DBMS FUNDAMENTAL

What Is a DBMS?
• A very large, integrated collection of data.

• Models real-world enterprise.

▫ Entities (e.g., students, courses)

▫ Relationships (e.g., Tarkan is taking CENG302)

• A Database Management System (DBMS) is a software package designed to store and

manage databases.

An Example Database

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The Product Table

Introduction to Database Systems

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Slide 1-

Database Management System (DBMS):

• DBMS contains information about a particular enterprise

▫ Collection of interrelated data

▫ Set of programs to access the data

▫ An environment that is both convenient and efficient to use

• Database Applications:

▫ Banking: all transactions

▫ Airlines: reservations, schedules

▫ Universities: registration, grades

▫ Sales: customers, products, purchases

▫ Online retailers: order tracking, customized recommendations

▫ Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain

▫ Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions

• Databases touch all aspects of our lives

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Purpose of Database Systems:

• In the early days, database applications were built directly on top of file systems

• Drawbacks of using file systems to store data:

▫ Data redundancy and inconsistency

 Multiple file formats, duplication of information in different files

▫ Difficulty in accessing data

 Need to write a new program to carry out each new task

▫ Data isolation — multiple files and formats

▫ Integrity problems

 Integrity constraints (e.g. account balance > 0) become “buried” in program

code rather than being stated explicitly

 Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones

Purpose of Database Systems:

• Drawbacks of using file systems (cont.)

▫ Atomicity of updates

 Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state with partial updates

carried out

 Example: Transfer of funds from one account to another should either

complete or not happen at all

▫ Concurrent access by multiple users

 Concurrent accessed needed for performance

 Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to inconsistencies

 Example: Two people reading a balance and updating it at the same

time

▫ Security problems

 Hard to provide user access to some, but not all, data

• Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems

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Problems:
No standards
Data duplication
Data dependence
No way to generate complex queries
No provision for concurrency, security, recovery, etc.

Examples:
Oracle
DB2 (IBM)
MS SQL Server
MS Access
Ingres
PostgreSQL
File descriptions are stored within each application program that
MySQL a given file. Any change to a file structure requires changes
accesses
to the file descriptions for all programs that access the file.
File System vs. DBMS:

• A company has 500 GB of data on employees, departments, products, sales, & so on..

• Data is accessed concurrently by several employees

• Questions about the data must be answered quickly

• Changes made to the data by different users must be applied consistently

• Access to certain parts of the data be restricted

File System vs. DBMS:

• Data stored in operating system files

• Many drawbacks!!!

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▫ 500 GB of main memory not available to hold all data. Data must be stored on
secondary storage devices

▫ Even if 500GB of main memory is available, with 32-bit addressing, we cannot refer
directly to more than 4GB of data

▫ Data redundancy and inconsistency

 Multiple file formats, duplication of information in different files

▫ Special program to answer each question a user may ask

File System vs. DBMS:

• Many drawbacks!!!

▫ Integrity problems

 Integrity constraints (e.g. account balance > 0) become “buried” in program

code rather than being stated explicitly

 Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones

▫ We must protect the data from inconsistent changes made by different users. If
application programs need to address concurrency, their complexity increases
manifolds

▫ Consistent state of data must be restored if the system crashes while changes are
being made

▫ OS provide only a password mechanism for security. Not flexible enough if users
have permission to access subsets of data

File System vs. DBMS:

• These drawbacks have prompted the development of database systems

• Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems?

D) ???

Levels of Abstraction:
• Physical level: describes how a record (e.g., customer) is stored.

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• Logical level: describes data stored in database, and the relationships among the data.

type customer = record

customer_id : string;
customer_name : string;
customer_street : string;
customer_city : string;

end;

• View level: application programs hide details of data types. Views can also hide information
(such as an employee’s salary) for security purposes.

An architecture for a database system

Instances and Schemas:

• Similar to types and variables in programming languages

• Schema – the logical structure of the database

▫ Example: The database consists of information about a set of customers and

accounts and the relationship between them)

▫ Analogous to type information of a variable in a program

▫ Physical schema: database design at the physical level

▫ Logical schema: database design at the logical level

• Instance – the actual content of the database at a particular point in time

▫ Analogous to the value of a variable

• Physical Data Independence – the ability to modify the physical schema without changing
the logical schema

▫ Applications depend on the logical schema

▫ In general, the interfaces between the various levels and components should be well
defined so that changes in some parts do not seriously influence others.

