지난문제. Below are shown three different crystallographic planes for a unit cell of some hypothetical metal.

The circles represent atoms:

(a) To what crystal system does the unit cell belong?

(b) What would this crystal structure be called?
(c) If the density of this metal is 18.91 g/cm3, determine its atomic weight.

1. Calculate the energy for vacancy formation in silver, given that the equilibrium number of vacancies at
800°C (1073 K) is 3.6 × 1023 m–3. The atomic weight and density (at 800°C) for silver are, respectively, 107.9
g/mol and 9.5 g/cm3

Solution

This problem calls for the computation of the activation energy for vacancy formation in silver.
Upon examination of Equation 5.1, all parameters besides Qv are given except N, the total number of atomic
sites. However, N is related to the density, (ρ), Avogadro's number (NA), and the atomic weight (A) according

to Equation 5.2 as

N A ρ Pb
N =
APb

(6.02 × 1023 atoms / mol)(9.5 g /cm3 )

=
107.9 g / mol

= 5.30 × 1022 atoms/cm3 = 5.30 × 1028 atoms/m3

Now, taking natural logarithms of both sides of Equation 5.1,

Q
ln N v = ln N − v
kT

and, after some algebraic manipulation

 N 
Qv = − kT ln  v 
 N 

Now, inserting values for the parameters given in the problem statement leads to

 3.60 × 1023 m−3 

Qv = − (8.62 × 10-5 eV/atom - K) (800°C + 273 K) ln  
 5.30 × 1028 m−3 

= 1.10 eV/atom
2. What is the composition, in atom percent, of an alloy that consists of 92.5 wt% Ag and 7.5 wt% Cu?

Solution

In order to compute composition, in atom percent, of a 92.5 wt% Ag-7.5 wt% Cu alloy, we employ
Equation 5.9 as

C Ag ACu
'
C Ag = × 100
C Ag ACu + CCu AAg

(92.5)(63.55 g / mol)
= × 100
(92.5)(63.55 g / mol) + (7.5)(107.87g / mol)

= 87.9 at%

CCu AAg
'
CCu = × 100
C Ag ACu + CCu AAg

(7.5)(107.87 g / mol)
= × 100
(92.5)(63.55 g / mol) + (7.5)(107.87g / mol)

= 12.1 at%
3. What is the composition, in atom percent, of an alloy that contains 44.5 lbm of silver, 83.7 lbm of gold, and
5.3 lbm of Cu?

Solution
To determine the concentrations, in atom percent, of the Ag-Au-Cu alloy, it is first necessary to
convert the amounts of Ag, Au, and Cu into grams.

' = (44.5 lb )(453.6 g/lb ) = 20,185 g

mAg m m

' = (83.7 lb )(453.6 g/lb ) = 37,966 g

mAu m m

' = (5.3 lb )(453.6 g/lb ) = 2, 404 g

mCu m m

These masses must next be converted into moles (Equation 5.7), as

'
mAg 20,185 g
nm = = = 187.1 mol
Ag AAg 107.87 g / mol

37,966 g
nm = = 192.8 mol
Au 196.97 g / mol

2,404 g
nm = = 37.8 mol
Cu 63.55 g / mol

Now, employment of a modified form of Equation 5.8, gives

nm
Ag
'
C Ag = × 100
nm + nm + nm
Ag Au Cu

187.1 mol
= × 100 = 44.8 at%
187.1 mol + 192.8 mol + 37.8 mol

192.8 mol
'
C Au = × 100 = 46.2 at%
187.1 mol + 192.8 mol + 37.8 mol

37.8 mol
'
CCu = × 100 = 9.0 at%
187.1 mol + 192.8 mol + 37.8 mol
4. Convert the atom percent composition in Problem 3 to weight percent.

