel width varies from
2.5m to about 6m. Short widths of 2.5m are selected in less stable soils, under very high
surcharge or for very deep walls.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

Procedure
1. Piles are drilled into the ground level to the bearing stratum using conventional drilled shaft
or slurry trench techniques. Shafts made are concreted up to the lowermost basement level to
form foundation piers.

2. Structural steel columns are installed in the open shafts to rise from foundation pier to the
ground floor level.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

3. First level of excavation for ground floor slab is done. Ground floor slab is cast either above
the unexcavated soil or on drop down form system anchored to columns if the soil is excavated.
Ground floor slab is anchored with the diaphragm walls with the dowel/coupler bars which are
initially left at the time of casting of diaphragm walls.
Ground floor slab is cast and cured. Ground floor acts as a lateral bracing for the perimeter
walls.
It is to be noted that access openings are left in the ground floor slab for vertical soil removal
and for supply of equipment’s , manpower and other construction materials required for
construction.

4. Next lower level basement slab is poured which acts as a subsequent lower level lateral
bracing for diaphragm walls.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

5. This process is repeated down up to the required levels.Each floor acts as a permanent plan
bracing for perimeter walls eliminating the need for temporary bracing to retain diaphragm
walls.Excavation is repeated until completion of entire basement.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

6. Cast the basement wall and encase the steel stanchion to become permanent columns using
form work and reinforced concrete.Basement walls and steel stanchion are encased with
additional reinforcement to become permanent columns.
Alternative Building Materials and Technologies (15CV653) SRIRAM S DALI

Advantages
1. It allows early restoration of the ground surface above the tunnel The temporary
support of excavation walls are used as the permanent structural walls
2. The structural slabs will act as internal bracing for the support of excavation thus
reducing the amount of tie backs required It requires somewhat less width for the
construction area
3. Easier construction of roof since it can be cast on prepared grade rather than using
bottom forms
4. It may result in shorter construction duration by overlapping construction activities

Disadvantages
1. Inability to install external waterproofing.
2. More complicated connections for the roof, floor and base slabs.
3. Potential water leakage at the joints between the slabs and the walls
4. Risks that the exterior walls (or center columns) will exceed specified installation
tolerances and extend within the neat line of the interior space.
5. Access to the excavation is limited to the portals or through shafts through the roof.
6. Limited spaces for excavation and construction of the bottom slab.