Data Models:

• A collection of tools for describing

▫ Data

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▫ Data relationships

▫ Data semantics

▫ Data constraints

• Relational model

• Entity-Relationship data model (mainly for database design)

• Object-based data models (Object-oriented and Object-relational)

• Other older models:

▫ Network model

▫ Hierarchical model

Data Manipulation Language (DML):

• Language for accessing and manipulating the data organized by the appropriate data model

▫ DML also known as query language

• Two classes of languages

▫ Procedural – user specifies what data is required and how to get those data

▫ Declarative (nonprocedural) – user specifies what data is required without

specifying how to get those data

• SQL is the most widely used query language

Data Definition Language (DDL):

• Specification notation for defining the database schema

Example: create table account (

account_number char(10),

branch_name char(10),

balance integer)

• DDL compiler generates a set of tables stored in a data dictionary

• Data dictionary contains metadata (i.e., data about data)

▫ Database schema

▫ Data storage and definition language

 Specifies the storage structure and access methods used

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▫ Integrity constraints

 Domain constraints

 Referential integrity (e.g. branch_name must correspond to a valid branch in

the branch table)

▫ Authorization

A Sample Relational
Database

SQL:
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• SQL: widely used non-procedural language

▫ Example: Find the name of the customer with customer-id 192-83-7465

select customer.customer_name
from customer
where customer.customer_id = ‘192-83-7465’

▫ Example: Find the balances of all accounts held by the customer with customer-id
192-83-7465
select account.balance
from depositor, account
where depositor.customer_id = ‘192-83-7465’ and
depositor.account_number = account.account_number

• Application programs generally access databases through one of

▫ Language extensions to allow embedded SQL

▫ Application program interface (e.g., ODBC/JDBC) which allow SQL queries to be sent
to a database

Database Design:
The process of designing the general structure of the database:

• Logical Design – Deciding on the database schema. Database design requires that we find a
“good” collection of relation schemas.

▫ Business decision – What attributes should we record in the database?

▫ Computer Science decision – What relation schemas should we have and how
should the attributes be distributed among the various relation schemas?

• Physical Design – Deciding on the physical layout of the database

The Entity-Relationship Model:

• Models an enterprise as a collection of entities and relationships

▫ Entity: a “thing” or “object” in the enterprise that is distinguishable from other

objects

 Described by a set of attributes

▫ Relationship: an association among several entities

• Represented diagrammatically by an entity-relationship diagram:

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Database Application Architectures:

 Two-tier architecture: E.g. client programs using ODBC/JDBC to

communicate with a database.

 Three-tier architecture: E.g. web-based applications.

Database Management System Internals:

• Storage management

• Query processing

• Transaction processing

Storage Management:

• Storage manager is a program module that provides the interface between the low-level
data stored in the database and the application programs and queries submitted to the
system.

• The storage manager is responsible to the following tasks:

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▫ Interaction with the file manager

▫ Efficient storing, retrieving and updating of data

• Issues:

▫ Storage access

▫ File organization

▫ Indexing and hashing

Query Processing:

1.Parsing and translation

2.Optimization

3.Evaluation

Transaction Management:

• A transaction is a collection of operations that performs a single logical function in a

database application

• Transaction-management component ensures that the database remains in a consistent

(correct) state despite system failures (e.g., power failures and operating system crashes)
and transaction failures.

• Concurrency-control manager controls the interaction among the concurrent transactions,

to ensure the consistency of the database.

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Overall System Structure

History of Database Systems:

• 1950s and early 1960s:

▫ Data processing using magnetic tapes for storage

 Tapes provide only sequential access

▫ Punched cards for input

• Late 1960s and 1970s:

▫ Hard disks allow direct access to data

▫ Network and hierarchical data models in widespread use

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▫ Ted Codd defines the relational data model

 Would win the ACM Turing Award for this work

 IBM Research begins System R prototype

 UC Berkeley begins Ingres prototype

▫ High-performance (for the era) transaction processing

• 1980s:

▫ Research relational prototypes evolve into commercial systems

 SQL becomes industry standard

▫ Parallel and distributed database systems

▫ Object-oriented database systems

• 1990s:

▫ Large decision support and data-mining applications

▫ Large multi-terabyte data warehouses

▫ Emergence of Web commerce

• 2000s:

▫ XML and XQuery standards

▫ Automated database administration

▫ Increasing use of highly parallel database systems

▫ Web-scale distributed data storage systems

Database Users:

Users are differentiated by the way they expect to interact with

the system

• Application programmers – interact with system through DML calls

• Sophisticated users – form requests in a database query language

• Specialized users – write specialized database applications that do not fit into the traditional
data processing framework

• Naïve users – invoke one of the permanent application programs that have been written
previously

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▫ Examples, people accessing database over the web, bank tellers, clerical staff

Database Administrator:

• Coordinates all the activities of the database system

▫ has a good understanding of the enterprise’s information resources and needs.

• Database administrator's duties include:

▫ Storage structure and access method definition

▫ Schema and physical organization modification

▫ Granting users authority to access the database

▫ Backing up data

▫ Monitoring performance and responding to changes

 Database tuning

Database Architecture:

The architecture of a database systems is greatly influenced by

the underlying computer system on which the database is running:

• Centralized

• Client-server

• Parallel (multiple processors and disks)

• Distributed

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