Solution

The composition in atom percent for Problem 5.9 is 44.8 at% Ag, 46.2 at% Au, and 9.0 at% Cu.
Modification of Equation 5.10 to take into account a three-component alloy leads to the following

' A
C Ag Ag
C Ag = × 100
C'Ag AAg + C Au AAu + CCu ACu
' '

(44.8) (107.87 g / mol)

= × 100
(44.8)(107.87 g / mol) + (46.2) (196.97 g / mol) + (9.0) (63.55 g / mol)

= 33.3 wt%

' A
C Au
C Au = Au × 100
C Ag AAg +
' C'Au AAu + CCu ACu
'

(46.2) (196.97 g / mol)

= × 100
(44.8)(107.87 g / mol) + (46.2) (196.97 g / mol) + (9.0) (63.55 g / mol)

= 62.7 wt%

' A
CCu
CCu = Cu × 100
C Ag AAg +
' C'Au AAu + C'Cu ACu

(9.0) (63.55 g / mol)

= × 100
(44.8)(107.87 g / mol) + (46.2) (196.97 g / mol) + (9.0) (63.55 g / mol)

= 4.0 wt%
5. Determine the approximate density of a Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy that has a composition of 90 wt% Ti, 6 wt%
Al, and 4 wt% V.

Solution
In order to solve this problem, Equation 5.13a is modified to take the following form:

100
ρave =
CTi C Al CV
+ +
ρTi ρ Al ρV

And, using the density values for Ti, Al, and V—i.e., 4.51 g/cm3, 2.71 g/cm3, and 6.10 g/cm3—(as taken from
inside the front cover of the text), the density is computed as follows:

100
ρave =
90 wt% 6 wt% 4 wt%
+ +
4.51 g /cm3 2.71 g /cm3 6.10 g /cm3

= 4.38 g/cm3
6. Some hypothetical alloy is composed of 25 wt% of metal A and 75 wt% of metal B. If the densities of
metals A and B are 6.17 and 8.00 g/cm3, respectively, whereas their respective atomic weights are 171.3 and
162.0 g/mol, determine whether the crystal structure for this alloy is simple cubic, face-centered cubic, or body-
centered cubic. Assume a unit cell edge length of 0.332 nm.

Solution

In order to solve this problem it is necessary to employ Equation 3.5; in this expression density and
atomic weight will be averages for the alloy—that is

nAave
ρave =
VC N A

Inasmuch as for each of the possible crystal structures, the unit cell is cubic, then VC = a3, or

nAave
ρave =
a3N A

And, in order to determine the crystal structure it is necessary to solve for n, the number of atoms per
unit cell. For n =1, the crystal structure is simple cubic, whereas for n values of 2 and 4, the crystal structure
will be either BCC or FCC, respectively. When we solve the above expression for n the result is as follows:

ρave a 3 N A
n =
Aave

Expressions for Aave and ρave are found in Equations 5.14a and 5.13a, respectively, which, when incorporated

into the above expression yields

 
 
 100 a 3 N
 CA CB  A
 + 
 ρA ρB 
n =
 
 
 100 
 CA CB 
 + 
 AA AB 

Substitution of the concentration values (i.e., CA = 25 wt% and CB = 75 wt%) as well as values for

the other parameters given in the problem statement, into the above equation gives
  
 
 100 (3.32 × 10-8 nm)3 (6.02 × 1023 atoms/mol )
 25 wt% + 75 wt% 
 
 6.17 g/cm3 8.00 g/cm3 
n =
 
 100 
 
 25 wt% + 75 wt% 
 
 171.3 g/mol 162.0 g/mol 

= 1.00 atom/unit cell

Therefore, on the basis of this value, the crystal structure is simple cubic.
7. For an FCC single crystal, would you expect the surface energy for a (100) plane to be greater or less than
that for a (111) plane? Why?

Solution

The surface energy for a crystallographic plane will depend on its packing density [i.e.,
the planar density (Section 3.11)]—that is, the higher the packing density, the greater the number

of nearest-neighbor atoms, and the more atomic bonds in that plane that are satisfied, and,
consequently, the lower the surface energy. From the solution to Problem W3.46, planar
1 1 0.25
densities for FCC (100) and (111) planes are and , respectively—that is and
4R 2 2R 2 3 R2
0.29
(where R is the atomic radius). Thus, since the planar density for (111) is greater, it will
R2
have the lower surface energy.
8. Aluminum–lithium alloys have been developed by the aircraft industry to reduce the weight and improve the
performance of its aircraft. A commercial aircraft skin material having a density of 2.47 g/cm3 is desired.
Compute the concentration of Li (in wt%) that is required.

Solution

This problem calls for us to compute the concentration of lithium (in wt%) that, when added to
3
aluminum, will yield a density of 2.47 g/cm . Solution of this problem requires the use of Equation 5.13a,
which takes the form

100
ρave =
C Li 100 − C Li
+
ρ Li ρ Al

inasmuch as CLi + CAl = 100. According to the table inside the front cover, the respective densities of Li and
Al are 0.534 and 2.71 g/cm3. Upon solving for CLi from the above equation, we get

100 ρ Li (ρ Al − ρave )
C Li =
ρave (ρ Al − ρ Li )

(100) (0.534 g /cm3)(2.71 g /cm3 − 2.47 g /cm3)

=
(2.47 g /cm3)(2.71 g /cm3 − 0.534 g /cm3)

= 2.38 wt%
9. (a) Compare interstitial and vacancy atomic mechanisms for diffusion.
(b) Cite two reasons why interstitial diffusion is normally more rapid than vacancy diffusion.
10. A sheet of BCC iron 2 mm thick was exposed to a carburizing gas atmosphere on one side and a
decarburizing atmosphere on the other side at 675°C. After having reached steady state, the iron was quickly
cooled to room temperature. The carbon concentrations at the two surfaces of the sheet were determined to be
0.015 and 0.0068 wt%. Compute the diffusion coefficient if the diffusion flux is 7.36 × 10–9 kg/m2-s. Hint:
Use Equation 5.12 to convert the concentrations from weight percent to kilograms of carbon per cubic meter of
iron.

Solution

Let us first convert the carbon concentrations from weight percent to kilograms carbon per meter
cubed using Equation 5.12a. For 0.015 wt% C

CC
CC" = × 10 3
CC C Fe
+
ρC ρ Fe

0.015
= × 10 3
0.015 99.985
+
2.25 g /cm3 7.87 g /cm3

1.18 kg C/m3

Similarly, for 0.0068 wt% C

" = 0.0068
CC × 10 3
0.0068 99.9932
+
2.25 g /cm3 7.87 g /cm3

= 0.535 kg C/m3

Now, using a rearranged form of Equation 6.3

x − x 
D = − J A B
 C A − C B 

 − 2 × 10−3 m 
= − (7.36 × 10-9 kg/m 2 - s) 
 1.18 kg / m3 − 0.535 kg / m3 

= 2.3 × 10-11 m2/s

11. Determine the carburizing time necessary to achieve a carbon concentration of 0.30 wt% at a position 4 mm
into an iron–carbon alloy that initially contains 0.10 wt% C. The surface concentration is to be maintained at
0.90 wt% C, and the treatment is to be conducted at 1100°C. Use the diffusion data for γ-Fe in Table 6.2.
Solution

It is first necessary to use Equation 6.5:

C x − C0  x 
= 1 − erf  
Cs − C0  2 Dt 

wherein, Cx = 0.30, C0 = 0.10, Cs = 0.90, and x = 4 mm = 4 × 10-3 m. Thus,

C x − C0 0.30 − 0.10  x 
= = 0.2500 = 1 − erf  
Cs − C0 0.90 − 0.10  2 Dt 

or

 x 
erf   = 1 − 0.2500 = 0.7500
 2 Dt 

By linear interpolation using data from Table 6.1

z erf(z)
0.80 0.7421
z 0.7500
0.85 0.7707

z − 0.800 0.7500 − 0.7421

=
0.850 − 0.800 0.7707 − 0.7421

From which
x
z = 0.814 =
2 Dt

Now, from Table 6.2, at 1100°C (1373 K), and employment of Equation 6.8 to solve for the value of D

 Q 
D = D0 exp − d 
 RT 
  148,000 J / mol 
D = (2.3 × 10-5 m2 /s) exp − 
 (8.31 J / mol - K)(1373 K) 

= 5.35 × 10-11 m2/s

Thus,

4 × 10−3 m
0.814 =
(2) (5.35 × 10−11 m2 /s) (t)

Solving for t yields

t = 1.13 × 105 s = 31.3 h

12. For a steel alloy it has been determined that a carburizing heat treatment of 15 h duration will raise the
carbon concentration to 0.35 wt% at a point 2.0 mm from the surface. Estimate the time necessary to achieve
the same concentration at a 6.0-mm position for an identical steel and at the same carburizing temperature.

Solution

This problem calls for an estimate of the time necessary to achieve a carbon concentration of 0.35 wt%
at a point 6.0 mm from the surface. From Equation 6.6b,

x2
= constant
Dt

But since the temperature is constant, so also is D constant, and

x2
= constant
t
or

x12 x22
=
t1 t2

Thus,
(2.0 mm) 2 (6.0 mm) 2
=
15 h t2

from which
t2 = 135 h
13. Cite the values of the diffusion coefficients for the interdiffusion of carbon in both α-iron (BCC) and γ-iron
(FCC) at 900°C. Which is larger? Explain why this is the case.

Solution

These diffusion coefficient values at 900°C are listed in Table 6.2. For α iron

Dα(900) = 1.7 × 10-10 m2/s

Whereas, for γ iron

Dγ(900) = 5.9 × 10-12 m2/s

Thus, the value of D for diffusion of C in BCC α iron is larger, the reason being that the atomic packing factor
is smaller than for FCC γ iron (0.68 versus 0.74—Section 3.4); this means that there is slightly more
interstitial void space in the BCC Fe, and, therefore, the motion of the interstitial carbon atoms occurs more
easily.
14. The outer surface of a steel gear is to be hardened by increasing its carbon content; the carbon is to be
supplied from an external carbon-rich atmosphere that is maintained at an elevated temperature. A diffusion
heat treatment at 600°C (873 K) for 100 min increases the carbon concentration to 0.75 wt% at a position 0.5
mm below the surface. Estimate the diffusion time required at 900°C (1173 K) to achieve this same
concentration also at a 0.5-mm position. Assume that the surface carbon content is the same for both heat
treatments, which is maintained constant. Use the diffusion data in Table 6.2 for C diffusion in α-Fe.

Solution

In order to compute the diffusion time at 900°C to produce a carbon concentration of 0.75 wt% at a
position 0.5 mm below the surface we must employ Equation 6.7; that is

Dt = constant

Or
D600 t600 = D900 t 900

In addition, it is necessary to compute values for both D600 and D900 using Equation 6.8. From Table 6.2, for
the diffusion of C in α-Fe, Qd = 80,000 J/mol and D0 = 6.2 × 10-7 m2/s. Therefore,

 80,000 J / mol 
D600 = (6.2 × 10-7 m2 /s) exp − 
 (8.31 J / mol - K)(600 + 273 K) 

= 1.01 × 10-11 m2/s

 80,000 J / mol 
D900 = (6.2 × 10-7 m2 /s) exp − 
 (8.31 J / mol - K)(900 + 273 K) 

= 1.69 × 10-10 m2/s

Now, solving the original equation for t900 gives

D600 t 600
t900 =
D900

(1.01 × 10−11 m2 /s) (100 min)

=
1.69 × 10−10 m2 /s

= 5.98 min